Developmental Psychology Study Guide Exam #1 Ch. 1 – 7 (Dr.

Collins)
Feb. 26th

Ch. 1 Introduction
Plasticity- a characteristic of development that indicates that individuals—including their personalities as well as their bodies and
minds—change throughout their life.
Butterfly effect- the idea that a small action or event (such as the breeze created by the flap of a butterfly’s wings) may set off a
series of changes that culminate in a major event (such as a hurricane)
Cohort-a group of people whose shared birth year, or decade, means that they travel through life together, experiencing the same
major historical changes.
Social construction- an idea that is built more on shared perceptions of social order than on objective reality.
SES- an indicator of a person’s social and economic standing, measured through a combination of family income, educational level,
place of residence, occupation, and other variables.
Culture- the specific manifestations of a social group’s design for living, developed over the years to provide a social structure for the
group members’ life together.
Steps in the scientific method- an approach to the systematic pursuit of knowledge that, when applied to the study of development,
involves five basic steps: a) formulate a research question, b) develop a hypothesis, c) test the hypothesis, d) draw conclusions, and
e) make the findings available.
Have a basic understanding of the following issues in developmental psychology.
Nature/nurture-
Continuity/discontinuity-
Individual/society-
Understand the different research methods including advantages and disadvantages.
Naturalistic observation-
Correlation- a number indicating the degree of relationship between two variables, expressed in terms of the likelihood that
one variable will (or will not) occur when the other variable does (or does not). A correlation is NOT an indication that one
variable CAUSES the other.
Experiment- a research method in which the researcher tries to determine the cause-and-effect relationship between two
variables by manipulating one variable (called the independent variable) and then observing the recording the resulting
changes in the other variable (called the dependent variable)
including the different between and independent- in an experiment, the variable that is introduced or changed to see what
effect it has on the dependent variable.
and dependent variable- in an experiment, the variable that may change because of the introduction of or changes made
in the independent variable.
Survey research- a research method in which information is collected from many people by personal interview, written
questionnaire, or other means.
and Case study- a research method in which one individual is studied intensively.
Ch. 2 Theories of Development
Know about the different theories including the following:
Psychoanalytic (especially Freud’s psychosexual stages and Erikson’s psychosocial stages)- A grand theory of human
development that holds that irrational, unconscious drives, and motives, many of which originate in childhood, underline
behavior. Viewed as influencing every aspect of a person’s thinking and behavior, from the smallest details of daily life to
the crucial choices of a lifetime, also sees drives and motives as the foundation for the stages of development that every
human experiences in sequence. Oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital, adulthood.
formulated his own version of the psychoanalytic theory. He based his studies on Harvard students, children at play, and
Native American cultures this helped Erikson understand the significance of cultural diversity and of the shifts that occur in
adulthood. Trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion,
intimacy vs. isolation, generatively vs. stagnation, integrity vs. despair.
Learning (especially classical and operant conditioning and Bandura’s social learning)-
Classical Conditioning—the process by which a neutral stimulus, so that the organism responds to the former stimulus as if
were the latter.
Operant conditioning-- The process by which a response is gradually learned via reinforcement or punishment.
Bandura’s Social learning—One revision of behaviorism, based on thousands of studies, arose from evidence that all
creatures appreciate the touch, warmth, reassurance, and example of other, similar beings. This evidence led to social
learning theory.
Social Learning theory-- A application of behaviorism that emphasizes that many human behaviors are learned through
observation and imitation of other people.
 Cognitive (especially Piaget’s stages of cognitive development)- sensorimotor, preoperational thought, concrete operations,
and formal operations). You might want to learn more about these 4 stages from the internet or from a developmental
textbook.
Cognitive theory- a grand theory of human development that focused on the structure and development of thinking, which
shapes people’s attitudes, beliefs, and behavior. According to Piaget, Cognitive equilibrium is a state of mental balance in
which a person can reconcile new experiences with existing understandings.
Sociocultural (including the ideas of guided participation and zone of proximal development)- an emergent theory that
holds that human development results from dynamic interactions between each person and the surrounding social and
cultural forces. Vygotsky’s theory is a sociocultural theory.
Guided participation—according to Vygotsky, the process by which a skilled person helps a novice learn by providing not
only instruction but also direct, shard involvement in the learning process.
Zone of proximal development – according to Vygotsky, the range of skill that the learner can exercise and master with
assistance but cannot yet perform independently. According to Vygotsky, learning can occur within this zone.
Epigenetic systems theory- (gene/environment theory) That emphasizes the interaction of genes and the environment that
is both the genetic origins of behavior within each person and within each species, and the direct, systematic influence that
environmental forces have over time on genes. Epi- prefix meaning with, on, and around any situation that may cause a
change in the genes over time.
What is an eclectic perspective? - The approach taken by most develop mentalist, in which they apple aspects of each of the
various theories of development rather than adhering exclusively to one theory.
Ch. 3 Heredity and Environment
Gamete (sperm and ovum)- Each reproductive cell, or gamete, contains 23 chromosomes.
Zygote (duplication, division, and differentiation)- the single cell formed from the fusing of a sperm and an ovum.
Genes, chromosomes, and DNA-
What is the Human Genome Project? - an international effort to map the complete human genetic code. It expands our
understanding of the connections between genetic makeup and disease.
How many pairs of human chromosomes do we have and what is unique about the 23rd pair? - one of the 46 molecules of DNA (in 23
pairs) that each cell of the body contains and that, together, contain all human genes. The chromosome pair that, in humans,
determines the zygote’s (and hence the person’s) sex, among other things. Females: The 23rd pair is composed of two large, X-
shaped chromosomes. (XX)Males: The 23rd pair is composed of one large, X-shaped chromosomes and one much smaller Y-shaped
chromosome. (XY)The critical factor in the determination of a zygote’s sex is which sperm reaches the ovum first—a Y sperm,
creating a male (XY), or an X sperm, creating a female (XX)
Whose genetic material determines the sex of zygote—the father’s or the mother’s? The critical factor in the determination of a
zygote’s sex is which sperm reaches the ovum first—a Y sperm, creating a male (XY), oran X sperm, creating a female (XX) meaning
the father is responsible for the determination of sex.
Are more males or females conceived? - Rarely, a man carries a gene that renders either his X or Y sperm immobile, so he fathers
only sons or daughters. For the total population, the natural sex ratio at birth is close to 50/50. The actual current sex ratio in the
United States is about 52 males and 48 females.
Monozygotic and dizygotic twins- - monozygotic, from on zygote, (identical twins) -Twins who have identical genes because they
were formed from one zygote that split into two identical organisms very early in development. Dizygotic, from two zygotes,
(fraternal twins) -Twins who were formed when two separate ova were fertilized by two separate sperm at roughly the same time.
Such twins share about half their genes, like any other siblings.
Polygenic-
Genotype- an organism’s entire genetic inheritance, or genetic potential, the sum total of genes inherited by a person.
Phenotype- A person’s actual appearance and behavior, which are the result of both genetic and environmental influences.
Dominant and recessive genes- Dominant-The member of an interacting pair of alleles whose influence is more evident in the
phenotype. Recessive-The member of an interacting pair of alleles whose influence is less evident in the phenotype.
x-linked genes- Referring to a gene that is located on the X chromosome.
Be familiar with the various prenatal tests including:
AFP- Alpha-Fetoprotein assay- a sample of the mother’s blood is tested for the level of alpha-fetoprotein.
Ultrasound or sonogram- High frequency sound waves are used to produce a “picture” of the fetus.
Fetoscopy-
Amniocentesis- About half an ounce of the fluid inside the placenta is withdrawn. The cells are cultured and analyzed.
Chorionic villi sampling- A sample of the placental tissue that surrounds the fetus is obtained and analyzed.
Spontaneous abortion- the naturally occurring termination of a pregnancy before the fetus is fully developed. (Also called a
miscarriage
Trisomy-21 or Down syndrome- This is where a third chromosome is present at the 21st pair. They have specific facial characteristics
—a thick tongue, round face, slanted eyes among other things.
Klinefelter syndrome (XXY)- The XXY. This causes for example a young boy to develop female features such as breast, and an
undeveloped penis.
fragile –X syndrome- A genetic disorder in which part of the X chromosome is attached to the rest of it by a very thin string of
molecules; often produces mental deficiency in males who inherit it
Under what circumstances would genetic counseling be advised? - 1. Individuals who have a parent, sibling, or child with a serious
genetic condition that is known to be either dominant or recessive.2. Couples who have a history of early spontaneous abortions,
stillbirths, or infertility.3. Couples who re from the same ethnic group or subgroup—particularly if the couples are close relatives.4.
Women aged 35 or older and men aged 40 or older.
Ch. 4 Prenatal development and birth
Understand the 3 main periods of prenatal development which include:
Germinal- First two weeks after conception. characterized by rapid cell division and the beginning of cell differentiation. the
outer cells form a shell that will become the placenta (the organ that surrounds and protects the developing creature), and
the inner cells form a nucleus that will become the embryo. The first task of the outer cell is to achieve implantation (the
burrowing of the organism into the lining of the uterus, where it can e nourished and protected during growth)
Embryonic- Third through eighth week, begins during which the basic forms of all body structures develop. the formless
mass of cells becomes a distinct being - not yet recognizably human but worthy of a new name - embryo. The first sign of a
human body structure appears as a thin line down the middle of the new embryo, which becomes the neural tube (tube
formed from fusion of the neural folds from which the brain and spinal cord arise). Folic acid deficiency can produce neural-
tube defects, either spina bifida, in which the spine doesn't close properly, or anencephaly, in which the brain does not
form. At 4 weeks past conception, the embryo is only 1/8 inch long, but the head has taken shape. At 5 weeks the embryo
has brown to twice the size it was at 4 weeks. Its primitive heart, which has been pulsing for 1week now is visible. By 7
weeks, the embryo is approximately 2 1/2 centimeters long. Eyes, nose, the digestive system, and even the first stage of
tow formation can be seen. At 8 weeks, the 1-inch-long embryo is clearly recognizable as a human fetus.
Fetal- Ninth week, during which the organs of the developing fetus grow in size and mature in functioning. Although
chromosomes determine sex, not until the 3rd month do the sex organs take discernible shape. Then, if the embryo is male
[X, Y], the SRY gene one the Y chromosome signals the development of male sexual organs. With no such signal [X, X], the
fetus develops female sex organs. By the 12th week, the genital organs are fully formed and are sending hormones to the
developing brain. At the end of the 3rd month, the fetus has all its body parts, weighs approximately 3 ounces, and is about
3 inches long. In the 4th, 5th, and 6th months, the heartbeat becomes stronger and the digestive and excretory systems
develop. Fingernails, toenails, and buds for teeth form, and hair, including eyelashes grows. The brain has increased 6 times
in size and is developing many new neurons and synapses. Advances in fetal brain functioning are critical in attaining the
age of viability (the age at which a pre-term newborn can survive), because the brain regulates basic body functions, such as
breathing and sucking. Viability begins at about 22 weeks after conception. In the last 3 months of prenatal life, the lungs
begin to expand and contract, exercising the muscles that are involved in breathing. The valves of the heart go through a
final maturation. The fetus usually gains at least 4.5 pounds.
Placenta- the organ that surrounds and protects the developing creature.
Neural tube- The first sign of a human body structure appears as a thin line down the middle of the new embryo, which becomes the
neural tube (tube formed from fusion of the neural folds from which the brain and spinal cord arise).
Implantation- the burrowing of the organism into the lining of the uterus, where it can e nourished and protected during growth.
Who develops sex organs first—boys or girls? When does this occur? - During the third month, if the embryo is male [X, Y], the SRY
gene one the Y chromosome signals the development of male sexual organs. With no such signal [X, X], the fetus develops female
sex organs. By the 12th week, the genital organs are fully formed and are sending hormones to the developing brain.
Age of viability- Beginning at 22 weeks, the age at which a pre-term newborn can survive.
How long is the due date after conception? - At about the 266th day after conception, the fetal brain signals the release of certain
hormones that pass into the mother’s blood stream. These hormones trigger her uterine muscles to contract and relax, starting the
process that becomes active labor.
Teratogens- substances (such as drugs and pollutants) and conditions (such as severe malnutrition and extreme stress) that increase
the risk of prenatal abnormalities.
Disease like sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)- Syphilis Baby born with syphilis, which, untreated, leads to brain and bone
damage and eventually death. Other STDs, including gonorrhea and chlamydia, are not usually harmful during pregnancy,
but may cause blindness and infection if transmitted during birth.
rubella (German measles)- In embryonic period causes blindness and deafness; in first and second trimester causes brain
damage.
HIV and AIDS- Pregnant women who have the virus transmit it to their newborns 25% of the time, and those infected babies
usually die by age 5.
Medicines and drugs (smoking, alcohol, and drugs)- Lithium - can cause heart abnormalities. Tetracycline -can harm teeth.
Streptomycin - can cause deafness. Ace Inhibitors - can harm digestive tract. Phenobarbital - can affect brain development.
Fetal alcohol syndrome- fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) A cluster of birth defects, including abnormal facial characteristics,
slow physical growth, and retarded mental development, are all caused by mother drinking during pregnancy.
Critical period- In prenatal development, the time when a particular organ or other body part is most susceptible to teratogenic
damage.
Threshold effect- The condition whereby a teratogen is relatively harmless in small doses but becomes harmful once exposure
reaches a certain level (the threshold).
Interaction effect- The condition whereby the risk of a teratogen causing harm increases when it occurs at the same time as another
teratogen risk. Alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana are among the substances that interact, doing more harm in combination than any
one of them would do alone.
What does folic acid help to prevent? - neural-tube defects, either spina bifida, in which the spine doesn't close properly, or
anencephaly, in which the brain does not form?
What factors can lead to low birth weight babies (LBW)?- defined by the World Health Organization as a weight of less than 5 ½
pounds at birth. Remember that fetal body weight normally doubles in the last trimester of pregnancy. Thus, a baby born pre-term
(birth that occurs 3weeks or more before the full term of pregnancy has elapsed) might be a low birth weight baby. Not all low-birth
weight babies prepare-term.
What is considered preterm? - birth that occurs 3weeks or more before the full term of pregnancy has elapsed?
Small for gestational age (SGA)- As a sign of prenatal problems, SGA is far more serious than pre-term birth because it signifies
impairment throughout the pregnancy. Some of the causes for SGA are maternal illness, such as a blood circulatory problem
affecting blood flow to the fetus. Maternal behavior. Every psychoactive drug slows fetal growth, but tobacco is the worst. Cigarette
smoking is implicated in 25% of all low birth weights worldwide. Maternal malnutrition. Women who begin pregnancy underweight,
eat poorly during pregnancy, or do not gain at least 3pounds per month in the last six months run a much higher risk than others of
having a low-birth weight infant. Normal weight of a newborn is 7 ½ pounds, length, 20 in
What is considered average for a baby’s length and weight? - Normal weight of a newborn is 7 ½ pounds
Apgar (know what is assessed and when it is assessed)- The examiner checks 5 vital signs: heart rate, breathing, muscle tone, color,
and reflexes at one minute after birth and again at 5 minutes, and assigns each a score of 0, 1, or 2. If in 5 minutes, the total score is
7 or better, there is no danger. If in 5 minutes the total score is below 7, the infant needs help stabilizing normal breathing.
C-Section- a surgical childbirth, in which incisions through the mother’s abdomen and uterus allow the fetus to be removed quickly
instead of being delivered through the vagina.
Episiotomy- incision of the perineum) at the end of the 2nd stage of labor to avoid spontaneous laceration of the perineum and to
facilitate delivery.
Midwives- nurse midwife
Birthing centers- 5% of U.S. births occur in freestanding birth centers.
Cerebral palsy- (difficulties with movement control resulting from brain damage). Cerebral palsy often results from genetic
vulnerability and may be worsened by dermatogen and a birth that includes anoxia (a temporary lack of oxygen that can cause brain
damage
Anoxia- a temporary lack of oxygen that can cause brain damage.
Bonding- A strong, loving connection that forms as parents hold, examine, and feed their newborn. The concept of bonding is
controversial.
Postpartum depression-
Ch. 5 The first two years: Biosocial development
What is SIDS and how can it be prevented? - a situation in which a seemingly healthy infant, at least 2 months of age, dies
unexpectedly in his or her sleep. The rate of SIDS is falling because fewer parents are putting infants on their stomachs to sleep, and
fewer parents are smoking around the infant.
How have immunizations reduced infant deaths? - a process that stimulates the body’s immune system to defend against attack by a
particular contagious disease. Immunization has made great leaps and bounds within the last twenty years to be able to keep young
infants to be without these diseases: smallpox, polio, measles. In protection children against small common diseases, they protect
them from serious complications.
Understand the components and functions of neurons:
Axons- a nerve fiber that extends from a neuron and transmits electrical impulses from that neuron to the dendrites of
other neurons.
Dendrites- a nerve fiber that extends from a neuron and receives electrical impulses transmitted from other neurons via
their axon.
Synapses- he intersection between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites of other neurons. Axons and dendrites do not
touch at the synapses.
Neurotransmitters- The electrical impulse excites neurotransmitters that carry information from the axon across the
synaptic gap to the dendrite of the receiving neuron.
Mylenation-
Understand gross and fine motor skills- Gross motor skills: physical abilities involving large body movements, such as walking and
jumping. Fine motor skills: physical abilities involving small body movements especially have the hands and fingers, such as drawing
or picking up a coin.
What is a toddler? - the age when the child is able to stand and walk but moves side to side unsteadily.
Sensation and perception- Sensation: the response of a sensory system (eyes, ears, skin, tongue, nose) when it detects a stimulus.
Perception: the mental processing of sensory information when the brain interprets a sensation. Perceptions get better more and
more with all the different experiences that an infant encounter.
Have a basic understanding of an infant’s ability of vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch- Hearing is acute at birth. Vision is the
least mature at birth because the fetus has nothing to look at and also because the connection b/t the eyes and the visual cortex has
not formed yet. Visual experience combines with maturation of the visual cortex to improve visual ability. Newborns mainly focus on
objects b/t four and thirty inches away and merely stare at whatever they see (most often their caregivers) as if trying to figure out
who or what that might be. By six weeks, they look closer and are more capable of recognizing a human face and smiling. Binocular
vision: the ability to focus the two eyes in a coordinated manner in order to see one image. Taste, smell, and touch function when a
baby is born and adapts rapidly to the world around it. As the baby gets older his development of these senses only grows stronger.
He begins to figure out what tastes he/she likes and learns the smell and feel of their mother and father. As the others, these only
get better with the more experience the child attains.
What is chronic otitis media? - otherwise known as a chronic ear infection.
Understand the problems associated with malnutrition including marasmus and kwashiorkor- a condition in which a person does not
consume sufficient food of any kind. Chronically malnourished infants and children suffer in three ways: 1. Their brains may not
develop normally. If malnutrition has continued long enough to affect the baby’s height, it may also affect the brain (Grantham
McGregor &Ani, 2001) 2. Malnourish children have no body reserves to protect them if disease strikes. About half of all infant deaths
occur because malnutrition makes childhood disease much more lethal than it normally would be. 3. Some diseases- Marasmus: a
disease of severe protein-calorie malnutrition during early infancy, in which growth stops, body tissue waste away, and the infant
eventually dies. Kwashiorkor: a disease of chronic malnutrition during childhood, in which a deficiency of protein causes the child’s
face, legs, and abdomen to bloat, or swell with water, and makes the child more vulnerable to other diseases, such as measles,
diarrhea, and influenza
Ch. 6 The first two years: Cognitive development
Cognition- “Thinking” including intelligence, learning, memory, and language. Cognition is one step beyond perception. It occurs
when a person thinks about what he or she has perceived.
Gibson’s affordances (such as graspability and suckability)-
Object permanence- occurs in stage 4. Object permanence- The realization that objects (including people) still exist even when they
cannot be seen, touched, or heard.
Infantile amnesia-
Deferred imitation- A sequence in which an infant first perceives something that someone else does and then performs the same
action a few hours or even days later.
Adaptation- The cognitive processes by which new information is taken in and responded to. Both assimilation and accommodation
are kinds of adaptation. Adaptation is the essence of intelligence.
assimilation- Taking new information into the mind by incorporating it into previously developed mental categories.
accommodation- Taking new information into the mind in such a way as to readjust, refine, or expand previous schemes.
Have a basic understanding of language development (including cooing, babbling, first words)- Baby talk: the high-pitched,
simplified, and repetitive way adults speak to infants; also called child-directed speech. This is spoken by newborns. Babbling: The
extended repetition of certain syllables, such as ba-ba-ba, that begins at about 6 or 7 months of age. First words are spoken around
1 year old Once vocabulary reaches 50 words, it begins to build rapidly, at a rate of 50 to 100 words per month. Naming explosion- a
sudden increase in an infant’s vocabulary, especially in the number of nouns, that begins at about 18 months of age. The
development of Spoken Language: The First Two Year Table 6.3 on page 159 in book.
What are underextension and overextension? -
LAD- Language Acquisition Device. Chomsky’s term for a hypothesized brain structure that enables humans to learn language,
including the basic aspects of grammar, vocabulary, and into
Baby talk or motherese- the high-pitched, simplified, and repetitive way adults speak to infants; also called child-directed speech.
This is spoken by newborn.
Ch. 7 The first two years: Psychosocial development
Social smile-
Stranger wariness- Fear of unfamiliar people, exhibited fleetingly at 6 months and at full force by 10 to14 months.
Separation anxiety- fear of abandonment, exhibited at the departure of a beloved caregiver; usually strongest at 9-14 months.
Social referencing- seeking information about an unfamiliar or ambiguous object or even by observing someone else’s expressions
and reactions. That other person becomes a reference, consulted when the infant wants to know how to reach.
Self-awareness- a person’s realization that he or she is a distinct individual whose body, mind, and actions are separate from those
of other people.
When do shame and guilt develop? -
Have an understanding of personality from the various perspective.
Learning-
Psychoanalytic- if toilet training is overly strict or if it begins before the infant in mature enough, the child may develop an
anal personality.
 Epigenetic systems theory-
What are characteristics of a high-quality day care? - 1. Adequate attention to each child2. Encouragement of sensorimotor
exploration and language development3. Attention to health and safety4. Well-trained and professional caregiver
Temperament-
Synchrony- a coordinated interaction between caregiver and infant, who respond to each other’s faces, sounds, and movements
very rapidly and smooth.
Attachment (secure vs. insecure)- Secure Attachment- a relationship of trust and confidence; during infancy, a relationship that
provides enough comfort and reassurance to enable independent exploration of the environment. Insecure attachment- a
relationship that is unstable or unpredictable; in infancy such relationships are characterized by the child’s fear, anxiety, anger,
clinging, or seeming indifference toward the caregiver.
Ainsworth’s Strange Situation- a laboratory procedure developed by Mary Ainsworth to measure attachment by evoking an infant’s
reactions to stress, specifically episodes of a caregiver’s or stranger’s arrival at and departure from a playroom where the infants can
play with many toys. The key observational aspects of the Strange Situation are the following:1. Exploration of the toys2. Reaction to
the caregiver’s departure3. Reaction to the caregiver’s return