Mwe 2023

Roll no:_____________
Name of the Student:__________________________
Name of the course: Microwave Engineering Lab(20EC1124)
Branch : ECE-2
Gayatri Vidya Parishad College of Engineering
(Autonomous)
Approved by AICTE, Affiliated to JNTUK, Kakinada

Accredited by NBA & NAAC with “A” Grade with a CGPA of 3.14/4.00
Madhurawada, Visakhapatnam-530048
Laboratory Manual
for
MICROWAVE ENGINEERING LAB
(Course code: 20EC1124)
Academic Year 2022-2023
B.Tech. ECE VI Semester
Department of Electronics and Communication

Engineering
MICROWAVE ENGINEERING LAB
Course code: 20EC1124 LTPC
0 0 3 1.5
Aim and Objective:
The main objective of this lab is to focus on analysis, design and development of
microwave circuits and antenna systems. The students will have an
understanding of the concepts involved in propagation of microwave signals in
Microwave components,
Prerequisites: Microwave Engineering, Antennas and Wave Propagation
Course Outcomes: At the end of the Course the student will be able to
CO1: Determine Field patterns of Waveguides (L3)
CO2: Determine Field pattern of E, H plane Tee junctions (L3)
CO3: Analyze the characteristics of Microwave sources (L4)
CO4: Examine the characteristics of Directional couplers (L3)
CO5: Measure frequency of Microwave signal (L5)
List of experiments: Simulations/Hardware
1. To obtain field patterns of various modes inside a rectangular waveguide
2. To obtain field patterns of various modes inside a circular waveguide
3. To analyze the field distributions in E- plane Tee Junction
4. To analyze the field distributions in H-plane Tee Junction
5. To analyze the field distributions in Magic Tee Junction

6. To verify Reflex klystron characteristics and determine the frequency and
tuning range of reflex klystron
7. To determine Scattering parameters of waveguide Tee junction
8. To measure microwave frequency using a) Direct method b) slotted line
method.
9. To verify Gunn diode characteristics
10. To analyze the fixed and variable attenuator
11. To determine the characteristic parameters of directional coupler
12. To measure VSWR of the unknown load
13. To determine Scattering parameters of circulator
14. To measure impedance of the given load
Note: Any TWELVE of the experiments are to be conducted

Contents
1. Rectangular Waveguide
2. Circular Wave guide
3. H-PLANE TEE JUNCTION
4. E-PLANE TEE JUNCTION
5. MAGIC TEE JUNCTION
6. Study of the characteristics of the Reflex Klystron tube
7. Study of Gunn Diode Characteristics
8. Attenuation measurement
9. Characteristics of Directional Coupler
10. E-plane and H plane Tee junctions
11. Scattering Parameters of Magic Tee
12. Study of Circulator
13. VSWR Measurement
14. Impedance and Frequency Measurement

1. Rectangular Waveguide
Aim
To design a rectangular waveguide and report the field patterns and phase
constant vsfrequency plot.
Software used
High Frequency Structure Simulator (HFSS) from ANALYSISSYSTEMS(Ansys).
Theory
A hollow metallic tube of uniform cross section for transmitting
electromagneticwaves by successive reflections from the inner walls of the tube
is called a waveguide. In waveguides, the electric and magnetic fields are
confined to the space within the guides. Thus no power is lost through
radiation,and even the dielectric loss is negligible, since the guides are normally
air-filled. But there is some negligible amount of power which is present as heat
in the walls of the waveguide. There are two types of waveguides: rectangular
and circular.
b ϵ,µ
Figure 1.1. Rectangular waveguide

A Rectangular Waveguide is a hollow metallic tube with a rectangular cross
section as shown in figure 7.1.
The conducting walls of the guide confine the electromagnetic fields and thereby
guide the EM wave. A number of distinct field configurations or modes can exist
in waveguides.When the waves travel longitudinally down the guide, the plane
waves are reflected from wall to wall.This process results in a component of
either electric or magnetic field in the direction of propagation of the resultant
wave;therefore the wave is no longer a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) wave.
This process results in a component of either electric or magnetic field in the
direction of propagation of the resultant wave;therefore the wave is no longer a
transverse electromagnetic (TEM) wave. A plane wave in a waveguide resolves
into two components: one standing wave in the direction normal to the reflecting
walls of the guide and one traveling wave in the direction parallel to the
reflecting walls. In lossless waveguides, the modes may be classified as either
transverse electric(TE) mode or transverse magnetic(TM) mode.In rectangular
waveguides the modes are designated as TEmn or TMmn. The integer m denotes
the number of half waves of electric or magnetic intensity in the xdirection,and
n is the number of half waves in the ydirection if the propagation of the wave is
assumed in the positive z direction.
Procedure
1. Insert HFSS design
(Right click on Project in project manager → Insert HFSS Design)
2. Rename Project as waveguide and save

(Right click on Project in project manager →Rename ) and Press (ctrl+s)
3. Set Solution type as Modal
(HFSS → Solution type → Modal → Network analysis → OK
4. Set units
( Modeller→ units → cm)
5.Draw 3D object box (Draw → box)
Choose 3 arbitrary locations in drawing area to display box.
6. Select the Box in Model tree and assign attributes to the Box
(Right click on the Box → Edit → Properties)
Name: WG90 Material: vaccum.
7. Set the position and size of the Box named as WG90. Double Click on
create Box →
Position: 0,0,0
X Size: 18.5 (Hint: length of the Wave Guide=any multiple of the
wavelength)
YSize: 2.286
Z Size: 1.016
Press ctrl+D to observe entire structure on the drawing screen.
Assign Boundary-> Right click on 3D Modeller Figure window → Select Faces

8. Select one face in the figure window and Right click on the
face→Boundaries→ Assign → Finite conductivity→ OK. Repeat step 9 for
remaining 3 faces excluding port1 and port2. (Assume Port1 and port 2 are in
YZ plane). Then in project manager under Boundaries 4 finite conductive layers
will be displayed.
9.Assign excitation
Select the object face in the figure window to which port has to be assigned
(click on HFSS → Assign excitation → Wave port → Full port impedance: 50 →
Next →
No. of modes: 4 → update ( 4 modes can be observed)
Integration line: New line
Using mouse click at the bottom left of the port to define origin of E-field vector
and again click at top left of the port to terminate E-field vector.In second mode
under integration line select ‘copy from mode1’. Repeat the same for 3rd and 4th
modes
In project manager under excitations, one port will be displayed.
10. Repeat step 9 for the second port.
11.Analysis
(In project manager right click on Analysis → Add

solution setup.)
Frequency: 20GHz
12. To observe frequency sweep, In project manager under Analysis right click
on setup → Add frequency sweep →
Sweep name: Sweep
Sweep type: Discrete
Type: Linear step
Start: 1GHz
End: 20 GHz
Step size: 1GHz
Put tick mark on Save fields (all Frequencies)
OK
13. To check errors validation is required. ( HFSS→ validation check)
14. Analyze all (HFSS → Analyze all).
If warnings are there, clear all
Once the simulation is completed HFSS informs you in the message window
Simulation Results
a.Under Project manager Click on Analysis →setup → Convergence. Then, select
Box->go to field overlays->Plot fields->E->Mag_E In Context select solution as

"Sweep" and in Intrinsic Variables select Freq. as the cut-off frequency for the mode
which is desired (excitation provided in previous step). Repeat step 18 for other
modes by selecting source and set magnitude as 1. In field overlays->E-Field -> E-
mag -> select animate ->OK
b. Phase constant (β ) vs Frequency for first 4 modes.Under Project manager-
>Analysis ->Setup1
Sweep->Sweep type : Interpolating Distribution: Least count Start: 1GHz End:
20GHz Points 100 OK. Then (In project manager Right click on Results → Create
modal solution data report → Rectangular → Category: Gamma Select
Gamma(1:1), Gamma(1:2), Gamma(1:3), Gamma(1:4) Click on New Report.

From the graph it is observed that cutoff frequencies are satisfying
1 𝑚𝜋 2 𝑛𝜋
𝑓𝑐 = √( ) + ( )2
2𝜋√𝜇𝜖 𝑎 𝑏
For TE10 mode =6.56GHz, For TE20 mode =13.12GHz, For TE01 mode =14.7GHz, For TE and
TM11 =16.15GHz.
c. Field patterns for E and H Fields. In project manager Click on Port Field
Display - > 1->mode1
In project manager Click on Port Field Display - > 1->mode2

d. Then (In project manager Right click on Results → Create modal solution data
report → Rectangular → Category: S-parameter Select S(1:1,1:1) and S(1:1,2:1)
Function: dB
Click on New Report.

Observations:
MODE m n Theoretical value Practical value
(GHZ) (GHZ)
TE01 0 1 14.7 14
TE10 1 0 6.56 6
TE11/TM11 1 1 16.15 16
TE02 0 2 13.12 13
2. Circular Waveguide
Aim:
To obtain the field patterns of various modes inside circular
waveguide
Softwareused:
High Frequency structure Simulator (HFSS) from ANALYSIS SYSTEMS
(Ansys).
Theory:
A hollow metallic tube of uniform cross section for transmitting
electromagnetic waves by successive reflections from the inner walls
of the tube is called a waveguide. In waveguides, the electric and
magnetic fields are confined to the space within the guides. Thus, no
power is lost through radiation, and even the dielectric loss is
negligible, since the guides are normally air-filled. But there is some
negligible amount of power which is present as heat in the walls of
the waveguide. There are two types of waveguides: rectangular and
circular.
Figure2.1- Circularwaveguide
A Circular Waveguide is a hollow metallic tube with a circular cross
section as shown in figure 2.1.
The conducting walls of the guide confine the electromagnetic fields and
there by guide the EMwave. A number of distinct field configurations or
modes can exist in waveguides. When the waves travel longitudinally
down the guide, the plane waves are reflected from wall to wall. This
process results in a component of either electric or magnetic field in the
direction of propagation of the resultant wave; therefore the wave is no
longer a transverse electromagnetic(TEM)wave.
This process results in a component of either electric or magnetic field
inthe direction of propagation of the resultant wave; therefore, the wave
is no longer a transverse electromagnetic (TEM)wave. A plane wave in a
waveguide resolves into two components: one standing wave in the
direction normal to the reflecting walls of the guide
andonetravelingwaveinthedirectionparalleltothe reflecting walls. In
lossless waveguides, the modes may be classified as either transverse
electric(TE) mode or transverse magnetic(TM) mode.In circular
waveguidesthemodesaredesignatedas TE mnor TM mn.Theintegerm denotes
thenumberofhalfwavesofelectricormagneticintensityinthexdirection,and
n is the number of half waves in the y direction if thepropagation of
thewave is assumedinthepositivezdirection.
Procedure
1. InsertHFSS design
(RightclickonProjectinprojectmanagerInsertHFSSDesign)
2. RenameProjectasrectangular waveguideandsave
(RightclickonProjectinprojectmanagerRename)andPress(ctrl+s)
3. Draw3Dobjectcylinder(Drawcylinder)
Choose3arbitrarylocationsindrawingareatodisplaycylinder.
4. Select the Cylinderin Model treeand assign
attributes totheCylinder (Right click on the
Cylinder Edit  Properties)
Material:Air.
5. SetthepositionandsizeoftheCylinder.DoubleClickon create
cylinder
Position:0, 0, 0
Axis:Z
Radius:r=30mm
Height:h=100mm
Pressctrl+Dtoobserveentirestructureonthedrawingscreen.
AssignBoundaryRightclickon3DModellerFigurewindowSelectFace
6. Select the face as shown in figure, then right click

on face Assign Boundaries  Perfect E OK.
Then in the project manager under boundaries
perfect E layer is displayed.
7. For the Front and Back faces Assign Excitations.
Selecttheobjectfaceinthefigurewindowtowhichporthastobeassigned
Click on HFSS  Assign excitation  Wave port  Full port impedance: 50

 Next
No. of modes: 4update(4modes canbe observed)
Integrationline:New line
Usingmouse click on the edge of the circle where you could find the
triangle and join the line on the same circle by passing through center
of the circle.In second mode under integrationline select'copy from
mode1'.Repeatthesame for 3rdand4thmodes
8. Repeatstep9forthesecondport.
9. Analysis
(In project manager right click on Analysis  Add solution setup.)
Frequency: 5GHz.
10. To observe frequency sweep, in project manager under Analysis right
click on setup  Add frequency sweep 
Sweepname: Sweep
Sweeptype:Discrete
Type: Linear step
Start: 1GHz
End: 15 GHz
Step size: 1GHz
PuttickmarkonSavefields(allFrequencies)
OK
10. Tocheckerrorsvalidationisrequired.(HFSSvalidationcheck)
11. Analyzeall(HFSSAnalyzeall).
Ifwarningsarethere,clearallOncethesimulationiscompletedHFSSinforms
youinthemessagewindow
Observations
MODE M n Theoretical value Practical value
(GHZ) (GHZ)
TE11 1 1 2.93 2
TM01 0 1 3.827 3
TE01/TM11 0/1 1 6..098
TE21 2 1 4.860 4
SimulationResults
a. Select
CylindergotofieldoverlaysPlotfieldsEMag_EInContextselectsolution
as"Sweep" andin Intrinsic Variables select Freq. as the cut-off frequency
for the mode whichisdesired(excitationprovidedinpreviousstep).Repeatstep
for other modesby selectingsourceandsetmagnitudeas1. In
fieldoverlaysE-FieldE- mag select animateOK
b. PhaseconstantvsFrequencyforfirst4modes.UnderProjectmanagerAnalysis
Setupl
SweepSweep type: Interpolating Distribution: Least count Start:
1GHz End: 20GHz Points 100 OK. Then (In project manager Right
click on ResultsCreate
modalsolutiondatareportRectangularCategory:GammaSelect
Gamma(l:1),Gamma(l:2),Gamma(l:3),Gamma(l:4)ClickonNew Report.
I
'
1
Fromthegraphitisobservedthatcutofffrequenciesaresatisfying
Where, C=1/√𝜇𝜀 =3x108 m/s
X’np =P’nm
c.Field patterns for E and H Fields. In project manager Click on Port Field Display 
1mode1(TE11)
In project manager Click on Port Field Display  1mode2(TE11)
1 | Page
In project manager Click on Port Field Display  1 mode3(TM01)
In project manager Click on Port Field Display  1 mode4(TE21)
2 | Page
c. Then (In project manager Right click on Results  Create modal
solution data report Rectangular --< Category: S-parameter Select S
(1:1,1:1) ,S(1:1,2:1), S(1:2,2:2), S(1:3,2:3), S(1:4,2:4)
Function: dB
Click on New Report
Result:
Designed the circular waveguide.
3 | Page
3. H-PLANE TEE JUNCTION
Aim
To design a H-Plane Tee Junction.
Software Used
High Frequency structure simulator from Analysis Systems (ANSYS).
Theory
An H-Plane Tee junction is formed by attaching a simple waveguide to a
rectangularwaveguide which already has two ports. The arms of
rectangular waveguides make two ports called collinear ports i.e., ‘a’ and
‘c’, while the new one, ‘b’ is called as Side arm or H-arm. This H-plane
Tee is also called as Shunt Tee.The configuration of H plane Tee junction
is illustrated in figure 10.1.
Figure 1.2. H plane Tee junction
It is called an H plane Tee junction because the long axis of the "b" arm
is parallel to the plane of the magnetic lines of force in the waveguide.
For simplicity, only the E lines are shown in figure 10.2. Each X indicates
4 | Page
an E line moving away from the observer. Each dot indicates an E line is
moving toward the observer.
Figure 1.3. E –fields for various inputs in H plane
Tee junction.
In view (1) of Fig. 10.2, the signal is fed into arm ‘b’ and in-phase outputs
are obtained from the ‘a’ and ‘c’ arms. In view (2), in-phase signals are fed
into arms ‘a’ and ‘c’ and the output signal is obtained from the ‘b’ arm
because the fields add at the junction and induce E lines into the ‘b’ arm.
If 180-degree-out-of-phase signals are fed into arms ‘a’ and ‘c’, as shown
in view (3), no output is obtained from the ‘b’ arm because the opposing
fields cancel at the junction. If a signal is fed into the ‘a’ arm, as shown
in view (4), outputs will be obtained from the ‘b’ and ‘c’ arms. The reverse
is also true. If a signal is fed into the ‘c’ arm, outputs will be obtained
from the ‘a’ and b arms.
Procedure
1.Insert HFSS design
5 | Page
(Right click on Project in project manager → Insert HFSS Design
2.Rename Project as Tee and save
3.Set Solution type as Modal
4. Set units
( Modeller→ units →in)
5. Draw →Box
(Right click on the box → Edit → Properties)
Name: Tee Material: Vaccum
OK
7. Set the position and dimensions of the box named as Tee.
Double Click on create box→
Position : 0,-0.45,0
Xsize: 2
Ysize: 0.9
Zsize: 0.4
6 | Page
8. Assign waveport to the Box
Right click on the figure window ->Select face->
Then click the face of the box parallel to YZ plane at x=2.
Again Right click on the figure window -> Assign Excitation ->Wave port .
Wave port dialog box appears.
Name: Port1
Select ‘New line’ from the integration line pull-down list. Then cursor
is accompanied with a dotted port line.In figure window, select the
starting point of the vector (2,0,0), by clicking the edge center at
thebottom of the face. Select the end point (2,0,0.4) by clicking the edge
center at the top of the face.
Waveport dialog box reappears.
Click Next-> Finish
In project manager under excitations port1 will be displayed. When port1
is selected then figure window appears as
9. Duplicate the box twice along with boundaries and port settings to create
the second and third sections of Tee.
7 | Page
Go to Tools->options->General options-> HFSS ->Boundary Assignment
Panel -> Check Duplicate boundaries/mesh operations with geometry as
shown
10. Select the box in Model tree.
Right click on the box -> Edit -> Duplicate -> around axis Axis: Z
Angle: 90
Total Number: 2
Verify that ‘Attach to original object’ is unchecked.
11.Repeat step 10 with Angle:-90
12. Unite the three sections
Tools-> Options-> General options-> Modeler options-> operation tab ->
Verify that the option Clone tool objects before uniting option is
unchecked as in figure
Select 3 boxes named as Tee, Tee_1 and Tee_2 by holding CTRL key.
Right click the 3D modeler menu-> Edit -> Boolean -> Unite.
13. Create Septum (The septum is a 3D-box object that will be subtracted
from T-junction.) Draw->Box
Choose 3 arbitrary locations in drawing area to display box. (Right click
on the Box → Edit → Properties)
Name: Septum
8 | Page
Set the position and size of the Box named as Septum. Double Click on
create Box →
Position: -0.45in,offset-0.05in,0in ( initially set offset value as 0in)
X Size: 0.45
YSize:0.1
Z Size:0.4
OK
direction you want to rotate the view.
14.Subtract septum from the Tee-Junction.
First Click Tee in the model tree.
Press CTRL key and click Septum in the model tree.
Right click ->Edit -> Boolean -> Subtract
Go to Tools-> Options -> Modeler options and verify the clone tool objects
before subtracting
option is clear.
OK
The septum is subtracted from the Tee.
9 | Page
15.Add solution setup such that HSS performs an adaptive analysis at
10GHz. (In project manager right click on Analysis → Add solution setup.)
Frequency: 10GHz
Max. no. of passes: 6 Delta s=0.02
OK
16.To observe frequency sweep, In project manager under Analysis right
click on setup → Add frequency sweep →
Sweep type: Interpolating
Type: Linear step
Start: 8GHz
End: 10 GHz
Step size: 0.05GHz
Note: Before solution setup you must assign waveports, otherwise the
sweep dialog will not contain a menu item for interpolating Sweeps.
17.To check errors validation is required. ( HFSS→ validation check)
18. Analyze all (HFSS → Analyze all). If warnings are there, clear all
10 | P a g e
Once the simulation is completed HFSS informs you in the message
window.
Simulation Results
S-Parameters
compare the S-parameter results at each port for the two septum
positions.
(In project manager Right click on Results → Create modal solution data
report →
Rectangular → S-parameter → Press ctrl to select S(port1,port1),
S(port1,port2),S(port1,port3) → mag ->new report->close
Animation of E-fields
In field overlays->Edit sources->set port 1 power as 1W->ok
Select Tee junction under model tree
Go to field overlays->Plot fields->E->vector_E->done
In field overlays->E-Field -> vector_E1 -> select animate ->OK
11 | P a g e
It is observed that fields at port2 and port3 are in phase.
12 | P a g e
4. E-plane Tee Junction
Aim:
To design a E-Plane Tee Junction.
Software Used
Theory
In E- plane Tee junction, the junction arm extends from the main
waveguide in the same direction as the E field in the waveguide as in Fig.
11.1 view (A).Fig. 11.1 view (B), illustrates cross-sectional views of the E-
type T junction with inputs fed into the various arms.
Figure 1.4. E fields in an E-type T junction
In view (K), the input is fed into arm b and the outputs are taken from the a
and c arms. When the E field arrives between points 1 and 2, point 1
13 | P a g e
becomes positive and point 2 becomes negative. The positive charge at point
1 then induces a negative charge on the wall at point 3. The negative charge
at point 2 induces a positive charge at point 4. These charges cause the
fields to form 180 degrees out of phase in the main waveguide; therefore, the
outputs will be 180 degrees out of phase with each other. In view (L), two in-
phase inputs of equal amplitude are fed into the a and c arms. The signals
at points 1 and 2 have the same phase and amplitude. No difference of
potential exists across the entrance to the b arm, and no energy will be
coupled out. However, when the two signals fed into the a and c arms are
180 degrees out of phase, as shown in view (M), points 1 and 2 have a
difference of potential. This difference of potential induces an E field from
point 1 to point 2 in the b arm, and energy is coupled out of this arm. Views
(N) and (P) illustrate two methods of obtaining two outputs with only one
input.
Procedure
1. Insert HFSS design
(Right click on Project in project manager → Insert HFSS Design
2. Rename Project as Tee and save
3. Set Solution type as Modal
4. Set units
14 | P a g e
5. Draw →Box
Name: Tee Material: Vaccum
OK
Position :-0.45,0,-0.2
Xsize: 0.9
Ysize: 2
Zsize: 0.4
Then click the face of the box parallel to XZ plane at y=2.
Name: Port1
15 | P a g e
Select ‘New line’ from the integration line pull-down list. Then cursor
is accompanied with a dotted port line.In figure window, select the
starting point of the vector (0,2,-0.2), by clicking the edge center at
thebottom of the face. Select the end point (0,2,0.2) by clicking the edge
center at the top of the face.
Click Next-> Finish
9. Duplicate the box twice along with boundaries and port settings to create
the second and third sections of Tee.
Go to Tools->options->General options-> HFSS ->Boundary Assignment
Panel -> Check Duplicate boundaries/mesh operations with geometry as
shown
Right click on the box -> Edit -> Duplicate -> around axis
Axis: X
Angle: 90
16 | P a g e
Total Number: 2
11.Repeat step 10 with Angle:-180
12. Unite the three sections
unchecked as in figure click ok.
Select 3 boxes named as Tee, Tee_1 and Tee_2 by holding CTRL key.
Right click the 3D modeler menu-> Edit -> Boolean -> Unite.
13.Add solution setup such that HSS performs an adaptive analysis at
10GHz. (In project manager right click on Analysis → Add solution setup.)
Frequency: 10GHz
Max. no. of passes: 6
Delta s=0.02
OK
17 | P a g e
14.To observe frequency sweep, In project manager under Analysis right
Type: Linear step
Start: 8GHz
End: 10 GHz
Step size: 0.05GHz
15.To check errors validation is required. ( HFSS→ validation check)
16. Analyze all (HFSS → Analyze all). If warnings are there, clear all
Once the simulation is completed HFSS informs you in the message
window.
Simulation Results
S-Parameters
report →
Rectangular → S-parameter → Press ctrl to select S(port1,port2),
S(port2,port2),S(port3,port2) → mag ->new report->close
18 | P a g e
Animation of E-fields
In field overlays->Edit sources->set port 2power as 1W->ok
Select Tee junction under model tree
Go to field overlays->Plot fields->E->vector_E->done
When power is enter port2 (E-plane port) fields at port1and port3 are out
of phase
19 | P a g e
20 | P a g e
5.Magic Tee Junction
Aim
To design Magic Tee Junction.
Software Used
Theory
The Magic-T shown in Fig. 12.1 is a combination of the H-type and E-
type T junctions. The most common application of this type of junction is
as the mixer section for microwave radar receivers.
Figure 1.5. Magic Tee
If a signal is fed into the 4th arm of the magic- T, it will divide into two out-
of-phase components. As shown in Fig. 12.2, these two components will
move into the 1 and 2 arms. The signal entering the 4tharm will not enter the
3rdarm because of the zero potential existing at the entrance of the 3rdarm.
The potential must be zero at this point to satisfy the boundary conditions of
the 4tharm. This absence of potential is illustrated in Fig. 12.2.Since the E
lines are at maximum in the center of the 4tharm and minimum at the edge
21 | P a g e
where the 3rdarm entrance is located, no potential difference exists across
the mouth of the 3rd arm.
Figure 1.6. Magic Tee with input to arm 4. (a) Front
view (b) Top view of Magic Tee.
The action that occurs when a signal is fed into the 3rdarm of the magic-
Tee is illustrated in Fig12.3.
Figure 1.7. Magic Tee with input to arm 3.
The signal entering the 3rdarm divides and moves down the 1 and 2 arms
as outputs which are in phase with each other and with the input. The
22 | P a g e
shape of the E fields in motion is shown by the numbered curved slices.
As the E field moves down the 3rdarm, points 2 and 3 are at an equal
potential. The energy divides equally into arms 1 and 2, and the E fields
in both arms become identical in shape. Since the potentials on both
sides of the 4tharm are equal, no potential difference exists at the
entrance to the 4tharm, resulting in no output.
When an input signal is fed into the arm1 as shown in Fig.12.4.
Figure 1.8. Magic Tee with input to arm 1
A portion of the energy is coupled into the 4tharm as it would be in an E-
type T junction. An equal portion of the signal is coupled through the
3rdarm because of the action of the H-type junction. The 2ndarm has two
fields across it that are out of phase with each other. Therefore the fields
cancel, resulting in no output at the 2nd arm. The reverse of this action
takes place if a signal is fed into the 2ndarm, resulting in outputs at the
3rd and 4tharms and no output at the 1starm.
Procedure:
1.Right click on Project in project manager → Insert HFSS Design)
2.Rename Project as MagicTee and save
23 | P a g e
3.Set Solution type as Modal
4. Set units
5. Draw →Box
Material: Vaccum
OK
Position : 0,-0.45,-0.2
Xsize: 2
Ysize: 0.9
Zsize: 0.4
OK
24 | P a g e
Then click the face of the box parallel to YZ plane at x=2.
Name: Port1
Select ‘New line’ from the integration line pull-down list. Then cursor is
accompanied with a dotted port line.
In figure window, select the starting point of the vector (2,0,0), by clicking
the edge center at the bottom of the face. Select the end point (2,0,0.4) by
clicking the edge center at the top of the face.
Click Next-> Finish
9. Duplicate the box twice along with boundaries and port settings to
create the second and third sections of Tee.
Go to Tools->options->General options-> HFSS ->Boundary
Assignment Panel -> Check Duplicate boundaries/mesh operations
with geometry as shown
25 | P a g e
Click OK.
Right click on the box -> Edit -> Duplicate -> around axis
Axis: Z
Angle: 90
Total Number: 2
OK
11. Repeat step 10 with Angle:-90
26 | P a g e
12. Repeat step 10 with Angle:+90 around Axis: X
13. Unite the four sections
unchecked as in figure
Click OK.
Select 4 boxes by holding CTRL key. Right click the 3D modeler menu-
> Edit -> Boolean -> Unite.
27 | P a g e
P
r
P
t
o
4
r
P P t
o o 2
r r
t t
14. Add solution setup such that HFSS performs an adaptive analysis at
3 1
10GHz.
(In project manager right click on Analysis → Add solution setup.)
Frequency: 10GHz
Delta s=0.02
OK
15.To check errors validation is required. ( HFSS → validation check)
16.Analyze all (HFSS → Analyze all).
Results:
Animation of fields at the junction:
In field overlays->Edit sources->set port 1 power as 1W->ok
28 | P a g e
Select Magic Tee junction under model tree
Goto field overlays->Plot fields->E->vector_E->done
Observation: When port 1 (H-plane port) is excited , fields at port 2 and
port3 are In phase
Repeat step 1 by setting port4 as 1W
29 | P a g e
Observation: When port 4 (E-plane port) is excited, fields at port 2 and
port3 are out of phase
Repeat step 1 with port 3 as 1W
Observation: When port 3 is excited , power available at port2 is less
when compared to power at port 1 and 4.
30 | P a g e
S-Parameters
To justify above statement s-parameters (S13,S23,S33,S43) vs frequency
graph is plotted.
Add solution setup such that HFSS performs an adaptive analysis at
10GHz.
(In project manager right click on Analysis → Add solution setup.)
Frequency: 10 GHz
Delta s=0.02
OK
To observe frequency sweep, In project manager under Analysis right
Type: Linear step
Start: 8GHz
End: 10 GHz
Step size: 0.05GHz
OK
report → Rectangular → S-parameter → Press ctrl to select S(port1,port3),
S(port2,port3),S(port3,port3),S(port4,port3) → dB
31 | P a g e
Observation:
At 10GHz frequency, Transmission coefficient S23 is -6.09 dB.
Transmission coefficient S13 is -3.8 dB.Transmission coefficient S43 is -
4.8 dB. It is observed that power at port2 is less when compared to power
at port 1 and 4.
32 | P a g e
6. Study of the characteristics of the Reflex
Klystron tube
Aim:
To study the characteristics of the Reflex Klystron tube and to determine
the it’s electronic tuning range
Equipment Required:
Reflex Klystron power supply,
Reflex Klystron Tube with Klystron mount,
Isolator,
Frequency meter,
Variable attenuator,
X-band Detector Mount,
BNC Female to 2-Alligator clips cable,
0-250µA DC microampere meter.
Theory:
Reflex Klystron is one of the most commonly used microwave (low power)
generators. It converts DCpower into microwave power.
Reflex Klystron Oscillator:
The schematic diagram of a reflex klystron tube is shown in Fig.1.1,
which uses only a single re-entrant microwave cavity as resonator. The
electron beam emitted from the cathode K is accelerated by the grid Gand
33 | P a g e
passes through the cavity anode A to the repeller space between the
cavity anode and the repellerelectrode.
Mechanism of Oscillation:
Due to dc voltage in the cavity circuit, RF noise is generated in the cavity.
This electromagnetic noise fieldin the cavity becomes pronounced at
cavity resonant frequency. The electrons passing through the cavitygap d
experience this RF field and are velocity modulated in the following
manner.The electrons as shownin Fig. 1.2 which encountered the positive
half cycle of the RF field in the gap d will be accelerated, those(reference
electrons) b which encountered zero RF field will pass with unchanged
original velocity, and theelectrons c which encountered the negative half
cycle will be retarded on entering the repeller space.
All these velocity modulated electrons will be repelled back to the cavity
by the repeller due to its negativepotential. The repeller distance L and
the voltages can be adjusted to receive all the velocity modulatedelectrons
at a same time on the positive peak of the cavity RF voltage cycle. Thus
the velocity modulatedelectrons are bunched together and lose their
kinetic energy when they encounter the positive cycle of thecavity RF
field. This loss of energy is thus transferred to the cavity to conserve the
total power. If the powerdelivered by the bunched electrons to the cavity
is greater than the power loss in the cavity, theelectromagnetic field
amplitude at the resonant frequency of the cavity will increase to produce
microwaveoscillations. The RF power is coupled to the output load by
means of a small loop which forms the centerconductor of the coaxial
line. When the power delivered by the electrons becomes equal to the
34 | P a g e
total powerloss in the cavity system, a steady microwave oscillation is
generated at resonant frequency of the cavity.
Figure 1.9. Functional diagram of Reflex Klystron
Figure 1.10. Bunching action of a reflex klystron
35 | P a g e
Mode of Oscillation:
The bunched electrons in a reflex klystron can deliver maximum power to
the cavity at any instant whichcorresponds to the positive peak of the RF
cycle of the cavity oscillation. If T is the time period at theresonant
frequency, to is the time taken by the reference electron to travel in the
repeller space betweenentering the repeller space at B and the returning
to the cavity at positive peak voltage on formatting of thebunch, then
3
𝑡0 = (𝑛 + ) 𝑇
4
where n=0, 1, 2, 3...
The reflex klystron operates in a different mode for each additional cycle
that the electrons remain in the repeller field.Mode 1 is obtained when
the repeller voltage produces an electron transit time of ¾ cycle.
Additional modes follow in sequence. Mode 2 has an electron transit time
of 1 3/4 cycles; mode 3has an electron transit time of 2 3/4 cycles; etc.
The physical design of the tube limits the number ofmodes possible in
practical applications. A range of four modes of operation are normally
available. Theactual mode used (1 3/4 cycles through 4 3/4 cycles, 2 3/4
cycles through 6 3/4 cycles, etc.) depends uponthe application. The
choice of mode is determined by the difference in power available from
each modeand the band of frequencies over which the circuit can be
tuned.
Thus by adjusting repeller voltage for given dimensions of the reflex
klystron, the bunching can be made to occur at n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …
respectively. It is obvious that the lowest ordermode 3/4 occurs for a
36 | P a g e
maximum value of repeller voltage when the transit time to of the
electrons in therepeller space is minimum. Higher modes occur at lower
repeller voltages. Since at the highest repellervoltage the acceleration of
the bunched electrons of return is maximum, the power output of the
lowestmode is maximum.
Electronic Tuning:
Electronic Tuning refers to tuning of Reflex Klystron by altering the
repeller voltage. The electronic tuning range of the reflex klystron is
referred to as the variation in frequency between half power points—the
points in the oscillating mode where the power output is half the
maximum output in the mode.Each mode has a center frequency of
9.4GHz which ispredetermined by the physical size of the cavity. The
output power increases as the repeller voltage ismade more negative. This
is because the transit time of the electron bunches is decreased.
Electronic tuning does not change the center frequency of the cavity, but
does vary the frequencywithin the mode of operation. The amount the
frequency can be varied above or below the centerfrequency is limited by
the half-power points of the mode, as shown in Fig.1.3. The center
frequencycan be changed by one of two methods One method, GRID-GAP
TUNING, varies the cavity frequencyby altering the distance between the
grids to change the physical size of the cavity. This method varies
thecapacitance of the cavity by using a tuning screw to change the
distance between the grids mechanically.The cavity can also be tuned by
PADDLES or SLUGS that change the inductance of the cavity.
37 | P a g e
Frequency GHz
Electron Resonant
9.4GHz
ic Frequency
Tuning of the
range Cavity
Power output mW
Half power
points
-100 -150 -200 -250

Repeller Voltage in volts
Figure 1.11. Electronic tuning and output power of a reflex klystron.
Procedure:
1. Connect the equipment as shown in Fig. 1.4.
Klystron Power
Supply
Variable Detector DC
Reflex Isolator Frequency
klystron tube Meter Attenuator Mount
microampere
with
Klystron
meter
Mount
Figure 1.12. Setup for Study of Klystron Tube.
2. Keep the control knobs of Klystron Power Supply as shown below

a. Mod. switch -- CW
b. Beam voltage knob -- Fully anticlockwise
(i.e., Beam voltage is set to minimum positive value)
c. Repeller Voltage -- Fully clockwise
38 | P a g e
(i.e., Repeller voltage is set to maximum negative
value)
d. Meter switch -- OFF
3. Set the variable attenuator for maximum attenuation.
4. Rotate the knob of Frequency meter at onside fully.
5. Switch ‘ON’ the Klystron Power Supply and Cooling Fan for Klystron
Tube.
6. Put the meter switch to beam voltage position and rotate the beam
voltage knob clockwise slowly up to 300V meter reading.Observe
beam current on the meter by changing the meter switch to beam
current position. “The beam current should not increase more than
30mA”.
7. Change the repeller voltage in steps of 1volt by rotating repeller
voltage knob in anticlockwise direction and watch on microampere
meter. If the output is small, tune the plungers of Klystron Mount,
Detector Mount and also reduce the attenuation for the maximum
output. Record output current and frequency in table 1.
8. Frequency measurements—adjust the frequency meter till a dip
appears on the display. The frequency meter directly gives the
frequency.
9. From repeller voltage and output current calculate output power. Plot
graph between repeller voltage on x-axis &corresponding output
power on y-axis. Also plot graph between repeller voltage on x-axis
and frequency on y-axis. Find the Tuning range after plotting 3dB
points.
Observations:
Beam Voltage=
39 | P a g e
Beam Current =
Table 1.
S.No. Repeller voltage Output Current Output power Frequency
(V) (μA) (mW) (GHz)
Calculations:
1. Calculate the mode number n for each mode using the equation
𝑉𝑜1 (𝑛 + 1) + 3⁄4
= 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝑉𝑜2 𝑛 + 3⁄4
(∵ repeller Voltage is inversely related to mode )
Where 𝑉𝑜1 and 𝑉𝑜2 are repeller voltages for two successive modes at
maximum power Point.
2. Knowing mode number, transit time of each mode may be calculated
from equation below:
𝑛 + 3⁄4
𝑡1 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑓𝑜
Where f ois frequency at maximum power point in that mode.
3. Calculate electronic tuning range, i.e., the frequency band from one
end of the mode to the another.
ETS ( Electronic tuning sensitivity) may be calculated from the equation
below:
40 | P a g e
𝑓2 − 𝑓1
𝐸𝑇𝑆 = 𝑀𝐻𝑧/𝑉
𝑉2 − 𝑉1
f 2and f 1being half power frequencies in GHZ, and V1 and V2 are
corresponding voltages for a particular mode.
Graphs:
Output power Vs. Repeller voltage
Frequency Vs. Repeller voltage.
Analysis:
As the repeller voltage increases, frequency and current of reflex klystron
tube increases.
Precautions:
1. Use Fan to keep the Klystron temperature low.
2. Ensure tight connections of the apparatus.
3. While measuring output power, frequency meter should be detuned
each time
4. Repeller Voltage must be varied between -80V and -250V.
5. Beam voltage must not exceed 300 V.
Results:
From the characteristics of Reflex Klystron,
Find the modes .
Find the transit time.
Find the Tuning range for two widely different repeller voltages.
41 | P a g e
Questions:
1. How many cavities does Reflex Klystron have?
A. One
2. On which principle Klystron tube works?
A. Velocity Modulation
3. What are the applications of Reflex Klystron?
A. Oscillator, Microwave generator
4. On what principle multi cavity Klystron Amplifier works?
A. Velocity Modulation and Current Modulation.
5. What is the efficiency of Reflex Klystron?
A. 20 % - 30 %
6. The single cavity in Reflex Klystron acts as____________
A. Both buncher and catcher cavity.
7. Why negative voltage is given to the Repeller?
A. To turn the electron beam back towards the gap.
8. Why the waveguide is air filled?
A. The waveguide is filled with dry air under pressure to remove any
moisture from the waveguide that might cause corrosion. It also
increases the power handling capacity of the waveguide.
42 | P a g e
Observations:
43 | P a g e
44 | P a g e
7.Study of Gunn Diode Characteristics
Aim:
Study of Gunn Diode and plot V-I characteristics of Gunn Diode.
Equipment Required:
Gunn oscillator,
Gunn power supply,
Isolator,
Frequency meter,
Variableattenuator,
Detector mount,
Matched Termination,
Cables and Accessories.
Theory:
Gunn diodes are negative resistance devices which are normally used as
low power oscillator atmicrowave frequencies in transmitter and also as
local oscillator in receiver front ends. J BGunn (1963) discovered
microwave oscillation in Gallium arsenide (GaAs), Indium phosphide(InP)
and cadmium telluride (CdTe). These are semiconductors having a closely
spaced energyvalley in the conduction band as shown in Fig. 2.1 for
GaAs.
45 | P a g e
When a dc voltage is appliedacross the material, an electric field is
established across it. At low E-field in the material, mostof the electrons
will be located in the lower energy central valley Γ. At higher E-field, most
ofthe electrons will be transferred in to the high-energy satellite L and X
valleys where theeffective electron mass is larger and hence electron
mobility is lower than that in the low energyΓ valley.
a. Multi-valley conduction band energies of GaAs
b. V-I characteristics of GaAs.
46 | P a g e
Since the conductivity is directly proportional to the mobility, the
conductivity andhence the current decreases with an increase in E-field
or voltage in an intermediate range,beyond a threshold value Vth as
shown in Fig. 2.2 This is called the transferred electroneffect and the
device is also called ‘Transfer Electron Device (TED) or Gunn diode’. Thus
thematerial behaves as negative resistance device over a range of applied
voltages and can be usedin microwave oscillators.
The basic structure of a Gunn diode is shown in Fig. 2.3 (a), which is of
n-type GaAssemiconductor with regions of high doping (n+). Although
there is no junction this is called adiode with reference to the positive end
(anode) and negative end (cathode) of the dc voltageapplied across the
device. Its more accurate name is transferred electron device. If voltage or
an electric field at low level is applied to the GaAs,initially the current will
increase with a rise in the voltage. When the diode voltage exceeds
acertain threshold value, Vth a high electric field (3.2 KV/cm for GaAs) is
produced across theactive region and electrons are excited from their
initial lower valley to the higher valley, wherethey become virtually
immobile. If the rate at which electrons are transferred is very high,
thecurrent will decrease with increase in voltage, resulting in equivalent
negative resistance effect.Since GaAs is a poor conductor, considerable
heat is generated in the diode. The diode will bebonded into a heat sink
(Cu-stud).
47 | P a g e
(a)
(b)
c. Constructional details and the electrical equivalent circuit of a Gunn
Diode
The electrical equivalent circuit of a Gunn diode is shown in Fig. 2.3(b),
where Cj and – Rj arethe diode capacitance and resistance, respectively,
Rs includes the total resistance of lead, ohmiccontacts, and bulk
resistance of the diode, Cp and Lp are the package capacitance and
inductance,respectively. The negative resistance has a value that
typically lies in the range –5 to –20 ohm.
Gunn Oscillator:
In a Gunn Oscillator, the Gunn Diode is placed in a resonant cavity. In
this case the oscillationfrequency is determined by cavity dimension than
by the diode itself.
48 | P a g e
Gunn Gunn Isolator Variable Frequency Matched
Power Oscillator Attenuator Meter Termination
Supply
d. Setup for study of Gunn Oscillator
Procedure:
1. Set the components and equipments as shown in the Fig.2.4.
2. Initially set the variable attenuator for maximum attenuation.
3. Keep the control knob of Gunn Power Supply as below:
Meter Switch - ‘OFF’
Gunn bias knob - Fully anticlockwise
Pin bias knob - Fully anticlockwise
Pin Mod frequency - Any position
4. Set the micrometer of Gunn Oscillator for required frequency of
operation.
5. Switch ‘ON’ the Gunn Power Supply and Cooling fan.
6. Turn the meter switch of Gunn power supply to voltage position.
7. Measure the Gunn diode Current Corresponding to the various voltage
controlled by Gunn bias knob through the panel meter and meter
switch. Do not exceed the bias voltage above 10 volts.
8. Plot the voltage and current readings on the graph as shown in Fig
2.2.
9. Measure the threshold voltage which corresponds to maximum
current.
49 | P a g e
Observations:
S.No. Voltage(V) Current(mA)
Graph:
Current Vs Voltage
Analysis:
For the given Gunn Diode the threshold voltage is ____V and the
threshold current is ____ mA.
The negative resistance of the Gunn diode is observed between I= ___ mA
to ___ mA.
Precautions:
Donot keep gunn bias knob position at thresholdposition for more than
10-15 seconds. Reading should beobtained as fast as possible.
Otherwise, due to excessiveheating, Gunn diode may burn.
Results:
The Gunn diode characteristics have been observed and are drawn.
Questions:
1. What is Gunn effect?
A. There are periodic fluctuations of current passing through N type
GaAs when applied voltage exceeded certain critical voltage.
2. What is negative resistance?
50 | P a g e
A. In negative resistance devices, the real part of the impedance is
negative over a range of frequencies. i.e., voltage and current are 1800
out of phase. Voltage drop across it is negative and I2R power is
generated.
3. What are advantages and disadvantages of Gunn diode?
A. Advantage: Less noisy.
Disadvantage: Temperature dependent. The Frequency of
oscillations changes with change in temperature.
51 | P a g e
52 | P a g e
8.Attenuation measurement
Aim:
To analyze fixed attenuator and variable attenuator.
Equipment Required:
Reflex Klystron, Klystron Power Supply, Isolator, Frequency Meter, Fixed
& Variable Attenuator, Detector Mount, VSWR Meter, Matched
Termination, BNC Cable.
Theory:
The attenuators are two port bi-directional devices which reduce power
levels of a signal when inserted into the transmission line without any
appreciable reflections.
Attenuation A (dB)= 10 log10 (P1/P2)
Where P1=Power absorbed or detected by the load without the attenuator
in the line.
P2= Power absorbed or detected by the load with the attenuator in the
line.
The attenuator consists of a rectangular waveguide with a metalized
glassfiber reinforced PTFE( polytetrafluoroethylene) resistive vane or an
absorptive composite material inside it to absorb microwave power
according to their position with respect to side wall of the waveguide. As
the electric field is maximum at center in TE10 mode, the attenuation will
be maximum if the vane is placed at the center of the wave guide. Moving
53 | P a g e
from center toward the side wall, attenuation decreases in the fixed
attenuator, the vane position is fixed where as in a variable attenuator,
its position can be changed by the help of micrometer.
Klystron VSWR
Power Supply Meter
Reflex Isolator Frequency Variable Slotte Detector

Klystron tube Meter Attenuator d line Mount
with Klystron
Mount
Detector VSWR
Fixed Mount
attenuat Meter
or
e. Setup for attenuation measurement.
Procedure:
1. Set the components and equipment as shown in Fig. 3.1.
2. Initially set the variable attenuator for maximum position.

a. Mod. switch -- AM
b. AM-amplitude Knob --Around fully clockwise.
c. AM-frequency Knob --Around mid position.
d. Beam voltage knob -- Fully anticlockwise
(i.e., Beam voltage is set to minimum positive value)
e. Repeller Voltage -- Fully clockwise
(i.e., Repeller voltage is set to maximum negative
value)
f. Meter switch -- OFF
4. Keep the control knob of VSWR meter as below:
a. Meter switch --Normal

b. Input Switch --Low Impedance
c. Range dB switch --50dB
d. Gain control knob --Mid position
5. ‘ON’ the Klystron Power Supply, VSWR meter and Cooling fan.
54 | P a g e
6. Turn the meter switch of the power supply to beam voltage position
and set the beam voltage to 300V with the help of beam voltage knob.
7. Adjust the repeller voltage to get some deflection in VSWR meter.
8. Maximize the deflection with AM frequency and amplitude control
knob of Klystron Power Supply to get maximum power.
9. Tune the plungers of Klystron-Mount, Detector Mount and Tunable
probes for maximum deflection in VSWR meter.
Procedure for variable attenuator:-
10. Observe micrometer reading & VSWR meter reading for different
Settings ofvariable attenuator.
11. Plot graph between the micrometer reading & VSWR meter reading
in dB.
Procedure for fixed attenuator:
12. Repeat steps 1 to 9.
13. Set the reference level on the VSWR meter with the help of variable
attenuator and gain control knob of VSWR meter. Let it be P1.
14. Insert the fixed attenuator & note the reading on VSWR meter. Let it
be P2.
15. Difference between reading with &without attenuator, gives the value
ofattenuation for the fixed attenuator.
Observations:
For Variable Attenuator:
Beam voltage =
55 | P a g e
Beam current =
Repeller voltage =
S.No Micrometer reading(mm) Output power

(dB)
For Fixed Attenuator:
Beam voltage =
Beam current =
Repeller voltage =
Output Power without fixed attenuator (P1) =
S.No Fixed O/p power O/p Average Attenuation

Attenuation ( forward power (dB) (P1-P2) dB
(dB) direction) (reverse P2
(dB) direction)
(dB)
6
10
Analysis:
For a given 6dB fixed attenuator, ________dB attenuation is observed.
Result:
The attenuation provided by fixed attenuators and variable attenuator is
observed and noted.
Questions:
1. What do you mean by attenuators?
2. What are various uses of attenuators?
56 | P a g e
57 | P a g e
9.Characteristics of Directional Coupler
Aim:
To study the functioning of Multi-hole directional coupler by measuring
the following parameters
 Coupling factor
 Directivity of the Coupler
 Insertion Loss
Equipment Required:
Reflex Klystron power supply,
Reflex Klystron Tube with Klystron mount,
Isolator,
Frequency meter,
Variable attenuator,
X-band Detector Mount,
Multi-hole Directional Coupler,
Matched terminations,
VSWR meter and accessories.
Theory:
A Directional Coupler is a reciprocal four port device with which it is
possible to measure the incident and reflected power separately. The
basic function of a directional coupler is to operate on an input so that
58 | P a g e
two output signalsare available. However, when the input is applied to
the opposite port of an internallyterminated coupler, only one output
signal is produced. Refer to Fig.4.1 and Fig.4.2.
Port 1 is the input port where power is applied. Port 3 is the coupled port
where a portion of the power applied to port 1 appears. Port 2 is the
output port where the power from port 1 is outputted, less the portion
that went to port 3. Directional couplers are frequently symmetrical so
there also exists port 4, the isolated port. A portion of the power applied
to port 2 will be coupled to port 4. However, the device is not normally
used in this mode and port 4 is usually terminated with a matched load
(typically 50 ohms). This termination can be internal to the device and
port 4 is not accessible to the user. Effectively, this results in a 3-port
device,
It consists of two wave guides with a suitable coupling aperture located
on common wall of wave guide. The distance between two apertures must
be odd multiple of g/4 .
Directional Coupler Characteristics.
1. The output signals are unequal in amplitude. The larger signal is at
the main-line output port. The smaller signal is at the coupled port.
2. The main-line insertion loss depends upon the signal level at the
coupled port
3. There is high isolation between the coupled port and the output of the
main-line.
59 | P a g e
f. Multi Hole Directional Coupler
A schematic representation of the coupler is as follows; the arrows show
signal flow:
Input Power Pi Received
Power Pr
Backward Forward
Power Pb Power Pf
g. Signal Power flow graph in Directional Coupler
Key characteristics of a directional coupler include coupling, Main-line
Insertion loss and Directivity.
Coupling
The ratio in dB of the incident power fed into the main port to the
coupled port power when all ports are terminated by reflection less
terminations.
60 | P a g e
Coupling(C) = 10 log (pi/pf) dB
Insertion Loss:
Main line insertion loss is the attenuation introduced in transmission
line by insertion ofcoupler.
Insertion loss (L) =10 log (pi/pr) db
Isolation:
Isolation of a directional coupler can be defined as the difference in signal
levels in dB between the input port and the isolated port when the two
other ports are terminated by matched loads,
Isolation (I) =10 log (pi/pb) db
Directivity
The difference in dB of the power output at a coupled port, when power is
transmitted in thedesired direction, to the power output at the same
coupled port when the same amount of poweris transmitted in the
opposite direction. In the case of a bi-directional coupler, an
alternativedefinition is the difference in dB of the power output of the two
coupled ports, when power istransmitted in a constant direction on the
main-line. Reflectionless terminations are assumed tobe connected to all
ports.
Directivity (D) = 10 log (pf/pb) dB =Isolation-Coupling
Directional Coupler Applications
The high performance characteristics of these units enable the following
signal processingfunctions to be accomplished:
61 | P a g e
 measure incident and reflected power to determine VSWR,
 signal sampling,
 signal injection,
 power flow monitoring.
Klystron
Power Supply
VSWR Meter (Pi)
1
Klystron Isolator Frequency Variable Detector
Mount Meter Attenuator Mount
Matched Termination
2
3
Multi Hole Directional Detector
VSWR Meter (Pr)
1 Coupler 2 Mount
Detector
Mount VSWR Meter (Pf)
3
3
Multi Hole Directional
Matched Termination
1 Coupler 2
Detector
Mount VSWR Meter (Pb)
3
4
Multi Hole Directional
Matched Termination
2 Coupler 1
h. Setup for the measurement of Insertion Loss, Coupling factor,
Directivity
Procedure:
1. Set up equipment as shown in stage 1 of Fig.4.3.
62 | P a g e
2. Energize the microwave source for particular frequency of operation.

b. AM-amplitude Knob --Around fully clockwise.
4. Adjust Beam voltage to 300V.
5. Set any reference level of power on VSWR and note down the reading.
Let itbe reference level Pi.
6. Insert directional coupler as in stage 2 of Fig. 4.3 and connect the
detector mount to port 2 and matchedtermination to port 3 without
disturbing the setup.Note down the reading on VSWR meter on the
scale with the help of range-dbswitch if required. Let it be Pr.
7. Connect matched termination to port 2 and detector mount to port 3
as in stage 3 of Fig. 4.3. Note down the reading on VSWR meter.Let
it be Pf.
8. Calculate the Coupling factor which is given as Pi-Pf=C (dB).
9. Compute the Insertion Loss which is given as Pi-Pr=I in dB.
10. Connect the directional coupler in reverse direction, i.e. port 2 to
frequency meterside. Matched termination to port 1 and detector
mount to port 3 as in stage 4 of Fig. 4.3. Withoutdisturbing the
position of variable attenuator and gain control knob of VSWRmeter.
11. Measure and note down the reading on VSWR meter. Let it be Pb.
12. Compute the Isolation which is given as Pi-Pb (dB).
13. Compute directivity as Isolation – Coupling factor
63 | P a g e
Observations:
Beam voltage =
Beam current=
Input power=
Received power=
forward power=
Backward power=
Directivity=
Coupling factor =
Isolation loss =
Insertion loss=
Precautions:
1. Use Fan to keep the Klystron temperature low.
2. Ensure tight connections of the apparatus.
3. Use stabilized power Supply.
4. Avoid cross connections of threads.
Result:
Coupling factor, Insertion loss, Isolation and Directivity are measured for
given directional coupler.
Questions:
1. What is the difference between a 3-port and a 4-port coupler?
64 | P a g e
A. A directional coupler is basically a 4-port network. The main-line and
auxiliary line each have 2 ports: A 3-port coupler has one end of this
auxiliary line, the "isolated port," internally terminated. When all 4
ports are made available to the user, the device is called a "bi-
directional coupler."
2. What advantage does a 3-port coupler have over a 4-port?
A. Directivity of a coupler is strongly affected by the impedance match
provided by the termination at the isolated port. Furnishing that
termination internally ensures high performance.
3. Is a coupled port an input or an output?
A. It can be used as either. The coupling factor determines the
attenuation between main-line and coupled line signals in both cases.
4. How is directivity measured when the 4th port is internally
terminated?
A. Measure the loss from the main-line input to the coupled port with
the main-line output terminated. Then reverse the main-line
connections. The difference in dB readings is the directivity.
65 | P a g e
10. E-plane and H plane Tee junctions
Aim:
To measure the power distribution of various magic Tee i.e. E plane, H
plane.
Equipment required:
Reflex Klystron power supply, Reflex Klystron Tube with Klystron mount,
Isolator, Frequency meter, Variable attenuator, X-band Detector Mount,E
plane Tee, H plane Tee, Matched Terminations,VSWR meter and
accessories.
Theory:
E plane Tee junction:
In E- plane Tee junction, the junction arm extends from the main
waveguide in the same direction as the E field in the waveguide as in Fig.
5.1 view (A).Fig. 5.1 view (B), illustrates cross-sectional views of the E-
type T junction with inputs fed into the various arms. In view (K), the
input is fed into arm b and the outputs are taken from the a and c
arms.When the E field arrives between points 1 and 2, point 1 becomes
positive and point 2 becomes negative. The positive charge at point 1
then induces a negative charge on the wall at point 3. The negative
charge at point 2 induces a positive charge at point 4. These charges
cause the fields to form 180 degrees out of phase in the main waveguide;
therefore, the outputs will be 180 degrees out of phase with each other.
In view (L), two in-phase inputs of equal amplitude are fed into the a and
66 | P a g e
c arms. The signals at points 1 and 2 have the same phase and
amplitude. No difference of potential exists across the entrance to the b
arm, and no energy will be coupled out. However, when the two signals
fed into the a and c arms are 180 degrees out of phase, as shown in view
(M), points 1 and 2 have a difference of potential. This difference of
potential induces an E field from point 1 to point 2 in the b arm, and
energy is coupled out of this arm. Views (N) and (P) illustrate two
methods of obtaining two outputs with only one input.
a. E fields in an E-type T junction.
H plane Tee Junction:
An H plane Tee junction is illustrated in Fig. 5.2. It is called an H plane
Tee junction because the long axis of the "b" arm is parallel to the plane
of the magnetic lines of force in the waveguide. Again, for simplicity, only
the E lines are shown in this figure. Each X indicates an E line moving
away from the observer. Each dot indicates an E line is moving toward
the observer.
67 | P a g e
In view (1) of Fig. 5.3, the signal is fed into arm b and in-phase outputs
are obtained from the a and c arms. In view (2), in-phase signals are fed
into arms a and c and the output signal is obtained from the b arm
because the fields add at the junction and induce E lines into the b arm.
If 180-degree-out-of-phase signals are fed into arms a and c, as shown in
view (3), no output is obtained from the b armbecause the opposing fields
cancel at the junction. If a signal is fed into the a arm, as shown in view
(4), outputs will be obtained from the b and c arms. The reverse is also
true. If a signal is fed into the c arm, outputs will be obtained from the a
and b arms.
b. H plane Tee junction
c. E –fields for various inputs in H plane Tee junction.
68 | P a g e
1
d. Set up E plane and H plane power measurements
Procedure:
1) Set up the equipment as shown in the Fig. 5.4 by connecting detector
mount to slotted line without Tee junction.
2) Keep the control knobs of Klystron Power Supply as shown below
d. AM amplitude knob -- Around fully clockwise
e. AM-frequency Knob --Around mid position.
f. Beam voltage knob -- Fully anticlockwise
g. Repeller Voltage -- Fully clockwise
3) Switch ON the Klystron power supply and cooling fan.
4) Set the beam voltage at 300V with the help of beam voltage knob.
69 | P a g e
5) Set any reference level of power on VSWR by varying the repeller
voltage, AM amplitude and frequency and note down the input power
to the Tee junction.
6) Now, without disturbing the position of variable attenuator and gain
control knob, carefully connect input at E-plane port of Tee junction
to the slotted line. Connect matched termination to one arm and
crystal detector to the other arm and note the output power of that
arm. Interchange positions of matched termination and detector to
measure output power of other arm.
7) Repeat step 6 for H plane.
Observations:
Beam voltage =
Repeller voltage =
E plane Tee
Input power at port 1 =
Power at port 2 =
Power at port 3 =
H plane Tee
Power at port 2 =
Power at port 3 =
70 | P a g e
Analysis:
When power is inserted in E plane or H plane port power is equally
distributed in other two ports.
Results:
Tee Junction Characteristics are observed by giving input to different
ports and by seeing outputs at other ports.
Questions:
1. What is the difference between E-plane Tee and H-plane Tee?
A. An E-plane Tee is a waveguide in which the axis of its side arm is
parallel to the E-Field of the main waveguide. An H-plane Tee is a
waveguide in which the axis of its side arm is parallel to H field
plane of the main waveguide.
71 | P a g e
11. Scattering Parameters of Magic Tee.
Aim:
To find the
i. Isolation Loss of Magic Tee
ii. Coupling coefficient of Magic Tee
iii. Scattering parameters of Magic Tee
Equipment Required:
Isolator, Frequency meter, Variable attenuator, X-band Detector
Mount,Magic Tee, Matched Terminations,VSWR meter and accessories.
Theory:
The Magic-T shown in Fig. 5.1 is a combination of the H-type and E-type
T junctions. The most common application of this type of junction is as
the mixer section for microwave radar receivers. If a signal is fed into the
4th arm of the magic- T, it will divide into two out-of-phase components.
As shown in Fig. 5.2, these two components will move into the 1 and 2
arms. The signal entering the 4tharm will not enter the 3rdarm because of
the zero potential existing at the entrance of the 3rdarm. The potential
must be zero at this point to satisfy the boundary conditions of the
4tharm. This absence of potential is illustrated in Fig. 5.2.Since the E
lines are at maximum in the center of the 4tharm and minimum at the
edge where the 3rdarm entrance is located, no potential difference exists
across the mouth of the 3rd arm.
72 | P a g e
a. Magic Tee
1 2
3
(a)
1 2
(b)
b. Magic Tee with input to arm 4. (a) Front view (b) Top view of Magic
Tee.
The action that occurs when a signal is fed into the 3rdarm of the magic-
Tee is illustrated in Fig5.3. The signal entering the 3rdarm divides and
moves down the 1 and 2 arms as outputs which are in phase with each
other and with the input. The shape of the E fields in motion is shown by
73 | P a g e
the numbered curved slices. As the E field moves down the 3rdarm,
points 2 and 3 are at an equal potential. The energy divides equally into
arms 1 and 2, and the E fields in both arms become identical in shape.
Since the potentials on both sides of the 4tharm are equal, no potential
difference exists at the entrance to the 4tharm, resulting in no output.
4
2
3
1
c. Magic Tee with input to arm 3.
When an input signal is fed into the a arm as shown in Fig.5.4, a portion
of the energy is coupled into the 4tharm as it would be in an E-type T
junction. An equal portion of the signal is coupled through the 3rdarm
because of the action of the H-type junction. The 2ndarm has two fields
across it that are out of phase with each other. Therefore the fields
cancel, resulting in no output at the c arm. The reverse of this action
takes place if a signal is fed into the 2ndarm, resulting in outputs at the
3rd and 4tharms and no output at the 1starm.
4
1
3 2
74 | P a g e
d. Magic Tee with input to arm 1
e. Study of Magic Tee
Procedure:
1) Set up the equipment as shown in the Fig. 5.5 by connecting detector
mount to slotted line without Magic tee.
2) Keep the control knobs of Klystron Power Supply as shown below
h. Mod. switch -- AM
i. Beam voltage knob -- Fully anticlockwise
j. Repeller Voltage -- Fully clockwise
k. AM amplitude knob -- Around fully clockwise
l. AM-frequency Knob --Around mid position.
m. Beam voltage knob -- Fully anticlockwise
n. Repeller Voltage -- Fully clockwise
3) Switch ON the Klystron power supply and cooling fan.
75 | P a g e
4) Set the beam voltage at 300V with the help of beam voltage knob.
5) Set any reference level of power on VSWR by varying the repeller
voltage, AM amplitude and frequency and note down the input power
to the Tee junction. Let it be P3.
6) Now, without disturbing the position of variable attenuator and gain
control knob, carefully connect the H arm of the Magic tee junction to
the slotted line. Connect matched termination to two arms and crystal
detector to the other arm and note the output power of that arm.
7) Repeat it for the other two arms.
8) Now, connect the E arm of the Magic tee junction to the slotted line.
9) Connect matched termination to two arms and crystal detector to the
other arm and note the output power of that arm.
10) Repeat it for the other two arms.
11) Verify the properties of magic tee junction.
Observations:
Beam voltage =
Repeller voltage =
Power at port 2 =
Power at port 3 =
Power at port 4 =
76 | P a g e
Power at port 1 =
Power at port 3 =
Power at port 4 =
Power at port 4 =
Power at port 1 =
Power at port 2 =
Power at port 3 =
Power at port 1 =
Power at port 2 =
Calculations:
Isolation between port 3 and port 4= P3-P4 in dB =_____________
Coupling Coefficient Cij=10 -/20 where is attenuation/isolation in dB

when ‘ i ’ is input arm and ‘ j ’ is outputarm.
𝑃𝑖
𝛼 = 10 log10 ( )
𝑃𝑗
Pi is power fed to arm ‘ i ‘ and power detected at arm ‘ j ’.
C12=
C13=
C14=
C21=
77 | P a g e
C23=
C24=
C31=
C32=
C34=
C41=
C42=
C43=
0 𝐶12 𝐶13 𝐶14

𝐶21 0 𝐶23 𝐶24
|𝑆 | = [ ] = _____________________
𝐶31 𝐶32 0 𝐶34
𝐶41 𝐶42 𝐶43 0
Analysis:
When the power is inserted into the third port, negligible amount of
power is coupled to the fourth port i.e., they are isolated ports.
Results:
Magic Tee Characteristics are observed by giving input to different ports
and by seeing outputs at other ports. By using those values Scattering
Matrix has been formed.
Questions:
1. What are different applications of Magic Tee?
A. For mixing, duplexing and impedance measurements. A particular
application requires twice or more input power to an antenna than
either transmitter can deliver. A magic tee may be used to couple
78 | P a g e
the two transmitters and antenna in such a way the transmitters
do not load each other.
79 | P a g e
12. Study of Circulator
Aim:
To find the
i. Isolation Loss of Circulator
ii. Insertion Loss of Circulator
Equipment Required:
Isolator, Frequency meter, Variable attenuator, X-band Detector Mount,
Circulator, Slotted line section,Matched Terminations, VSWR meter and
accessories.
Theory:
A circulator is a passive non-reciprocal three- or four-port device, in
which microwave or radio frequency power entering any port is
transmitted to the next port in rotation (only). It is a multiport microwave
junction device providing one way sequential transmission of power
between the ports.Refer to the Fig. 6.1. The energy into port 1
predominantly exits port 2, energy into port 2 exits port 3, and energy
into port 3 exits port 1. Thus,the scattering matrix for an ideal three-port
circulator is
80 | P a g e
a. Circulators
When one port of a three-port circulator is terminated in a matched load,
it can be used as an isolator, since a signal can travel in only one
direction between the remaining ports.
Following are the basic parameters of circulator:
Insertion Loss:
Insertion loss is the ratio of the powersupplied by source to the input
port to power detected at the output port, measured with other ports
terminated in the matchedload. It is expressed in dB.
Isolation:
It is the ratio of power fed to input arm to the power detected at
uncoupled port with other port terminated in the matched load.
Input VSWR:
The input VSWR of a circulator is the ratio of voltage maximum to voltage
minimum of the standing wave exiting on the line when one port of it
terminates the line and others have matched termination.
81 | P a g e
b. Setup for measurement of Insertion loss and Isolation loss in
Circulator
Procedure:
1. Set up the equipment as shown in the Fig. 6.2 by connecting detector
mount to slotted line without Circulator.
d. AM amplitude knob -- Around fully clockwise
e. AM-frequency Knob --Around mid position.
f. Beam voltage knob -- Fully anticlockwise
g. Repeller Voltage -- Fully clockwise
3. Switch ON the Klystron power supply and cooling fan.
4. Set the beam voltage at 300V with the help of beam voltage knob.
82 | P a g e
5. Set any reference level of power on VSWR by varying the repeller
voltage, AM amplitude and frequency. Let it be P1.
6. Insert circulator between slotted line and detector mount without
disturbing the position of the setup.
7. Record the reading in the VSWR meter. Let it be P2.
8. Compute insertion Loss on P1-P2 in dB.
9. For measurement of isolation, circulator has to be connected in
reverse i.e., output port to slotted line and detector to input port with
another port terminated by matched termination. Record the reading
of VSWR meter as P3.
10. Compute isolation as P1-P3 in dB.
11. The same procedure can be done for other ports of circulator.
Observation:
Beam voltage =
Repeller voltage =
Power at port 2 =
Power at port 3 =
Power at port 1 =
Power at port 3 =
83 | P a g e
Power at port 1 =
Power at port 2 =
Calculations:
Insertion Loss= P1- P2 in dB=
Isolation Loss= P1- P3 in dB=
Analysis:
Insertion Loss is less and Isolation Loss is more.
Results:
Find the path followed by the Circulator.
Questions:
1. What are the applications of Circulator?
A.It is used as duplexer in radar antenna system.
84 | P a g e
13. VSWR Measurement
Aim:
To measure voltage standing wave ratio and reflection coefficient.
Equipment Required:
Circulator, Magic Tee, Fixed attenuator, Matched Terminations, VSWR
meter and accessories.
Theory:
The electromagnetic field at any point of transmission line, may be
consideredas a traveling waves: ‘Incident Wave’ propagates from
generator and the reflected wavepropagates towards the generator. The
reflected wave is set up by reflection of incident wavefrom a discontinuity
on the line or from the load impedance. The magnitude and phase
ofreflected wave depends upon amplitude and phase of the reflecting
impedance. The presenceof two traveling waves, gives rise to standing
wave along with the line. The maximum fieldstrength is found where two
waves are in phase and minimum where the two waves adds inopposite
phase. The distance between two successive minimum(or maximum) is
half theguide wave – length on the line. The ratio of electrical field
strength of reflected and incidentwave is called reflection coefficient. The
voltage standing ratio (VSWR) is defined as ratiobetween maximum and
minimum field strength along the line.
85 | P a g e
Hence VSWR, S= Emax/Emin = (|Ei|+|Er|)/ (|Ei| -|Er| )
Reflection Coefficient, ρ =Er/Ei = {Z – Zo}/ {Z + Zo}
Where Z is the impedance at a point on line, Zo is characteristic
impedance.
The above equation gives following equation:
|ρ| = [S-1]/[S+1]
a. Measurement of VSWR of fixed attenuator
b. Measurement of VSWR of Magic Tee
c. Measurement of VSWR of Circulator
86 | P a g e
d. Measurement of High VSWR
Procedure:
1. Set up the components and equipments as shown in Figure.
2. Keep the variable attenuator in the minimum attenuation position.
3. Keep the control knobs of VSWR meter as below
Range dB - 40 db/50db
Input Switch - Low Impedance
Meter Switch - Normal
Gain (Coarse- Fine) - Mid Position Approx.
4. Keep the control knobs of Klystron Power Supply as below
Beam Voltage - OFF
Mod- Switch - AM
Beam Voltage Knob - Fully Anticlockwise
Reflector Voltage Knob - Fully Clockwise
AM-Amplitude Knob - Around Fully Clockwise
AM- Frequency Knob - Mid position
87 | P a g e
5. Switch ON the Klystron Power Supply, VSWR meter and Cooling Fan.
6. Switch ON the Beam Voltage Switch position and set the beam voltage
at 300V.
7. Rotate the reflector voltage knob to get deflection in VSWR meter.
8. Tune the output by turning the reflector voltage knob, amplitude and
frequency ofAM Modulation.
9. Tune the plunger of Klystron Mount and Probe for maximum deflection
in VSWRmeter.
10. If required, change the range dbswitch variable attenuator position
and gaincontrol knob to get maximum deflection in the scale of VSWR
meter.
11. As you move probe along the slotted line, the deflection in VSWR
meter willchange.
Measurement of Low and Medium VSWR
1. Move the probe along the slotted line to get maximum deflection in
VSWR meter.
2. Adjust the VSWR meter gain control knob or variable attenuator until
the meter
3. indicates 1.0 on normal VSWR meter scale.
4. Keep all the control knobs as it is, move the probe to the next
minimum position.
5. Read the VSWR on scale.
88 | P a g e
6. Repeat the above steps for Magic Tee, Circulator and record the
corresponding VSWR.
7. If the VSWR is between 3.2 and 10, change the range db switch to next
higher position and read the VSWR on second VSWR scale of 3 to 10.
Measurement of High VSWR(Double Minima Method)
1. Set the depth of SS Tuner slightly more for maximum VSWR.
2. Move the probe along with slotted line until a minimum is
indicated.
3. Adjust the VSWR meter gain control knob and variable attenuator
to obtain a reading of 3db in the normal dB scale (0 to 10dB) of
VSWR meter.
4. The probe is moved slightly on either side of the minimum to read
0 dB in the meter. This position d1 in noted. The probe is then
moved to the other side of the minimum to read 0dB again at d2.
5. Replace the SS Tuner and termination by movable short.
6. Measure the distance between the successive minima positions of
the probe.
7. Twice this distance is guide wavelength g.
8. Compute VSWR from the following equation
9. VSWR s = λg/π (d1-d2)
10. Calculate reflection coefficient=(1-s)/(1+s)
89 | P a g e
Observations:
For Low and Medium VSWR measurements
Fixed Magic Tee Circulator
attenuator
VSWR s
Reflection
Coefficient 
For High VSWR measurements
d1=
d2=
Position of first minima =
Position of second minima =
Distance between two minima =
Guide wavelength=2(Distance between two minima)=
VSWR=
Reflection Coefficient =
Result:
Thus standing wave ratio is determined and reflection coefficient is
calculated.
90 | P a g e
Questions:
1. What is the significance of VSWR?
A. VSWR gives the degree of mismatch between the load and
transmission lines.
2. What are different methods to measure VSWR?
A. For VSWR<10 VSWR can be measured directly using VSWR meter.
For VSWR>10 Double minima method is used to measure VSWR.
2. What are the methods to achieve impedance matching?
A. Load Impedance should be equal to conjugate of Source impedance
3. By using half wavelength and quarter wave length lines.
A. Stub matching.
91 | P a g e
14. Impedance and Frequency Measurement
Aim:
 To measure an unknown Impedance of the waveguide using the
smith chart.
 To determine the frequency in a rectangular waveguide working on
TE10 mode.
Equipment required:
Circulator, Slotted line section,Matched Terminations, VSWR meter and
accessories.
Theory:
For dominant TE10 mode in rectangular wave guide 0,g,c are related as
below
1 1 1
= +
𝜆20 𝜆𝑔2 𝜆2𝑐
Where
𝜆0 is free space wave length
𝜆𝑔 is guide wavelength
𝜆𝑐 is cutoff wavelength,
For TE10 mode, 𝜆𝑐 = 2𝑎 where ‘a’ is broad dimension of the waveguide.
The impedance of a waveguide load is deduced from the standing wave
electric field pattern set up by load. The input impedance of a
92 | P a g e
transmission line of characteristic impedance Z0when terminated in a
load of impedance, ZT is
𝑉(𝑙) 𝑍𝑇 + 𝑗𝑍0 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽𝑙

𝑍𝑖𝑛 (𝑙) = = 𝑍0
𝐼(𝑙) 𝑍0 + 𝑗𝑍𝑇 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽𝑙
Where
𝑙 =line length
𝛽 = 2𝜋⁄𝜆𝑔 =the phase constant of the line.
𝜆𝑔 = guide wave length.
I(l)
V(l) Load
Line characteristic impedance, Z0 impedance, ZT
a. Transmission line terminated with load ZT
The characteristic impedance of waveguides however cannot be uniquely
specified and so to avoid this difficulty impedance levels are relative to
Z0as normalized impedances.
𝑍𝑖𝑛 (𝑙)
𝑧𝑖𝑛 (𝑙 ) =
𝑍0
𝑍𝑇 + 𝑗𝑍0 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽𝑙
=
𝑍0 + 𝑗𝑍𝑇 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽𝑙
93 | P a g e
𝑍𝑇
+ 𝑗𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽𝑙
𝑍0
= 𝑍
1 + 𝑗 𝑍𝑇 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽𝑙
0
𝑍𝑇
+ 𝑗𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽𝑙
𝑍0
= 𝑍
1 + 𝑗 𝑍𝑇 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽𝑙
0
𝑧𝑇 + 𝑗𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽𝑙
=
1 + 𝑗𝑧𝑇 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽𝑙
𝑍𝑇
Where 𝑧𝑇 = = normalized load impedance.
𝑍0
Fig. 9.2 illustrates a typical standing wave pattern set up by a load
terminating a line when a mismatch between line and load occurs. The
plot of electric field versus distance from the load shows a variation
between points of maximum Emax and Emin. By measuring the voltage
standing wave ratio, the VSWR, S, and the position of the first minimum,
d, from the load, the normalized load impedance ZT can be determined.
At avoltage or electric field minimum, the incident and reflected waves
are in anti-phase and the normalized input impedance of the line at this
point is resistive and equal to 1/S. Thus:
When 𝑙 = 𝑑
1 𝑧𝑇 + 𝑗𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽𝑙
𝑧𝑖𝑛 (𝑑 ) = =
𝑆 1 + 𝑗𝑧𝑇 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽𝑙
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥
Where 𝑆 = = 𝑉𝑆𝑊𝑅
𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛
and𝑑 = 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 (𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 ) − 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 (𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡) =distance from load of first E-field
minimum.
Solving above equation, The normalized resistive part of load is
94 | P a g e
𝑆(1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝛽𝑑)
𝑟𝑇 =
𝑆 2 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝛽𝑑
The normalized reactive part of load is
(1 − 𝑆 2 )𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽𝑑
𝑥𝑇 =
𝑆 2 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝛽𝑑
The reflection coefficient at the load is given by:
𝑧𝑇 − 1
Γ=
𝑧𝑇 + 1
b. Standing wave patterns when line is terminated with a)load and b)
short circuited
Procedure:
1. Set up arrangement as shown in Figure 9.3 and measure VSWR.
2. Tune the probe for maximum deflection in VSWR meter.
3. Rotate the frequency meter knob to get a ‘dip’ on the VSWR scale and
note down the frequency directly from frequency meter. Detune it.
95 | P a g e
4. Move the probe-detector carriage to a position closest to the load and
then moving away from the load. Record positions of electric field
minima
Termination
Movable
Short
c. Setup for measurement of Load impedance
5. Replace the termination with movable short.
6. Move the probe-detector carriage to a position closest to the load and
then moving away from the load. Record positions of electric field
𝜆𝑔
minima (d1). Also record next successive minima(d2). Calculate =
2
𝑑1~𝑑2.
7. Calculate the frequency using
𝑐 1 1
𝑓= = 𝑐√ 2 + 2
𝜆0 𝜆𝑔 𝜆𝑐
Where ‘c’ = 3*108m/s i.e., velocity of light. Verify with the frequency
obtained by frequency meter.
96 | P a g e
8. Measure 𝑑 = 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 (𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 ) − 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 (𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 ), and express in terms of
𝑑/𝜆0
9. Calculate load impedance
10. Take a smith chart, with ‘1’ as centre; draw a circle of radius equal to
VSWR. Mark a point on circumference of chart at a distance equal to
𝑑/𝜆0 towards load side.
11. Draw a line from this point to center of chart. Find intersection of this
line with the SWR circle drawn. Read normalized impedance of the
load.
12. Multiply normalized impedance with characteristic impedance of
waveguide to get the impedance of load.
Observations:
with termination:
Frequency(measured using frequency meter)= ___ GHz
With movable short:
𝑑1 =___ cm
𝑑2 =___cm
𝜆𝑔 = 2 ∗ (𝑑1~𝑑2)cm
𝜆𝑐 = 2 ∗ 2.286𝑐𝑚=4.57cm
𝑐 1 1
𝑓= = 3 ∗ 108 ∗ √ 2 + 2 = _____
𝜆0 𝜆𝑔 𝜆𝑐
97 | P a g e
Measurement of Load impedance:
𝑐
𝜆0 = = ____
𝑓
𝑉𝑆𝑊𝑅 =
𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 (𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 ) = _________
𝑑 = 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 (𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 ) − 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 (𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 ) =
Shift of minimum towards load side 𝑑/𝜆0 =
Normalized impedance using formulae=_________
Normalized impedance using smith chart=________
Characteristic wave impedance of waveguide for TE mode
𝜂
𝑓𝑐2
√1 −
𝑓2
Where 𝜂 = 377𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠 and fis operating frequency.
load impedance=normalized impedance* characteristic wave
impedance=_____
Results:
Frequency is measured directly and calculated. The load impedance is
measured.
Questions:
1. What parameters can be calculated using smith charts?
A. Reflection coefficient, reflected power, transmitted power and load
impedance.
98 | P a g e
Appendix
Microwave components
1 waveguide a hollow metal conductor Rectangular waveguide
that provides a path to
guide microwaves
Circular waveguide
2 Waveguide change the direction in the E-bend
bends waveguide assembly
H-bend
3 Waveguide allow changing the
twists orientation of the waveguide
port (used to change the
99 | P a g e
plane of Polarization of a
wave Guide transmission line
.) 900 twist is a standard
available model.
4 Flanges These are used to connect
waveguide sections to one
another or to terminate
wave guides
5 Reflex A low-power device (1.3W)
Klystron used as a local oscillator for
microwave communications
equipment and radar
receivers. Output is via a co-
axial pin, and the device can
be mechanically tuned with
the screw on the left, which
applies vertical compression
to the metal envelope.
operating frequency 8500-
100 | P a g e
9660MHz
operating frequency 9174-
9524 MHz
2K25
K-19
6 Klystron used to transmit
mount microwave power from
reflex klystron tube to
rectangular waveguide.
Klystron mounts are
designed by a section of
waveguide, one end of
waveguide is fitted with a
movable short plunger. A
small hole on the broad
wall of waveguide is
provided through which
101 | P a g e
coupling pin of reflex
klystron tube enters into
the
waveguide. By moving
plunger (matching the
impedance of klystron
tube and waveguide)
maximum output can be
achieved.
7 Isolators Two-port devices that
allow microwave power to
pass through in the
forward but not reverse
direction. Perhaps the
most common use of such
a device is to protect the
microwave generator
A three port Circulator
with one port terminated
by Matched Load
(Termination) is an
Isolator.
102 | P a g e
8 Circulators A passive devices
consisting of three or more
ports allowing the signal
entering each port to pass
to the port adjacent to it.
This is done either clock
wise or counter clock wise,
but not to the port in the
other direction .
9 Fixed used for reducing the power
attenuator input to a particular stage to
prevent overloading.
For inserting known
attenuation in waveguide
systems. (X-5003: 3 dB /X-
5006: 6 dB /X-5010: 10 dB
attenuation).
10 Variable Variable type set-level
attenuator attenuaters to provide atleast
20dB of continuous variable
attenuation
103 | P a g e
11 Gunn Gunn Oscillators are used
Oscillator to generate the microwave
signal and its presion
micrometer is used to
change the output
frequency of Gunn
oscillator.A gunn-diode is
mounted inside the Wave
guide with BNC (F)
connector for DC bias.
It can deliver continuous
power up to about 65
milliwatts and pulsed
outputs of up to about
200 watts peak.
12 Pin Pin modulators are
modulator designed to modulate the
CW output of Gunn
Oscillator. It is operated
by the Square pulses
derived from the UHF (F)
connector of the Gunn
Power Supply.
104 | P a g e
These consists of a Pin
diode mounted inside a
section of waveguide
flanged on its both end. A
fixed attenuation vane is
mounted inside at the
input port to protect the
oscillator
13 Matched used to terminate the
Terminations waveguide transmission
line operating at low
average power. The loads
are carefully designed to
absorb all the applied
power and VSWR of
matched termination is
low.
These are used in the
measurement of reflection
coefficient and where
the matched load is
required.
14 Waveguide Used for detecting
detector microwave power through
mount a crystal detector.
(Tunable)
These consist of a detector
105 | P a g e
crystal mounted in a
waveguide section flanged
on one end and a shorting
plunger for matching
purpose on the other end.
The output connector is
BNC(F)
15 Cross It consists of two
Directional waveguide sectional joint
Couplers at (90°) with the coupling
element mounted into the
common broad wall. The
coupling is provided by
starslots made in broad
wall of waveguide. The size
and location of these slots
are so made that a
uniform coupling of 20dB
over the entire band of
frequency is obtained.It is
used in monitoring signal
frequency, power etc. in a
microwave system
16 Multihole to measure incident and
Directional reflected
Coupler power values and also
provide a signal path to a
106 | P a g e
receiver or perform
other desirable operation.
These are available in
3, 6,10, 20, 40 dB
coupling.
17 Tee Tees are used to combine
power from two inputs or
divided the microwave
power from one input to
two output lines. Tee is an
intersection of three
waveguides in the form of
alphabet T.
E-plane
The junction arm extends E-plane Tee/ Series type Tee
Tee/ Series
from the main waveguide
type Tee
in the same direction as
the E field in the
waveguide
The signal entering the
first port of E-plane Tee
will be equally divided at
second and third ports of

H-plane
the same magnitude but H-plane Tee/ Shunt type Tee
Tee/ Shunt
in the opposite phase.
type Tee
107 | P a g e
The junction arm is
parallel to the plane of the
magnetic lines of force in
Magic Tee/ the waveguide.
E-H Tee The signal fed through the
first port of H-plane Tee
will be equally divided in
magnitude at second and
third ports but in the

Magic Tee/ E-H Tee
same phase.
E-H tee consists of a
section of waveguide with
both series and shunt
waveguide arms, mounted
at the exact mid point of
main arm,.
Measuring Instruments
1 Direct used to measure the
reading microwave
Frequency frequency directly on the dial
meter provided.
108 | P a g e
This process involved
heterodyning the frequency
to be measured against the
calibrated output of the
frequency meter to obtain a
zero beat from which the
measured frequency was
then read.
It contains waveguide or
coaxial lines coupled to
quarter-wavelength resonant
cavities. The meter is
adjusted until the cavity is
tuned to the resonant
frequency of the signal being
measured. At resonance,
power is absorbed by the
cavity and produces a dip in
the output-power level, as
measured at the frequency
meter's output connector. The
resonant frequency is read
directly from the frequency
meter dial and is accurate, in
most cases, to approximately
109 | P a g e
±0.2%. Frequency meters are
capable of measuring
frequencies in the range of 1
to 40 gigahertz.
2 Micrometer It consists of a microwave
Type cavity with plunger and a
Frequency section of waveguide. It
meter consists of a micrometer to
measure its position for
measuring frequency.
These permit full power
flow down the
transmission line except at
the tuned frequency.
3 Tunable helps in detecting the low
probe frequency square wave
modulated microwave
signal.
It consists of a crystal
detector and a small wire
antenna in coaxial
housing. Its depth of
penetration into the
slotted section is variable.
The tip pickup the RF
110 | P a g e
power from the line and
this power is rectified by
crystal detector , which
then fed to the VSWR
meter or indicating
instrument.
4 Slotted Slotted section is used to
section measure various
measuring parameter in
microwave. for example to
determine VSWR, phase
and impedances.
These consists of a slot in
center of waveguide in
which we can connect
a probe and probe can be
moved in slot and position
of probe can be
measured by its Vernier
scale. The travel of probe
carriage is more thanthree
times of half wavelength.
5 Slide Screw used for Impedance
Tuner measurement. Its tuner
can be adjusted for low
and high impedance
position.
111 | P a g e
6 RF power Measures electrical power
meter At microwave frequencies.
MW-305 It contains the actual
power sensing element
connected via a
cable to the meter, which
reports the power reading.
The head may also be
referred to as a power
sensor or mount.
Measurable high
frequency range of power
from 0.01 - 12.4GHz
Input impedance is 50Ω
It’s measurable 3 ranges
are 0 - .999mW, 0 - 9.99
mW,0-99.9mW.
7 SWR meter It is a high gain, voltage
VS-411 DX amplifier tuned at the
center frequency of 1 KHz
It is used for measurement
of VSWR, impedance and
relative power levels.
Input frequency: 1000Hz+2%
Input Selector:
112 | P a g e
Xtal High (200KΩ)
impedance
Xtal Low(200Ω) impedance
Bolo 200 Ω, 4.5mA Bias
Bolo 200 Ω, 8.7mA Bias
VSWR Meter
A VSWR meter is a high gain, high Q, low noise voltage amplifier tuned
normally at a fined frequency of 1 KHz at which the microwave signal is
modulated. The input to the VSWR meter is the detected signal output of
the microwave detector. The output of the amplifier is measured with a
square law calibrated voltmeter to give VSWR. Reading of Vmax/Vmin for
an input of Vmin, the meter is adjusted to unity VSWR. This input
corresponds to Vmax as shown in Fig. A gain control can be used to
adjust the reading to the desired value. The overall gain is of the order of
100dB which can be altered in steps of 10dB “Coarse” and “Fine” gain
0.8dB approximately.
There are three scales on the VSWR meter. When the VSWR is between 1
and 4. Reading can be taken from the top SWR normal scale. For VSWR
between 3 and 10 , bottom of SWR NORMAL scale is used. When VSWR
is less than 1.3, a more accurate reading can be taken by selecting the
expanded scale graduated from 1 to 1.3. The third scale at the bottom is
graduated in dB.
113 | P a g e
Operation of VSWR meter:
The following steps for operating VSWR meter may be carried out:
1. Turn On instrument and allow few minutes for stabilization of
Instrument.
2. Set “Input Selector” switch for the type of detector under use.
3. Connect the detector-cable to Input.
4. Set “Coarse Gain” control approximately ¼ of max.
5. Set range switch on 30 or 40 dB position.
6. Peak the meter by adjusting repeller-voltage, modulation frequency
and amplitude of Klystron Power Supply to get maximum power.
7. Tune the plungers of Klystron-Mount, Detector Mount and Tunable
probes for max. Powers.
8. Adjust “gain” controls to get full-scale reading on appropriate range.
114 | P a g e
Power Supplies
Klystron Power Supply (KP-151):
Klystron power supply generates voltage required for driving X-band
reflex klystron tubes like 2k25, 2k56, 2k22,K-19.
Also it has amplitude and frequency modulation circuits for the
generation of 1 KHz square wave and the saw tooth wave.
Specifications:
Input Voltage :230V AC,+ 10%,50Hz

Beam Supply
Voltage :240-420V DC, Variable
Current :50mA
Repeller Supply : 10-270V Dc, Variable
Filament Supply : 6.3 V DC
Over load Trip Current : 65mA
Modulation : AM (Square) FM (Saw-tooth)
Frequency Range : 500-2500Hz 150-300 Hz
Amplitude : 0-110V 0-65V
External : Through External Modulating Signal
Display : Digital display for
a. Beam Voltage
b. Beam Current
c. Repeller Voltage
Standby Mode : Only Heater Supply ON
Connectors :
a. 8-pin Octal Socket
b. BNC for External Modulation
Modulation Selector : EXT/FM/AM/CW
115 | P a g e
 In EXT mode, external modulating signal is accepted for modulation
of Beam current throuch BNC connector on the back panel of the
supply.
 In FM mode, a sweep modulation is applied to the beam voltage.
 In AM mode, a square wave-modulating signal is applied to the Beam
voltage.
 In CW mode, no modulation signal is applied to the Beam voltage.
Meter Selector : V/C/REP/OFF
 In V position, display shows Beam voltage in volts.
 In C position, display shows the Beam Current in mA.
 In REP position, display shows Repeller voltage in volts.
 In OFF position, the display reading is zero.
Gunn Power Supply (X-110)
Gunn power supply comprises of an electronically regulated power
supply and a square wave generator designed to operate the Gunn
Oscillator and Pin Modulator simultaneously.
The DC voltage is variable from 0 - 12V. The front panelmeter monitors
the gunn voltage and the current drawn by the Gunn diode. The square
116 | P a g e
waveof generator is variable from 0 - 10V in amplitude and 850 - 1150 Hz
in frequency
Output Connectors : BNC(F) for GUNN Bias
UHF (F) for Pin-mod
Microwave Frequency Bands
Letter Frequency
Designation Range in GHz
L Band 1 to 2
S Band 2 to 4
C Band 4 to 8
X Band 8 to 12
Ku Band 12 to 18
K Band 18 to 26
Ka Band 26 to 40
Q Band 30 to 50
U Band 40 to 60
V Band 46 to 56
W Band 56 to 100
Communication Channel:
A communication channel is a physical medium (such as wire, optical
fiber) used to send the signal from the transmitter to the receiver.
Constraints of the Channel:
 Power Consumption
 Channel Bandwidth
117 | P a g e
When a signal transmits through the channel, channel adds some noise
to the signal which results in attenuation, degradation or corruption of
the signal.The effect of the noise on the signal can be reduced by
increasing the power in the transmitted signal but which results in lesser
battery life i.e. more power consumption. There is one more limitation
that is available channel bandwidth. i.e., A channel has a certain
capacity for transmitting information, often measured by its bandwidth
in Hz or its data rate in bits per second.
Frequency range for guided wireline communication
channels:
In TEmn mode Cutoff wavelength
2𝑎𝑏
𝜆𝑐 =
√𝑚2 𝑏2 + 𝑛2 𝑎2
TE10 mode ( Dominant mode) Cutoff Wavelength c=2a (m=1,n=0)
Guide wavelength g=2 * (Distance between two Successive minima)
118 | P a g e
Free space wavelength:
1 1 1
=√ 2+ 2
𝜆 𝜆𝑔 𝜆𝑐
Frequency:
𝑐 3 × 108
𝑓= =
𝜆 𝜆
Waveguide parameters:
Frequency Band Frequency in Inner dimension Cutoff

GHz Wavelength in cm
in mm
a b
X 8.2-12.4 22.86 10.16 4.572
Waveguide dimensions:
119 | P a g e
Vernier scale reading
 Least count of measuring instrument is the ratio of smallest division
on main scale and total number of divisions on vernier scale.
 The Main scale reading is the first reading on the main scale
immediately to the left of the zero of the vernier scale.(Last whole
increment visible before the 0 (zero) mark)
 The Vernier scale reading is the mark on the vernier scale which
exactly coincides with a mark on the main scale
Total reading = Main scale reading + (least count x vernier scale
reading) of vernier
caliper
These instruments have a main scale (in millimetres) and a sliding or
rotating vernier scale. In figure 1 below, the vernier scale (below) is
divided into 10 equal divisions and thus the least count of the
instrument is 0.1 mm. Both the main scale and the vernier scale
readings are taken into account while making a measurement. The main
scale reading is the first reading on the main scale immediately to the left
of the zero of the vernier scale (3 mm), while the vernier scale reading is
the mark on the vernier scale which exactly coincides with a mark on the
main scale (0.7 mm). The reading is therefore 3.7 mm.
120 | P a g e
Main
scale
Vernier scale
Figure 1 : The reading here is 3.7 mm.
Figure 2 : The reading here is 15.8 mm.
121 | P a g e
Micrometer screwguage
 Least count of measuring instrument is the ratio of smallest division
on main scale and total number of divisions on thimble scale.
 Main scale reading=Last whole or half mark increment visible)
 Thimble scale reading=Value of the thimble scale that lines up with
the center line of the main scale)
Total reading of micrometer is = Main scale reading + (least count x
thimble scale reading)
Figure 3: The micrometer screw gauge
Figure 4: The reading is 7.38 mm. Figure 5: The reading is 7.72 mm.
122 | P a g e
Figure 13: The reading is 3.46 mm. Figure 14: The reading is 3.56
mm.
Note that an additional half scale

division (0.5 mm) must be
included if the mark below the
main scale is visible between the
thimble and the main scale
division on the sleeve.
Figure 15: 5.80 mm
123 | P a g e
References
[1] Samuel Y. Liao, “Microwave Devices and Circuits”, PHI, 3rd Edition,
1996.
[2] Peter A. Rizzi, “Microwave Engineering Passive Circuits”, PHI, 1999.
[3] M. Kulkarni, “Micro Wave and Radar Engineering”, Umesh
Publications, 3rdEdn.,2003
[4] John M Senior, “ Optical Fiber Communications”, PHI, 2nd Edition,
2002
[5] Gerd Keiser, “Optical Fiber Communications”, Mc Graw-Hill
International edition, 4th Edition, 2000
124 | P a g e
125 | P a g e
126 | P a g e

Mwe 2023

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mwe 2023

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mwe 2023

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Roll no:_____________

Name of the Student:__________________________

Name of the course: Microwave Engineering Lab(20EC1124)

Approved by AICTE, Affiliated to JNTUK, Kakinada

(Course code: 20EC1124)

Academic Year 2022-2023

B.Tech. ECE VI Semester

Department of Electronics and Communication

Course code: 20EC1124 LTPC

Aim and Objective:

microwave circuits and antenna systems. The students will have an

understanding of the concepts involved in propagation of microwave signals in

Prerequisites: Microwave Engineering, Antennas and Wave Propagation

CO1: Determine Field patterns of Waveguides (L3)

CO2: Determine Field pattern of E, H plane Tee junctions (L3)

CO3: Analyze the characteristics of Microwave sources (L4)

CO4: Examine the characteristics of Directional couplers (L3)

CO5: Measure frequency of Microwave signal (L5)

List of experiments: Simulations/Hardware

1. To obtain field patterns of various modes inside a rectangular waveguide

2. To obtain field patterns of various modes inside a circular waveguide

3. To analyze the field distributions in E- plane Tee Junction

4. To analyze the field distributions in H-plane Tee Junction

5. To analyze the field distributions in Magic Tee Junction

tuning range of reflex klystron

7. To determine Scattering parameters of waveguide Tee junction

8. To measure microwave frequency using a) Direct method b) slotted line

9. To verify Gunn diode characteristics

10. To analyze the fixed and variable attenuator

11. To determine the characteristic parameters of directional coupler

12. To measure VSWR of the unknown load

13. To determine Scattering parameters of circulator

14. To measure impedance of the given load

Note: Any TWELVE of the experiments are to be conducted

2. Circular Wave guide

3. H-PLANE TEE JUNCTION

4. E-PLANE TEE JUNCTION

5. MAGIC TEE JUNCTION

6. Study of the characteristics of the Reflex Klystron tube

7. Study of Gunn Diode Characteristics

9. Characteristics of Directional Coupler

10. E-plane and H plane Tee junctions

11. Scattering Parameters of Magic Tee

12. Study of Circulator

13. VSWR Measurement

14. Impedance and Frequency Measurement

constant vsfrequency plot.

High Frequency Structure Simulator (HFSS) from ANALYSISSYSTEMS(Ansys).

A hollow metallic tube of uniform cross section for transmitting

electromagneticwaves by successive reflections from the inner walls of the tube

is called a waveguide. In waveguides, the electric and magnetic fields are

Figure 1.1. Rectangular waveguide

section as shown in figure 7.1.

waves are reflected from wall to wall.This process results in a component of

either electric or magnetic field in the direction of propagation of the resultant

wave;therefore the wave is no longer a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) wave.

This process results in a component of either electric or magnetic field in the

direction of propagation of the resultant wave;therefore the wave is no longer a

transverse electromagnetic (TEM) wave. A plane wave in a waveguide resolves