1

mother tongue education and constitutional

safeguards

omkar n. koul
indian institute of language studies

language education

the issues of mother tongue education are directly related to the

main issues in education and cannot be studied or resolved in
isolation. within the broad aims and objectives of education in
general, the aims and objectives of language education need to be
specified clearly. the use of language in education has two primary
roles: (a) language as the subject of study; and (b) language as the
medium of instruction. the study of language as a subject involves
the teaching and learning of four basic language skills of
understanding (or listening), speaking, reading and writing.
proficiency in these skills will vary according to different language
teaching or learning situations of mother tongue, first language,
second language or foreign language.
teaching of a language as a subject forms an essential part
of any kind of education system. provision for the study of
languages is made right from the elementary level to the university
level in different kinds of educational systems. mother tongue
education has lately attracted serious attention of educationists,
language curriculum planners, and applied linguists. teaching of the
mother tongue is considered essential for concept formation, and for
building the communicative and creative ability of a child. besides
the teaching of mother tongue as a compulsory subject, its use as the
medium of instruction is considered important in early childhood
education.

mother tongue education- the role of government

the primacy of the mother tongue teaching and its use as

the medium of instruction has widely been accepted by
educationists and linguists alike. the unesco press release on the
 2

nuwera eliya conference (1953) states that on the educational

grounds and in the interest of the cultural enrichment of the world,
the medium of instruction in all countries should be the mother
tongue. the report states...."it is axiomatic that the best medium for
teaching a child is his mother tongue. psychologically it is the
system of meaningful signs that in his mind work automatically for
expression and understanding. sociologically, it is a means of
identification among the members of the community to which he
belongs. educationally, he learns more quickly through it than
through an unfamiliar linguistic medium (koul 1983:10).
in india after independence, the importance of adopting the
mother tongue as a compulsory subject of teaching and as medium
of instruction has been stressed by various committees and political
parties. the congress working committee has adopted resolutions in
1949 and 1953 urging the government to make arrangements for
providing instruction in the mother tongue at the primary level in all
schools. the conference of education ministers of all the states of
india in 1949, and the states reorganization commission appointed
by the government of india, also made similar recommendations. it
was on the recommendation of the commission, that article 350a
was added to the constitution of india by the parliament. it reads "it
should be the endeavor of every state and every local authority
within the state to provide adequate facilities for instruction in the
mother tongue at the primary stage of education to children
belonging to linguistic minority groups...." realizing some practical
difficulties, the conference of chief ministers of all the states of
india said in a joint statement in august 1961, that the mother tongue
formula could not be fully applied for the use of medium of
instruction at the secondary level of education. at this stage, more
advanced education is imparted to enable students to follow a
vocation after the school leaving age and also to prepare them for
higher education in universities. the language used should be the
modern indian language mentioned in the eighth schedule of the
constitution, as well as english. it is true that there are bound to be
problems in the use of all the mother tongues of minority groups in
each state as the media of instruction for higher education. the
children of the minority mother tongue groups are to be brought to
the mainstream of the particular status educational system. the
bilingual transfer model (pattanayak 1981) can be used, which
would facilitate the children of minority language groups to switch
over to the regional language as the medium for learning.

a. the case of kashmiri

recognizing the multilingual character of the country,

 3

eighteen languages (seventeen modern indian languages and

sanskrit) have been recognized as major languages of the country
and have been listed in the eighth schedule of the constitution of
india. the constitution provides for the use of all the modern
regional indian languages in administration and education by the
concerned states where these languages are spoken natively. besides
the use of major modern indian languages in the use of education,
the constitution protects the right of the native speakers of all the
minority languages to learn their mother tongues as subjects as well
as their use as the media of instruction in early childhood education.
keeping in view the constitutional provisions, most of the states of
the indian union have chosen languages of their regions as the
official languages and have made provisions for their effective use
in administration, mass media and education. kashmiri spoken as a
mother tongue by 30,76,398 native speakers (as per 1981 census) in
the kashmir valley of the state of jammu and kashmir is one of the
major modern indian languages included in the eighth schedule of
the constitution. it was due to some political reasons that the state of
jammu and kashmir chose urdu instead of kashmiri as the official
language in the state; and it was introduced as a compulsory subject
of study and the medium of instruction in government schools. a
simple unconvincing political reason put forth is that the state is
divided into three regions. kashmiri is spoken primarily in the valley
of kashmir, dogri (along with punchi, bhadarwahi etc.) in the jammu
region, and ladhakhi (along with other minor languages) in the
ladakh region. hence the need for a link language chosen as urdu,
which is not spoken as a native language anywhere in the state. the
kashmiri speakers form the largest linguistic group in the state.
actually the linguistic situation in the state of jammu and kashmir is
not very different from other states. keeping in view the similar
multilingual character of all other states of the indian union and
their successful choice of the main regional languages as the official
languages, it would not have caused any problem in if the major
regional language i.e. kashmiri was adopted as the official language
at the lower levels of administration in the valley of kashmir; along
with urdu at the higher levels of administration in the state. its use
in administration, education and mass media would have been as
successful, as is evident in other states using the regional languages
for this purpose.
kashmiri has been unnecessarily denied the right of an
official language in its home state. it is also unfortunate that the
children in the valley of kashmir have been mercilessly denied their
fundamental right (protected by the constitution) of learning their
mother tongue as a subject and, through their mother tongue, other
school subjects. kashmiri was introduced as a school subject at the
 4

primary level after independence and it continued to be taught up to

the year 1953.it was suddenly scrapped from the school curriculum
under the garb of reducing the language load of the children.
the recent years have witnessed a language movement in
favor of kashmiri in the valley of kashmir and in favour of dogri in
the jammu province. a post-graduate department in kashmiri has
been set up at the university of kashmir at srinagar. the department
offers instructions in a post-graduate diploma and m.a. in kashmiri.
kashmiri has recently been introduced as a subject of study in some
colleges in the valley of kashmir. the board of secondary education
kashmir has made a provision for its study as an optional subject in
the two years of secondary education. a textbook has been prepared
and published by the board for this purpose. but as long as kashmiri
is not introduced as a subject of study right from the primary level,
it will not serve any useful purpose. kashmiri also must be used as
the medium of instruction in early childhood education. a
sociolinguistic survey of kashmiri has overwhelmingly supported
the use of kashmiri in education in the valley (koul and schmidt
1983). recently it is again introduced as a subject of study in the
government primary schools in the vally.

b. need for constitutional safeguards

on the one hand, the constitution of india protects the use of

minority languages as the subjects of study and their use as the
media of instruction in the early childhood education, and on the
other hand there are no constitutional safeguards if the children of a
majority language speakers, like that of kashmiri, are denied the
right to study their mother tongue as a subject in schools; and also
to learn other school subjects through their mother tongue. it is
suggested that union of india must ensure that the constitutional
provisions related to the use of mother tongue education must be
safeguarded and implemented by all the states. language education
is to be given a prominent role in the education policy. it would be
in the national interest to safeguard the uniform policy as far as
language education is concerned.

references

1) koul, omkar n, 1983. language in education. patiala : iils

2) koul, omkar n. and ruth laila schmidt 1983. kashmiri: a
sociolinguistics survey. patiala : iils.
3) pattanayak, d.p. 1981. multilingualism and mother tongue
education. new delhi: oxford university press.
 5

contrastive analysis of kashmiri and hindi

omkar n. koul

towards a contrastive analysis of kashmiri and hindi no

detailed contrastive analysis of kashmiri and hindi has been
attempted so far. it is important to carry out a detailed contrastive
analysis of these two languages at different linguistic levels which
would help in the teaching of hindi to kashmiri speakers and vice
versa. in this paper, an attempt will be made to make some remarks
on the contrastive linguistic features of kashmiri and hindi at
different linguistic levels of phonology, gender-system and
semantics from pedagogical point of view with a bias for teaching
of hindi to native speakers of kashmiri.

phonetics and phonology

in a contrastive study of phonology for a pedagogical

purpose, it is not enough to list the presence and absence of
particular speech sounds in two different languages (i.e. source
language and the target language). the actual functional and
oppositional interrelation-ships of these sounds in a particular
language must also be explained. while comparing the speech
sounds of any two languages, it may appear easy to indicate their
similarities and dissimilarities. it is to be noted that the physical
similarities of particular speech sounds may prove to be deceptive
and misleading when studied in depth. however, seeping in view the
language learners' requirements, some general remarks need to be
made on the similarities or dissimilarities of speech sounds of the
source language and those of the target language. a learner has to
make conscious efforts in acquiring the near perfect or acceptable
pronunciation of those speeches sounds and sequences therefore, in
the target language, which he or she is unfamiliar with.
similarly, unfamiliar extra vowel sounds of kashmiri result
in the errors committed by hindi speakers in learning kashmiri. the
errors are of the following types:

1) the vowels /i/, /i/and /a:/ are substituted by /u/, /u:/, /a/ and /a:/
respectively:

k hk

/i/ /u/
 6

bati batu `food'

/i:/ /u:/
ti:r tu:r `cold'
/a/ /a/
ach ach `eye'
/a/ a:/
a:s a:s `mouth'

2) the hindi speakers are unable to make distinction in the

following minimal pairs showing the contrast between rounded
and unrounded back vowels in kashmiri:

/u/ /ui/
shur(m) shuir(f)
child'
gur `horse' guir
`mare'
budi `oldman' buid
`old woman'
/u:/ /u:a/
gu:r
`milkman'
gua:r
`milk woman'
tsu:r(m) tsu:r(f)
`thief'’
/o/ /oa/
mot(m) moat(m)
`fat'
tshot(m) tshoat(f)
short stature'
got(m) goat(f)
dim'

the hindi speakers normally use familiar back rounded

vowels in all cases. in kashmiri /o:/ occurs in the word final position
only and /o:a/ is used in word initial and medial position. the hindi
speaker uses /o:/ at all positions, or substitute it with />:/ in cognate
words: e.g.,

k hk

/o:a/ /o:/
 7

o:al o:l `nest'

tso:ar tso:r `four'
/o:a/ /au/
mo:ar maur `peacock'

a hindi speaker also to lengthen the short vowels /e/ and /o/ in
kashmiri lexical terms. e. g.,

k hk

/e/ /e:/
tre tre: `three'
/o/ /o:/
hol ho:l `twisted'

distribution

the front vowels /i/ and /e/ and back vowels /u/ and /o and
their longer counterparts do not occur in the word initial position in
kashmiri (except in the pronunciation of a few borrowed words by
educated speakers). the vowel /o:/ occurs in and medial positions
only. it is common to find following deviant forms in khu speech
due to the contrastive features of the distribution of speech sounds:

hu khu

inka:r (y)inka:r `denial'

ehsa:n (y)ehsa:n `kindness'
u:n (v)u:n `wool'
guru: guru `teacher'

consonant phonemes

stops

p ph b bh t th d dh t th d dh k kh g gh q

kashmiri: + + + - + + + - + + + - + + + - -
hindi: + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + -
urdu: + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

affricates lateral trill flaps

c ch j jh ts tsh irrh
 8

kashmiri: + + + - + + ++
hindi/urdu: + + + + - - ++
+ fricatives
naals semi-vowels

f s z s x g h dzm n n

n yv kashmiri: - + + + - - + -
++-+ ++
hindi: - + - + - - + -+ + + + + +
urdu: + + + + + + + ++ + - + + +

it may be seen that kashmiri does not have voiced aspirate

sounds: /bh/, /dh/, /dh/, /gh/, /rh/; and fricatives /ts/ and /tsh/ which
are not found in hu. note that the fricatives /f/, /x/, /g/ and /dz/ and
uvular stop /o/ are found only in urdu. these sounds occur in
borrowed lexical items from perso-arabic sources.
a kashmiri speakers of hindi normally substitutes the voiced
aspirated consonant phonemes: /bh/, dh/, dh/, gh/, jh/ and /rh/ by
their inspirited counterparts /b/, /d/, /d/, /g/, /j/ and /r/ respectively.
e.g.

hu khu

bha:bhi: ba:bi: `brother's wife'

dhan dan `wealth'
dho:l do:l `a drum'
jhanda: janda: `flag'
ghar gar `house'
parhna: parna: `to read'

the uvular /q/ in perso-arabic borrowed words in urdu is substituted

by /k/ as in hindi.

u khu/h

qad kad `height'

muqa:m muka:m `place'
raqam rakam `amount'

the fricatives of urdu /f/, /x/, /g/ and /dz/ are substituted by
/ph/, /kh/, /g/ and /j/ respectively in khu as well as in hindi:
 9

u khu/h

fa:sla pha:sla: `distance'

lifa:fa: lipha:pha: `envelope'
xara:b khara:b `bad'
sha:x sha:kh `branch'
gam gam `sorrow'
ba:g ba:g `garden'
dza:dz ja:j `a kind of shrub'

clusters and geminates

kashmiri allows only those consonant clusters in the word

initial position where the second member consonant is /r/ and in the
final position only those where the first member consonant is a
nasal consonant. all other types of consonant clusters in hu are
broken by inserting a vowel between them. examples:

hu khu

sharm sharim `shyness'

rasm rasim `tradition'
krishn krishin `krishna'

similar kashmiri does not have geminates. the geminates in

hu are therefore reduced to single consonants. examples:

hu khu

bacca: baca: `a child'

sacca saca: `true'
pakka: paka: `ripe'
kutta: kuta: `dog'
lajja: laja: `shame'

voiceless stops

voiceless stops /t/, /t/ and /k/ in the word final position are generally
aspirated in khu. example:

hu khu

ra:t ra:th `night'

pa:p pa:ph `sin'
ja:t ja:th `caste'
 10

sa:p sa:ph `snake'

ja:t ja:th `a jet'
pa:k pa:kh `pure'
su:t su:th `suit'
adrak adrakh `ginger'

the absence of /ts/, /tsh/ and /z/ in result in the

mispronunciation of words in kashmiri by hindi speakers. they
mostly substitute these sounds by /c/, /ch/ and /j/ respectively.

k khu

/ts/ /c/
tsa:man ca:man `cheese'
/tsh/ /ch/
tsha:vul cha:vul `he goat'
/z/ /j/
zu:n ju:n `moon'

palatalization

all the consonants in kashmiri (except the palatal

consonants) can be palatalized. the palatalization of kashmiri in
word final position results in problems for the hindi speakers in
kashmiri. they normally substitute it by /i/.

k hk

bu:n' bu:ni `a maple tree'

nat' nati `earthen pitchers'
thad' thadi `tall'
as' asii `we'

gender

nouns in kashmiri and hu are inflected for gender, number

and case. kashmiri and hu nouns are divided into two major classes:
masculine and feminine. it is important to know the gender of the
nouns for syntactic correlation and correct usage. a number of nouns
in kashmiri and hu which have been borrowed from common
sources have different genders. native speakers of kashmiri commit
errors in gender usage frequently in their spoken hu as a result of
interference by their native language. a partial list of such items
which have different genders in the two linguistic systems-kashmiri
and hu is given below:
 11

a number of nouns are feminine in hu and used as masculine in

kashmir

hu(f) k(m) gloss

a:rzu: a:rzu: `desire'

a:tma: a:tma: `soul'
a:dat a:dath `habit'
angri:zii angri:zii `english'
ija:zath yija:zath `permission'
qalam kalam `a pen'
urdu: urdu: `urdu'
kamar kamar `waist'
>:la:d avla:d `offspring'
i:ja:d yi:ja:d `invention'
ki:mat ki:math `price'
qasam kasam `oath'
kanti:n kanti:n `canteen'
kala:s kala:s `class'
qo:m kom `community'
qismat kismath `luck'
qism kisim `kind, type'
qura:n q>raan `curran'
xata: khata: `fault, error
xura:k kh>ra:kh `diet'
ga:s ga:si `grass'
gazal gazil `ghazal'
ci:z ci:z `a thing'
giza: giza: `diet'
ja:ida:d ja:yda:d `property'
co:t co:th `injury'
jhi:l ji:l `a pond'
je:l je:l `prison'
jurat jurath `courage'
janat janath `paradise'
ja:n ja:n `life'
zami:r zami:r `conscience'
zaru:rat zaru:rath `need'
zi:n zi:n `saddle'
ti:m ti:m `a teem'
ta:ki:d taaki:d `instruction'
ta:kat ta:kath `power;
tsfsi:l taphsi:l `details'
tamanna: tamana: `ambition'
 12

taqri:r takri:r `a lecture'

ta:ri:x ta:ri:kh `a date'
tasvi:r tasvi:r `picture'
tabiyatt abiyath `temperament'
tassali: tasleh `consolation
teti:lt a:ti:l `holiday'
da:k da:kh `mail'
dasta:r dasta:r `turban'
dava dava:h `medicine'
duniya: duniya:h `world'
duva: duva:h `good wishes'
duka:n duka:n `shop'
patang patang `a kite'
pensal pensal `a pencil'
po:sa:k p>sa:kh `dress'
patlu:n patlu:n `pants'
pu:ri pu:r `purl'
pho:tu: pho:tu: `a photo'
fa:rsi: pha:rsi: `persian'
bandu:k bondu:kh `gun'
fo:j/pho:j pho:j `army'
bulbul bulbul `a bird'
baha:r baha:r `spring'
madat madath `help'
marz mariz disease'
mura:d mura:d `desire'
me:z me:z `a table'
m>:t mo:th `death`
mo:thar mo:tar `a motor'
mo:m mo:m `wax'
muba:rak muba:rakh `greetings'
miskil muskil `difficulty'
ya:d ya:d `memory'
rabid rabid `rubber'
sa:m sa:m `evening'
sa:l sa:l `shawl'
sabnam sabnam `dew'
sara:b sara:b `liquor'
sigre:t sigre:th `cigarette'
sarat sarath `condition'
subah subuh `morning'
ser sar `walk'
saykal saykal `a bicycle'
harta:l harta:l `strike'
hava: hava:h `air'
 13

similarly, a number of nouns borrowed from the same sources are

masculine in hu and feminine in kashmiri.

hu(m) h(f) hu(m)k(f)

a:m amb `a mangoes'

ka:m ka:m `work'
zikir zikir `mention'
cak cak `a cheque'
ta:r ta:r `a telegram'
thapar tha:pir `a slap'
pa:rk pa:rak `a park'
para:tha: p>ra:th `kind of a
bread’
rupaya: r>pay `rupee'
ruma:l ruma:l `handkerchief'
liha:f le:ph `quilt'
sarbat sarbath `squash'
sabun sa:ban `soap'

hu k gloss ku k gloss

a:g(f) na:r(m) `fire'

ci:ni:(f) madre:r(m) `sugar'
kala:yi: (f)hots(m) `wrist'
titli:(f) panipo:pur `butter-fly'
je:b(f) candi(m) `pocket'
ro:sni: ga:s(m) `light'
ba:ris(f) ru:d(m)
`rain'
sugand(f) musuk(m) `smell'
barph(f) si:n(m)
`show'
ki:ma:(m) matsh(f) `ground
mutton'
ca~:d zu:n(f) `moon'
patthar(m) kab'(f) `stone'
pe:t(m) yad(f) `belly'
maka:n(m) lar(m) `house'
ruma:l(m) daj(f) `hand-
pani:r(m) tsa:man `cheese'
satha:n(m) ja:y(f) `place'

the names of the weekdays in kashmiri and hu, either

 14

derived from the same sources or different ones, have different

genders:

hu k gloss
so:mva:r(m) tsandirva:r `monday'
mangalva:r(m) bomva:r `tuesday'
buhva:r(m) b>vdva:r(f) `wednesday'
gurva:r(m) brasva:r `thursday'
skukurva:r/ shokiva:r(f) `friday '
sani:va:r/ sani:carva:r `saturday'
raviva:r/ a:thiva:r(f) `sunday'

the native speakers of kashmiri face a great difficulty in

remembering lexical items, which have different genders in hu from
kashmiri. grammatical errors are usually committed as a result of
the interference of internalized gender distinction of the native
language.
examples:

khu hu
1. a:pne ca~:d de:khi:? a:pne ca~:d
de:kha:?
2. vah ruma:l acchi he. vah ruma:l accha: he.

3. us din so:mva:r thi:. us din so:mva:r tha:

4. uska kismat accha he. uski: quismat
acchi: he

3. semantic level

it is not uncommon to find the transfer of semantic structure

of the native language kashmiri into khu. there are two primary
reasons for this: (a) similarity in the shape of certain vocabulary
items in k and hu with different meaning, and (b) transfer of the l1
meanings to l2 vocabulary items and phrases thus resulting in
deviant constructions. lexical items similar in shape but different in
meaning following is a partial list of those lexical items which are
similar in shape but are assigned different meanings in the two
linguistic systems:

hu gloss kashmiri
gloss
 15

ati `more' ati

`there'
az `from' az
`today'
a:s `hope' a:s `i
came'
ambar `sky' ambar
`heap'
a:y `income' a:y
`long life'
o:s `dew' o:s
`he was'
kal `yesterday' kal
`wait'
ga:l `cheek' ga:l
`shyness'
gur `device' gur
`horse'
ca:r `four' ca:r
`pressure'
ja:nvar `animal' ja:nvar
`bird'
tar `wet' tar
`(you)
ta:b heat' ta:b
`patience'
nam `moist' nam
`nail'
nas `vein' nas
`nose'
nya:y `justice' nya:y
`dispute'
pana:h `shelter' pana:h
`width'
ma:s `month' ma:s
`mother's sister'
rab `god' rab
`mud'
lab `lip' lab
`wall'
sa:l `year' sa:l
`wife's sister'
 16

it is likely that a native speaker of kashmiri while listening

the above items may interpret them differently from the original
meaning intended. also, he may use these items in different
meaning. transfer of l1 meanings to l2 items/phrases a kashmiri
native speaker attempts to transfer the meaning of various lexical
items and/or phrases from kashmiri into his hu speech by translating
the items/phrases word for word from kashmiri into hu. this results
in common errors. a partial list of such errors committed are given
below:

k khu

ne~ndir karin' ni~:d

karna:(sona:) `to sleep'
ne~ndir khasin' ni~:d carhna:(a:na:)
`to fell sleepy'
vath yin' ra:sta: a:na:(milna:)
`to find way’
pho:tu: tulun pho:tu: utha:na(khi~:cna:)
`to take a picture'
bistar tra:vun bistara:
cho:rna:(bicha:na) `to face'
buthi lagun a:mne
lagna:(sa:mna: karna) `to turn'
tu:p' din' to:pi: de:na:(band
karna:) `to put one cap'
darva:zi d'un darva:za: de:na:(band karna:
`to close the door'
da:r din' khirki: de:na:(band
karna:) `to close widow'
kan d'un ka:n de:na:(laga:na:)
`to listen'
kru:d khasun kro:dh carhna:(a:na:)
`to be angry'
zu:n khasin' ca~:d carhna (urgna:)
`appearing of moon'
taph khasun bukha:r carhna:(ugna:)
`to get fever'
bu:th la:gun ju:ta:
langa:na:(pahanna:) `to put on shoes'

it is not uncommon to find the following types of khu

constructions using literary translations of phrases from kashmiri:-

khu k
 17

me~ne~ ni~:d ki: me kar nendir `i slept'

tumh~e ra:sta: a:ya: tse a:yiy vath `you found the
way'
usne bistara: cho:ra: tam' tro:v bistar `he made the bed'
ca~:d carhi zu:n khars `the moon
appeared'

me~ne:ju:ta laga:ya: me lo:g bu:th `i put on my shoes'

usne:pho:tu: utha:yi: em' tul pho:tu: `he took a picture'

there are other instances of the construction of sentences in

khu by word-for-word translations of certain lexical items.
examples

khu k
kha:na: mat kha:na: he? bati ma: chuy kh'on
`would you like to eat your meals?
bistara: or mat ca:yiye? bistar ma: gatshiy beyi?
`do you require more bedding?
>r mat ca:yiye kuch? bayi ma: gatshiy ke~h
`do you need any thing else?

it is easy to notice a large number of similar constructions

used in spoken hu by k speakers. in most of these cases, speakers at
tempt to translate lexical items, phrases and sentences from
kashmiri into hu. such deviant constructions are understood in a
particular context only.
educated native speakers of kashmiri who have learnt hu in
their formal education have contributed to hu by their creative
writings and/or translations of kashmiri literary works into hu. it is
obvious that there is less interference of their native language in
their spoken and/or written hu because they make conscious efforts
in keeping the two linguistic structures apart. however, it is
interesting to note a number of grammatical deviations in their
creative writings and/or translations of kashmiri works into hu. a
number of such examples and/or have been cited in koul (1979-80).
keeping in view the salient contrastive linguistic of kashmiri and
hindi and the problems of learning hindi by the native & speakers of
kashmiri, it is suggested as follows:
1. a detailed contrastive linguistic analysis of kashmiri and
hindi may be undertaken which would identify the linguistic areas
of problems in learning of hindi by the native speakers of kashmiri.
it should be possible to conduct error analysis using varied samples
of actual use of hindi by the native speakers of kashmiri in both
 18

spoke n as well as in written form.

2. it is equally important to prepare need based
supplementary instructional materials including a pedagogical
grammar for teaching hindi to native speakers of kashmiri at
different stages of their learning.

note:

following abbreviations are used in this paper: k= kashmiri,

h-hindi, u- urdu, khu= kashmiri. hindi-urdu as spoken or written by
native speakers of kashmiri), hk= hindi kashmiri (kashmiri spoken
or written by native speakers of hindi), m= masculine, f= feminine.

references

chaturvedi, m.g.1973. a contrastive study of hindi and english

phonology. new delhi: national.
dulai, narinder k. 1984. teaching of punjabi to hindi speakers.
ph.d. dissertation, university of kurukshetra
(unpublished)
handoo, j.l.1973. kashmiri phonetic reader. mysore: ciil.
handoo, j.l. and l. handoo 1975. hindi kashmiri common
vocabulary, mysore: ciil.
hassan, nazir and omkar n. koul. 1980. urdu phonetic reader.
mysore: ciil
kalkar, ashok r.1968.studies in hindi-urdu: introduction and word
phonology. poona: deccan college.
koul, omkar n. 1979- 80 kashmiri- hindi urdu: a study in
bilingualism. in language forum vol. v, no.3-4. also in to
greater heights vol.11, mysore: ciil 1983.
koul, omkar n. 1977 linguistic studies in kashmiri. new delhi:
behri publications.
koul, omkar n. and peter edwin hook (eds.)1984. aspects of
kashmiri linguistics. new delhi: bahri publications. koul,
omkar n. 1985. an intensive course in kashmiri. mysore:
ciil
raina, s.n. 1985. teaching of kashmiri to hindi speakers. ph.d.
dissertation. kurukshetra university (unpublished).
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