AQA GCSE Physics (Separate Science) Unit 6: Waves

Transverse and Longitudinal Waves Properties of Waves Sound Waves in Different Medium
Waves can be either transverse or longitudinal. How quickly sound waves can travel through a medium is determined by the
one wavelength direction frequency = waves passing a
In a transverse wave, the vibrations are at a right angle density of the medium (material).
of the in Hz given point per second
(perpendicular) to the direction of the energy transfer. The transverse
crest wave amplitude frequency = oscillasions Sound waves will travel faster through a solid than a liquid as the spaces
wave has peaks (or crests) and troughs. Examples include oscillation in Hz per second
between the particles are smaller. This means that the vibrations and energy
water waves and light waves.
trough amplitude can be passed along the particles more quickly. In a gas, the transmission of
Hand sound is even slower as the space between the particles is greater.
motion
one wavelength direction of wave movement
The speed of sound in air is 330m/s.

Wave Required Practical Investigation 8

direction The frequency of a wave is the number of waves which pass a given point
Transverse waves
every second. Aim: make observations and identify the suitability of apparatus to measure
the frequency, wavelength and speed of waves in a ripple tank and waves in
time period (s) = 1 ÷ frequency (Hz) a solid, and take appropriate
In a longitudinal wave, the vibrations are in the same
Lamphouse
direction (parallel) as the energy transfer. The wave has t=1÷f measurements.
To battery
areas of compression and rarefaction. Examples of this type The ripple tank apparatus & rheostat
of wave are sound waves. The wave speed is how quickly the energy is transferred through a medium Eccentric motor
shown is the most commonly
(how quickly the wave travels). Rubber Straight wave dipper
Hand used for this investigation. It is
band
motion
wave speed (m/s) = frequency (Hz) × wavelength (m) likely you will work in groups Water
or observe the investigation
v=f×λ as a demonstration by your
teacher.
Compression Rarefaction The speed of sound waves travelling through air can be measured by a
White screen
simple method. One person stands a measured distance from a large flat Method (assuming the
Longitudinal waves
wall, e.g. 100m. The person then claps and another person measures the apparatus is already set-up):
When a wave travels, energy is transferred but the matter time taken to hear the echo. The speed of the sound can then be Turn on the power and observe the waves. Make any necessary adjustments
itself does not move. Particles of water or air vibrate and calculated using the equation to the equipment so that the waves are clear to observe (alter the voltage
transfer energy but do not move with the wave. supplying the motor). N.B. The lowest frequency setting on the motor will
speed = distance × time.
This can be shown by placing ensure that the waves measurements can be made more easily.
a cork in a tank of water and Remember the distance will be double because the wave has travelled to To measure the wavelength, use the metre ruler and make an estimate quickly.
generating ripples across the the wall and back again. It is important to take several measurements and You may want to use a stroboscope and freeze the wave patterns to make
surface. The cork will bob up and calculate the average to reduce the likelihood of human error. measurements.
down on the oscillations of the
Record 10 wavelengths and calculate the average value.
wave but will not travel across
the tank.

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AQA GCSE Physics (Separate Science) Unit 6: Waves
Required Practical Investigation 8 (continued) 8. Using a protractor, measure the angles of incidence, reflection and refraction. Required Practical Investigation 10
Record your results.
To measure the wave frequency, mark a given point onto the white paper and Aim: investigate how the amount of infrared
9. Repeat the experiment by placing a clear acrylic block on the A3 paper in the
count the number of waves which pass the point within 10 seconds. Divide your radiation absorbed or radiated by a surface depends
same position as the glass block.
answer by 10 to find the number of waves per second. on the nature of that surface.
10. The incident ray must follow the same line as before. Draw the reflected and
Record 10 frequencies and calculate the average value. In this investigation, you are finding out which
refracted rays and measure using a protractor.
type of surface emits the most infrared radiation:
To calculate the wave speed, use
11. Collect four sets of results from other members of the class. • dark and matt
this formula:
• dark and shiny
The law of reflection states:
speed = frequency × wavelength
• light and matt
angle of incidence = angle of reflection
Remember: the wavelength is • light and shiny
the distance between one peak
Method:
(or crest) of a wave and the
next peak. 1. Place the Leslie cube on a heatproof mat.

2. Once the kettle has boiled, fill the Leslie cube

with hot water.
3. Ensuring that the thermometer or the
infrared detector is an equal distance
Required Practical Investigation 9 from each of the surfaces (in turn) on the
Leslie cube, measure the amount of infrared
Aim: investigate the reflection of light by different types of surface and the
radiation emitted.
refraction of light by different substances.
4. Repeat the experiment twice more to collect
Method:
three results for each surface.
Risk assessment:
1. In a darkened room, set up the ray box on a flat surface and insert the filter
to produce a single ray of light. The ray box will become hot during use and may cause minor burns.
To prevent this, you should not touch the lamp and ensure you allow time for the
2. Place a glass block in the centre of a piece of plain A3 paper.
ray box to cool after use.
3. Draw a line around the glass block.
You will be working in a semi-dark environment which means there is a higher
4. Draw a line at 90°C to the glass block and label the line normal, as shown
risk of trips or falls. You should ensure your working space is clear of bags and
in the diagram.
coats, and that stools are tucked under desks before you start your investigation.
5. Position the ray box so the ray of light hits the glass at an angle.
6. Using a pencil, draw the incidence, reflected and emergent rays as shown in
the diagram.
7. Remove the glass block and draw the refracted ray going through the block.

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AQA GCSE Physics (Separate Science) Unit 6: Waves
Reflection of Waves Refraction occurs when a wave changes direction, usually at the A sound wave can travel through a solid Characteristics of a sound wave can be identified from
boundary or two different materials. The density of the material material. This is because the space between an oscilloscope trace of the sound wave. The trace shows
When a wave comes into contact with a affects the speed at which the wave can travel through it. When a the particles is so small (almost non- oscillations and wavelength of the sound wave. A shorter
surface or a boundary between two media wave passes from a more dense material to a less dense material, existent) and the vibrations are transmitted wavelength results in a high-pitched (high frequency) sound.
(different materials), it can be reflected or it speeds up and so will bend. more quickly than in liquids or gases. A greater height of oscillations indicates a higher amplitude
it can be absorbed. (volume) of the sound wave.
The speed of sound in air is about 330m/s.
What happens depends on the properties of As the majority of space is a vacuum (no
the surface the wave hits. high frequency, low frequency,
particles), sound waves do not travel in
high amplitude low amplitude
space.
Specular reflection occurs when a wave
is reflected in a single direction from a Sound waves within the range of 20Hz
Apparent
perfectly smooth surface. to 20kHz can usually be detected by the
position air
of fish water human ear.

Real position
of fish

Imagine a car travelling across a muddy river at an angle. As it

approaches the bank of the river, one of the wheels will be on the
dry bank while the other is still in the mud. The wheel on the dry
bank will move faster than the one still in the mud and it will low frequency, high frequency,
angle of incidence = angle of reflection (i = r) change direction. high amplitude low amplitude
Diffuse reflection occurs when a wave is
Sound Waves (Higher tier only) Vibrations are passed along air particles
reflected in many directions and happens Waves for Detection and Exploration (Higher tier only)
down the ear canal and to the ear drum.
at a rough or uneven surface. When an object vibrates, it can cause a sound wave. The ear drum vibrates and transmits this Waves can be used to detect objects underwater, in the earth
Remember, a sound wave is a longitudinal wave: to the small ear bones and then along the and even inside the human body.
cochlea. The cochlea carries the vibrations
Sonar systems used to explore deep seas use high-frequency
to the auditory nerve which carries the
sound waves. A sound wave is sent out from the device
sound wave as an electrical impulse to the
through the water and the time taken for the pulse to
brain.
reflect from the surface is measured. The time taken with
the speed of sound in water is used to find the distance of
the object.
The equation used is:
distance (m) = speed (of sound) (m/s) × time (s)

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AQA GCSE Physics (Separate Science) Unit 6: Waves
Volcanoes, earthquakes and explosions cause seismic waves The Electromagnetic Spectrum
to travel through the earth. There are two different types of
seismic waves: S-waves and P-waves. Electromagnetic waves transfer energy from a source to an absorber as transverse waves. The different waves are grouped depending on their frequency and
form a continuous spectrum known as the electromagnetic spectrum. Each of the frequencies of waves travel at the same velocity and can pass through a
• P-waves are longitudinal waves which travel relatively
vacuum as well as air.
quickly through solids and liquids.
• S-waves are transverse waves and they travel slower and
only in solids.
Seismic waves can change direction when they are reflected
or refracted at the boundary of different media (solid, liquid
or gas). The epicentre of an earthquake can be found by
calculating the difference in time taken for S- and P-waves to
reach a certain point. Since the waves can change direction,
at least three points are used to triangulate the data and
pinpoint the source (where they all intercept).

The study of seismic waves has given scientists new evidence

about the structure of the earth in parts which are not visible Frequency Wave Use Other Information
for direct observations. Low radio waves Communication via television and radio, and Easily transmitted through air and can be reflected to change their
Ultrasound waves are sound waves which have a higher satellite communications. direction. Harmless if absorbed by the human body. Are reflected back off
frequency than the range which is detectable by the human the atmosphere and cannot pass through into space.
ear. When the waves reach a boundary between different microwaves Communications including satellite When the molecules absorb microwaves, their internal energy increases.
media, they are partially reflected and a detector is used to communications and cooking food. This can be harmful when internal body cells become heated by over
measure the time taken and calculate the distance. Ultrasound exposure to microwaves. Can pass through the atmosphere and into space.
is used for medical and industrial imaging. infrared Short-range communications (remote controls), It can cause burns to skin.
electrical heaters, cooking food, optical fibres,
security systems and thermal imaging cameras.

visible light Used for lighting, photography and fibre optics. Frequency range that is detectable by the human eye.

ultraviolet Sterilising water and killing bacteria. Detecting Causes skin tanning and can lead to burns or skin cancer.
forged bank notes.

X-rays Medical imaging and airport security scanners. Very little energy is absorbed by body tissues. Instead, it is transmitted
through the body.
gamma rays Sterilising medical equipment or food and
High treatment for some cancers. These waves can lead to gene mutation and cancer.

You can remember the order of the electromagnetic spectrum easily with the phrase:
Photo courtesy of (@wikimedia.org) - granted under
creative commons licence – attribution Roman men invented very unusual X-ray guns.

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AQA GCSE Physics (Separate Science) Unit 6: Waves
Properties of Electromagnetic Waves Radio Waves (Higher tier only)
You should be able to complete or construct a ray diagram to show how a wave is refracted at the boundary Oscillations in electrical circuits can produce radio waves which when absorbed by a conductor, produce an
of a different medium. alternating current.

As the wave moves to a more dense medium (e.g. The alternating current has the same frequency as the radio wave and so information can be coded for
air
from gas to solid), it slows down and bends so transmission. This is how television and radio are broadcast.
that the angle from the normal becomes smaller.
Temperature of the Earth (Higher tier only)
The angle of incidence is larger than the angle of
refraction. The temperature of the earth depends on:
glass block
As the wave moves from a more dense medium • The rate at which light radiation and infrared radiation are absorbed by the earth’s surface and atmosphere.
(e.g. from solid to gas), it speeds up and bends so • The rate at which light radiation and infrared radiation are emitted by the earth’s surface and atmosphere.
that the angle from the normal becomes larger.
The angle of refraction is larger than the angle of air Light and infrared radiation absorbed by the earth cause the internal energy of the planet to increase and in

incidence. turn, the surface of the earth increases in temperature.

Energy from the surface of the earth can be transferred to the atmosphere by conduction and convection.
The angle at which a wave enters the glass block is
equal to the angle that it leaves the glass block (when entering and leaving the same medium); however, if The infrared radiation emitted from the earth’s surface will either travel through the atmosphere and back
a wave crosses a boundary between two mediums at an angle of 90˚C, then it will not change direction but into space or it will be absorbed (and reflected) by the greenhouse gases in the earth’s atmosphere.
instead carry on in a straight line.
Visible Light
Gamma rays occur as the result of changes to the nuclei of atoms and atoms themselves. It is a form of
radiation and the waves can be generated and absorbed across a wide range of frequencies.

UV, X-rays and gamma are all types of radiation and can be harmful to human health; they cause damage
to human body tissues. The severity of the damage caused depends on the dose of radiation a tissue or cell is
exposed to. Radiographers and dentists who routinely carry out X-ray examinations wear a device to monitor
the amount of exposure and ensure they are within a safe limit.
R O Y G B I V

X-rays and gamma rays are ionising and can cause mutations to genes which may result in cancer. The colours of the visible spectrum can be remembered with the rhyme Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vain
(red – orange – yellow – green – blue – indigo – violet).
UV waves can cause the skin to burn and age prematurely. UV exposure also increases the risk of developing
These are all the wavelengths which are visible and detectable by the human eye. Each colour has a narrow
skin cancer.
range of wavelength and frequency within the spectrum.

White light is the combination (full spectrum) of wavelengths in the visible light region of the electromagnetic
spectrum.

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AQA GCSE Physics (Separate Science) Unit 6: Waves
A colour filter absorbs some wavelengths and only transmits certain wavelength(s). This means that a filter Black Body Radiation
will absorb some colours and transmit others.
All objects emit and absorb infrared radiation. The hotter an object is, the greater the amount of radiation
For example, a red filter absorbs all other colours in the spectrum except red, which it transmits.
emitted.

An object which is transparent (see-through) or translucent (partially see-through) can transmit light.

Opaque objects reflect and absorb light. The wavelengths which are reflected or absorbed determine the colour
which the object is perceived.

An object which absorbs all the radiation it is exposed to is called a perfect black body. No radiation is
reflected from or transmitted through it. A perfect black body would be the most effective emitter as an object
which is a good absorber is also a good emitter.

(Higher tier only)

For example, an object which absorbs all wavelengths will appear black. An object which reflects all
wavelengths will appear white. An object which reflects only green colour wavelengths and absorbs the others
will appear green.

An object absorbing and emitting An object emitting more than An object absorbing more than
infrared radiation at the same it is absorbing will decrease in it is emitting will increase in
rate has a constant temperature. temperature. temperature.

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AQA GCSE Physics (Separate Science) Unit 6: Waves
Lenses An imaginary horizontal line through the middle of the lines is called the axis and this is where the principal focus forms.
In a convex lens, the light rays enter the lens parallel to one another and then converge at the principal focus after the lens.
Lenses use refraction in order to work. Projectors, microscopes and In a concave lens, the light rays enter the lens parallel to one another and then diverge. The principal focus is the virtual source of the
telescopes all use lenses to allow an object or image to be enlarged or viewed diverging rays before the lens.
more easily.
convex lens
The human eye contains a lens which enables us to see objects at a range of
concave lens
distances.
focal point
Depending on the type of lens, the light waves will be refracted differently to
produce a different image. principal focus
The two main lenses are convex lenses and concave lenses. The table below
compares them briefly.

convex lens Lens concave lens

focal
Ray Diagram focal length
length

1
Illustration power (D) =
focal length (m)
• D stands for dioptres which is the unit of measurement for lens power.
• In a converging lens the power is a positive value.

Causes parallel waves Causes parallel waves • In a diverging lens the power is a negative value.
to converge at the Action to diverge from the
Focal length depends on two factors: the refractive index of a material and how curved the surfaces of the lenses are. A higher refractive index
principal focus. principal focus.
makes the lens flatter in shape. To make a powerful lens thinner, a material with a higher refractive index can be used.
real or virtual Type of Image always virtual
Objects which are a distance greater than one focal length away from a converging lens will produce a real image. Objects which are closer
A real image is when light reflected from an object converges to form an
than one focal length from the converging lens will produce a virtual image.
image on a surface. For example, on the retina of the human eye.
The lens equation can be used to show the relationship between focal length, position of the object and position of the image:
A virtual image occurs when the light waves are diverging and so appears to
1 1 1
be coming from a different place. A virtual image cannot be projected onto a = +
focal length distance between lens and object distance between lens and image
screen. For example, a mirror produces a virtual image.
This equation can also be written as:
A magnifying glass uses a converging (convex) lens. It produces a virtual
image which appears larger than the actual object. The magnification can be 1 1 1
= +
calculated using the equation: f u v

image height (mm)

magnification =
object height (mm)

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