Geological evidence of high-energy marine

flooding events on the Tangier coastal

plain, Morocco

Hajar El Talibi, Said El Moussaoui,

Khadija Aboumaria, Patrick Wassmer &
Jean Luc Mercier

Euro-Mediterranean Journal for

Environmental Integration

ISSN 2365-6433
Volume 6
Number 1

Euro-Mediterr J Environ Integr (2021)

6:1-18
DOI 10.1007/s41207-020-00215-6

1 23
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Euro-Mediterranean Journal for Environmental Integration (2021) 6:7
https://doi.org/10.1007/s41207-020-00215-6

ORIGINAL PAPER

Geological evidence of high‑energy marine flooding events

on the Tangier coastal plain, Morocco
Hajar El Talibi1 · Said El Moussaoui1 · Khadija Aboumaria2 · Patrick Wassmer3 · Jean Luc Mercier4

Received: 11 March 2020 / Accepted: 16 October 2020

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

Abstract
The coastal sedimentary record is currently being studied to investigate evidence of past extreme coastal flooding events.
Extreme marine inundations along Morocco’s coasts are described in historical documents. In this work, evidence of high-
energy marine flooding events on the Tangier coastal plain (the Ain Guemout area) was obtained by studying the size and
mineralogy of quartz grains, performing exoscopy of the grains, and reconstructing their possible source sediments. In
Ain Guemout, the inundation had run-up heights of more than 10 m and deposited distinct metric boulders, broken shells,
sand, and lithic clasts 1 km inland. These unusual deposits typically underwent abrupt basal contact with a paleosoil. The
deposits were found to thin and fine landward and present major structural and significant lateral variation. Textural analysis
showed that clay and coarse sand are the most abundant grain populations in the sediments. The sand fraction is moderately
or poorly sorted with a few well-sorted sandy deposits. In contrast to possible source sediments (coastal dune and beach
sand), microtextural analysis indicated the recurrent presence of fresh surfaces and percussion marks. The deposits showed
similarities to beach and coastal dune materials in their assemblages of heavy minerals, and presented a decreasing trend in
such assemblages up-unit. The altitude reached by the sand layers, the increased boulder size inland, and the abundance of
rip-up clasts in the sediments demonstrate the tsunamigenic origin of the Ain Guemout deposits. These results improve our
understanding of marine floods, and should aid the development of strategies to protect coastal environments.

Keywords Sedimentology · Tsunami · Grain size · Heavy minerals · Foraminifera

Communicated by Settimio Ferlisi, Chief Editor. Introduction

* Said El Moussaoui
s.elmoussaoui@uae.ac.ma Sedimentary evidence of tsunami and storms is becoming
increasingly well documented due to improvements in the
Hajar El Talibi
heltalibi@uae.ac.ma tools used to perform sedimentological, mineralogical, geo-
chemical, and micropaleontological analyses (Dawson and
Khadija Aboumaria
kaboumaria@gmail.com Stewart 2007; Jaffe and Gelfenbuam 2007; Pritchard and
Dickinson 2007; Bourgeois 2009; Paris et al. 2009; Chagué-
Patrick Wassmer
wassmerpat@aol.com Goff 2010; Keating et al. 2011; Goff et al. 2012; Costa et al.
2012; El Talibi et al. 2016). Despite the rapid progress made
Jean Luc Mercier
jeanlucmercier45@gmail.com in research into palaeotsunami, reconstructing an ancient
tsunami event from its sediments remains a challenging
1
Faculty of Sciences and Techniques of Al Hoceima, task because it is difficult to distinguish between tsunami
Abdelmalek Essaadi University, Al Hoceima, Morocco and storm deposits (Jaffe et al. 2003; Jaffe and Gelfenbuam
2
Faculty of Sciences and Techniques of Al Hoceima, 2007; Dawson and Stewart 2007; Pritchard and Dickinson
Abdelmalek Essaadi University, Al Hoceima, Morocco 2007; Paris et al. 2009). Because of their high energies and
3
Laboratoire de Géographie Physique, CNRS UMR 8591, the complexity of their transport processes, tsunamis can
Université Panthéon-Sorbonne (Paris 1), Meudon cedex, have geomorphological impacts on various coastal envi-
France
ronments and areas far inland, while storms typically lead
4
Université de Strasbourg, Faculté de Géographie et to less expansive flooding inland. However, many of these
d’Aménagement, Strasbourg, France

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environments present a potential for short-time conserva- et al. 2010, 2013; Benchekroun et al. 2015; El Moussaoui
tion for flooding deposits (Bourgeois 2009; Chagué-Goff et al. 2017), published research into tsunami/storm deposits
2010; Hindson and Andrade 1999). The scarcity or lack of in Morocco consists of just a few case studies (Mhammdi
conservation of sand layers in the coastal archives limits the et al. 2015; El Talibi et al. 2016).
reconstruction of extreme coastal events. The preservation The work reported in this paper was performed to increase
criteria for high-energy marine intrusions (storms or tsu- our understanding of the mechanisms that lead to tsunami/
nami) have been widely discussed in the literature by many storm deposits on the Moroccan coast. Due to its flat topog-
researchers (Paris et al. 2007; Chagué-Goff 2010; Bourgeois raphy, we chose the Atlantic side of Morocco between Tang-
2009; Szczuciński 2012; Chagué-Goff 2010). Recently, more ier and Asilah (Fig. 1), which is a low-energy depositional
focused studies have been carried out to characterize and environment significantly prone to marine inundation. This
demonstrate tsunami layers in coastal and marine sediment was chosen to enhance the possibility of detecting anoma-
records (Dawson 1991; Dawson and Shi 2000; Bruzzi and lous units originating from a coastal flooding event within
Prone 2000; Nanayama et al. 2000; Andrade et al. 2003, the sedimentary successions. Sedimentological and miner-
2004; Kortekaas and Dawson 2007; Paris et al. 2009; Was- alogical research tools (microtextural, heavy mineral, and
smer et al. 2010). micropaleontological analyses) were combined to identify
Various storms and tsunamis along the Moroccan coast marine intrusions in the coastal environment and their pos-
have been described in historical documents. Given that sible source materials along the Tangier coast.
Morocco is located at the border of two active lithospheric
plates (Fig. 1), its seismotectonic setting provides varied
events and faults that can generate disastrous tsunamis (El Study area characteristics
Alami and Tinti 1991; Cherkaoui and El Hassani 2012).
Historical archive data show that Morocco is prone to The study area was located on the north coast of Morocco,
destructive tsunamis such as that of 1755 (Kaabouben et al. 9 km from Tangier (Fig. 1). The Tangier coastal plain is
2009). This event had a significant geomorphological impact the southern margin of the Gibraltar Arc–Rif belt (Fig. 2a)
on the European and African Atlantic coasts, as evidenced belonging to the Betic Cordilleras and the Rif, developed
by sedimentary records (Kortekaas and Dawson 2007; Rod- during the Alpine orogeny on the North African and South
ríguez-Vidal et al. 2011; Costa et al. 2012; Cuven et al. 2013) European sides.
and numerical simulation studies (Ramalho et al. 2018). The Betic–Rif chain is divided into three structural
While researchers have performed many studies to evalu- domains: the Internal, Flysch, and External domains
ate the effects of tsunami on these Atlantic coasts (Omira (Fig. 2b). The study area was located within the

Fig. 1  Location of the study

area (rectangular area in the
figure) and tectonic setting of
the Gulf of Cadiz (CWF Cadiz
Wedge fault, GBF Gorring
Bank fault, HSF Horseshoe
fault, PBF Portimao Bank fault,
MPF Marques de Pombal fault,
TAPF Tagus Abyssal Plain
fault). African–Eurasian plate
boundary (show in orange)
is from Jiménez-Munt et al.
(2001). Coordinate system:
WGS84

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Fig. 2  a Geological map of the Alpine chain in the central-western of the Ain Guemout alluvial plain (modified from Durand-Delga et al.
Mediterranean area (modified from Suter 1980); b geological maps of 1985). Coordinate system: WGS84
the Rif chain (simplified from Wildi 1983); c geological sketch maps

northernmost part of the External domain (Fig. 2b), where parameters indicate that beaches along the coast are dissipa-
the Tangier unit, the Numidian nappes, and Quaternary tive and have shallow gradients (Wright and Short 1984).
deposits are significantly outcropped (Wildi 1983; Durand- The coastline is crossed in a southwesterly direction by a
Delga et al. 1985). In the Ain Guemout (AG) coastal plain, dominant coastal drift generated by west-northwest swells
the Quaternary units are represented by fluvial and coastal with a maximum speed of 0.5 knots (Taaouati 2012). Swells
outcrops. In the study area, alluvial marshes (governed by in the western sector can also generate a secondary coastal
the sedimentation of clay and silt rich in organic matter) drift from south to north. Morphological changes are mostly
and sandy dunes dominate the coastal stratigraphy (Fig. 2c). characterized by sand bar formation and erosion. This beach
The large Oued Bougadou that crosses the study area is a state was previously discussed by Sunamura and Takeda
source of clay and muddy deposits, while sandy deposits (1984), Gallagher et al. (1998), Kroon and Masselink
arise mainly from coastal aeolian activity (Fig. 2c). Coastal (2002), and Taaouati (2012), among others.
currents and longshore drift move and disperse the beach
sand and sediment load that accumulates at the mouth of the
Oued Bougadou northward. Thus, intertidal bars consisting Methods
of well-sorted medium sand accumulate on the beach and
the coastal plain. The features of the Quaternary sedimentary deposits were
Along the Ain Guemmout coast, the sedimentation studied along three sections (AG01, AG02, and AG03 in
is highly variable; the materials are mainly sandy in the Fig. 3) during the field surveys carried out in June 2013.
nearshore zone, while the inner shelf, which ranges in depth Bulk sediment samples were collected to perform grain size,
from about 5 to 30 m, consists mainly of clayey sand and heavy minerals, microtextural, and paleontological analy-
sandy clay. The seabed is steep, with the depth ranging from ses. Other samples were also collected from different coastal
2 to 600 m (Taaouati 2012). units (coastal dune, beach sand, actual river terraces, and
The hydrodynamic regime is dominated by the action of soil underlying the sandy deposit) for reference purposes.
strong Atlantic waves that derive almost exclusively from the Fourteen samples (three from each section, three from
northwest/west-southwest sector. There is a frequent swell the beach, and two from the marshlands) were prepared for
(> 60%) from the west-northwest, and wave heights are grain-size analysis (organic material was dissolved using
between 0.5 and 1 m (Taaouati et al. 2019). Environmental ­H2O2) and sieved through a 1400 μm (− 0.486 Φ) sieve.

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Fig. 3  Topographic profile along the shore in the Ain Guemout coastal plain and locations of the investigated sections

The fine fraction (≥ 0.486 Φ) was analyzed with a Malvern soil with an erosive contact. The maximum thickness of the
Mastersizer 2000 particle analyzer. The light and heavy investigated sections was ca. 20 cm, with irregular thinning
mineral fractions were separated by settling in a bromoform trends landward. At the inundation limit, deposits thicker
solution ­(CHBr3) (Whalley 1990). Samples (1–3 Φ fraction) than 14 cm were observed. Medium to coarse sand and clay
from nearshore, coastal dune, beach, and AG deposits were were the dominant grain fractions. From the coastline to the
spread out on slides. inundation limit, we observed a mud unit (AG03) located
For microtextural analysis, quartz grains were observed about 600 m inland up to the inundation limit, a sandy basal
under a binocular microscope. Fifteen quartz grains per sam- unit (AG02) at 900 m inland, and a sand unit (AG01) that
ple were randomly selected, prepared, and observed under was thicker than 15 cm up to 700–800 m inland.
a scanning electron microscope (SEM) at the Faculty of
Sciences and Techniques of Tangier (JEOL JSM 5200 LV). • Outcrop AG01: massive brownish sands (up to 14 cm
Microtextural classification was conducted based on selected thick) divided into two subunits: (i) the first subunit
methods (Mahaney 2002; Costa et al. 2012). Quartz grains (14–5 cm thick) enclosed many broken shells, clastic
were described using exoscopic features (adhering particles, material, plant roots, and gravel (Fig. 4c), and (ii) the sec-
v-shaped percussion marks, fresh surfaces, and dissolution ond subunit (5–0 cm thick) consisted of fine colluvium
features) from Costa et al. (2012). For micropaleontological sands mixed with broken marine bioclasts and topped by
analysis, 14 samples were prepared according to the methods a 2 cm layer of yellow sand colonized by vegetation.
proposed by Horton and Edwards (2006). • The sandy layer in section AG02 is 20 cm thick and is
squeezed between soil and mud, similar to a tidal marsh
(Fig. 4d). This layer shows reverse grading with silt
Results and sand in basal layers and sand at the top. The sandy
deposit appears from 10 to 14 cm deep and overlies the
General sediment description sandy clay with organic matter.
• Section AG03 comprises a basal layer of brownish or
The grain size of the studied sediments varied depending on dark fine sands and fine dark silt with an erosive con-
whether a boulder or mud was examined (Fig. 4a, b). Sandy tact at the base. Many rip-up clasts (very fine clasts of
layers and mud chips/nodules were found discontinuously sand, organic matter, clay, and silt) were found in the
within the studied sections. The deposit enclosed a basal lower part (Fig. 4e, f). A layer of yellowish sand and

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Fig. 4  a, b Large calcarenite

boulder and light-colored marl
clast within the marl dunes
(Tangier unit). c Mixed marine
materials, including marine
organisms, gravel, plant roots,
and gravel beach rock, amassed
on a dune. d Section in the
Oued Bougadou alluvial plain:
basal sand with the roots of
eroded paleosoil; note the high
abnormality. e Accumulation
of basal sand in section AG02;
note the large rip-up clast
removed from the lower unit. f
Section AG03 comprising sand
with silt; note the dark organic
matter rip-up detached from the
basal unit

silts overlies the upper part of this section. Abundant Grain‑size distribution
wood fragments were recorded near the top.
All of the soils sampled from the AG sections had differ-
Under a binocular microscope (bulk samples), the ent grain-size distributions, ranging from coarse sand to
samples mostly consisted of fine to coarse sand composed clay (Fig. 5). However, medium sand and sandy mud were
of angular plagioclase particles and subangular to sub- the most abundant classes in the samples. The kurtosis and
rounded quartz grains covered with dark oxide, which had skewness of the studied grain-size distributions were vari-
developed in aeolian and oxidizing processes or through able and ranged from symmetrical to mesokurtic to leptokur-
soil weathering. Compositionally speaking, quartz grains tic. Most of the sand was moderately well or poorly sorted;
were predominant, with the fraction of quartz ranging few of the sandy deposits were well sorted (Table 1). The
from 50% in sample AG03 to 95% in samples AG01 and sandy deposits within 1 km of the shoreline were usually
AG02. The observed quartz grains were usually rounded moderately well sorted. Inland sediments were poorly to
to well rounded, and were more recurrent in the basal sand very poorly sorted (Table 1). The sand population was tri-
layers in all sections. Very angular and angular grains were modal in the section dominated by sand and mud (AG02)
less frequent (15–20% of the sample) and were mainly and bimodal in sandy deposits located within 600 m of the
recorded at the top of each section. Bioclasts—mostly shoreline and in silt deposits (AG02 and AG03). The aver-
wood fragments and carbonate shells—were also abun- age grain size in the sandy samples (AG sections and beach
dant, especially in samples from AG01 and AG02 (ca. 40% deposits; Table 1) varied from 303.6 to 599.3 μm, and the
of the sample); they were less abundant in section AG03 standard deviation from 0.29 to 2.5. In particular, the stand-
(20% of the sample). Lithic material was more abundant ard deviation reached 1.53 at the base of the AG02 outcrop
at the base of AG01 than in overlying samples. due to the presence of clays and rip-up. Similar variations

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Fig. 5  Grain-size distributions of samples in the Ain Guemout area

were observed in all the other sections. In contrast to the AG03, a trend for increasing angularity towards the top
sediments in the AG deposits, the coastal dune sediments was detected. The samples also displayed fresh surfaces
were composed of medium sand, while the beach sediments and dissolution features, with values ranging from 1 (M)
consisted of moderately to well-sorted medium-coarse sand. to 4 (E2b) and from 2 (AG01) to 3 (AG2), respectively.
The grain-size distribution was unimodal, mesokurtic (kur- Between one and five adhering particles were observed in
tosis: 1.003 to 1.96), and symmetrical (skewness: − 0.40 to the samples, and the highest value was obtained for sam-
0.46). ples E1a, b, c and E2c. Percussion marks were similar in
all sections except for AG03, which displayed significantly
Microtextural features lower values. By plotting the results of the microtextural
analysis (see Fig. 7a, b), it was possible to discern that
The microtextural analysis examined the exoscopic fea- marshland samples typically presented the fewest percus-
tures of the quartz in the AG deposits and the beach, sion marks and fresh surfaces but the most dissolution
coastal dune, and marshland sedimentary environments features. On the other hand, the coastal dune, beach, and
(Fig. 6a‒f). The angularity, which provides useful infor- AG samples presented high numbers of fresh surfaces and
mation for recognizing extreme marine events, was highest few dissolution features.
in the AG-deposit and beach grains (Table 2). In section

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 Table 1  Grain-size results for beach and marshland samples as well as studied samples from the AG sections (AG01, AG02, and AG03)
Sample % Sand % Silt % Clay Mean (µm) SD (Φ) Kurtosis Skewness Sorting C95 C90 C50 C10

Section AG01 (800 m inland)

E1a 0–10 cm 95.22 2.92 1.86 303.61 0.53 1.01 1.83 1.80 716.90 309.60 194.20 11.83
E1b 10–14 cm 95.22 2.93 1.85 303.62 0.49 1.01 1.82 1.81 716.91 309.63 194.25 11.80
Euro-Mediterranean Journal for Environmental Integration

E1c 14-20 cm 95.23 2.91 1.86 303.60 0.46 1.09 1.79 1.79 716.92 309.59 194.21 11.94
Section AG02 (900 m inland)
E2a 0–10 cm 96.55 2.26 1.19 377.40 1.53 1.13 1.66 1.75 594.23 594.90 282.10 146.8
E2b 10–15 cm 96.55 2.27 1.18 375.50 0.52 1.12 1.70 1.78 594.34 594.91 281.11 146.7
E2c 15–20 cm 96.56 2.25 1.19 376.49 0.44 1.13 1.89 1.79 594.28 594.91 282.10 146.8
(2021) 6:7

Section AG03 (600 m inland)

E3a 0-7 cm 87.10 7.63 5.27 390.20 0.53 1.44 1.78 1.78 660.1 512.2 309.42 145.9
E3b 7–12 cm 87.11 7.62 5.27 395.10 0.50 1.43 1.78 1.77 661.2 516.5 310.37 141.9
E3c 12–14 cm 87.10 7.64 5.26 391.49 0.43 1.44 1.50 1.79 663.3 514.4 308.39 143.9
Beach
B1 Coastal dune 92.45 6.16 1.98 534.2 1.34 1.383 0.40 0.324 356.6 378.2 289.6 134.6
Author's personal copy

B2 Beach 94.67 3.78 1.66 599.3 2.31 1.963 0.46 0.891 389.5 307.1 241.9 190.3
B3 Nearshore 94.07 3.83 2.1 397.65 1.29 1.003 0.40 1.309 349.3 278.1 156.6 189.5
Marshlands
M1 (O. Bougadou) 85.1 8.63 6.27 199.18 2.05 2.83 1.67 2.512 220.58 452.89 242.89 95.29
M2 (O. Bougadou) 82.2 10.60 7.28 195.15 1.89 2.85 1.60 2.984 222.97 465.57 289.67 99.78
Page 7 of 18
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Heavy mineral features

The heavy mineral assemblages were categorized based on

their major and accessory mineral abundances (Table 3).
Major minerals (96%) included: andalusite (Fig. 8a), pyrox-
ene (Fig. 8b), tourmaline (Fig. 8c), staurolite (Fig. 8d), and
nontransparent (Nt) heavy minerals (opaque and limonite).
Accessory minerals included trace minerals such as epi-
dote (Fig. 8e), rutile (Fig. 8f), kyanite (Fig. 8g), and zircon
(Fig. 8h). Sphene and biotite were found in more than half
of the studied samples (their contents were usually above
0.01%). In contrast, epidote and rutile were the most com-
mon (contents > 0.1%) heavy mineral assemblages. The
percentage of heavy minerals in the AG section sediments
was variable, ranging from 1.83 to 1.95%. The marshland
samples displayed higher values of > 2.5%, while lower
values were observed in the beach samples (< 1.5%). The
heavy mineral patterns in outcrops AG01, AG02, and AG03
revealed minor horizontal and vertical trends; the lowest
value was recorded for kyanite and the highest for pyroxene,
with values of 14.34–30.23% for andalusite, 22.01–44.85%
for pyroxene, and 9.46–23.45% tourmaline.

Micropaleontological features

We analyzed the abundance of microfossils in the samples

(modern beach, nearshore, AG layers, and coastal dunes).
The micropaleontological results are presented in Table 4.
Microfossils were scarce within the recent beach sam-
Fig. 6  a Subrounded grain with high relief, curved grooves, and ples; we only recorded gastropods, shell debris, and one
v-shaped percussion marks (AG); b rounded grain with low relief reworked Elphidium crispum. Compared to the nearshore
and percussion marks (dune); c very angular grain with low–medium and beach samples, the AG layers displayed less shell
relief and fresh surfaces (beach); d angular grain with high relief debris and higher proportions of foraminifera and Mol-
and a break surface (AG); e subangular grain with high relief and
v-shaped percussion marks (AG); f grain with a fresh surface fracture lusca (Fusulinidae sp., Elphidium crispum, Orbulina uni-
and break lines (fluvial) versa sp., reworked Nodosaria sp., broken Orbulina uni-
versa sp., Globigerina sp., and Ammonia sp., in Fig. 9c‒i).
Ostracoda (Fig. 9a, b) were rare in the study deposits (one

Table 2  Results of a Sample Grains Angularity Fresh sur- Dissolution Adhering Percus-
microtextural analysis of the faces particles sion
Ain Guemout samples and the marks
reference samples from the
beach and marshlands E1a 7 3 3 2 5 1
E1b 7 2 4 3 5 4
E1c 7 2 5 2 5 5
E2a 7 3 3 1 3 0
E2b 7 1 5 2 2 3
E2c 7 2 3 3 5 2
E3a 7 5 2 1 1 0
E3b 7 1 2 4 1 5
E3c 7 1 2 2 1 4
Beach 7 5 4 3 2 5
Marshlands 3 2 1 5 2 1

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Fig. 7  Ternary plots of a dissolution, fresh surfaces, and percussion marks and b fresh surfaces, percussion marks, and adhering particles in AG,
coastal dune, beach, and marshland samples as well as the samples associated with the tsunami of 1755 AD (data from Costa et al. 2012)

Table 3  Heavy mineral compositions of Ain Guemout samples

Sample % HM in TS % Pyroxene % Andalusite % Staurolite % Kyanite % Tourmaline % Others

Section AG01
E1a 0–10 cm 1.89 22.01 30.23 20.78 11.01 15.12 0.85
E1b 10–14 cm 1.95 42.77 13.34 12.37 20.12 11.01 0.45
E1c 14–20 cm 1.92 44.85 14.13 11.01 6.56 23.45 0.34
Section AG02
E2a 0–10 cm 1.88 22.12 30.23 14.23 13.56 20.23 0.16
E2b 10-15 cm 1.87 31.11 22.23 13.12 16.78 18.34 0.13
E2c 15–20 cm 1.86 40.23 14.34 13.34 10.65 20.56 0.20
Section AG03
E3a 0–7 cm 1.83 22.23 27.23 24.45 13.56 13.45 0.02
E3b 7–12 cm 1.85 38.15 24.12 13.34 15.22 9.46 0.04
E3c 12–14 cm 1.88 38.12 26.23 13.34 10.34 12.56 0.03
Beach
B1 Coastal dune 1.44 25.23 21.56 19.34 21.42 12.41 0.48
B2 Beach 25.30 18.33 20.01 10.30 0.50
Marshlands
M1 (O. Bougadou) 2.60 22.45 10.89 16.67 29.66 20.01 0.46
M2 (O. Bougadou) 2.67 25.50 15.34 19.10 20.45 25.45 0.56

HM heavy mineral, TS total sediment

ostracod valve was found in sample E2b). In the AG sam- Discussion

ples, numerous planktonic foraminifera (Orbulina sp.),
broken tests of benthic foraminifera (Ammonia sp., Glo- Insights from sedimentological analysis
bigerina sp., and Elphidium sp.), and unknown broken
foraminifera valves were recorded in the lower layers of The geological archives of past high-energy events have
each section.

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Table 4  Results of the micropaleontological analysis of the AG,

beach, and marshland samples

Sample Micropaleontology

Section AG01
E1a 0–10 cm EL cr., SF, gastr., GL sp., OU sp.
E1b 10–15 cm EL cr., SF, gastr., GL sp., OU sp., FU sp.
E1c 15–20 cm EL cr., SF, gastr., GL sp., AM tep sp.
Section AG02
E2a 0–10 cm EL cr., GL sp., FU sp., OU sp., AM tep sp.
E2b 10–15 cm EL cr., GL sp., CY sp., FU sp., AM tep sp.
E2c 15–20 cm EL cr., OU sp., GL sp., FU sp., AM tep sp.
Section AG03
E3a 0–7 cm EL cr., SF, gastr., GL sp., OU sp., AM tep sp.
E3b 7–12 cm EL cr., SF, gastr., GL sp., FU sp., AM tep sp.
E3c 12–14 cm EL cr., SF, gastr., GL sp., AM tep sp.
Beach
B1 0–30 cm EL cr., SF, gastr., EL cr., AB sp., AM tep sp.
Marshlands
M1 (O. Bougadou) EL cr., EL cr., GL sp., OU sp., Bu sp.

SF shell fragments, gast marine gastropods, GL sp. Globigerina sp.,

EL cr sp. Elphidium crispum sp., AM tep sp. Ammonia tepida sp.,
OU Uni sp. Orbulina universa sp., FU sp. Fusulinidae sp., CY tor. sp.
Cyprideis torosa sp., Bu sp. Bulimina sp.

waves were more likely to be tsunamis rather than storm

waves. Moreover, the AG sediments present similarities to
deposits dating from 1755 AD that were found along the
Fig. 8  Microphotographs of heavy minerals from the Ain Guemout Portuguese and Spanish coasts by Higman and Bourgeois
samples: a andalusite, b pyroxene, c tourmaline, d staurolite, e epi- (2008), Moore et al. (2011), Cuven et al. (2013), and Costa
dote, f rutile, g kyanite, h zircon (2012). The sedimentary characteristics of the tsunami
deposits studied in this work are discussed in relation to
the results obtained by Dawson and Stewart (2007), Keat-
been studied by various authors using stratigraphic, sedi- ing et al. (2011), Goff et al. (2012), and others.
mentological, geochemical, and faunal analyses (Clague
et al. 2000; Goff and McFadgen 2002; Smith et al. 2004; • The AG units are composed of sand (> 80%) and silts
Higman and Bourgeois 2008; Moore et al. 2011; Cuven (60%) and present skewed grain-size distributions. The
et al. 2013; Costa 2012). Tsunamis and storms can strongly sand- and shell-rich units display a sharp basal bound-
affect and change the coastal geomorphology and the ary with an erosive and asymmetrical upper limit: limit-
sedimentation process by depositing large amounts of ing ramps and thins toward the land. The sand layers are
sand several kilometers inland. There is abundant geo- often continuous, with thicknesses ranging from less than
logical evidence along the Moroccan Atlantic coast of 15 to 25 cm. Locally, they can be discontinuous and form
large-scale, high-energy marine flooding events (Mellas sand lenses. The gradual decrease in water depth inland
2012; Mhammdi et al. 2008, 2015; Medina et al. 2011; is indicated by the gradual thinning of deposits upriver
El Talibi et al. 2016). These flooding events were intense; (Dawson and Stewart 2007; Bourgeois 2009; Chagué-
run-up heights exceeded 10 m and the energy of an event Goff et al. 2011; Goff et al. 2012; Koster and Reicherter
was strong enough to rip out mud, sand, and lithic clasts 2014).
before reworking and transporting them 2.5 km inland. • The abrupt basal contacts observed in the AG deposits
The energy was sufficiently high to overturn rocks more are good indicators of a sedimentation regime change
than 1 m in diameter. Based on the heights reached by the caused by the sudden arrival of sediments transported
waves generated by these flooding events in the Tangier by a tsunami (e.g., Dawson and Stewart 2007; Bourgeois
region and the sizes of the rocks that were moved along 2009; Chagué-Goff et al. 2011; Keating et al. 2011; Goff
the coastal plain, El Talibi et al. (2016) suggested that the et al. 2012). A backwash effect is indicated by the upper

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Fig. 9  Scanning electron micro-

scope photographs of tests of
selected foraminifera and other
marine organisms in the AG
samples: a, b Cyprideis torosa
sp., c Fusulinidae sp., d Elphid-
ium crispum sp., e Orbulina
universa sp., f reworked Nodo-
saria sp., g broken Orbulina
universa sp., h Globigerina sp.,
i Ammonia sp.

contacts, which vary from gradual to abrupt. Rip-up sorting diagram (Fig. 10a) is well suited to tsunami studies
clasts attest to the destruction of the substratum by the and includes features for storm, fluvial, and tsunami deposits
tsunami waves (Gutiérrez-Mas et al. 2009; Paris et al. (Lario et al. 2002; Koster and Reicherter 2014).
2009; Pozo et al. 2010). Rip-up clasts contain peat or In the plot, the studied samples were grouped into river,
mud, sand, and clay that are torn from the basal units by tsunami, and storm events. Only the marsh samples were
the tsunami flow and then transported and deposited too from the low-energy area (partially open to the restricted
rapidly for them to be disintegrated into smaller particles estuary) due to their swampy wetland character. The results
(Shi et al. 1995; Bondevik et al. 1997; Minoura et al. obtained from the metric Steward’s diagram suggest a mix-
1997; Gelfenbaum and Jaffe 2003). ture of marine and marshland materials (Fig. 10b). The
bivariate plots indicate that the AG samples are extreme-
Insights from the grain‑size distribution energy sediments that are similar to sediments transported by
tsunamis over the world (Wassmer et al. 2010; Chagué-Goff
The studied samples were plotted in a metric Steward’s et al. 2011; Szczuciński et al. 2012; Koster and Reicherter
diagram (Szczuciński et al. 2012; Koster and Reicherter 2014; El Talibi et al. 2016).
2014) and a CM diagram (Passega 1957) to determine the The CM diagram (Fig. 11) indicates that rolling along
sediment transport processes. The mean grain size versus the ground was the main transport process for the coarsest

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Fig. 10  a Bivariate logarithmic plot of sorting (Φ) versus mean grain size (µm) after Lario et al. (2002); b bivariate metric plot of sorting (Φ)
versus median grain size (µm)

Fig. 11  CM plot of the beach

and marshland samples as well
as the samples from the AG
sections

particles with the highest grain size parameter values Insights from microtextural analysis
(C95 and median). This mechanism is associated with the
highest flow energy regimes (Dawson and Stewart 2007). Recently, numerous characteristics from quartz exoscopy
When the energy dissipates, the graded suspension depos- have been discussed, especially the origin of corrosion marks
its the finest particles, indicating normal grading during on the surfaces of quartz grains collected from beaches,
sedimentation. On the CM diagram, marshland samples coastal dunes, and nearshore regions in different coastal
are located in low-energy areas, while the AG and beach sedimentary environments (Abu-Zeid et al. 2001; Mahaney
samples are grouped together in the high-energy deposi- et al. 2001; Bull and Morgan 2006; Costa et al. 2009, 2012;
tion area. Based on Dawson and Stewart (2007), these Deane 2010). Microtextural analysis results suggested that
samples were transported along the bottom at very high the AG and beach grains had the most percussion marks and
speeds (10–20 m/s for the run-up) by a strong tsunami fresh surfaces. At the same time, dissolution markers and
wave. adherent particles were less abundant to completely absent.

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However, coastal dune and marsh grains showed well-bal- Neogene strata and transportation to the marshlands by the
anced dissolution, percussion marks, and fresh surfaces with Oued Bougadou. These results are comparable to those of
a reasonable percentage of adherent particles. Chagué-Goff et al. (2012), who found that foraminifera can
Similar results were also found by Costa et al. (2012) be transported during a tsunami, leading to reworked or bro-
in 1755 AD tsunami deposits along the Portuguese coast. ken specimens. Hawkes et al. (2007), Mamo et al. (2009),
Due to robust hydrodynamic processes before deposition and Yawsangratt et al. (2012) attest that total or partial dis-
during tsunami episodes, Costa et al. (2012) suggest that solution of foraminifera tests can also occur during post-
tsunami deposits always display abundant percussion marks tsunami processes.
and fresh surfaces. The percussion marks and v-shaped pat- Rapid marine intrusions can also transport shell frag-
terns are generated by grain collisions in a high-energy aque- ments. These shells can be marine species or a mixture
ous environment (Mahaney 2002; Madhavaraju et al. 2009; of marine and freshwater species because tsunamis flood
Deane 2010; Costa et al. 2012). coastal and continental areas, eroding, moving, and rede-
Tourmaline, staurolite, pyroxene, and andalusite domi- positing marine and freshwater sediments. This explains the
nate the heavy mineral assemblages (> 90%). The mineral- abundance of shell fragments and gastropods found through-
ogy results are also in agreement with those of Bahlburg and out the AG deposits.
Weiss (2007); Costa et al. (2012), and El Talibi et al. (2016).
These authors suggest that the heavy minerals are concen- Sediment sources
trated in the sediment base deposited by different waves dur-
ing the same event. The characteristics of the heavy mineral A grain-size comparison of the sediments from the beach,
assemblages depend on the source region; thus, the tsunami coastal dune, alluvial plain, and AG-section deposits indi-
layers may contain specific percentages of heavy minerals at cated that the beach and dunes were the most probable
the base and inside the deposit in the form of a well-sorted sources of the coarsest fraction, while the alluvial plain con-
fine lamina. Morton et al. (2007), who suggest that a higher tributed to the finest fractions. The beach sediments were
or selective transport capacity is present during the tsunami homogeneous and consisted mainly of moderately to well-
event, also defend the presence of large amounts of heavy sorted medium-coarse sand. The grain-size distributions of
minerals. the sediments were unimodal, symmetrical, and mesokurtic
(the skewness varied from − 0.40 to 0.46, and the kurtosis
Insights from foraminifera analysis from 1.003 to 1.96).
In the textural analysis, the highest number of fresh sur-
According to several studies (Kortekaas and Dawson 2007; faces was observed for beach sediments, while percussion
Hawkes et al. 2007; Pilarczyk and Reinhardt 2012), an abun- marks were abundant in the AG samples. The possibility of a
dance of foraminifera and marine fauna is one of the most different sedimentary provenance from the coastal dune can
prominent characteristics of tsunami deposits. Therefore, explain the observed slight difference between the AG and
this micropaleontological proxy has been widely used in beach samples. Sedimentary analysis showed that the affin-
studies of the origins of tsunami sediments (Handson et al. ity of the marshland deposit with the AG samples was low.
1996; Shennan et al. 1996; Andrade et al. 1997; Dominey- The heavy mineral assemblage results for the studied
Howes et al. 1999; Hindson and Andrade 1999; Clague et al. coastal sedimentary environment in the Tangier area and
1999; Hawkes et al. 2007; Kortekaas and Dawson 2007; the AG layers indicated that all of the samples were com-
Mamo et al. 2009). positionally similar, although the marshland samples dif-
Foraminifera tests were less abundant in the AG samples. fered slightly from all the others. Similarities were observed
However, many marine bioclasts were recorded, including between the AG samples and those from the coastal region
fragments of shells, bivalves, and gastropods that inhabited and the beach, especially in terms of the percentages of tour-
shallow water and marine to brackish-hypersaline environ- maline, andalusite, pyroxene, and other minerals (Table 3).
ments. The occurrence of high hydrodynamic activity and The only exception is staurolite, which comprised between
high-energy transport processes is demonstrated by the pres- 11.01 and 24.45% of the AG samples (the highest value of
ence of broken shell assemblages and the poor preservation 24.45% was recorded for the E1a sample; Fig. 3), while the
of tests, especially if the source was nearby (a local beach beach samples presented the lowest percentages of stau-
or coastal dune sand). rolite. High contents of tourmaline were observed for the
A marine provenance was attributed to the AG deposits marshland and alluvial samples. The foraminiferal fauna was
due to the presence of Elphidium crispum sp. and Ammonia characteristic of sandy substrates in offshore-nearshore envi-
beccarii sp. In contrast, the presence of Globigerina sp., ronments and was typical of tsunami deposits (Mamo et al.
some tests of Nonion boueanum sp., Bulimina sp., and poorly 2009; Schiebel and Hemleben 2005; Pilarczyk et al. 2012;
preserved Orbulina universa sp. indicate the reworking of Koster and Reicherter 2014). The Quaternary substratum

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included reworked Globigerina sp. (Handson et al. 1996). perspective, and based on the young landscape of bare
The marshland samples displayed poorly preserved species soil on the dunes, the authors could not exclude an ero-
(Nonion boueanum, Bulimina, and Orbulina universa sp.) sive event related to the 1755 AD tsunami. This age was
that were reworked from Holocene coastal dunes and moved confirmed by Spanish archive documents indicating that
to the marshes by the Oued Bougadou (Table 4). the last preserved Roman constructions in the Tangier area
The results of the textural analysis allowed us to identify were destroyed during the 1755 AD tsunami.
the beach as the most probable source of the AG depos- Cores from the Tahhadart plain obtained by Khal-
its. However, based on the foraminifera and heavy mineral faoui et al. (2019) and dated by isotopic techniques
assemblages present, coastal dunes also provided a signifi- (137Cs,210Pbex,14C) revealed sediments that were attached
cant contribution. Thus, we suggest a mixed source combin- to two major events; the first was dated at around 3800 BP
ing sediments from both the beach and dune environments. and the second at around 1755 AD.
These results are in line with those of Sato et al. (1995), Table 5 summarizes the similarity of the AG deposits
Costa et al. (2012), Wassmer et al. (2015), and El Talibi to tsunami-generated levels recorded along the Moroccan,
et al. (2016). Those authors have proposed that beaches and Iberian, and Pacific coasts. Erosive basal contact, rip-up
coastal dunes were significant sources of many tsunami clasts, thinning inland, high concentrations of heavy miner-
deposits (those associated with the tsunamis that hit Japan als, and shell fragments were the most common sedimen-
in 1983, Portugal in 1755, Banda Aceh in 4200 BP, and tary features present in all of the studied deposits. These
Morocco in 1775) characterized by a sandy layer with shell components of the sediment result from the rapid passage
fragments, which is the best indicator of the high energies of a tsunami wave with high-energy flows along the coast.
released during tsunami flooding. Likely source of tsunami Other similarities are also observed in the texture of the sedi-
deposits have also been proposed worldwide and discussed ments, such as in the vertical size sorting, the thickness of
by Handson et al. (1996), Hindson and Andrade (1999), the deposit, the contact between the sand layer and adjacent
Hawkes et al. (2007), Oliveira (2009), Costa et al. (2012), units, and the presence of imbricated clasts, shell fragments,
Wassmer et al. (2015), and El Talibi et al. (2016). and rip-up. These results show that tsunami deposits can
display complex lithostratigraphic arrangements that reflect
Possible single event flood-trapping conditions in semi-enclosed spaces along the
coast—conditions that induce geomorphological crises.
The Gulf of Cadiz is a seismically active area that has expe- Tsunami deposits also present specific distinguishing cri-
rienced destructive paleotsunamis. Over the past decade, teria, as seen in Table 5. All of the deposits have a massive
advances in tsunami research have led to the identification aspect due to the flow turbulence and the poor conservation
of many high-energy sand levels that are associated with of the sedimentary structure during the tsunami event. An
the tsunami waves that followed the Lisbon earthquake of exception is provided by the Banda Aceh deposits, which
November 1, 1755. Coastal plains in the the Algarve (Por- present stratifications and parallel lamination with erosive
tugal) and southern Spain present the largest number of pre- surfaces that separate the different laminas generated by
served tsunami sand layers. Mhammdi et al. (2015) and El the run-up and backwash waves. The presence of broken
Talibi et al. (2016) also describe high-energy deposits on shells and a bimodal particle-size distribution are also cri-
the Larrache and Tangier coastal plains in Morocco that are teria for recognizing tsunami deposits. These are some of
related to the tsunami of 1755 AD. The present study is a the criteria that revealed the tsunamigenic origin of the AG
new report of fine deposits along the Moroccan coast. By deposits. A bimodal particle-size distribution for tsunami
correlating facies with the relative dating data presented by deposits is indicative of multiple sediment sources (see the
El Talibi et al. (2016) and comparing those with the absolute data in Table 5 for the Tahaddart, Ain Guemout, Loukkos,
dating data obtained by Khalfaoui et al. (2019), it is possible and Banda Aceh samples). In contrast, a unimodal particle-
to propose a relative age for the deposits. size distribution for tsunami deposits can be explained by the
El Talibi et al. (2016) provided prehistoric and geomor- comparable grain-size characteristics of the deposits left by
phological arguments for the relatively recent nature of the tsunami and those of possible source materials (Salgados
the erosive event affecting the Tahhadart lowland (5 km and El Jadida samples). Heavy minerals are also indicative
south of Ain Guemout). Broken pottery (cannelures) of tsunami deposits according to Table 5; these minerals
collected in this area by El Idrissi (2012) was dated at were present in all of the tsunami deposits worldwide, with
around 6000 BP. A tomb discovered by Otte and Abdel- particular high concentrations observed in the basal units.
laoui (2004) was dated at 5930 ± 40 years BP. This good The relationship between heavy minerals and their sources
agreement between the ages of the pottery and the skeleton is still being established. In this respect, the tsunami deposits
allowed the authors to propose a maximum age of 6000 share more of a resemblance to dune and beach sediments
BP for the tsunami. However, from a geomorphological than deposits from the alluvial plain.

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Table 5  Comparison of sedimentary and geomorphic parameters of the AG deposits and other tsunami-induced deposits along the Moroccan,
Iberian, and Pacific coasts
Criterion Tahaddart Ain Guemout Loukkos estu- El Jadida Salgados Los Lances Bay Banda Aceh
(Morocco)1,2 (Morocco) ary (Morocco)3 (Morocco)4 (Spain)5 (Portugal)6 (Indonesia)7

Age 1755 1755 ? 1755 1755 1755 1755 2004

Stratigraphic
Basal contact Erosional Erosional Erosional Erosional Erosional Erosional Erosional
Run-up About 2000 m About 1500 m 6–14 km 1000 m 850 m 600 m 3000 m
Thins inland Correlations are Correlations are Correlations are Difficult to + + +
difficult difficult difficult observe
Fines inland Difficult to Difficult to Difficult to Difficult to + + +
observe observe observe observe
Sedimentological
Sediment type Sand and silt Clay, sand, and Clay, sand, and Sand and boul- Sand Mud, silt, and Mud, silt, and
boulders silt ders sand sand
Structure Massive Massive Laminated Laminated Massive Laminated Laminated
Sedimentary − − + − − Oblique and Parallel and
structures horizontal cross-lamina-
laminations tion
Mud drapes − − − − − + +
Rip-up + + + + + + +
Bidirectional + − − + + + +
imbrications
Grain size Bimodal Bimodal Bimodal Unimodal Unimodal Bimodal Bimodal
Fines upwards + + + + + + +
Quartz exos- Percussion Percussion – – Percussion Percussion Percussion marks
copy marks marks marks marks Fresh surfaces
Heavy mineral Rich in heavy Rich in heavy Rich in heavy – Rich in heavy Rich in heavy Rich in heavy
assemblage minerals minerals minerals minerals minerals minerals
Backwash signal
present
Paleontological
Marine fossils + + + + + + +
Plant frag- + + − + + + +
ments
Shell-rich + + + × + + +
units
Rafts of light + + + × + + +
material
Buried plants + + − × + + +
at the base
Source Dune and beach Dune and beach × × Dune and beach Offshore, beach ×
Marshes Dunes, river-
beds
1
El Talibi et al. (2016), 2 Khalfaoui et al. (2019), 3 Mhammdi et al. (2015), 4 Mellas (2012), 5 Costa et al. (2012), 6 Cuven et al. (2013), 7 Was-
smer et al. (2010), + observed, − not observed, × undetermined

Conclusions than 600 m inland. The AG deposits are squeezed between

mud layers with basal erosive contact. The sand in the
The methodological approach used in this work—a deposits is mixed with broken shells (macro- and micro-
combined sedimentological and micropaleontological scopic marine organisms) and rip-up clasts, locally with
analysis—provided to be an effective one for determin- rock fragments, and with erratic boulders. Deposits that
ing tsunami deposits and understanding their formation display a bimodal grain-size distribution are likely to have
mechanisms. Our results show that the tsunami waves multiple sources, while those with a unimodal grain-size
crossed the littoral barrier and deposited sediments more distribution probably have just one source. Heavy mineral

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assemblages are relatively abundant in the AG units— Bondevik S, Svendsen JI, Mangerud JAN (1997) Tsunami sedi-
especially those of andalusite, tourmaline, and pyroxene. mentary facies deposited by the Storegga tsunami in shallow
marine basins and coastal lakes, western Norway. Sedimentol-
Based on this analysis, it was simple to establish that ogy 44:1115–1131
coastal dunes and beach sand are possible sources of the Bourgeois J (2009) Geologic effects and records of tsunamis. The Sea
AG deposits. The AG samples share more similarities 15:53–91
with coastal dune and beach sediments than with alluvial Bruzzi C, Prone A (2000) A method of sedimentological identification
of storm and tsunami deposits: exoscopic analysis, preliminary
plain sediments, indicating that the tsunami waves were results. Quat PARIS 11:167–178
energetic enough to erode a significant quantity of coastal Bull PA, Morgan RM (2006) Sediment fingerprints: a forensic tech-
dune material and then mix it with reworked coastal sand. nique using quartz sand grains. Sci Justice 46:107–124. https​://
These results enhance our understanding of high-energy doi.org/10.1016/S1355​-0306(06)71581​-7
Chagué-Goff C (2010) Chemical signatures of palaeotsunamis: a for-
marine flooding events along the Moroccan Atlantic coast, gotten proxy? Mar Geol 271:67–71. https​://doi.org/10.1016/j.
an area for which such studies are significantly lacking. marge​o.2010.01.010
Understanding these events will help decision-makers to Chagué-Goff C, Schneider J-L, Goff JR, Dominey-Howes D, Strotz L
better manage and protect the coastal environment and to (2011) Expanding the proxy toolkit to help identify past events—
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Acknowledgements The authors thank Mr. Haloui Samir (FSTT Chagué-Goff C, Niedzielski P, Wong HKY, Szczuciński W, Sugawara
Research Center) for his assistance and advice during the SEM analy- D, Goff J (2012) Environmental impact assessment of the 2011
sis. The authors also wish to thank Dr. Nabil Khelifi, Dr. Settimio Tohoku-oki tsunami on the Sendai Plain. Sediment Geol 282:175–
Ferlisi (Editor-in-Chief of the Euro-Mediterranean Journal for Envi- 187. https​://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedge​o.2012.06.002
ronmental Integration), and the four anonymous reviewers for their Cherkaoui T-E, El Hassani A (2012) Seismicity and seismic hazard in
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or potential significant competing financial, professional, or personal for Late Holocene tsunamis at Catala Lake, British Columbia. J
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