Everest Engineering College

Sanepa, Lalitpur, Nepal

Course Manual

ELX 110 Basic Electronics Engineering (2-1-2)

Edited and Compiled by:

Er. Navaraj Banstola

Lecturer

Everest Engineering College

Sanepa, Lalitpur, Nepal

May 2023
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE ............................................................................................................ 5
1.0 INTRODUCTON .................................................................................................................................... 5
1.1 Semiconductor Types .......................................................................................................................... 6
1.1.1 Intrinsic Semiconductors.............................................................................................................. 6
1.1.2 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR: ..................................................................................................... 9
1.2 P and N type semiconductor: .............................................................................................................. 9
1.3 THEORY OF PN JUNCTION DIODE, DEPLETION REGION AND BARRIER POTENTIAL.......................... 12
1.3.1 PN JUNCTION WITH NO APPLIED VOLTAGE OR OPEN CIRCUIT CONDITION ............................. 12
1.4 FORWARD BIASED AND REVERSE BIASED JUNCTION DIODE ............................................................ 14
1.5 NON LINEAR CHARACTERISTICS AND THEIR TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE: .................................... 17
1.5.1 Temperature Effects on Diode ................................................................................................... 18
1.6 Ideal and Piecewise linear model of diode ...................................................................................... 19
1.6.1 IDEAL VERSUS PRACTICAL RESISTANCE LEVELS ........................................................................ 19
1.6.2 DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS.................................................................................................... 21
1.7 JUNCTION BREAK DOWN .................................................................................................................. 23
1.7.1 ZENER DIODES ............................................................................................................................ 24
1.8 REGULATED POWER SUPPLY ............................................................................................................. 26
1.8.1 RECTIFIER ................................................................................................................................... 26
1.8.2 CLASSIFICATION OF RECTIFIERS ................................................................................................. 29
1.8.3 FILTERS ....................................................................................................................................... 40
1.8.4 Regulated and unregulated power supplies .............................................................................. 47
1.9. Regulated power supply .................................................................................................................. 48
1.9.1 Zener Series Voltage Regulator.................................................................................................. 49
1.9.2 Zener Shunt Voltage Regulator .................................................................................................. 50
1.9.3 LED ............................................................................................................................................. 50
1.9.4 Photo Diode ............................................................................................................................... 51
Chapter 2: BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR .............................................................................................. 53
2.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 53
2.1.1 CONSTRUCTION OF BJT AND ITS SYMBOLS ............................................................................... 53
2.2 TRANSISTOR CURRENT COMPONENTS AND CURRENT FLOW MECHANISM .................................... 54
2.3 Bipolar Transistor Configurations ..................................................................................................... 58

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 2.3.1 COMMON-BASE CONFIGURATION ............................................................................................ 58
2.3.2 COMMON-EMITTER CONFIGURATION ...................................................................................... 61
2.4 Transistor as switch and as amplifier ................................................................................................ 62
2.4.1 TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH ......................................................................................................... 62
2.4.2 TRANSISTOR AS AMPLIFIER ........................................................................................................ 65
2.5 NEEDS OF TRANSISTOR BIASING ....................................................................................................... 65
2.5.1 METHODS OF TRANSISTOR BIASING .......................................................................................... 66
2.6 COMPARISON BETWEEN BJT AND FET .............................................................................................. 72
Chapter 3 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER AND OSCILLATORS ........................................................................... 73
3.1 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS (OR ADVANTAGES / DISADVANTAGES) OF NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
AMPLIFIERS ............................................................................................................................................. 73
3.2 GAIN CALCULATION FOR NEGATIVE FEEDBACK AMP. ...................................................................... 74
3.3 VIRTUAL GROUND CONCEPT, OUTPUT OFFSET VOLTAGE AND CMRR OF OPAMP .......................... 74
3.4 Inverting and non-inverting amplifier ............................................................................................... 75
3.4.1 Inverting Amplifier ..................................................................................................................... 75
3.4.2 Non-Inverting Amplifier ............................................................................................................. 76
3.4.3 Opamp (Operational Amplifier) ................................................................................................. 76
3.5 Application of an amplifier as an adder, subtractor, integrator and differentiator ......................... 77
3.6 Positive feedback and Barkhausen criteria for Oscillation ............................................................... 81
Chapter 4 DIGITAL ELECTRONICS ................................................................................................................ 82
4.1 Significance of analog to digital and digital to analog conversion .................................................... 82
4.2 Binary, Hexadecimal, octal number system and conversion ............................................................ 82
4.3 Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) ............................................................................................................. 88
4.4 Logic Gates ........................................................................................................................................ 89
4.5 De Morgan’s Theorem ...................................................................................................................... 92
4.6 Simplification of Boolean Function Using Karnaugh Maps ............................................................... 94
Chapter 5 Communication System ........................................................................................................... 100
5.1 Basic Blocks of Communication system .......................................................................................... 100
5.2 Fundamentals of Frequency and Phase Modulation ...................................................................... 102
5.3 Methods of Generation and Detection of AM/FM Modulated Signal ............................................ 108
5.4 Concept of Optical Fiber Communication ....................................................................................... 125
Chapter 6 Electronic Instruments and Their Applications in Civil Engineering ........................................ 131

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6.1 Total Station and its Application ..................................................................................................... 131
6.2 Use of EDM in Surveying ................................................................................................................. 134
6.3 Remote Control Sensing and Robotics ............................................................................................ 137
6.4 Strain Gauze Load Cell..................................................................................................................... 141

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4
 Chapter 1: SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

1.0 INTRODUCTON
Based on the electrical conductivity all the materials in nature are classified as insulators,
semiconductors, and conductors.

Insulator: An insulator is a material that offers a very low level (or negligible) of conductivity when
voltage is applied. Eg: Paper, Mica, glass, quartz. Typical resistivity level of an insulator is of the order of
1010 to 1012 Ω-cm. The energy band structure of an insulator is shown in the fig.1.1. Band structure of a
material defines the band of energy levels that an electron can occupy. Valance band is the range of
electron energy where the electron remain bended too the atom and do not contribute to the electric
current. Conduction bend is the range of electron energies higher than valance band where electrons
are free to accelerate under the influence of external voltage source resulting in the flow of charge.
The energy band between the valance band and conduction band is called as forbidden band
gap. It is the energy required by an electron to move from balance band to conduction band i.e. the
energy required for a valance electron to become a free electron.
1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J
For an insulator, as shown in the fig.1.1 there is a large forbidden band gap of greater than 5Ev. Because
of this large gap there a very few electrons in the CB and hence the conductivity of insulator is poor.
Even an increase in temperature or applied electric field is insufficient to transfer electrons from VB to
CB.

CB
CB CB

o
Forbidden band Eo =≈6eV
gap Eo ≈6eV

VB
VB
VB

Insulator Semiconductor Conductor

FiG:1.1 Energy band diagrams insulator, semiconductor and conductor

Conductors: A conductor is a material which supports a generous flow of charge when a voltage is
applied across its terminals. i.e. it has very high conductivity. Eg: Copper, Aluminum, Silver, Gold. The

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resistivity of a conductor is in the order of 10-4 and 10-6 Ω-cm. The Valance and conduction bands
overlap (fig1.1) and there is no energy gap for the electrons to move from valance band to conduction
band. This implies that there are free electrons in CB even at absolute zero temperature (0K). Therefore
at room temperature when electric field is applied large current flows through the conductor.

Semiconductor: A semiconductor is a material that has its conductivity somewhere between the
insulator and conductor. The resistivity level is in the range of 10 and 104 Ω-cm. Two of the most
commonly used are Silicon (Si=14 atomic no.) and germanium (Ge=32 atomic no.). Both have 4 valance
electrons. The forbidden band gap is in the order of 1eV. For eg., the band gap energy for Si, Ge and
GaAs is 1.21, 0.785 and 1.42 eV, respectively at absolute zero temperature (0K). At 0K and at low
temperatures, the valance band electrons do not have sufficient energy to move from V to CB. Thus
semiconductors act a insulators at 0K. as the temperature increases, a large number of valance electrons
acquire sufficient energy to leave the VB, cross the forbidden bandgap and reach CB. These are now free
electrons as they can move freely under the influence of electric field. At room temperature there are
sufficient electrons in the CB and hence the semiconductor is capable of conducting some current at
room temperature.
Inversely related to the conductivity of a material is its resistance to the flow of charge or
current. Typical resistivity values for various materials’ are given as follows.

Conductor Semiconductor Insulator

10-6 Ω-cm (Cu) 50Ω-cm (Ge) 12
10 Ω-cm (mica)

50x103 Ω-cm (Si)

Typical resistivity values

1.1 Semiconductor Types

1.1.1 Intrinsic Semiconductors

A pure form of semiconductors is called as intrinsic semiconductor. Conduction in intrinsic sc is either
due to thermal excitation or crystal defects. Si and Ge are the two most important semiconductors used.
Other examples include Gallium arsenide GaAs, Indium Antimonide (InSb) etc.

Let us consider the structure of Si. A Si atomic no. is 14 and it has 4 valance electrons. These 4
electrons are shared by four neighboring atoms in the crystal structure by means of covalent bond. Fig.

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1.2a shows the crystal structure of Si at absolute zero temperature (0K). Hence a pure SC acts has poor
conductivity (due to lack of free electrons) at low or absolute zero temperature.

Covalent bond

Valence electron

Fig. 1.2a crystal structure of Si at 0K

At room temperature some of the covalent bonds break up to thermal energy as shown
in fig 1.2b. The valance electrons that jump into conduction band are called as free electrons
that are available for conduction.

Free electron

Valance electron

hole

Fig. 1.2b crystal structure of Si at room

temperature0K

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The absence of electrons in covalent bond is represented by a small circle usually referred to as
hole which is of positive charge. Even a hole serves as carrier of electricity in a manner similar
to that of free electron.

The mechanism by which a hole contributes to conductivity is explained as follows:

When a bond is in complete so that a hole exists, it is relatively easy for a valance electron in
the neighboring atom to leave its covalent bond to fill this hole. An electron moving from a
bond to fill a hole moves in a direction opposite to that of the electron. This hole, in its new
position may now be filled by an electron from another covalent bond and the hole will
correspondingly move one more step in the direction opposite to the motion of electron. Here
we have a mechanism for conduction of electricity which does not involve free electrons. This
phenomenon is illustrated in fig1.3

Electron movement

Hole movement

Fig. 1.3a

Fig. 1.3b
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 Fig. 1.3c

Fig 1.3a show that there is a hole at ion 6.Imagine that an electron from ion 5 moves into the
hole at ion 6 so that the configuration of 1.3b results. If we compare both fig1.3a &fig 1.3b, it
appears as if the hole has moved towards the left from ion6 to ion 5. Further if we compare fig
1.3b and fig 1.3c, the holes moves from ion5 to ion 4. This discussion indicates the motion of
hole is in a direction opposite to that of motion of electron. Hence we consider holes as
physical entities whose movement constitutes flow of current.

In a pure semiconductor, the number of holes is equal to the number of free electrons.

1.1.2 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR:

Intrinsic semiconductor has very limited applications as they conduct very small amounts of
current at room temperature. The current conduction capability of intrinsic semiconductor can
be increased significantly by adding a small amounts impurity to the intrinsic semiconductor. By
adding impurities it becomes impure or extrinsic semiconductor. This process of adding
impurities is called as doping. The amount of impurity added is 1 part in 106 atoms.

1.2 P and N type semiconductor:

N type semiconductor: If the added impurity is a pentavalent atom then the resultant
semiconductor is called N-type semiconductor. Examples of pentavalent impurities are
Phosphorus, Arsenic, Bismuth, Antimony etc.

A pentavalent impurity has five valance electrons. Fig 1.3a shows the crystal structure of N-type
semiconductor material where four out of five valance electrons of the impurity

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atom(antimony) forms covalent bond with the four intrinsic semiconductor atoms. The fifth
electron is loosely bound to the impurity atom. This loosely bound electron can be easily

Fifth valance electron of SB

CB
Ec
Ed
B
Donor energy level B
Ev
B VB

Fig. 1.3a crystal structure of N type SC Fig. 1.3bEnergy band diagram of N type
SC

Excited from the valance band to the conduction band by the application of electric field or
increasing the thermal energy. The energy required to detach the fifth electron form the
impurity atom is very small of the order of 0.01ev for Ge and 0.05 eV for Si.

The effect of doping creates a discrete energy level called donor energy level in the
forbidden band gap with energy level Ed slightly less than the conduction band (fig 1.3b). The
difference between the energy levels of the conducting band and the donor energy level is the
energy required to free the fifth valance electron (0.01 eV for Ge and 0.05 eV for Si). At room
temperature almost all the fifth electrons from the donor impurity atom are raised to
conduction band and hence the number of electrons in the conduction band increases
significantly. Thus every antimony atom contributes to one conduction electron without
creating a hole.

In the N-type sc the no. of electrons increases and the no. of holes decreases compared to
those available in an intrinsic sc. The reason for decrease in the no. of holes is that the larger
no. of electrons present increases the recombination of electrons with holes. Thus current in N
type sc is dominated by electrons which are referred to as majority carriers. Holes are the
minority carriers in N type sc

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P type semiconductor: If the added impurity is a trivalent atom then the resultant
semiconductor is called P-type semiconductor. Examples of trivalent impurities are Boron,
Gallium, indium etc.

The crystal structure of p type sc is shown in the fig1.3c. The three valance electrons of the
impurity (boon) forms three covalent bonds with the neighboring atoms and a vacancy exists in
the fourth bond giving rise to the holes. The hole is ready to accept an electron from the
neighboring atoms. Each trivalent atom contributes to one hole generation and thus introduces
a large no. of holes in the valance band. At the same time the no. electrons are decreased
compared to those available in intrinsic sc because of increased recombination due to creation
of additional holes.

hole

Fig. 1.3c crystal structure of P type sc

Thus in P type sc , holes are majority carriers and electrons are minority carriers. Since
each trivalent impurity atoms are capable accepting an electron, these are called as acceptor
atoms. The following fig 1.3d shows the pictorial representation of P type sc

hole (majority carrier)

Electron (minority carrier)

Acceptor atoms

Fig. 1.3d crystal structure of P type sc

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  The conductivity of N type sc is greater than that of P type sc as the mobility of
electron is greater than that of hole.

 For the same level of doping in N type sc and P type sc, the conductivity of an Ntype
sc is around twice that of a P type sc

1.3 THEORY OF PN JUNCTION DIODE, DEPLETION REGION AND BARRIER

POTENTIAL

1.3.1 PN JUNCTION WITH NO APPLIED VOLTAGE OR OPEN CIRCUIT CONDITION

In a piece of sc, if one half is doped by p type impurity and the other half is doped by n type
impurity, a PN junction is formed. The plane dividing the two halves or zones is called PN
junction. As shown in the fig the n type material has high concentration of free electrons, while
p type material has high concentration of holes. Therefore at the junction there is a tendency of
free electrons to diffuse over to the P side and the holes to the N side. This process is called

diffusion. As the free electrons move across the junction from N type to P type, the donor
atoms become positively charged. Hence a positive charge is built on the N-side of the junction.
The free electrons that cross the junction uncover the negative acceptor ions by filing the holes.
Therefore a negative charge is developed on the p –side of the junction..This net negative
charge on the p side prevents further diffusion of electrons into the p side. Similarly the net
positive charge on the N side repels the hole crossing from p side to N side. Thus a barrier sis
set up near the junction which prevents the further movement of charge carriers i.e. electrons
and holes. As a consequence of induced electric field across the depletion layer, an electrostatic
potential difference is established between P and N regions, which are called the potential
barrier, junction barrier, diffusion potential or contact potential, Vo. The magnitude of the
contact potential Vo varies with doping levels and temperature. Vo is 0.3V for Ge and 0.72 V for
Si.

The electrostatic field across the junction caused by the positively charged N-Type region tends
to drive the holes away from the junction and negatively charged p type regions tend to drive
the electrons away from the junction. The majority holes diffusing out of the P region leave

12
behind negatively charged acceptor atoms bound to the lattice, thus exposing a negatives pace
charge in a previously neutral region. Similarly electrons diffusing from the N region expose
positively ionized donor atoms and a double space charge builds up at the junction as shown
in the fig. 1.7

It is noticed that the space charge layers are of opposite sign to the majority carriers diffusing
into them, which tends to reduce the diffusion rate. Thus the double space of the layer causes
an electric field to be set up across the junction directed from N to P regions, which is in such a
direction to inhibit the diffusion of majority electrons and holes as illustrated in fig 1.7. The
shape of the charge density, ρ, depends upon how diode id doped. Thus the junction region is
depleted of mobile charge carriers. Hence it is called depletion layer, space region, and
transition region. The depletion region is of the order of 0.5µm thick. There are no mobile
carriers in this narrow depletion region. Hence no current flows across the junction and the
system is in equilibrium. To the left of this depletion layer, the carrier concentration is p= NA
and to its right it is n= ND.

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1.4 FORWARD BIASED AND REVERSE BIASED JUNCTION DIODE

When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative voltage is applied to the N-
type material and a positive voltage is applied to the P-type material. If this external voltage
becomes greater than the value of the potential barrier, approx. 0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3
volts for germanium, the potential barriers opposition will be overcome and current will start to
flow. This is because the negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards the junction
giving them the energy to cross over and combine with the holes being pushed in the opposite
direction towards the junction by the positive voltage. This results in a characteristics curve of

14
zero current flowing up to this voltage point, called the "knee" on the static curves and then a
high current flow through the diode with little increase in the external voltage as shown below.

Forward Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

The application of a forward biasing voltage on the junction diode results in the depletion layer
becoming very thin and narrow which represents a low impedance path through the junction
thereby allowing high currents to flow. The point at which this sudden increase in current takes
place is represented on the static I-V characteristics curve above as the "knee" point.

Forward Biased Junction Diode showing a Reduction in the Depletion Layer

This condition represents the low resistance path through the PN junction allowing very large
currents to flow through the diode with only a small increase in bias voltage. The actual
potential difference across the junction or diode is kept constant by the action of the depletion

15
layer at approximately 0.3v for germanium and approximately 0.7v for silicon junction diodes.
Since the diode can conduct "infinite" current above this knee point as it effectively becomes a
short circuit, therefore resistors are used in series with the diode to limit its current flow.
Exceeding its maximum forward current specification causes the device to dissipate more
power in the form of heat than it was designed for resulting in a very quick failure of the device.

PN JUNCTION UNDER REVERSE BIAS CONDITION:

Fig: A silicon p–n junction in reverse bias.

When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition, a positive voltage is applied to the N-
type material and a negative voltage is applied to the P-type material. The positive voltage
applied to the N-type material attracts electrons towards the positive electrode and away from
the junction, while the holes in the P-type end are also attracted away from the junction
towards the negative electrode. The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to a
lack of electrons and holes and presents a high impedance path, almost an insulator. The result
is that a high potential barrier is created thus preventing current from flowing through the
semiconductor material.

Reverse Biased Junction Diode showing an Increase in the Depletion Layer

This condition represents a high resistance value to the PN junction and practically zero current
flows through the junction diode with an increase in bias voltage. However, a very small
leakage current does flow through the junction which can be measured in microamperes, (μA).
One final point, if the reverse bias voltage Vr applied to the diode is increased to a sufficiently
high enough value, it will cause the PN junction to overheat and fail due to the avalanche effect

16
around the junction. This may cause the diode to become shorted and will result in the flow of
maximum circuit current, and this shown as a step downward slope in the reverse static
characteristics curve below.

Reverse Characteristics Curve for a Junction Diode

Sometimes this avalanche effect has practical applications in voltage stabilising circuits where a
series limiting resistor is used with the diode to limit this reverse breakdown current to a preset
maximum value thereby producing a fixed voltage output across the diode. These types of
diodes are commonly known as Zener Diodes and are discussed in a later tutorial.

1.5 NON LINEAR CHARACTERISTICS AND THEIR TEMPERATURE

DEPENDENCE:
Diode terminal characteristics equation for diode junction current:
v
vT
I D  I 0 (e  1)
Where VT = kT/q;
VD_ diode terminal voltage, Volts
Io _ temperature-dependent saturation current, µA
T _ absolute temperature of p-n junction, K
k _ Boltzmann’s constant 1.38x 10 -23J/K)
q _ electron charge 1.6x10-19 C
 = empirical constant, 1 for Ge and 2 for Si

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1.5.1 Temperature Effects on Diode
Temperature can have a marked effect on the characteristics of a silicon semiconductor diode
as shown in Fig. 1.24. It has been found experimentally that the reverse saturation current Io
will just about double in magnitude for every 10°C increase in temperature.

18
 Fig: Temperature dependence

It is not uncommon for a germanium diode with an Io in the order of 1 or 2 A at 25°C to have a
leakage current of 100 A _ 0.1 mA at a temperature of 100°C. Typical values of Io for silicon are
much lower than that of germanium for similar power and current levels. The result is that even
at high temperatures the levels of Io for silicon diodes do not reach the same high levels
obtained. For germanium—a very important reason that silicon devices enjoy a significantly
higher level of development and utilization in design. Fundamentally, the open-circuit
equivalent in the reverse bias region is better realized at any temperature with silicon than with
germanium. The increasing levels of Io with temperature account for the lower levels of
threshold voltage, as shown in Fig. 1.24. Simply increase the level of Io in and not rise in diode
current. Of course, the level of TK also will be increase, but the increasing level of Io will
overpower the smaller percent change in TK. As the temperature increases the forward
characteristics are actually becoming more “ideal,”.

1.6 Ideal and Piecewise linear model of diode

1.6.1 IDEAL VERSUS PRACTICAL RESISTANCE LEVELS

DC or Static Resistance
The application of a dc voltage to a circuit containing a semiconductor diode will result in an
operating point on the characteristic curve that will not change with time. The resistance of the

19
diode at the operating point can be found simply by finding the corresponding levels of VD and
ID as shown in Fig. 1.25 and applying the following Equation:

The dc resistance levels at the knee and below will be greater than the resistance levels
obtained for the vertical rise section of the characteristics. The resistance levels in the reverse-
bias region will naturally be quite high. Since ohmmeters typically employ a relatively constant-
current source, the resistance determined will be at a preset current level (typically, a few mill
amperes).

AC or Dynamic Resistance
It is obvious from Eq. 1.5 that the dc resistance of a diode is independent of the shape of the
characteristic in the region surrounding the point of interest. If a sinusoidal rather than dc input
is applied, the situation will change completely. The varying input will move the instantaneous
operating point up and down a region of the characteristics and thus defines a specific change
in current and voltage as shown in Fig. 1.27. With no applied varying signal, the point of
operation would be the Q-point appearing on Fig. 1.27 determined by the applied dc levels. The
designation Q-point is derived from the word quiescent, which means “still or unvarying.” A
straight-line drawn tangent to the curve through the Q-point as shown in Fig. 1.28 will define a
particular change in voltage and current that can be used to determine the ac or dynamic
resistance for this region of the diode characteristics. In equation form,

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1.6.2 DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
An equivalent circuit is a combination of elements properly chosen to best represent the actual
terminal characteristics of a device, system, or such in a particular operating region. In other
words, once the equivalent circuit is defined, the device symbol can be removed from a
schematic and the equivalent circuit inserted in its place without severely affecting the actual
behaviour of the system. The result is often a network that can be solved using traditional
circuit analysis techniques.

Piecewise-Linear Equivalent Circuit

One technique for obtaining an equivalent circuit for a diode is to approximate the
characteristics of the device by straight-line segments, as shown in Fig. 1.31. The resulting
equivalent circuit is naturally called the piecewise-linear equivalent circuit. It should be obvious
from Fig. 1.31 that the straight-line segments do not result in an exact duplication of the actual
characteristics, especially in the knee region. However, the resulting segments are sufficiently
close to the actual curve to establish an equivalent circuit that will provide an excellent first
approximation to the actual behavior of the device. The ideal diode is included to establish that
there is only one direction of conduction through the device, and a reverse-bias condition will
result in the open- circuit state for the device. Since a silicon semiconductor, diode does not
reach the conduction state until VD reaches 0.7 V with a forward bias (as shown in Fig. 1.31), a
battery VT opposing the conduction direction must appear in the equivalent circuit as shown in
Fig. 1.32. The battery simply specifies that the voltage across the device must be greater than
the threshold battery voltage before conduction through the device in the direction dictated by
the ideal diode can be established. When conduction is established, the resistance of the diode

21
will be the specified value of rav.

The approximate level of rav can usually be determined from a specified operating point on the
specification sheet. For instance, for a silicon semiconductor diode, if IF _ 10 mA (a forward
conduction current for the diode) at VD _ 0.8 V, we know for silicon that a shift of 0.7 V is
required before the characteristics rise.

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1.7 JUNCTION BREAK DOWN
When an ordinary P-N junction diode is reverse biased, normally only very small reverse saturation
current flows. This current is due to movement of minority carriers. It is almost independent of the
voltage applied. However, if the reverse bias is increased, a point is reached when the junction breaks
down and the reverse current increases abruptly. This current could be large enough to destroy the
junction. If the reverse current is limited by means of a suitable series resistor, the power dissipation at
the junction will not be excessive, and the device may be operated continuously in its breakdown region
to its normal (reverse saturation) level. It is found that for a suitably designed diode, the breakdown
voltage is very stable over a wide range of reverse currents. This quality gives the breakdown diode
many useful applications as a voltage reference source.

The critical value of the voltage, at which the breakdown of a P-N junction diode occurs, is called the
breakdown voltage. The breakdown voltage depends on the width of the depletion region, which, in
turn, depends on the doping level. The junction offers almost zero resistance at the breakdown point.

There are two mechanisms by which breakdown can occur at a reverse biased P-N junction:

1. Avalanche breakdown and

2. Zener breakdown.

Avalanche breakdown

The minority carriers, under reverse biased conditions, flowing through the junction acquire a
kinetic energy which increases with the increase in reverse voltage. At a sufficiently high
reverse voltage (say 5 V or more), the kinetic energy of minority carriers becomes so large that
they knock out electrons from the covalent bonds of the semiconductor material. As a result of
collision, the liberated electrons in turn liberate more electrons and the current becomes very
large leading to the breakdown of the crystal structure itself. This phenomenon is called the
avalanche breakdown. The breakdown region is the knee of the characteristic curve. Now the
current is not controlled by the junction voltage but rather by the external circuit.

Zener breakdown

Under a very high reverse voltage, the depletion region expands and the potential barrier increases
leading to a very high electric field across the junction. The electric field will break some of the covalent
bonds of the semiconductor atoms leading to a large number of free minority carriers, which suddenly
increase the reverse current. This is called the Zener effect. The breakdown occurs at a particular and
constant value of reverse voltage called the breakdown voltage, it is found that Zener breakdown occurs
at electric field intensity of about 3 x 10^7 V/m.

23
Either of the two (Zener breakdown or avalanche breakdown) may occur independently, or both of
these may occur simultaneously. Diode junctions that breakdown below 5 V are caused by Zener effect.
Junctions that experience breakdown above 5 V are caused by avalanche effect. Junctions that
breakdown around 5 V are usually caused by combination of two effects. The Zener breakdown occurs
in heavily doped junctions (P-type semiconductor moderately doped and N-type heavily doped), which
produce narrow depletion layers. The avalanche breakdown occurs in lightly doped junctions, which
produce wide depletion layers. With the increase in junction temperature Zener breakdown voltage is
reduced while the avalanche breakdown voltage increases. The Zener diodes have a negative tempera-
ture coefficient while avalanche diodes have a positive temperature coefficient. Diodes that have
breakdown voltages around 5 V have zero temperature coefficient. The breakdown phenomenon is
reversible and harmless so long as the safe operating temperature is maintained.

1.7.1 ZENER DIODES

The Zener diode is like a general-purpose signal diode consisting of a silicon PN junction. When
biased in the forward direction it behaves just like a normal signal diode passing the rated
current, but as soon as a reverse voltage applied across the zener diode exceeds the rated
voltage of the device, the diodes breakdown voltage VB is reached at which point a process
called Avalanche Breakdown occurs in the semiconductor depletion layer and a current starts to
flow through the diode to limit this increase in voltage.

The current now flowing through the zener diode increases dramatically to the maximum circuit
value (which is usually limited by a series resistor) and once achived this reverse saturation
current remains fairly constant over a wide range of applied voltages. This breakdown voltage
point, VB is called the "zener voltage" for zener diodes and can range from less than one volt to
hundreds of volts.

24
The point at which the zener voltage triggers the current to flow through the diode can be very
accurately controlled (to less than 1% tolerance) in the doping stage of the diodes
semiconductor construction giving the diode a specific zener breakdown voltage, (Vz) for
example, 4.3V or 7.5V. This zener breakdown voltage on the I-V curve is almost a vertical
straight line.

Zener Diode I-V Characteristics

The Zener Diode is used in its "reverse bias" or reverse breakdown mode, i.e. the diodes anode
connects to the negative supply. From the I-V characteristics curve above, we can see that the
zener diode has a region in its reverse bias characteristics of almost a constant negative voltage
regardless of the value of the current flowing through the diode and remains nearly constant
even with large changes in current as long as the zener diodes current remains between the
breakdown current IZ(min) and the maximum current rating IZ(max).

This ability to control itself can be used to great effect to regulate or stabilise a voltage source
against supply or load variations. The fact that the voltage across the diode in the breakdown
region is almost constant turns out to be an important application of the zener diode as a
voltage regulator. The function of a regulator is to provide a constant output voltage to a load
connected in parallel with it in spite of the ripples in the supply voltage or the variation in the

25
load current and the zener diode will continue to regulate the voltage until the diodes current
falls below the minimum IZ(min) value in the reverse breakdown region.

1.8 REGULATED POWER SUPPLY

For the operation of most of the electronics devices and circuits, a d.c. source is required. So it is
advantageous to convert domestic a.c. supply into d.c.voltages. The process of converting a.c. voltage into d.c.
voltage is called as rectification. This is achieved with i) Step-down Transformer, ii) Rectifier, iii) Filter and,
iv) Voltage regulator circuits.
These elements constitute d.c. regulated power supply shown in the fig 1 below.

 Transformer – steps down 230V AC mains to low voltage AC.

 Rectifier – converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.
 Smoothing – smooth the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
 Regulator – eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.

The block diagram of a regulated D.C. power supply consists of step-down transformer, rectifier, filter, voltage
regulator and load. An ideal regulated power supply is an electronics circuit designed to provide a
predetermined d.c. voltage Vo which is independent of the load current and variations in the input voltage ad
temperature. If the output of a regulator circuit is a AC voltage then it is termed as voltage stabilizer, whereas
if the output is a DC voltage then it is termed as voltage regulator.

1.8.1 RECTIFIER
Any electrical device which offers a low resistance to the current in one direction but a high resistance to
the current in the opposite direction is called rectifier. Such a device is capable of converting a sinusoidal
input waveform, whose average value is zero, into a unidirectional Waveform, with a non-zero average
component. A rectifier is a device, which converts a.c. voltage (bi-directional) to pulsating d.c. voltage
(Unidirectional).

Characteristics of a Rectifier Circuit:

Any electrical device which offers a low resistance to the current in one direction but a high resistance to the
current in the opposite direction is called rectifier. Such a device is capable of converting a sinusoidal input

26
waveform, whose average value is zero, into a unidirectional waveform, with a non-zero average component.

A rectifier is a device, which converts a.c. voltage (bi-directional) to pulsating d.c..Load currents: They are two
types of output current. They are average or d.c. current and RMS currents.

Average or DC current: The average current of a periodic function is defined as the area of one cycle of the
curve divided by the base.
It is expressed mathematically as

Area over one period

i) Average value/dc value/mean value=
Total time period
T
1
T 0
Vdc  V d ( wt )

ii) Effective (or) R.M.S current:

The effective (or) R.M.S. current squared ofa periodic function of time is given by the area of one cycle of the
curve, which represents the square of the function divided by the base.

T
1
Vrms 
T0 V 2 d ( wt )

iii) Peak factor:

It is the ratio of peak value to Rms value

peakvalue
Peak factor =
rmsvalue
iv) Form factor:

It is the ratio of Rms value to average value

27
 Rmsvalue
Form factor=
averagevalue

v) Ripple Factor (  ) : It is defined as ration of R.M.S. value of a.c. component to the d.c. component in the
output is known as ―Ripple Factor‖.
Vac

Vdc

Vac  Vrms
2
Vdc2

vi) Efficiency (  ):

It is the ratio of d.c output power to the a.c. input power. It signifies, how efficiently the rectifier circuit
converts a.c. power into d.c. power.

o / p power

i / p power

vii) Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV):

It is defined as the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand without destroying
the junction.

viii) Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF):

The d.c. power to be delivered to the load in a rectifier circuit decides the rating of the
Transformer used in the circuit. So, transformer utilization factor is defined as

Pdc
TUF 
p ac (rated )

ix) % Regulation:

The variation of the d.c. output voltage as a function of d.c. load current is called regulation. The percentage

28
regulation is defined as

V NL  VFL
% Re gulation  * 100
VFL

For an ideal power supply, % Regulation is zero.

1.8.2 CLASSIFICATION OF RECTIFIERS

Using one or more diodes in the circuit, following rectifier circuits can be designed.

1) Half - Wave Rectifier

2) Full – Wave Rectifier
3) Bridge Rectifier

1.8.2.1 HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER

A Half – wave rectifier as shown in fig 2 is one, which converts a.c. voltage into a pulsating voltage using only
one half cycle of the applied a.c. voltage.

The a.c. voltage is applied to the rectifier circuit using step-down transformer-rectifying element i.e., p-n
junction diode and the source of a.c. voltage, all connected is series. The a.c. voltage is applied to the rectifier
circuit using step-down transformer

29
 V=Vm sin (wt)
The input to the rectifier circuit, Where Vm is the peak value of secondary a.c. voltage.

Operation:
For the positive half-cycle of input a.c. voltage, the diode D is forward biased and hence it conducts. Now a
current flows in the circuit and there is a voltage drop across RL. The waveform of the diode current (or) load
current is shown in figure.
For the negative half-cycle of input, the diode D is reverse biased and hence it does not conduct. Now no
current flows in the circuit i.e., i=0 and Vo=0. Thus for the negative half- cycle no power is delivered to the
load.

Analysis:

In the analysis of a HWR, the following parameters are to be analyzed.

1. DC output current
2. DC Output voltage
3. R.M.S. Current
4. R.M.S. voltage
5. Rectifier Efficiency (η )

6. Ripple factor (γ )
7. Peak Factor
8. % Regulation
9. Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF)
10. form factor
11. o/p frequency

30
Let a sinusoidal voltage Vi be applied to the input of the rectifier.
Then V=Vm sin (wt) Where Vm is the maximum value of the secondary voltage. Let the diode be idealized to
piece-wise linear approximation with resistance Rf in the forward direction i.e., in the ON state and Rr (=∞) in
the reverse direction i.e., in the OFF state. Now the current ‗i‘ in the diode (or) in the load resistance R L is
given by V=Vm sin (wt)

i) Average Voltage

T
1
T 0
Vdc  V d ( wt )

2
1
T 0
Vdc  V ( )d

2
1
2 
Vdc  V ( )d

1
2 0
Vdc  Vm sin(wt )

Vm
Vdc 


ii).AVERAGE CURRENT:

Im
I dc 


iii) RMS VOLTAGE:

T
1
T 0
Vrms  V 2 d ( wt )

2
1
Vrms 
2  (V
0
m sim( wt )) 2 d ( wt )

31
 Vm
Vrms 
2

iv) RMS Current

Im
I rms 

v) Peak Factor

peakvalue
Peak factor =
rmsvalue

Vm
Peak Factor =
(Vm / 2)

Peak Factor =2

vi) Form Factor

Rmsvalue
Form factor=
averagevalue

(Vm / 2)
Form factor=
Vm / 

Form Factor =1.57

vii) Ripple Factor:

Vac

Vdc

Vac  Vrms
2
Vdc2

32
 2
Vrms Vdc2

Vac

2
Vrms
 1
Vdc2

  1.21

viii) Efficiency ( ):

o / ppower
 *100
i / ppower

p ac
= *100
Pdc
 =40.8

ix) Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF):

The d.c. power to be delivered to the load in a rectifier circuit decides the rating of the transformer used in the
circuit. Therefore, transformer utilization factor is defined as
p dc
TUF 
Pac (rated )

TUF =0.286.
The value of TUF is low which shows that in half-wave circuit, the transformer is not fully utilized.
If the transformer rating is 1 KVA (1000VA) then the half-wave rectifier can deliver 1000 X 0.287 = 287 watts
to resistance load.

x) Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV):

It is defined as the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand without destroying the junction. The
peak inverse voltage across a diode is the peak of the negative half- cycle. For half-wave rectifier, PIV is Vm.

DISADVANTAGES OF HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER:

1. The ripple factor is high.

33
2. The efficiency is low.
3. The Transformer Utilization factor is low.
Because of all these disadvantages, the half-wave rectifier circuit is normally not used as as power rectifier
circuit.

1.8.2.2 FULL WAVE RECTIFIER (Center Tap)

A full-wave rectifier converts an ac voltage into a pulsating dc voltage using both half cycles of the applied ac
voltage. In order to rectify both the half cycles of ac input, two diodes are used in this circuit. The diodes feed
a common load RL with the help of a center-tap transformer. A center-tap transformer is the one, which
produces two sinusoidal waveforms of same magnitude and frequency but out of phase with respect to the
ground in the secondary winding of the transformer. The full wave rectifier is shown in the fig 4 below

34
 Fig. 5 shows the input and output wave forms of the ckt.
During positive half of the input signal, anode of diode D1 becomes positive and at the same time the anode of
diode D2 becomes negative. Hence D1 conducts and D2 does not conduct. The load current flows through D1
and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input voltage.
During the negative half cycle of the input, the anode of D1 becomes negative and the anode of D2 becomes
positive. Hence, D1 does not conduct and D2 conducts. The load current flows through D2 and the voltage drop
across RL will be equal to the input voltage. It is noted that the load current flows in the both the half cycles of
ac voltage and in the same direction through the load resistance.

i) Average current

35
ii) RMS Voltage:

T
1
T 0
Vrms  V 2 d ( wt )

2
1
Vrms 
2  (V
0
m sim( wt )) 2 d ( wt )

iii) RMS Current

Im
I rms 
2

iv) Peak Factor

peakvalue
Peak factor =
rmsvalue

36
 Vm
Peak Factor =
(Vm / 2 )

Peak Factor = 2

v) Form Factor

Rms value
Form factor=
averagevalue

(Vm / 2 )
Form factor=
2Vm / 

Form Factor =1.11

vi) Ripple Factor:

vii) Efficiency ( ):

o / ppower
 *100
i / ppower

37
 p dc
efficiency  x100%
Pac
2
For FWR: Pdc = Idc2.RL = ( Im)2.RL

Im
Pac= I2rms.(Rf + Rs + RL) = ( ) (Rf + Rs +RL)
2
Efficiency = 81.2%

viii) Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF):

The d.c. power to be delivered to the load in a rectifier circuit decides the rating of the transformer used in the
circuit. So, transformer utilization factor is defined as
p dc
TUF 
Pac (rated )

TUF  2TUFhalfwave  2 x0.287  0.574

p dc
TUFprimary  x100  81.2%
Pac ( rated )

0.812  0.574
Average   0.693
2

ix) Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV):

It is defined as the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand without destroying the junction. The
peak inverse voltage across a diode is the peak of the negative half- cycle. For half- wave rectifier, PIV is 2Vm

Advantages
1) Ripple factor = 0.482 (against 1.21 for HWR)
2) Rectification efficiency is 0.812 (against 0.405 for HWR)
3) Better TUF (secondary) is 0.574 (0.287 for HWR)
4) No core saturation problem
Disadvantages:
1) Requires center tapped transformer.

38
1.8.2.3 BRIDGE RECTIFIER

Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as the full wave rectifier circuit above, is that of the Full Wave
Bridge Rectifier. This type of single phase rectifier uses four individual rectifying diodes connected in a closed loop "bridge"
configuration to produce the desired output. The main advantage of this bridge circuit is that it does not require a special centre
tapped transformer, thereby reducing its size and cost. The single secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode bridge
network and the load to the other side as shown below.

The Diode Bridge Rectifier

The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in "series pairs" with only two diodes conducting current during each half cycle.
During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and
the current flows through the load as shown below (fig 7).

The Positive Half-cycle

39
The Negative Half-cycle

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series (fig 8), but diodes D1 and D2 switch "OFF" as
they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the load is the same direction as before.

As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed across the load is also unidirectional the same
as for the previous two diode full-wave rectifier, therefore the average DC voltage across the load is 0.637Vmax. However in
reality, during each half cycle the current flows through two diodes instead of just one so the amplitude of the output voltage is
two voltage drops ( 2 x 0.7 = 1.4V ) less than the input V MAX amplitude. The ripple frequency is now twice the supply frequency
(e.g. 100Hz for a 50Hz supply)

1.8.3 FILTERS
The output of a rectifier contains dc component as well as ac component. Filters are used to
minimize the undesirable ac i.e., ripple leaving only the dc component to appear at the output.

Some important filters are:

40
 1. Inductor filter
2. Capacitor filter
3. LC or L section filter
4. CLC or Π-type filter

1.8.3.1 CAPACITOR FILTER

This is the simple form of the filter circuit and in this arrangement a high value capacitor C is
placed directly across the output terminals, as shown in figure. During the conduction period it
gets charged and stores up energy to it during non-conduction period. Through this process, the
time duration during which Ft is to be noted here that the capacitor C gets charged to the peak
because there is no resistance (except the negligible forward resistance of diode) in the charging
path. But the discharging time is quite large (roughly 100 times more than the charging time
depending upon the value of RL) because it discharges through load resistance RL.

The function of the capacitor filter may be viewed in terms of impedances. The large value
capacitor C offers a low impedance shunt path to the ac components or ripples but offers high
impedance to the dc component. Thus ripples get bypassed through capacitor C and only dc
component flows through the load resistance RL

Capacitor filter is very popular because of its low cost, small size, light weight and good
characteristics.

41
42
The worth noting points about shunt capacitor filter are:

1. For a fixed-value filter capacitance larger the load resistance RL larger will be the discharge
time constant CRL and therefore, lower the ripples and more the output voltage. On the other
hand lower the load resistance (or more the load current), lower will be the output voltage.

2. Similarly smaller the filter capacitor, the less charge it can hold and more it will discharge.
Thus the peak-to-peak value of the ripple will increase, and the average dc level will decrease.
Larger the filter capacitor, the more charge it can hold and the less it will discharge. Hence the
peak-to-peak value of the ripple will be less, and the average dc level will increase. But, the
maximum value of the capacitance that can be employed is limited by another factor. The larger
the capacitance value, the greater is the current required to charge the capacitor to a given
voltage. The maximum current that can be handled by a diode is limited by the figure quoted by
the manufacturer. Thus the maximum value of the capacitance, that can be used in the shunt filter
capacitor is limited.

1.8.3.2 Series Inductor Filter

In this arrangement a high value inductor or choke L is connected in series with the rectifier
element and the load, as illustrated in figure. The filtering action of an inductor filter depends
upon its property of opposing any change in the current flowing through it. When the output
current of the rectifier increases above a certain value, energy is stored in it in the form of
magnetic field and this energy is given up when the output current falls below the average value.
Thus by placing a choke coil in series with the rectifier output and load, any sudden change in

43
current that might have occurred in the circuit without an inductor is smoothed out by the
presence of the inductor L.

The function of the inductor filter may be viewed in terms of impedances. The choke offers high
impedance to the ac components but offers almost zero resistance to the desired dc components.
Thus ripples are removed to a large extent. Nature of the output voltage without filter and with
choke filter is shown in figure.

For dc (zero frequency), the choke resistance Rc in series with the load resistance RL forms a
voltage divider and dc voltage across the load is given as

where Vdc is dc voltage output from a full-wave rectifier. Usually choke coil resistance Rc, is
much small than RL and, therefore, almost entire of the dc voltage is available across the load
resistance RL.

Since the reactance of inductor increases with the increase in frequency, better filtering of the
higher harmonic components takes place, so effect of third and higher harmonic voltages can be
neglected.

As obvious from equation , if choke coil resistance Rc is negligible in comparison to load

resistance RL, then the entire dc component of rectifier output is available across 2 RL and is
equal to — VL max. The ac voltage partly drops across XL and partly over RL.

1.8.3.3 L-SECTION FILTER

A simple series inductor reduces both the peak and effective values of the output current and
output voltage. On the other hand a simple shunt capacitor filter reduces the ripple voltage but
increases the diode current. The diode may get damaged due to large current and at the same
time it causes greater heating of supply transformer resulting in reduced efficiency.

In an inductor filter, ripple factor increases with the increase in load resistance RL while in a
capacitor filter it varies inversely with load resistance RL.

From economical point of view also, neither series inductor nor shunt capacitor type filters are
suitable.

Practical filter-circuits are derived by combining the voltage stabilizing action of shunt capacitor
with the current smoothing action of series choke coil. By using combination of inductor and
capacitor ripple factor can be lowered, diode current can be restricted and simultaneously ripple
factor can be made almost independent of load resistance (or load current). Two types of most
commonly used combinations are choke-input or L-section filter-and capacitor-input or Pi-Filter.

44
Choke-input filter is explained below:

Choke-input filter consists of a choke L connected in series with the rectifier and a capacitor C
connected across the load. This is also sometimes called the L-section filter because in this
arrangement inductor and capacitor are connected, as an inverted L. ln figure only one filter
section is shown. But several identical sections are often employed to improve the smoothing
action. (The choke L on the input side of the filter readily allows dc to pass but opposes the flow
of ac components because its dc resistance is negligibly small but ac impedance is large. Any
fluctuation that remains in the current even after passing through the choke are largely by-passed
around the load by the shunt capacitor because Xc is much smaller than RL. Ripples can be
reduced effectively by making XL greater than Xc at ripple frequency. However, a small ripple
still remains in the filtered output and this is considered negligible if it than l%. The rectified and
filtered output voltage waveforms from a full-wave re with choke-input filter are shown in
figure.

45
1.8.3.4 Π-SECTION FILTER

Capacitor-Input or Pi-Filter

Such a filter consists of a shunt capacitor C1 at the input followed by an L-section filter formed
by series inductor L and shunt capacitor C2. This is also called the n-filter because the shape of
the circuit diagram for this filter appears like Greek letter n (pi). Since the rectifier feeds directly
into the capacitor so it is also called capacitor input filter.

As the rectified output is fed directly into a capacitor C1. Such a filter can be used with a half-
wave rectifier (series inductor and L-section filters cannot be used with half-wave rectifiers).
Usually electrolytic capacitors are used even though their capacitances are large but they occupy
minimum space. Usually both capacitors C1 and C2 are enclosed in one metal container. The
metal container serves as, the common ground for the two capacitors.

A capacitor-input or pi- filter is characterized by a high voltage output at low current drains.
Such a filter is used, if, for a given transformer, higher voltage than that can be obtained from an
L-section filter is required and if low ripple than that can be obtained from a shunt capacitor
filter or L-section filter is desired. In this filter, the input capacitor C1 is selected to offer very
low reactance to the ripple frequency. Hence major part of filtering is accomplished by the input
capacitor C1. Most of the remaining ripple is removed by the L-section filter consisting of a
choke L and capacitor C2.)

46
The action of this filter can best be understood by considering the action of L-section filter,
formed by L and C2, upon the triangular output voltage wave from the input capacitor C 1 The
charging and discharging action of input capacitor C1 has already been discussed. The output
voltage is roughly the same as across input capacitor C1 less the dc voltage drop in inductor. The
ripples contained in this output are reduced further by L-section filter. The output voltage of pi-
filter falls off rapidly with the increase in load-current and, therefore, the voltage regulation with
this filter is very poor.

Salient Features of L-Section and PI-filters

1. In pi-filter the dc output voltage is much larger than that can be had from an L-section filter
with the same input voltage.

2.In pi-filter ripples are less in comparison to those in shunt capacitor or L-section filter. So
smaller valued choke is required in a pi-filter in comparison to that required in L-section filter.

3.In pi-filter, the capacitor is to be charged to the peak value hence the rms current in supply
transformer is larger as compared in case of L-section filter.

4.Voltage regulation in case of pi-filter is very poor, as already mentioned. So n-filters are
suitable for fixed loads whereas L-section filters can work satisfactorily with varying loads
provided a minimum current is maintained.

5.In case of a pi-filter PIV is larger than that in case of an L-section filter.

COMPARISON OF FILTERS
1) A capacitor filter provides Vm volts at less load current. But regulation is poor.
2) An Inductor filter gives high ripple voltage for low load currents. It is used for
high load currents
3) L – Section filter gives a ripple factor independent of load current. Voltage
Regulation can be improved by use of bleeder resistance
4) Multiple L – Section filter or π filters give much less ripple than the single L –
Section Filter.

1.8.4 Regulated and unregulated power supplies

Regulated Power Supply:
A regulated power supply is an electronic circuit that is designed to produce a constant DC
power supply or voltage that is independent of the current drawn from the temperature on the top
of any variations in the AC line voltage. The term regulated here refers to a unit which maintains

47
a constant output voltage irrespective of the changes in the input voltage or frequency and
independent of the variations in the output load conditions.

1.9. Regulated power supply

The ac voltage, typically 220 Vrms is connected to a transformer which transforms that ac voltage
to the level for the desired dc output. A bridge rectifier then provides a full-wave rectified
voltage that is initially filtered by a ∏ (or C-L-C) filter to produce a dc voltage. The resulting dc
voltage usually has some ripple or ac voltage variation. A regulating circuit use this dc input to
provide a dc voltage that not only has much less ripple voltage but also remains constant even if
the input dc voltage varies somewhat or the load connected to the output dc voltage changes. The
regulated dc supply is available across a voltage divider.

48
1.9.1 Zener Series Voltage Regulator

 Assume that the input voltage given at the terminals is 12 V which is the unregulated DC
supply voltage given at the input terminal. Assume that the breakdown voltage of the
Zener diode is 9 V. This means that, Zener diode starts conducting at 9V. Since the Zener
diode is connected to the base of the transistor, 9 V becomes the reference voltage to the
transistor base, which is a fixed value.
 The voltage across the load, i.e. the output voltage is the voltage difference between
Zener diode voltage and the voltage across base-emitter. That is it can be given as
V0 = VZ – VBE
 The voltage across base-emitter is conducting voltage of the transistor whose value is
0.7V. As the input voltage is 12 V, hence the output voltage becomes 9 – 0.7 = 8.3 V as
per the above equation.
 Now if there is an increase in input voltage, let us say 12.5 V, then the voltage across the
load also increases initially. It increases to 8.7 V. But the Zener diode maintains the
voltage constant at 9 V.
 Therefore the voltage of the transistor becomes less than 0.7 V. For this to happen the
resistance across collector-emitter increases. (This is the property of transistor, transfer
resistance). Hence now the output voltage maintains constant at 8.3 V.
 Now let us consider the case for a decrease in input voltage. A decrease in input voltage
will decrease the load voltage initially. But again the load voltage has to be maintained
constant. This time, the resistance across collector-emitter decreases, which increases the

49
 base-emitter voltage. It can be noted that the transistor collector-emitter
 Resistance changes as per the change in input voltage. This happens due to the transistor
principle and fixed voltage provided by the Zener diode.
 In both the cases with a change in input voltage, the load voltage remains constant. Hence
it can be seen that with a change in input voltage, the output voltage remains constant.
That is how a transistor series voltage regulator acts as a regulating element

1.9.2 Zener Shunt Voltage Regulator

A transistor shunt regulator circuit is formed by connecting a resistor in series with the input and a
transistor whose base and collector are connected by a Zener diode that regulates both in parallel with
the load. The figure below shows the circuit diagram of a transistor shunt regulator.

If the input voltage increases, the VBE and VO also gets increased. But this happens initially. Actually
when Vin increases, the current Iin also increases. This current when flows through RS, causes a voltage
drop VS across the series resistor, which also gets increased with Vin. But this makes Vo to decrease. Now,
this decrease in Vo compensates the initial increase maintaining it to be constant. Hence Vo is
maintained constant. If the output voltage decreases instead, the reverse happens.

If the load resistance decreases, there should be decrease in the output voltage Vo. The current through
the load increases. This makes the base current and collector current of the transistor to decrease. The
voltage across the series resistor becomes low, as the current flows heavily. The input current will be
constant.

The output voltage appears will be the difference between the applied voltage Vi and the series voltage
drop Vs. Hence the output voltage will be increased to compensate the initial decrease and hence
maintained constant. The reverse happens if the load resistance increases.

1.9.3 LED
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits light when an electric current flows
through it. When current passes through an LED, the electrons recombine with holes emitting light in

50
the process. LED allows the current to flow in the forward direction and blocks the current in the reverse
direction. Light-emitting diodes are heavily doped p-n junctions. Based on the semiconductor material
used and the amount of doping, an LED will emit colored light at a particular spectral wavelength when
forward biased. As shown in the figure, an LED is encapsulated with a transparent cover so that emitted
light can come out.

The LED symbol is the standard symbol for a diode, with the addition of two small arrows
denoting the emission of light. When the diode is forward biased, the minority electrons are
sent from p → n while the minority holes are sent from n → p. At the junction boundary, the
concentration of minority carriers increases. The excess minority carriers at the junction
recombine with the majority charges carriers. The energy is released in the form of photons on
recombination. In standard diodes, the energy is released in the form of heat. But in light-
emitting diodes, the energy is released in the form of photons. We call this phenomenon
electroluminescence. Electroluminescence is an optical phenomenon, and electrical
phenomenon where a material emits light in response to an electric current passed through it.
As the forward voltage increases, the intensity of the light increases and reaches a maximum.

1.9.4 Photo Diode

A photodiode is a PN-junction diode that consumes light energy to produce an electric current.
They are also called a photo-detector, a light detector, and a photo-sensor. Photodiodes are
designed to work in reverse bias condition. Typical photodiode materials are Silicon,
Germanium and Indium gallium arsenide.

Photodiode Working

A photodiode is subjected to photons in the form of

light which affects the generation of electron-hole

51
pairs. If the energy of the falling photons (hv) is greater than the energy gap (Eg) of the
semiconductor material, electron-hole pairs are created near the depletion region of the diode.
The electron-hole pairs created are separated from each other before recombining due to the
electric field of the junction. The direction of the electric field in the diode forces the electrons to
move towards the n-side and consequently the holes move towards the p-side. As a result of the
increase in the number of electrons on the n-side and holes on the p-side, a rise in the
electromotive force is observed. Now when an external load is connected to the system, a current
flow is observed through it.

The more the electromotive force created, the greater the current flow. The magnitude of
the electromotive force created depends directly upon the intensity of the incident light. This
effect of the proportional change in photocurrent with the change in light intensity can be easily
observed by applying a reverse bias.

Since photodiodes generate current flow directly depending upon the light intensity received,
they can be used as photodetectors to detect optical signals. Built-in lenses and optical filters
may be used to enhance the power and productivity of a photodiode.

Applications of Photodiode

 Photodiodes are used in simple day-to-day applications. The reason for their prominent
use is their linear response of photodiode to light illumination.
 Photodiodes with the help of optocouplers provide electric isolation. When two isolated
circuits are illuminated by light, optocouplers are used to couple the circuit optically.
Optocouplers are faster compared to conventional devices.
 Photodiodes are used in safety electronics such as fire and smoke detectors.
 Photodiodes are used in numerous medical applications. They are used in instruments
that analyze samples, detectors for computed tomography and also used in blood gas
monitors.
 Photodiodes are used in solar cell panels.
 Photodiodes are used in logic circuits.
 Photodiodes are used in the detection circuits.
 Photodiodes are used in character recognition circuits.
 Photodiodes are used for the exact measurement of the intensity of light in science and
industry.
 Photodiodes are faster and more complex than normal PN junction diodes and hence are
frequently used for lighting regulation and optical communication.

52
 Chapter 2: BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

2.1 INTRODUCTION
A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal device in which operation depends on the
interaction of both majority and minority carriers and hence the name bipolar. The BJT is
analogous to vacuum triode and is comparatively smaller in size. It is used in amplifier and
oscillator circuits, and as a switch in digital circuits. It has wide applications in computers,
satellites and other modern communication systems.

2.1.1 CONSTRUCTION OF BJT AND ITS SYMBOLS

The Bipolar Transistor basic construction consists of two PN-junctions producing three
connecting terminals with each terminal being given a name to identify it from the other two.
These three terminals are known and labelled as the Emitter(E), the Base (B) and the Collector
(C) respectively. There are two basic types of bipolar transistor construction, PNP and NPN,
which basically describes the physical arrangement of the P-type and N-type semiconductor
materials from which they are made.

Transistors are three terminal active devices made from different semiconductor materials that
can act either as an insulator or a conductor by the application of a small signal voltage. The
transistor's ability to change between these two states enables it to have two basic functions:
"switching" (digital electronics) or "amplification" (analogue electronics). Then bipolar
transistors have the ability to operate within three different regions:

1. Active Region - the transistor operates as an amplifier and Ic = β.Ib

2. Saturation - the transistor is "fully-ON" operating as a switch and Ic = I(saturation)

3. Cut-off - the transistor is "fully-OFF" operating as a switch and Ic = 0

Bipolar Transistors are current regulating devices that control the amount of current flowing through them in
proportion to the amount of biasing voltage applied to their base terminal acting like a current-controlled switch. The
principle of operation of the two transistor types PNP and NPN, is exactly the same the only difference being in their
biasing and the polarity of the power supply for each type as shown in fig 1.

53
Bipolar Transistor Construction

Fig:1 Construction of Transistors

The construction and circuit symbols for both the PNP and NPN bipolar transistor are given
above with the arrow in the circuit symbol always showing the direction of "conventional current
flow" between the base terminal and its emitter terminal. The direction of the arrow always
points from the positive P-type region to the negative N-type region for both transistor types,
exactly the same as for the standard diode symbol.

2.2 TRANSISTOR CURRENT COMPONENTS AND CURRENT FLOW

MECHANISM

54
 Fig 2: Components of the transistor

The above fig 2 shows the various current components, which flow across the forward biased emitter
junction and reverse- biased collector junction. The emitter current IE consists of hole current IPE
(holescrossing from emitter into base) and electron current InE(electrons crossing from base into
emitter).Theratio of hole to electron currents, IpE /InE, crossing the emitter junction is proportional to the
ratio of the conductivity of the p material to that of the n material. In a transistor, the doping of that of the
emitter is made much larger than the doping of the base. This feature ensures (in p-n-p transistor) that the
emitter current consists an almost entirely of holes. Such a situation is desired since the current which
results from electrons crossing the emitter junction from base to emitter does not contribute carriers,
which can reach the collector.

Not all the holes crossing the emitter junction J E reach the collector junction JC, because some of them
combine with the electrons in n-type base. If IpCis hole current at junction JC there must be a bulk
recombination current (IPE-IpC) leaving the base.

Actually, electrons enter the base region through the base lead to supply those charges, which have been
lost by recombination with the holes injected in to the base across J E. If the emitter were open circuited so
that IE=0 then IpC would be zero. Under these circumstances, the base and collector current IC would
equal the reverse saturation current ICO. If IE≠0 then
IC= ICO- IpC
For a p-n-p transistor, ICO consists of holes moving across JC from left to right (base to collector) and
electrons crossing JC in opposite direction. Assumed referenced direction for ICO i.e. from right to left,
then for a p-n-p transistor, ICO is negative. For an n-p-n transistor, ICO is positive.The basic operation will

55
be described using the pnp transistor. The operation of the pnp transistor is exactly the same if the roles
played by the electron and hole are interchanged.

One p-n junction of a transistor is reverse-biased, whereas the other is forward-biased.

Forward-biased junction of a pnp transistor

Reverse-biased junction of a pnp transistor

Both biasing potentials have been applied to a pnp transistor and resulting majority and minoritycarrier
flows indicated.Majority carriers (+) will diffuse across the forward-biased p-n junction into the n-type
material.

A very small number of carriers (+) will diffuse through n-type material to the base terminal. Resulting IB
is typically in order of microamperes.

56
The large number of majority carriers will diffuse across the reverse-biased junction into the p-type
material connected to the collector terminal

Applying KCL to the transistor:

I E = IC + IB

It comprises of two components – the majority and minority carriers

IC = ICmajority + ICOminority

ICO – IC current with emitter terminal open and is called leakage current

Various parameters which relate the current components is given below

Emitter efficiency:

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝐽𝐸

𝛾=
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝐼𝑃𝐸 𝐼𝑝𝐸
𝛾= =
𝐼𝑝𝐸 + 𝐼𝑛𝐸 𝐼𝑛𝐸

Transport Factor:

𝑖𝑛𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐽𝐶

𝛽∗ =
𝑖𝑛𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝐽𝐸
𝐼𝑝𝐶
𝛽∗ =
𝐼𝑛𝐸

Large signal current gain:

The ratio of the negative of collector current increment to the emitter current change from zero (cut-off)to
IE the large signal current gain of a common base transistor.

−(𝐼𝐶 − 𝐼𝐶𝑂 )
𝛼=
𝐼𝐸

Since IC and IE have opposite signs, thenα, as defined, is always positive. Typically,numerical values of α
lies in the range of 0.90 to 0.995

𝐼𝑝𝐶 𝐼𝑝𝐶 𝐼𝑝𝐸

𝛼= = ∗ = 𝛽∗𝛾
𝐼𝐸 𝐼𝑛𝐸 𝐼𝐸

57
The transistor alpha is the product of the transport factor and the emitter efficiency. This statement
assumes that the collector multiplication ratio α* is unity. α* is the ratio of total current crossing J C to
hole arriving at the junction.

2.3 Bipolar Transistor Configurations

As the Bipolar Transistor is a three-terminal device, there are basically three possible ways to connect it within an
electronic circuit with one terminal being common to both the input and output. Each method of connection
responding differently to its input signal within a circuit as the static characteristics of the transistor vary with each
circuit arrangement.

1. Common Base Configuration - has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain.

2 Common Emitter Configuration - has both Current and Voltage Gain.
3. Common Collector Configuration - has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain.

2.3.1 COMMON-BASE CONFIGURATION

Common-base terminology is derived from the fact that the base is common to both input and output of
the configuration. Base is usually the terminal closest to or at ground potential. Majority carriers can cross
the reverse-biased junction because the injected majority carriers will appear as minority carriers in the n-
type material. All current directions will refer to conventional (hole) flow and the arrows in all electronic
symbols have a direction defined by this convention.

Note that the applied biasing (voltage sources) are such as to establish current in the direction indicated
for each branch.

To describe the behavior of common-base amplifiers requires two set of characteristics:

58
 1. Input or driving point characteristics.
2. Output or collector characteristics
The output characteristic has 3 basic regions:

 Active region –defined by the biasing arrangements

 Cutoff region – region where the collector current is 0A
 Saturation region- region of the characteristics to the left of VCB = 0V

In common base configuration base terminal taken as common for both input and output. Input is applied
between emitter and base terminal and output is taken between collector and base terminal. Common
emitter configuration and Common collector configuration are widely used and common base
configuration is the least used. In the Common base circuit for NPN and PNP the input is given between
emitter and base terminals and output is taken from collector and base terminals. The input voltage is
denoted as VBE and the output voltage is denoted as VCE. In all the configuration the base emitter
junction is always forward biased and the collector base junction is reverse biased.

In the common base configuration of NPN circuit emitter is N type base is of P type and collector is of N
type. The emitter base terminals are forward biased so the majority charge carriers in the emitter that is
the electrons gets repelled by the negative applied voltage and in the same way the majority charge
carriers in the base that is the holes gets repelled by the positive applied voltage. When free electrons
from emitter move to the base the free electrons and the free holes combine with each other but since the
base is very thin only some free electrons gets combined with the holes and the majority of the electrons
are attracted towards the collector because of the positive terminal voltage connected to the collector.

59
Thus the current flows through the output terminal. Thus the emitter current is the sum of the base current
and the collector current.

IE = IB+IC

In common base configuration, the input impedance is low and the output impedance is high and the
overall power gain is low when compared with other configuration. Input characteristics are the
relationship between the input current and input voltage with constant output voltage. In common base
configuration input current is emitter current IE and the input voltage is base emitter voltage VBE. The
curve is plotted between IE and VBE keeping VCB as constant.

The VBE is increased keeping VCB constant, initially at zero and the input current IE is noted, similarly the
VCB value is increased and kept constant and VBE is increased and the input current IE is noted.

Input side is forward biased so the input resistance is small so for a small increase in VBE there is rapid
increase in the emitter current IE. As the output voltage VCB is increased the width of the depletion layer
between emitter base decreases and the cut in voltage is reduced so the curve drifts to the left side.

Output characteristics are the relationship between output current IC and output voltage VCB keeping input
current IE constant. When the input current IE is zero it is in cut off region. In saturation region both
emitter base junction and collector base junction are forward biased.

In active region IE is gradually increased and kept constant and output voltage VCB is increased further and
the output current IC almost remains constant. So in active region curve is almost flat. Output voltage
causes only a very little change in output current.

60
2.3.2 COMMON-EMITTER CONFIGURATION

Two terminals are needed for input and two terminals for output. Transistors have three terminals, so one
terminal have to be taken as common terminal for both input and output. In Common Emitter
configuration, emitter terminal is taken as common for both input and output. So input is given between
base and the emitter terminals and output is taken between collector and emitter terminals. This is the
most commonly used configuration. Input voltage VBE is applied between base and emitter terminals
and output voltage VCE is applied across emitter and collector. The output current IC is taken across the
emitter and collector terminals. The input side is forward biased and the output side is reverse biased.
Emitter base region acts like forward biased diode and so the depletion region is very small. Emitter
collector region acts like reverse biased diode and the depletion region is large. The input current IB is
measured in µA because the base region is very lightly doped. The input and output impedance are
moderate in common emitter configuration and thus the current and voltage gain is moderate and the
power gain is high. So this configuration is widely used for amplification.

61
Input characteristics are the relationship between the input current and the input voltage keeping output
voltage constant. Here the input current is the base current IB, input voltage is base emitter voltage
VBE and the output voltage is collector emitter voltage VCE. First the output voltage VCE is kept at zero and
the input voltage VBE is gradually increased and the input current IB is noted. Then again the output
voltage VCE is increased like 10V, 20V and kept constant and by increasing the input voltage V BE, the
input current IB is noted. From the results it is observed that when the input voltage V BE is increased
initially there is no current produced, further when it is increased the input current IB increases steeply.
When the output voltage VCE is further increased the curve shifts right side.

Output characteristics is the relationship between the output current and the output voltage keeping input
current constant. Here the values of output current IC and the output voltage VCE is noted keeping input
current IB constant. In active region when the output voltage is increased there is very slight change in the
output voltage. The curve looks almost flat in the active region. Cut off region is the region where the
input current is below zero. When both the junctions are forward biased, it is in saturation region.

2.4 Transistor as switch and as amplifier

2.4.1 TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH

A transistor can be extensively used for switching operations, either for opening or closing a circuit. On
the other hand, the basic concept behind the operation of a transistor as a switch relies on its mode of
operation. Generally, the low-voltage DC is turned on or off by transistors in this mode.

Based on the voltage applied at the base terminal of a transistor switching operation is performed. When a
sufficient voltage (VIN > 0.7 V) is applied between the base and emitter, collector to emitter voltage is

62
approximately equal to 0. Therefore, the transistor acts as a short circuit. The collector current V CC /
RC flows through the transistor.

Similarly, when no voltage or zero voltage is applied at the input, transistor operates in cutoff region and
acts as an open circuit. In this type of switching connection, load (here an LED is used as a load) is
connected to the switching output with a reference point. Thus, when the transistor is switched ON,
current will flow from source to ground through the load.

Example of NPN Transistor as a Switch

Consider the below example, where base resistance RB = 50 KΩ, collector resistance RC = 0.7 KΩ, VCC is
5V and the beta value is 125. At the base, an input signal varying between 0V and 5V is given. We are
going to see the output at the collector by varying the VI at two states that is 0 and 5V as shown in figure.

63
 IC = VCC / RC, when VCE = 0
IC = 5V / 0.7 KΩ
IC = 7.1 mA
Base Current IB = IC / β
IB = 7.1 mA / 125
IB = 56.8 µA
From the above calculations, the maximum or peak value of the collector current in the circuit is 7.1mA
when VCE is equal to zero. And the corresponding base current for this collector current is 56.8 µA.
So, it is clear that when the base current is increased beyond the 56.8 micro ampere, then the transistor
comes into the saturation mode.
Consider the case when zero volt is applied at the input. This causes the base current to be zero and as the
emitter is grounded, emitter base junction is not forward biased. Therefore, the transistor is in OFF
condition and the collector output voltage is equal to 5V.
When VI = 0V, IB = 0 and IC =0,
VC = VCC – (IC * RC)
= 5V – 0
= 5V
Consider that input voltage applied is 5 volts, then the base current can be determined by applying
Kirchhoff‘s voltage law.
When VI = 5V,
IB = (VI – VBE) / RB
For silicon transistor, VBE = 0.7 V
Thus, IB = (5V – 0.7V) / 50 KΩ
= 86 µA, which is greater than 56.8 µA
Therefore, as the base current is greater than 56.8 micro ampere current, the transistor will be driven to
saturation i.e., it is fully ON, when 5V is applied at the input. Thus, the output at the collector becomes
approximately zero.

64
2.4.2 TRANSISTOR AS AMPLIFIER

The transistor raises the strength of a weak signal and hence acts an amplifier. The transistor amplifier
circuit is shown in the figure below. The transistor has three terminals namely emitter, base and collector.
The emitter and base of the transistor are connected in forward biased and the collector base region is in
reverse bias. The forward bias means the P-region of the transistor is connected to the positive terminal of
the supply and the negative region is connected to the N-terminal and in reverse bias just opposite of it
has occurred.

The input signal or weak signal is applied across the emitter base and the output is obtained to the load
resistor RC which is connected in the collector circuit. The DC voltage VEE is applied to the input circuit
along with the input signal to achieve the amplification. The DC voltage V EE keeps the emitter-base
junction under the forward biased condition regardless of the polarity of the input signal and is known as
a bias voltage.

When a weak signal is applied to the input, a small change in signal voltage causes a change in emitter
current (or we can say a change of 0.1V in signal voltage causes a change of 1mA in the emitter current)
because the input circuit has very low resistance. This change is almost the same in collector current
because of the transmitter action.

In the collector circuit, a load resistor RC of high value is connected. When collector current flows
through such a high resistance, it produces a large voltage drop across it. Thus, a weak signal (0.1V)
applied to the input circuit appears in the amplified form (10V) in the collector circuit.

2.5 NEEDS OF TRANSISTOR BIASING

65
 Biasing is the process of providing DC voltage which helps in the functioning of the circuit. A
transistor is based in order to make the emitter base junction forward biased and collector base
junction reverse biased, so that it maintains in active region, to work as an amplifier.
If a signal of very small voltage is given to the input of BJT, it cannot be amplified. For a BJT, to
amplify a signal, two conditions have to be met.
 The input voltage should exceed cut-in voltage for the transistor to be ON.
 The BJT should be in the active region, to be operated as an amplifier.
If appropriate DC voltages and currents are given through BJT by external sources, so that BJT
operates in active region and superimpose the AC signals to be amplified, then this problem can be
avoided. The given DC voltage and currents are so chosen that the transistor remains in active
region for entire input AC cycle. Hence DC biasing is needed.

2.5.1 METHODS OF TRANSISTOR BIASING

1) Fixed bias (base bias)

This form of biasing is also called base bias. In the fig 4.3 shown, the single power source (for
example, a battery) is used for both collector and base of a transistor, although separate batteries can also be
used.

In the given circuit,

Vcc = IBRB + Vbe

Therefore, IB = (Vcc - Vbe)/RB

Since the equation is independent of current ICR, dIB//dICR =0 and the stability factor is given by
the equation….. reduces to

S=1+β

66
 Since β is a large quantity, this is very poor biasing circuit. Therefore in practice the circuit is not
used for biasing.

For a given transistor, Vbe does not vary significantly during use. As Vcc is of fixed value, on selection
of RB, the base current IB is fixed. Therefore this type is called fixed bias type of circuit.

Also for given circuit, Vcc = ICRC + Vce

Therefore, Vce = Vcc - ICRC

Merits:

 It is simple to shift the operating point anywhere in the active region by merely changing
the base resistor (RB).
 A very small number of components are required.

Demerits:

 The collector current does not remain constant with variation in temperature or power
supply voltage. Therefore the operating point is unstable.
 Changes in Vbe will change IB and thus cause RE to change. This in turn will alter the gain
of the stage.
 When the transistor is replaced with another one, considerable change in the value of β
can be expected. Due to this change the operating point will shift.

2) COLLECTOR TO BASE BIAS OR COLLECTOR FEED-BACK BIAS:

This configuration shown in fig 4.5 employs negative feedback to prevent thermal
runaway and stabilize the operating point. In this form of biasing, the base resistor RB is
connected to the collector instead of connecting it to the DC source Vcc. So any thermal

67
runaway will induce a voltage drop across the RC resistor that will throttle the transistor's base
current.

From Kirchhoff's voltage law, the voltage across the base resistor Rb is

By the Ebers–Moll model, Ic = βIb, and so

From Ohm's law, the base current , and so

Hence, the base current Ib is

If Vbe is held constant and temperature increases, then the collector current Ic
increases. However, a larger Ic causes the voltage drop across resistor Rc to increase, which in
turn reduces the voltage across the base resistor Rb. A lower base-resistor voltage drop
reduces the base current Ib, which results in less collector current Ic. Because an increase in
collector current with temperature is opposed, the operating point is kept stable.

Merits:

 Circuit stabilizes the operating point against variations in temperature and β (i.e.
replacement of transistor)

Demerits:

 In this circuit, to keep Ic independent of β, the following condition must be met:

68
 which is the case when

 As β-value is fixed (and generally unknown) for a given transistor, this relation can be
satisfied either by keeping Rc fairly large or making Rb very low.
 If Rc is large, a high Vcc is necessary, which increases cost as well as precautions
necessary while handling.
 If Rb is low, the reverse bias of the collector–base region is small, which limits the range
of collector voltage swing that leaves the transistor in active mode.
 The resistor Rb causes an AC feedback, reducing the voltage gain of the amplifier. This
undesirable effect is a trade-off for greater Q-point stability.

Usage: The feedback also decreases the input impedance of the amplifier as seen from the
base, which can be advantageous. Due to the gain reduction from feedback, this biasing form is
used only when the trade-off for stability is warranted.

3) VOLTAGE DIVIDER BIAS OR SELF BIAS OR EMITTER BIAS:

The voltage divider as shown in the fig 4.7 is formed using external resistors R1 and R2. The
voltage across R2 forward biases the emitter junction. By proper selection of resistors R1 and R2,
the operating point of the transistor can be made independent of β. In this circuit, the voltage
divider holds the base voltage fixed independent of base current provided the divider current is
large compared to the base current. However, even with a fixed base voltage, collector current
varies with temperature (for example) so an emitter resistor is added to stabilize the Q-point,
similar to the above circuits with emitter resistor.

In this circuit the base voltage is given by:

voltage across

69
 provided .

Also

For the given circuit,

Let the current in resistor R1 is I1 and this is divided into two parts – current through
base and resistor R2. Since the base current is very small so for all practical purpose it is
assumed that I1 also flows through R2, so we have

Applying KVL in the circuit, we have

It is apparent from above expression that the collector current is independent of ? thus
the stability is excellent. In all practical cases the value of VBE is quite small in comparison to
the V2, so it can be ignored in the above expression so the collector current is almost
independent of the transistor parameters thus this arrangement provides excellent stability.
Again applying KVL in collector circuit, we have

The resistor RE provides stability to the circuit. If the current through the collector rises,
the voltage across the resistor RE also rises. This will cause VCE to increase as the voltage V2 is

70
independent of collector current. This decreases the base current, thus collector current
increases to its former value.
Stability factor for such circuit arrangement is given by

If Req/RE is very small compared to 1, it can be ignored in the above expression thus we have

Which is excellent since it is the smallest possible value for the stability. In actual practice the
value of stability factor is around 8-10, since Req/RE cannot be ignored as compared to 1.

Merits:

 Unlike above circuits, only one dc supply is necessary.

 Operating point is almost independent of β variation. Operating point stabilized against
shift in temperature.

Demerits:

 In this circuit, to keep IC independent of β the following condition must be met:

which is approximately the case if

where R1 || R2 denotes the equivalent resistance of R1 and R2 connected in parallel.

 As β-value is fixed for a given transistor, this relation can be satisfied either by keeping
RE fairly large, or making R1||R2 very low.
 If RE is of large value, high VCC is necessary. This increases cost as well as precautions
necessary while handling.
 If R1 || R2 is low, either R1 is low, or R2 is low, or both are low. A low R1 raises VB closer
to VC, reducing the available swing in collector voltage, and limiting how large R C can be
made without driving the transistor out of active mode. A low R2 lowers Vbe, reducing

71
 the allowed collector current. Lowering both resistor values draws more current from
the power supply and lowers the input resistance of the amplifier as seen from the base.
 AC as well as DC feedback is caused by RE, which reduces the AC voltage gain of the
amplifier. A method to avoid AC feedback while retaining DC feedback is discussed
below.

Usage: The circuit's stability and merits as above make it widely used for linear circuits.

2.6 COMPARISON BETWEEN BJT AND FET

FET BJT
FET stands for the field-effect transistor, so it is a BJT stands for bipolar junction transistor, so it is a
uni-junction transistor bipolar component
FET has three terminals like Drain, Source, and BJT has three terminals like base, emitter, and
Gate collector
The operation of FET mainly depends on the The operation of BJT mainly depends on both the
majority charge carriers either holes or electrons charge carriers like majority as well as minority
The input impedance of FET is very large The input impedance of this BJT ranges from 1K to
3K, so it is very less
FET is the voltage-controlled device BJT is the current controlled device
FET has less noise BJT has noise
Its frequency response is high The frequency changes of BJT will affect its
performance
Its heat stability is better It depends on the temperature
It is expensive It is a low cost
FET size is low BJT size is higher as compared with FET
It doesn‘t have offset voltage It has offset voltage
FET gain is less BJT gain is more
Its output impedance is low due to low gain Its output impedance is high due to high gain
Its Drain terminal is positive and the gate terminal is As compared with the emitter terminal, both the
negative as compared with the source. terminals of BJT like base and collector are more
positive.

Its gate terminal is more negative with respect to the Its base terminal is negative with respect to the
source terminal. emitter terminal.
It has a low voltage gain It has a high voltage gain
It has a high current gain It has a less current gain
Switching time of FET is fast Switching time of BJT is medium
Biasing of FET is difficult Biasing of BJT is simple
FETs use less amount of voltage BJTs uses less amount of current
FETs are applicable for low voltage applications. BJTs are applicable for low-current applications.

72
 Chapter 3 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER AND OSCILLATORS

3.1 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS (OR ADVANTAGES / DISADVANTAGES)

OF NEGATIVE FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS
The phenomenon of feeding a portion of the output signal back to the input circuit is known as feedback.
The effect results in dependence between the output and the input and an effective control can be obtained
in the working of the circuit. Feedback is of two types:

a) Positive Feedback b) Negative Feedback

a) Positive or regenerate Feedback:

In positive feedback, the feedback energy (Voltage or currents) is in phase with the input signal and thus
aids it. Positive feedback increases gain of the amplifier also increases distortion, noise and instability.
Because of these disadvantages, positive feedback is seldom employed in amplifiers. But the positive
feedback is used in oscillators.

b) Negative Feedback:

In negative feedback, the feedback energy (voltage or current) is out of phase with the input signal and
thus opposes it. Negative feedback reduces gain of the amplifier. It also reduces distortion, noise and

73
instability. This feedback increases bandwidth and improves input and output impedances. Due to these
advantages, the negative feedback is frequently used in amplifiers.
Advantages of negative feedback:
- Gain stability of the amplifier can be achieved
- Reduces non-linear distortion in large signal amplifiers
- Improves frequency response of the amplifier
- Increases circuit stability of the amplifier
- Increases input impedance and decreases output impedance of the amplifier

3.2 GAIN CALCULATION FOR NEGATIVE FEEDBACK AMP.

System Gain (G) = Vout/Vin
Or, Vin*G = Vout
Or, G(Vin-βVout) = Vout
Or, GVin = Vout (1+ β)
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (1 + 𝛽)
𝑜𝑟, 𝐺 =
𝑉𝑖𝑛

3.3 VIRTUAL GROUND CONCEPT, OUTPUT OFFSET VOLTAGE AND CMRR

OF OPAMP
Virtual Ground: It is a widely used shortcut for analyzing an inverting amplifier. With a virtual ground,
the analysis of an inverting amplifier and related circuits becomes incredibly easy. Virtual ground acts
like half of a ground because it is a short for voltage but an open for current. To remind us of this half
ground quality, figure uses a dashed line between the inverting input and ground. Although virtual ground
is an ideal approximation, it gives very accurate answers when used with heavy negative feedback.

Voltage Gain: The voltage gain of a differential amplifier operating in differential mode is called
differential mode voltage gain and is denoted by ADM. The voltage gain of DA operating in common
mode is called common mode voltage gain and is denoted by ADM. Ideally a DA provides a very high
voltage gain for differential mode signals and zero gain for common mode signals. However, practically,
DA do exhibit a very small common mode gain while providing a high differential voltage gain.

74
Common mode rejection ratio(CMRR): A differential amplifier should have high differential voltage gain
𝐴
and very low common mode voltage gain. The ratio 𝐴𝐷𝑀 is called CMRR i.e,
𝐶𝑀

𝐴𝐷𝑀
𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 =
𝐴𝐶𝑀
Very often, the CMRR is expressed in dB.
𝐴
CMRR dB = 20log10 𝐴𝐷𝑀
𝐶𝑀

The CMRR is the ability of a DM to reject the common mode signals. The larger the CMRR, the better
the DA is at eliminating common mode signals.

Output offset voltage: Even though the transistors in the differential amplifier are very closely matched,
there are some differences in their electrical characteristics. One of these differences is found in the
values of VBE for the two transistors. When VBE1≠ VBE2 , an imbalance is created in the DA. The DA may
show some voltage at the output even when the voltage applied between two input terminals is zero. This
is called output offset voltage.

3.4 Inverting and non-inverting amplifier

3.4.1 Inverting Amplifier

An opamp can be operated as an inverting amplifier. Input signal Vin is applied through the input resistor
(Ri) at inverting terminal. The output is feedback to the negative terminal through R f. Since the input
signal is connected to negative terminal so the output will be inverted (i.e, 180o out of phase). An opamp
has an infinite input impedance. It means that there is zero current at the inverting inputs. Point A on
figure is said to be at virtual ground because it is at 0V but is not physically connected to the ground (i.e,
VA=0V). Now, current Iin flowing through Ri entirely flows through feedback resistor Rf. So,

𝐼𝑓 = 𝐼𝑖𝑛

𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝐴
𝑜𝑟, =
𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑖

0 − 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 0
𝑜𝑟, =
𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑖

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑓
𝑜𝑟, 𝐶𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝐶𝐿 = =−
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑖

75
3.4.2 Non-Inverting Amplifier
When we desire the same output signal of the same polarity as the input signal then opamp is connected
as non-inverting amplifier. The input signal signal is connected to the non-inverting (+ve) terminal. The
output is feedback through Rf to the inverting terminal. Here, Rf and Ri forms a voltage divide at the
inverting input. If the circuit is not in saturation, the potential at point A is the same as Vin. Since input
impedance of opamp is very high. So all currents that flows through Rf is also flows through Ri.
So,
𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 0 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑣𝑖𝑛
=
𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑖
𝑜𝑟, 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑓 = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑖 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑖
𝑜𝑟, 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝑖 = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑖
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑓
𝑜𝑟, 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛(𝐴𝐶𝐿 ) =1+
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑖

3.4.3 Opamp (Operational Amplifier)

An opamp is a circuit that can perform such mathematical operations as addition, subtraction, integration
and differentiation.
A typical opamp is made up of three types of amplifiers circuits: A differential amplifier, a voltage
amplifier and a push pull amplifier.
Characteristics of ideal opamp:-
- Infinite voltage gain, Ao
- Infinite input impedance, Ri
- Zero output resistance, Ro
- Infinite bandwidth
- Infinite CMRR
- Infinite Slew rate: max rate of change of an opamps output voltage

76
3.5 Application of an amplifier as an adder, subtractor, integrator and
differentiator
The opamp can be used as adder, subtractor, integrator and differentiator with slight modifications.
a) Adder circuit:
This circuit performs the addition of signals with amplification (if desired).
Using,
i = if
or, i1+i2+i3 = if
𝑉1 − 𝑉 − 𝑉2 − 𝑉 − 𝑉3 − 𝑉 − 𝑉 − − 𝑉𝑜
𝑜𝑟, + + =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑓
𝑉1 − 𝑉 + 𝑉2 − 𝑉 + 𝑉3 − 𝑉 + 𝑉 + − 𝑉𝑜
𝑜𝑟, + + =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑓
𝑉1 − 0 𝑉2 − 0 𝑉3 − 0 0 − 𝑉𝑜
𝑜𝑟, + + =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑓
𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉3 −𝑉𝑜
𝑜𝑟, + + =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑓
𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
𝑜𝑟, 𝑉0 = −[ 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 ]
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝐼𝑓 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = 𝑅𝑓 , 𝑤𝑒 𝑕𝑎𝑣𝑒
𝑉𝑜 = − 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3
So, the circuit acts as adder.

b) Subtractor circuit:

The output voltage due to first opamp is

77
 𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝐴 = − 𝑉
𝑅1 1

For 𝑅𝑓1 = 𝑅1 , 𝑉𝐴 = −𝑉1

The second opamp has two input signals –V1 and V2 fed to the inverting terminal. For input signal -
𝑉1 , output voltage due to second opamp is

𝑅𝑓2
𝑉01 = − (−𝑉1 )
𝑅𝑓1

For, 𝑅𝑓2 = 𝑅2 , 𝑉01 = 𝑉01

For the input signal V2, output voltage due to second opamp is

𝑅𝑓2
𝑉02 = − 𝑉
𝑅3 2

For Rf2 = R3, Vo2=-V2

Using superposition principle, the output voltage due to –V1 and V2 is given as

𝑉0 = 𝑉01 + 𝑉02

𝑉0 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉2

c) Integrator Circuit:
A circuit that performs the mathematical integration of input signal is called an integrator. For example, if
the input to the integrator is a square wave, the output will be a triangular wave.

78
Since point A in fig. is at virtual ground, the virtual ground equivalent circuit of operational integrator
will be as shown in fig.4 (ii). Because of virtual ground and infinite impedance of the OP-Amp, all of the
input current flows through the capacitor i.e.

Now

Also voltage across capacitor is

So,

Since,

So,

Or

To find out the output voltage, we integrate both sides of the above equation to get,

79
This equation shows that the output is the integral of the input with an inversion and scale multiplier of
1/RC.

d) Differentiator Circuit:
A circuit that performs the mathematical differentiation of input signal is called a differentiator. For
example, if the input to the differentiator is a triangular wave, the output will be a square wave.

Since point A in fig.5 (i) is at virtual ground, the virtual-ground equivalent circuit of the operational
differentiator will be as shown in fig.5 (ii).
Because of virtual ground and infinite impedance of OP-Amp, all the input current ic flows through the
feedback resistor R.
i.e.

And

Also

80
The above equation shows that output is the differentiation of the input with an inversion and scale
multiplier of RC.

3.6 Positive feedback and Barkhausen criteria for Oscillation

Oscillator: An oscillator is a circuit that produces a periodic wave form on its output with only the dc
supply voltage as an input. A repetitive input signal is not required except to synchronize oscillations in
some applications. The output voltage can be either sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal depending on the type of
oscillator. Two major classifications for oscillations are feedback oscillators and relaxation oscillators.
Feedback Oscillators: It returns a fraction of the output signal to the input with no net phase shift,
resulting in a reinforcement of the output signals. After oscillations are started, the loop gain is
maintained at 1.0 to maintain oscillations. A feedback oscillator consists of an amplifier for gain and a
positive feedback circuit that produces phase shift and provides attenuation. Hence, feedback oscillator is
based on the principle of positive feedback.

Barkhausen Criteria:
Conditions which are required to be satisfied to operate the circuit as an oscillator are called as
―Barkhausen criterion‖ for sustained oscillations. The Barkhausen criteria should be satisfied by an
amplifier with positive feedback to ensure the sustained oscillations.
For an oscillation circuit, there is no input signal ―Vs‖, hence the feedback signal V f itself should be
sufficient to maintain the oscillations.
The Barkhausen criterion states that:
- The loop gain is equal to unity in absolute magnitude, that is, | β A | = 1 and
- The phase shift around the loop is zero or an integer multiple of 2π radian (180°) i.e.
<β.A = 0

81
 Chapter 4 DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

4.1 Significance of analog to digital and digital to analog conversion

An analog to digital converter (ADC), converts any analog signal into quantifiable data, which makes it
easier to process and store, as well as more accurate and reliable by minimizing errors. ADC first sample
the signal, then quantify it to determine the resolution of the signal, and finally set binary values and send
it to the system to read the digital signal. Two important aspects of the ADC are its sampling rate and
resolution. Digital output from the computer is connected to a DAC, which converts it to a proportional
analog voltage or current. The analog signal from the DAC is often connected to some device or circuit
that serves as an actuator to control the physical variable.
Analog-to-Digital converters (ADC) translate analog signals, real world signals like temperature,
pressure, voltage, current, distance, or light intensity, into a digital representation of that signal. This
digital representation can then be processed, manipulated, computed, transmitted or stored. In many
cases, the analog to digital conversion process is just one step within a larger measurement and control
loop where digitized data is processed and then reconverted back to analog signals to drive external
transducers. These transducers can include things like motors, heaters and acoustic divers like
loudspeakers. The performance required of the ADC will reflect the performance goals of the
measurement and control loop. ADC performance needs will also reflect the capabilities and
requirements of the other signal processing elements in the loop.

Digital-to-analog conversion (DAC) is a process by which digital signals (which have a binary state) are
converted to analog signals (which theoretically have an infinite number of states). For example, a
modem converts computer digital data to analog audio-frequency signals that can be transmitted over
telephone lines.

4.2 Binary, Hexadecimal, octal number system and conversion

Number system:

82
Binary number system:

"Bi" in Binary means "two". Hence, this draws back the line to the representation of a number in terms
of 0 and 1 only. It is possible to express decimal numbers in terms of a binary number system easily.
Decimal numbers and binary numbers have different notations. A decimal number is represented with a
base of 10 while a binary number is represented with a base of 2. For example, 2 in decimal notation is
represented as (2)10(2)10. The binary number for 2 is represented as (10)2(10)2. Hence, 10 is the binary
number representation for the number 2.

Binary Number System Chart

The numbers from 1 to 10 can be expressed in a binary number system in the following way:

Binary to Decimal Conversion:

The binary number can be converted to a decimal number by expressing each digit as a product of the
given number 1 or 0 to the respective power of 2. If a binary number has n digits, B
= an−1...a3a2a1a0an−1...a3a2a1a0, the decimal number for it is given as, D = (a0×20) + (a1×21) + (a2×22) +
...
Let us understand this using an example.
We can convert 10101 to the decimal number form in the following way:
The binary number 10101 is expressed as (10101)2(10101)2 = (1 × 24) + (0 × 23) + (1 × 22) + (0 × 21) + (1 ×
20) = (21)10(21)10. Thus, the binary number 10101 is expressed as (21)10(21)10.

83
Decimal to Binary Conversion

The decimal number can be converted to a binary number by dividing the given number by 2 until we
obtain the quotient as 1. The numbers are written from downwards to upwards.
Let us understand this using an example.
Example 1: Convert decimal number 30 to a binary number

Solution:

The decimal number 30 is expressed as (30)10 = (11110)2

Example 2: Convert the binary number (100101)2(100101)2 to decimal number.

Solution: The binary number (100101)2(100101)2

= (1 × 20) + (0 × 21) + (1 × 22) + (0 × 23) + (0 × 24) + (1 × 25) = (37)10(37)10

∴ The binary number (100101)2(100101)2 is (37)10(37)10.

Octal Number System

Octal Number System is a type of number system that has a base of eight and uses digits from 0 to 7.
A number system is a system of naming, representing, or expressing numbers in different types of
forms. The basic ways of representing numbers are done in four ways i.e. Octal Number System,
Binary Number System, Decimal Number System, and Hexadecimal Number System.

A number system with its base as eight and uses digits from 0 to 7 is called Octal Number System.
The word octal is used to represent the numbers that have eight as the base. The octal numbers
have many applications and importance such as it is used in computers and digital numbering
systems. In the number system, octal numbers can be converted to binary numbers, binary
numbers to octal numbers by first converting a binary number to decimal number then decimal
number to octal number.

Conversion from Octal to Binary Numbers

84
Example 1 - Convert (14)8 into a binary number

Solution - Given (14)8 is an octal number, we can write (14)8 = (001100)2. Zeros on the left do not
have any significance. Hence, (14)8 = (001100)2.

Example 2 - Convert (11100101)2 into an octal number.

Solution - Given (11100101)2 is a binary number, we first write the number into its 3-bit binary
number as a zero needs to be added before digits to form the 3-bit binary number. So, the number
can be written as (011100101)2. Hence, the 3-bit binary number is 011, 100, 101. We can convert
these binary numbers to their octal numbers to derive the final number. Hence, the numbers are 3,
4, 5

Therefore, (11100101)2 = (345)8

Conversion from Octal to Decimal number

The conversion of octal numbers to decimals numbers is done in a simple way. The number is
expanded with the base of eight where each number is multiplied with the reducing power of 8. The
decimal number system has a base of 10 after the conversion.

For example - Convert octal number (121)8 to its decimal form.

Solution - (121)8 = 1 x 82 + 2 x 81 + 1 x 80

= 1 x 64 + 2 x 8 + 1 x 1

= 64 + 16 + 1

Therefore, (121)8 = (81)10

Conversion from Decimal to Octal Number

To convert decimal to octal number, a different method is used. In this method, the decimal number
is divided by 8 each time a reminder is obtained from the previous digit. The first remainder
obtained is the least significant digit(LSD) and the last remainder is the most significant digit(MSD).
Let us understand the conversion with the help of an example.

For example - Convert the decimal number 321 to its octal form.

Solution - We need to start dividing the number 321 by 8

321/8 gives quotient 40 and the remainder is 1

40/8 gives quotient 5 and the remainder is 0

So, here quotient is 5 and the remainder is 0. The octal number starts from MSD to LSD, i.e 501

Therefore, (321)10 = (501)8

85
Conversion from Octal to Hexadecimal Numbers

Hexadecimal is represented with base 16 and consists of both numbers and alphabets. The
numbers from 0-9 are represented in the usual form, but from 10 to 15, it is denoted as A, B, C, D, E,
F. Conversion of Octal to Hexadecimal is done in two steps i.e. first convert the octal number to
decimal number and then convert it to a hexadecimal number. Let us look at an example to
understand this method better.

For example - (121)8 = (81)10

Solution - We already have the decimal number 8110, so we only need to convert this to a
hexadecimal number. To determine the hexadecimal number we need to divide the number 81 by
16 until the remainder is less than 16. It is completely divisible with the answer as 5 and the
remainder as 1.

Therefore, (121)8 = (51)16

We can easily convert the octal number to hexadecimal as follows:

Write binary equivalent of octal:

(121)8= 001 010 001

Select 4 digits from right and write hexadecimal equivalent

(121)8 = (51)16

Hexadecimal Number System

The word hexadecimal can be divided into 'Hexa' and 'deci', where 'Hexa' means 6 and 'deci' means
10. The hexadecimal number system is described as a 16 digit number representation of numbers
from 0 - 9 and digits from A - F. In other words, the first 9 numbers or digits are represented as
numbers while the next 6 digits are represented as symbols from A - F. Hexadecimal is very similar
to the decimal number system that has a base number of 9. Therefore, after 9 digits, the 10th digit is
represented as a symbol - 10 as A, 11 as B, 12 as C, 13 as D, 14 as E, and 15 as F. Hence, the 16 digits
are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F. For example: 7B316,6F16,4B2A167B316,6F16,4B2A16 are
hexadecimal numbers.

A hexadecimal number system is also known as a positional number system as each digit has a
weight of power 16. Each digit is 16 times more significant than the previous digit.

Convert Hexadecimal to Binary

Converting hexadecimal to binary is done in two methods, one is with a conversion table and two is
without a conversion table. Let us explore both methods:

86
Method 1: Convert Hexadecimal to Binary

Example: Convert hexadecimal (67F)16 to binary.

Solution: Looking at the conversion table, find the equivalent of each digit to decimal.

6 = (6)10 , 7 = (7)10, F = (15)10

Once the decimal of each digit is obtained, look at the conversion table and convert each decimal
number to binary.

(6)10 = (0110)2

(7)10 = (0111)2

(F)10 = (1111)2

Combine all the binary numbers together to obtain the final one.

Therefore, (67F)16 = (011001111111)2

Convert Hexadecimal to Octal

Conversion of Hexadecimal to Octal is done in two steps. First convert the hexadecimal number to
decimal number and convert it to an octal number. Let us look at an example to understand this method
better.

Example: Convert (AE5)16 to Octal.

Solution:

(AE5)16 = A × 162 + E × 161 + 5 × 160

(AE5)16 = 10 × 162 + 14 × 161 + 5 × 160 (convert the symbols to digits looking at the hexadecimal to
decimal conversion table used above)

(AE5)16 = 10 × 256 + 14 × 16 + 5 × 1

(AE5)16 = 2560 + 224 + 5

(AE5)16 = (2789)10.

Convert the decimal number to octal by dividing it by 2 until the quotient is 0.

(5345)8

To obtain the final octal number, we arrange the remainder from bottom to top.

87
Therefore, (AE5)16 = (5345)8.

Also, we can obtain as follows:

(AE5)16= 1010 1110 0101=5345 = (5345)8

Convert Hexadecimal to Decimal

Converting hexadecimal to decimal is done in a similar manner as the previous two i.e. multiply each
digit with the power of 16. Let us take an example.

Example: Convert (DC24)16 to Decimal.

Solution:

(DC24)16 = D ×163 + C × 162 + 2 × 161 + 4 × 160

(DC24)16 = 13 ×163 + 12 × 162 + 2 × 161 + 4 × 160 (convert the symbols to digits looking at the hexadecimal
to decimal conversion table used above)

(DC24)16 = 13 × 4096 + 12 × 256 + 2 × 16 + 4 × 1

(DC24)16 = 53248 + 3072 + 32 + 4

(DC24)16 = 56356

Therefore, the decimal equivalent of (DC24)16 = (56356)10

4.3 Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)

88
The binary coded decimal (BCD) is a type of binary code used to represent a given decimal number in an
equivalent binary form. Its main advantage is that it allows easy conversion to decimal digits for printing
or display and faster calculations.

The most common BCD code is the 8421 BCD code. In this, the BCD equivalent of a decimal number is
written by replacing each decimal digit in integer and fractional parts with its four-bit binary equivalent
‘(or nibble). Here 8, 4, 2 and 1 represent the weights of different bits in the four-bit groups, starting
from the (MSB) most significant bit (to extreme left) and proceeding towards the least significant (LSB)
bit.

4.4 Logic Gates

89
90
91
4.5 De Morgan’s Theorem
De Morgan’s First Theorem

The first theorem of De Morgan’s law defines that the inverted result from AND operation is the same as
the OR operation of the complement of each variable where the result equals NAND operation.

So, De Morgans theorem formula is:

(X.Y)’ = X’ + Y’

It can also be stated as NAND = Bubbled OR

The theorem can be verified using a truth table and logical gates

Truth Table:

92
De Morgan’s Second Theorem

The second theorem of De Morgan’s law defines that the inverted result from OR operation is the same
as the AND operation of a complement of each variable where the result equals NOR operation.

So, De Morgan’s second theorem formula is:

(X+Y)’ = X’.Y’

It can also be stated as NOR = Bubbled AND

The theorem can be verified using a truth table and logical gates.

Truth Table:

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4.6 Simplification of Boolean Function Using Karnaugh Maps
K-Map:

 Its full form is Karnaugh Map

 It is a technique to solve Boolean expressions.

There are following types of K-Maps:

a) SOP K-Map

 2-variable K-Map

 3- Variable K-Map

 4-Variable K-Map

b) POS K-Map

 2-variable K-Map

 3- Variable K-Map

 4-Variable K-Map

94
95
Fill the following:

F(A,B,C,D) = Σm(0,2,4,6,7, 10,15)

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F(A,B,C,D) = Σm(1,2,3,6,7,10,11,14,15)

F = C’D + CD’ +A’B’C’ = C XOR D

Pair : group of 2 consecutive 1’s.

Quad: Group of 4-consecutive 1’s. Can form a rectangle or a square.

Octet: Group of 8- consecutive 1’s.

Example of Octet:

F=A

Example of Quad:

F=C’D’

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F = A’B’ + AD

Example of pair:

F = A’B’C’ + ACD

F = A’B’D + A’BC’ +A’C’D

Here , A’C’D is a redundant group because all the members of this group are members of other groups.

K-Map for POS

• Solve the following using K-Map:

F(A,B,C,D) = 𝜋𝑀 1,3,12,13,15

= M1 . M3 . M12 . M13 . M15

=(m1+m3+m12+m13+m15)’

=(m1)’.(m3)’.(m12)’.(m13)’.(m15)’

=(A’B’C’D)’.(A’B’CD)’.(ABC’D’)’.(ABC’D)’.(ABCD)’

=(A+B+C+D’).(A+B+C’+D).(A’+B’+C+D).(A’+B’+C+D’).(A’+B’+C’+D’)

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(A’B’)’ = (A’)’+(B’)’ = A+B

(A’B)’ = A+B’

F = (A+B+D’).(A’+B’+C).(A’+B’+D’)

Q.1 Solve the following using K-Map: F(A,B,C,D) =𝜋𝑀(1,3,5,7,9,11,13,15)

F = D’

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 Chapter 5 Communication System

5.1 Basic Blocks of Communication system

Communication is the process of establishing connection or link between two points for information
exchange. Communication is simply the basic process of exchanging information. The electronics
equipments which are used for communication purpose are called communication equipments.
Different communication equipments when assembled together form a communication system.

Typical example of communication system are line telephony and line telegraphy, radio telephony and
radio telegraphy, radio broadcasting, point-to-point communication and mobile communication,
computer communication, radar communication, television broadcasting, radio telemetry, radio aids to
navigation, radio aids to aircraft landing etc.

Block Diagram of Communication System

Fig.1 shows the block diagram of a general communication system, in which the different functional
elements are represented by blocks.

(i) Information Source

As we know, a communication system serves to communicate a message or information. This

information originates in the information source.

In general, there can be various messages in the form of words, group of words, code, symbols, sound
signal etc. However, out of these messages, only the desired message is selected and communicated.

Therefore, we can say that the function of information source is to produce required message which has
to be transmitted.

(ii) Input Transducer

A transducer is a device which converts one form of energy into another form.

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The message from the information source may or may not be electrical in nature. In a case when the
message produced by the information source is not electrical in nature, an input transducer is used to
convert it into a time-varying electrical signal.

For example, in case of radio-broadcasting, a microphone converts the information or massage which is
in the form of sound waves into corresponding electrical signal.

(iii) Transmitter

The function of the transmitter is to process the electrical signal from different aspects.

For example: in radio broadcasting the electrical signal obtained from sound signal, is processed to
restrict its range of audio frequencies (upto 5 kHz in amplitude modulation radio broadcast) and is often
amplified.

In wire telephony, no real processing is needed. However, in long-distance radio communication, signal
amplification is necessary before modulation.

Modulation is the main function of the transmitter. In modulation, the message signal is superimposed
upon the high-frequency carrier signal.

In short, we can say that inside the transmitter, signal processing such as restriction of range of audio
frequencies, amplification and modulation of signal are achieved.

All these processing of the message signal is done just to ease the transmission of the signal through the
channel.

(iv) Channel and Noise

The term channel means the medium through which the message travels from the transmitter to the
receiver. In other words, we can say that the function of the channel is to provide a physical connection
between the transmitter and the receiver. There are two types of channels, namely point-to-point
channels and broadcast channels. Example of point-to-point channels is wire lines, microwave links and
optical fibres. Wire-lines operate by guided electromagnetic waves and they are used for local
telephone transmission. In case of microwave links, the transmitted signal is radiated as an
electromagnetic wave in free space. Microwave links are used in long distance telephone transmission.

An optical fibre is a low-loss, well-controlled, guided optical medium. Optical fibres are used in optical
communications. Although these three channels operate differently, they all provide a physical medium
for the transmission of signals from one point to another point. Therefore, for these channels, the term
point-to-point is used. On the other hand, the broadcast channel provides a capability where several
receiving stations can be reached simultaneously from a single transmitter.

An example of a broadcast channel is a satellite in geostationary orbit, which covers about one third of
the earth’s surface. During the process of transmission and reception the signal gets distorted due to
noise introduced in the system. Noise is unwanted signal which tend to interfere with the required

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signal. Noise signal is always random in character. Noise may interfere with signal at any point in a
communication system. However, the noise has its greatest effect on the signal in the channel.

(v) Receiver

The main function of the receiver is to reproduce the message signal in electrical form from the
distorted received signal. This reproduction of the original signal is accomplished by a process known as
the demodulation or detection. Demodulation is the reverse process of modulation carried out in
transmitter.

(vi) Destination

Destination is the final stage which is used to convert an electrical message signal into its original form.

For example: in radio broadcasting, the destination is a loudspeaker which works as a transducer i.e.
converts the electrical signal in the form of original sound signal.

5.2 Fundamentals of Frequency and Phase Modulation

Modulation:

In the modulation process, two signals are used namely the modulating signal and the carrier.

The modulating signal is nothing but the baseband signal or information signal while the carrier is a high
frequency sinusoidal signal.

In the modulation process, some parameter of the carrier wave (such as amplitude, frequency or phase)
is varied in accordance with the modulating signal. This modulated signal is then transmitted by the
transmitter.

The receiver demodulates the received modulated signal and gets the original information signal back.

Thus, demodulation is exactly opposite to modulation.

In the process of modulation, the carrier wave actually acts as carrier which carries the information
signal from the transmitter to receiver.

Need of Modulation

The baseband transmission has many limitations which can be overcome using modulation. It is
explained below:

In the process of modulation, the baseband signal is translated i.e., shifted from low frequency to high
frequency. This frequency shift is proportional to the frequency of carrier.

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Advantages of Modulation

1. Reduction in the height of antenna

2. Avoids mixing of signals

3. Increases the range of communication

4. Multiplexing is possible

5. Improves quality of reception

We will discuss each of these advantages in detail below:

1. Reduction in the height of antenna

For the transmission of radio signals, the antenna height must be multiple of λ/4,where λ is the
wavelength.

λ = c /f

where, c: is the velocity of light

f: is the frequency of the signal to be transmitted

The minimum antenna height required to transmit a baseband signal of f = 10 kHz is calculated as
follows:

The antenna of this height is practically impossible to install.

Now, let us consider a modulated signal at f = 1 MHz. The minimum antenna height is given by,

This antenna can be easily installed practically. Thus, modulation reduces the height of the antenna.

2. Avoids mixing of signals

If the baseband sound signals are transmitted without using the modulation by more than one
transmitter, then all the signals will be in the same frequency range i.e. 0 to 20 kHz. Therefore, all the
signals get mixed together and a receiver cannot separate them from each other.

Hence, if each baseband sound signal is used to modulate a different carrier then they will occupy
different slots in the frequency domain (different channels). Thus, modulation avoids mixing of signals.

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3. Increase the Range of Communication

The frequency of baseband signal is low, and the low frequency signals cannot travel long distance when
they are transmitted. They get heavily attenuated.

The attenuation reduces with increase in frequency of the transmitted signal, and they travel longer
distance.

The modulation process increases the frequency of the signal to be transmitted. Therefore, it increases
the range of communication.

4. Multiplexing is possible

Multiplexing is a process in which two or more signals can be transmitted over the same communication
channel simultaneously.

This is possible only with modulation.

The multiplexing allows the same channel to be used by many signals. Hence, many TV channels can use
the same frequency range, without getting mixed with each other or different frequency signals can be
transmitted at the same time.

5. Improves Quality of Reception

With frequency modulation (FM) and the digital communication techniques such as PCM, the effect of
noise is reduced to a great extent. This improves quality of reception.

Frequency Modulation:

In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier varies. But in Frequency Modulation (FM), the
frequency of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating
signal.

The amplitude and the phase of the carrier signal remains constant whereas the frequency of the carrier
changes. This can be better understood by observing the following figures:

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The frequency of the modulated wave remains constant as the carrier wave frequency when the
message signal is at zero. The frequency increases when the message signal reaches its maximum
amplitude.

With the increase in amplitude of the modulating or message signal, the carrier frequency increases.
Likewise, with the decrease in the amplitude of the modulating signal, the frequency also decreases.

Mathematical Representation

Let the carrier frequency be fc

The frequency at maximum amplitude of the message signal = fc + Δf

The frequency at minimum amplitude of the message signal = fc − Δf

The difference between FM modulated frequency and normal frequency is termed as Frequency
Deviation and is denoted by Δf.

Deviation of frequency of the carrier signal from high to low or low to high can be termed as Carrier
Swing.

Carrier Swing = 2 × frequency deviation

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= 2 × Δf

Equation for FM WAVE

The equation for FM wave is −

s(t) = Accos[Wct + 2\pi kfm(t)]

Where,

Ac = the amplitude of the carrier

wc = angular frequency of the carrier = 2πfc

m(t) = message signal

FM can be divided into Narrowband FM and Wideband FM.

Narrowband FM

The features of Narrowband FM are as follows −

 This frequency modulation has a small bandwidth.

 The modulation index is small.

 Its spectrum consists of carrier, USB, and LSB.

 This is used in mobile communications such as police wireless, ambulances, taxicabs, etc.

Wideband FM

The features of Wideband FM are as follows −

 This frequency modulation has infinite bandwidth.

 The modulation index is large, i.e., higher than 1.

 Its spectrum consists of a carrier and infinite number of sidebands, which are located around it.

 This is used in entertainment broadcasting applications such as FM radio, TV, etc.

Phase Modulation:

In frequency modulation, the frequency of the carrier varies. But in Phase Modulation (PM), the phase
of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.

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The amplitude and the frequency of the carrier signal remains constant whereas the phase of the carrier
changes. This can be better understood by observing the following figures.

The phase of the modulated wave has got infinite points where the phase shift in a wave can take place.
The instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal, changes the phase of the carrier. When the
amplitude is positive, the phase changes in one direction and if the amplitude is negative, the phase
changes in the opposite direction.

Relation between PM and FM

The change in phase, changes the frequency of the modulated wave. The frequency of the wave also
changes the phase of the wave. Though they are related, their relationship is not linear. Phase
modulation is an indirect method of producing FM. The amount of frequency shift, produced by a phase

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modulator increases with the modulating frequency. An audio equalizer is employed to compensate
this.

Equation for PM Wave

The equation for PM wave is −

s(t) = Accos[Wct + kpm(t)]

Where,

Ac = the amplitude of the carrier

wc = angular frequency of the carrier = 2πfc

m(t) = message signal

Phase modulation is used in mobile communication systems, while frequency modulation is used mainly
for FM broadcasting.

5.3 Methods of Generation and Detection of AM/FM Modulated Signal

Generation of AM:

a) Square Law Modulator

Following is the block diagram of the square law modulator

Let the modulating and carrier signals be denoted as m(t) and Acos(2πfct) respectively. These two signals
are applied as inputs to the summer (adder) block. This summer block produces an output, which is the
addition of the modulating and the carrier signal. Mathematically, we can write it as:

108
109
110
111
The process of extracting an original message signal from the modulated wave is known
as detection or demodulation. The circuit, which demodulates the modulated wave is known as
the demodulator. The following demodulators (detectors) are used for demodulating AM wave.

 Square Law Demodulator

 Envelope Detector

Square Law Demodulator

Square law demodulator is used to demodulate low level AM wave. Following is the block diagram of
thesquare law demodulator.

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113
Generation of FM:

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The FM modulator circuits used for generating FM signals can be divided into two categories such as:

(i) The direct method or parameter variation method

(ii) The Indirect method or the Armstrong method

The classification of FM generation methods is shown below:

The Direct Method or Parameter Variation Method

In direct method or parameter variation method, the baseband or modulating signal directly modulates
the carrier.

The carrier signal is generated with the help of an oscillator circuit.

This oscillator circuit uses a parallel tuned L-C circuit.

Thus the frequency of oscillation of the carrier generation is governed by the expression:

Now, we can make the carrier frequency ωc to vary in accordance with the baseband or modulating
signal x(t) if L or C is varied according to x(t).

An oscillator circuit whose frequency is controlled by a modulating voltage is called voltage controlled
oscillator (VCO).

The frequency of VCO is varied according to the modulating signal simply by putting a shunt voltage
variable capacitor with its tuned circuit.

This voltage variable capacitor is called varactor or varicap.

This type of property is exhibited by reverse biased semiconductor diodes.Also the capacitance of
bipolar junction transistors (BJT) and field-effect transistors (FET) is varied by the Miller-effect. This
miller capacitance may be utilized for frequency modulation. In addition to this, the electron tubes may

115
also provide variable reactance (either it is inductive or capacitive) which is proportional to modulating
or baseband signal. This type of tubes are called reactance tubes and may be used for FM generation.

The inductance L of the tuned circuit may also be varied in accordance with the baseband or modulating
signal x(t).

The FM circuit using such inductors is called saturable reactor modulator.

Frequency modulation can also be achieved from voltage controlled devices such as PIN diode, Klystron
oscillators and multivibrators.

Reactance Modulator

In direct FM generation, the instantaneous frequency of the carrier is changed directly in proportion
with the message signal.

For this, a device called voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) is used.

A VCO can be implemented by using a sinusoidal oscillator with a tuned circuit having a high value of Q.

The frequency of this oscillator is changed by changing the reactive components involved in the tuned
circuit. If L or C of a tuned circuit of an oscillator is changed in accordance with the amplitude of
modulating signal then FM can be obtained across the tuned circuit as shown in figure 1 below.

Fig1. Principle of Reactance Modulator

A two or three terminal device is placed across the tuned circuit. The reactance of the device is varied
proportional to modulating signal voltage. This will vary the frequency of the oscillator to produce FM.
The devices used are FET, transistor or varactor diode.

An example of direct FM is shown in figure 1 which uses a Hartley oscillator along with a varactor diode.

The varactor diode is reverse biased. Its capacitance is dependent on the reverse voltage applied across
it. This capacitance is shown by the capacitor C(t) in figure 2.

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 Fig.2 : Hartley Oscillator

Frequency of oscillations of the Hartley oscillator shown in figure 2 is given by :

…………..(1)

where C(t) = C + Cvarector

This means that C(t) is the effective capacitance of the fixed tuned circuit capacitance C and the varactor
diode capacitance Cvarector.

Let the relation between the modulating voltage x(t) = 0 and the capacitance C(t) be represented as
under:

where C = total capacitance when x(t)

kc is the sensitivity of the varactor capacitance to change in voltage

Substituting expression for C(t) in equation(1) , we get

But, let

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which is the oscillator frequency in absence of the modulating signal [x(t) = 0]. Therefore, we have,

……………… (2)

If the maximum change in the capacitance corresponding to the modulating wave is assumed to be
small as compared to the unmodulated capacitance C then equation (2) for fi (t) can be approximated as
under:

Now, let us define

Therefore, we have

where kf is called as the frequency sensitivity of the modulator.

Varactor Diode Modulator

The varactor diode FM modulator has been shown below in figure 3.

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 Fig.3 : Varactor Diode Modulator

A varactor diode is a semiconductor diode whose junction capacitance varies linearly with the applied
bias and the varactor diode must be reverse biased.

Working Operation

The varactor diode is reverse biased by the negative dc source –Vb.

The modulating AF voltage appears in series with the negative supply voltage. Hence, the voltage
applied across the varactor diode varies in proportion with the modulating voltage.

This will vary the junction capacitance of the varactor diode.

The varactor diode appears in parallel with the oscillator tuned circuit.

Hence the oscillator frequency will change with change in varactor diode capacitance and FM wave is
produced.

The RFC will connect the dc and modulating signal to the varactor diode but it offers a very high
impedance at high oscillator frequency. Therefore, the oscillator circuit is isolated from the dc bias and
modulating signal.

The demodulation process of FM waves is exactly opposite to that of the frequency modulation. After
demodulation, we get the original modulating signal at the demodulation output.

FM demodulator or detector is basically a frequency to amplitude converter. It is expected to convert

the frequency variations in FM wave at its input into amplitude variations at its output to recover the
original modulating signal.

Requirements of FM Demodulator (Detector)

The FM demodulator must satisfy the following requirements:

(i) It must convert frequency variations into amplitude variations.

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(ii) This conversion must be linear and efficient.

(iii) The demodulator circuit should be insensitive to amplitude changes. It should respond only to the
frequency changes.

(iv) It should not be too critical in its adjustment and operation.

Classification of FM Demodulators

Figure.1 shows the classification of FM Demodulators.

Fig.1: Classification of FM Demodulators

Balanced Frequency Discriminator

The frequency discriminator operates on the principle of the slope detection.

Principle of Slope Detection

Let us consider a tuned circuit as shown in figure 1.

Fig. 1: Tuned Circuit

A frequency modulated signal is applied at the input of this tuned circuit.

The center frequency of the FM signal is fc and the frequency deviation is Δf.

The resonant frequency of the tuned circuit is deliberately adjusted to (fc +Δf) as shown in figure 1.

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As depicted in figure 1, the amplitude of the output voltage of the tank circuit depends on the frequency
deviation of the input FM signal.

Simple Slope Detector ( Frequency Discriminator )

The circuit diagram of a simple slope detector is as shown in figure 2.

Fig.2 : Simple Slope Detector

The output voltage of the tank circuit is then applied to a simple diode detector of an RC load with
proper time constant.

This detector is identical to the AM diode detector. Even though the slope detector circuit is simple it
has the following drawbacks.

Drawbacks of Slope Detector

(i) It is inefficient.

(ii) It is linear only over a limited frequency range.

(iii) It is difficult to adjust as the primary and secondary winding of the transformer must be tuned to
slightly different frequencies.

Advantages of Slope Detector

The only advantages of the basic slope detector circuit is its simplicity.

To overcome the drawbacks of the simple slope detector, a Balanced slope detector is used.

Balanced Slope Detector (Balanced Frequency Discriminator)

The circuit diagram of the balanced slope detector is shown in Figure. 3.

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 Fig.3 : Balanced Slope Detector

As shown in the circuit diagram, the balanced slope detector consists of two slope detector circuits.

The input transformer has a center tapped secondary. Hence, the input voltages to the two slope
detectors are 180° out of phase.

There are three tuned circuits.

Out of them, the primary is tuned to IF i.e., fc .

The upper tuned circuit of the secondary (T1) is tuned above fc byΔf i.e., its resonant frequency is (fc+
Δf).

The lower tuned circuit of the secondary is tuned below fc by Δf i.e., at (fc – Δf).

R1C1 and R2C2 are the filters used to bypass the RF ripple.

Vo1 and Vo2 are the output voltages of the two slope detectors.

The final output voltage Vo is obtained by taking the subtraction of the individual output
voltages, Vo1 and Vo2, i.e.,

Working Operation of the Circuit

The circuit operation can be explained by dividing the input frequency into three ranges as follows:

(i) fin = fc: When the input frequency is instantaneously equal to fc, the induced voltage in the T1 winding
of secondary is exactly equal to that induced in the winding T2.

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Thus, the input voltages to both the diodes D1 and D2 will be the same.

Therefore, their dc output voltages Vo1 and Vo2 will also be identical but they have opposite polarities.
Hence, the net output voltage Vo = 0.

(ii) fc < fin < (fc + Δf): In this range of input frequency, the induced voltage in the winding T1 is higher than
that induced in T2.

Therefore, the input to D1 is higher than D2.

Hence, the positive output Vo1 of D1 is higher than the negative output Vo2 of D2.

Therefore, the output voltage Vo is positive.

As the input frequency increases towards (fc + Δf), the positive output voltage increases as shown in 4.

Fig.4: Characteristics of the balanced slope detector

If the output frequency goes outside the range of (fc – Δf) to (fc + Δf), the output voltage will fall due to
the reduction in tuned circuit response.

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Advantages

(i) This circuit is more efficient than simple slope detector.

(ii) It has better linearity than the simple slope detector.

Drawbacks

(i) Even though linearity is good, it is not good enough.

(ii) This circuit is difficult to tune since the three tuned circuits are to be tuned at different frequencies
i.e., fc, (fc+Δf) and (fc – Δf).

(iii) Amplitude limiting is not provided.

Zero Crossing Detector

The zero crossing detector operator on the principle that the instantaneous frequency of an FM wave is
approximately given by,

where Δt is the time difference between the adjacent zero crossover points of the FM wave as shown in
figure 5.

Fig.6

Let us consider a time-duration T as shown in figure 6.

The time T is chosen such that it satisfies the following two conditions:

(i) T should be small compared to (1/W) wheel, W is the bandwidth of the message signal.

(ii) T should be large as compared to (1/fc) where fc is the carrier frequency of the FM wave.

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Let the number of zero crossings during interval T be denoted by n0. Hence, Δt i.e., the time between the
adjacent zero crossing points is given by,

By definition of the instantaneous frequency, we know that there is a linear relation between fi and
message signal x(t). Hence, we can recover x(t) if n0 is known. This can be achieved by using a zero
crossing detector of figure 7.

Fig.7: Block Diagram of Zero Crossing Detector

5.4 Concept of Optical Fiber Communication

The technique of transmitting data from one location to another by transmitting infrared light pulses
using optical fiber is known as fiber optic communication. Here, the light is in the form of a carrier signal
that is changed to hold the data. The fiber optic cables replace the electrical cables whenever long
distance, high bandwidth, and resistance to electromagnetic interference are necessary.

Fiber-optic communication is mainly used for transmitting voice, video & telemetry using LANs. In many
telecommunication companies, optical fiber is used for transmitting the signals of telephone, cable TV
signals, Internet communication. In Bell Labs, the researchers have investigated and reached a record of
BW distance 100 petabit × kilometers for each second with fiber-optic communication.

Fig: Fiber-optic communication

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Working principle of Optical fibre communication:

Unlike copper wire-based transmission where the transmission entirely depends on electrical signals
passing through the cable, fiber optics transmission involves the transmission of signals in the form of
light from one point to the other. Furthermore, a fiber optic communication network consists of
transmitting and receiving circuitry, a light source, and detector devices like the ones shown in the
figure.

When the input data, in the form of electrical signals, is given to the transmitter circuitry, it converts
them into a light signal with the help of a light source. This source is of LED whose amplitude, frequency,
and phases must remain stable and free from fluctuation in order to have efficient transmission. The
light beam from the source is carried by a fiber optic cable to the destination circuitry wherein the
information is transmitted back to the electrical signal by a receiver circuit.

Working of Fiber-optic communication

The Receiver circuit consists of a photodetector along with an appropriate electronic circuit, which is
capable of measuring the magnitude, frequency, and phase of the optic field. This type of
communication uses the wavelengths near the infrared band that is just above the visible range. Both
LED and Laser can be used as light sources based on the application.

3 Basic Elements of a Fiber Optic Communication System

There are three main basic elements of a fiber optic communication system. They are

1. Compact Light Source

2. Low loss Optical Fiber

3. Photo Detector

Accessories like connectors, switches, couplers, multiplexing devices, amplifiers, and splices are also
essential elements in this communication system.

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Compact Light Source

Depending on the applications like local area networks and long-haul communication systems, the light
source requirements vary. The requirements of the sources include power, speed, spectral linewidth,
noise, ruggedness, cost, temperature, and so on. Two components are used as light sources: light-
emitting diodes (LEDs) and laser diodes.

Laser Diodes

The light-emitting diodes are used for short distances and low data rate applications due to their low
bandwidth and power capabilities. Two such LED structures include Surface and Edge Emitting Systems.
The surface-emitting diodes are simple in design and are reliable, but due to their broader line width
and modulation frequency limitation edge-emitting diodes are mostly used. Edge emitting diodes have
high power and narrower linewidth capabilities.

For longer distances and high data rate transmission, Laser Diodes are preferred due to its high power,
high speed, and narrower spectral linewidth characteristics. But these are inherently non-linear and
more sensitive to temperature variations.

LED vs Laser Diodes

Nowadays many improvements and advancements have made these sources more reliable. A few of
such comparisons of these two sources are given below. Both these sources are modulated using either
direct or external modulation techniques.

Low Loss Optical Fiber

Optical fiber is a cable, which is also known as a cylindrical dielectric waveguide made of low-loss
material. Optical fiber also considers the parameters like the environment in which it is operating, the
tensile strength, durability, and rigidity. The Fiber optic cable is made of high-quality extruded glass (si)

127
or plastic, and it is flexible. The diameter of the fiber optic cable is in between 0.25 to 0.5mm (slightly
thicker than a human hair).

Fig: Fiber Optic Cable

A Fiber Optic Cable consists of four parts.

a) Core

b) Cladding

c) Buffer

d) Jacket

Core

The core of a fiber cable is a cylinder of plastic that runs all along the fiber cable’s length and offers
protection by cladding. The diameter of the core depends on the application used. Due to internal
reflection, the light traveling within the core reflects from the core, the cladding boundary. The core
cross-section needs to be a circular one for most of the applications.

Cladding

Cladding is an outer optical material that protects the core. The main function of the cladding is that it
reflects the light back into the core. When light enters through the core (dense material) into the
cladding(less dense material), it changes its angle, and then reflects back to the core.

Buffer

The main function of the buffer is to protect the fiber from damage and thousands of optical fibers
arranged in hundreds of optical cables. These bundles are protected by the cable’s outer covering which
is called a jacket.

JACKET

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Fiber optic cable jackets are available in different colors that can easily make us recognize the exact
color of the cable we are dealing with. The color yellow clearly signifies a single-mode cable, and the
orange color indicates multimode.

Types of Optical Fibers

Single-Mode Fibers: Single-mode fibers are used to transmit one signal per fiber; these fibers are used
in telephone and television sets. Single-mode fibers have small cores.

Multi-Mode Fibers: Multimode fibers are used to transmit many signals per fiber; these signals are used
in computer and local area networks that have larger cores.

Photo Detectors

The purpose of photo detectors is to convert the light signal back to an electrical signal. Two types
of photo detectors are mainly used for optical receivers in optical communication systems: PN
photodiode and avalanche photodiode. Depending on the application’s wavelengths, the material
composition of these devices vary. These materials include silicon, germanium, InGaAs, etc.

Why Light is used Instead of Electricity?

In fiber-optic communication, laser light is used for transmission because this light source has a single
wavelength. As compared to other light sources like bulb light or sunlight have several light
wavelengths. Thus, if another light source like sunlight is used for this communication then they will
generate a less powerful sunbeam whereas the laser light generates a more powerful beam. So, laser
light source is the best option for communication because of the low dispersion, generating a number of
signals in less time.

What is Dispersion in Optical Fiber Communication?

Dispersion can be defined as the transmitting of the light signals once they transmit in a fiber. So, this
occurrence is mainly because of the light speed that depends on its wavelength as well as propagation
mode. When the light travels for long distances then small differences within speed can be build up, so
bit errors will happen.

Similar to attenuation, this dispersion will reduce the distance that signal moves within optic fibers. Not
like attenuation, it does not decline the signal, however, it blurs. For instance, at the transmitter, the
signal of 1ns will be transmitted to 10 ns at the receiver. Therefore, signals are not correctly received &
decoded.

Dispersions are classified into four types like model dispersion, material dispersion, waveguide &
polarization mode.

 In modern dispersion, dissimilar modes will propagate at dissimilar group velocities

 In material dispersion, the refraction index of the medium will change through wavelength

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  In waveguide dispersion, the refractive index will alter across the waveguide which means that
dissimilar wavelengths will include different delays

 In polarization mode dispersion, the waveguide includes two different refractive indices.

Characteristics

The main characteristics of fiber optic communication mainly include the following. In this
communication, the light signal can be used as a signal to transmit within the optical cable.

Bandwidth

The dispersion of single laser light is a good quantity of signal which can be transmitted for every second
which results in high BW for long distances.

Smaller Diameter

The Optical fiber cable diameter is approximately 300 micrometers.

Less Weight

The cable used in fiber optic communication is less weight as compared to the copper type cable.

Signal Transmission for Long-distance

As the laser light doesn’t dissolve, then it is simply transmitted over lengthy distances.

Less Attenuation

The fiber optic cable is designed with glass & a laser light travels throughout it, then the signal loss while
transmitting has simply 0.2 dB/km.

Security of Transmission

The data over optical fiber cable can be secured through optical encryption as well as no occurrence of
the electromagnetic signal.

Optical Fiber Impact on IoT

The impact of IoT on Fiber Optics Communication is high due to the following reasons.

 Quick Transmission Media

 Data Security

 There is no loss of data because of interference

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 Chapter 6 Electronic Instruments and Their Applications in Civil
Engineering

6.1 Total Station and its Application

A total station (TS) or total station theodolite (TST) is an electronic/optical instrument used for surveying
and building construction. It is an electronic transit theodolite integrated with electronic distance
measurement (EDM) to measure both vertical and horizontal angles and the slope distance from the
instrument to a particular point and onboard computer to collect data and perform triangulation
calculations.

Components of a Total Station

 EDM

 Prisms

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  Electronic theodolite

 On-board microprocessor

 Data collector ( built in or separate unit )

 Data storage ( internal or memory card)

Operation of Total Station

a) Distance Measurement

Electronic distance measurement (EDM) instrument is a major part of total station. Its range varies from
2.8 km to 4.2 km. The accuracy of measurement varies from 5mm to 10 mm per km. They are used with
automatic target recognizer. The distance measured is always sloping distance from instrument to the
object.

b) Angle Measurement

The angle theodolite part of total station is used for measuring vertical and horizontal angle. For
measurement of horizontal angles, any convenient direction may be taken as reference direction. For
vertical angle measurement, vertical upward (zenith) direction is taken as reference direction. The
accuracy of angle measurement varies from 2 to 6 seconds.

c) Data processing

The instrument is provided with an inbuilt microprocessor. The microprocessor averages multiple
observations. With the help of slope distance and vertical and horizontal angles measured, when height
of axis of instrument and targets are supplied, the microprocessor computers the horizontal distance
and X, Y, Z coordinates. The processor is capable of applying temperature and pressure corrections to
the measurement, if atmospheric temperature and pressure are supplied.

d) Display

Electronic display unit is capable of displaying various values when respective keys are pressed. The
system is capable of displaying horizontal distance, vertical distance, horizontal and vertical angles,
difference in elevations of two observed points and all the three coordinate of the observed points.

e) Electronic Book

Each point data can be stored in an electronic note book (like compact disc). The capacity of electronic
note book varies from 3000 points to 4000 points data. Surveyor can upload the data stored in note to
computer and reuse the note book.

Application of Total Station

Total stations are mainly used by land surveyors and civil engineers, either to record features as in
topographic surveying or to set features ( such as road, houses or boundaries). They are also used by

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archaeologists to record excavations and by police, crime scene investigators, and private accident re-
constructionist and insurance companies to take measurements of scenes.

a) Mining

Total stations are the primary survey instrument used in mining surveying. A total station is used to
record the absolute location of the tunnel walls, ceilings (backs) and floors as the drifts of an
underground mine are driven. The recorded data are then downloaded into a CAD program and
compared to the designed layout of the tunnel. The survey parts installs control station at regular
intervals. These are small steel plugs installed in pairs in holes drilled into walls or the back. For wall
stations, two plugs are installed in opposite walls, forming a line perpendicular to the drift. For back
stations, two plugs are installed in the back forming a line parallel to the drift.

A set of plugs can be used to locate the total station set up in a drift or tunnel by processing
measurements to the plugs by intersection and resection.

b) Mechanical and Electrical Construction

Total stations have become the highest standard for most forms of construction layout. They are most
often used in X and Y axis to layout the locations of penetration out of the underground utilities into the
foundation, between floors of a structure as well as roofing penetrations.

c) Meteorology

Meteorologists also use total stations to track weather balloons for determining upper-level winds. With
the average ascent rate of the weather balloon known as assumed, the change in azimuth and elevation
readings provided by the total stations as it tracks the weather balloon over time are used to compute
the wind speed and direction at different altitudes. Additionally, the total station is used to track ceiling
balloons to determine the height of cloud layers. Such upper level wind data is often used for aviation
weather forecasting and rocket launches.

Application of Total Station in Civil Engineering

 To obtain the horizontal distance, inclined distance and vertical distance between these points.

 To find the length of a missing line.

 To locate the points at a predetermined distance along gridlines.

 To get the three dimensional coordinates of a point in space.

 To find the elevation of the remote object.

 To measure horizontal and vertical angles.

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6.2 Use of EDM in Surveying
Electronic distance measurement (EDM) is a method of determining the length between two points
using phase changes that occur as electromagnetic energy waves travel from one end of the line to the
other end. Electronic distance measurement in general is a term used as a method for distance
measurement by electronic means. In this method, instruments are used to measure distance that rely
on propagation, reflection and reception of electromagnetic waves like radio, visible light or infrared
waves.

EDM instrument are classified based on the type of carrier wave as:

 Microwave instruments

 Light wave instruments

 Infrared wave instruments

Operations of Electronic Distance Measurement Instruments

The electromagnetic waves propagate through the atmosphere based on the equation;

V= f λ = (1/T) λ

Where, V is the velocity of electromagnetic energy in m/sec

f is the modulated frequency in Hz

λ is the wavelength measured in meters.

T is the time in seconds = 1/f

Mainly the waves that are propagated can be represented like a sine wave as shown in figure below.

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Another property of wave called as phase of wave Φ, is very convenient method of small fraction of
wavelength during measurment of EDM. The points A,B, C, D etc. represents various phase points.

Point A B C D E F G H

Phase, Φ 0° 90° 180° 270° 360° (or 0° ) 90° 180° 270°

Say AB is the survey line to be measured, having a length of D. The EDM equipment is placed at ends A
and B. A transmitter is placed at A and a receiver is placed at B. The transmitter lets propagation of
electromagnetic waves towards B. A timer is also placed. At the instant of transmission of wave from A,
the timer at B starts and stops at the instant of reception of incoming wave at B. This enable us to
known the transmit time for the wave from the point A to B.

From the transit time and known velocity, the distance can be easily measured. Now to solve the
problem arise due to difficulty in starting the timer at B, a reflector can be placed as shown below
instead of a receiver at B.

Let the waves get transmitted from A and reflected from B. If the received signal is out of phase by a
measure of △Φ, then equivalent distance is;

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d= △Φ * λ/360°

Thus, the distance,

D= ½ { n λ + (△Φ * λ/360° ) }

Where, n is the integral number of wavelength, λ in the double path.

Schematic Diagram of EDM System

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Application of EDM to Civil Engineering and Surveying

Generally, the use of EDM in engineering surveying operation results in a saving in time and in most
case, an improvement in the accuracy of distance measurement when compared with taping and with
optical methods.

When using EDM, rapid and accurate surveying of detail is possible owing to the long ranges attainable
and fewer control stations are required. Consequently, EDM has replaced tachometric methods and
chain surveying for the production of site plans. In addition, both the combined theodolite/EDM and
electronic tachometer systems are extremely well adapted to forming digital terrain models and if data
storage units are used these can be interfaced directly with the computer forming the model.

As angles and distances can be measured simultaneously with the latest infrared short-range
equipment, many setting out operations are now simplified. Some instruments have a continuous
readout facility and this enables distances of many hundred of meters to be set out in one sighting often
over ground that would be unsuitable for taping. The ability to take measurements across congested
sites is also a great advantage.

In road works, EDM can be used to coordinate the major control points for the initially survey of the
route and then can use these stations to establish the road centerline by polar methods rather than
tangential angle methods. Another instance of changing techniques is that buildings can be set out from
two or more instrument stations by polar coordinates rather than by using a theodolite to establish right
angles at each other.

These methods have been helped by the advent of advanced pocket calculators and computers and
many local authorities now issue contractors with a computer printout for setting out engineering works
in the form of bearing and distance tables.

A further use of EDM in civil engineering is in tunneling where it is used in the surveying necessary for
the establishment of headings at ground level and for the measurement of the depths of shafts. EDM
has also been used successfully for positioning piles and other inshore marine structures.

6.3 Remote Control Sensing and Robotics

Remote sensing is the science of acquiring information about earth’s surface without actually being in
contact with it. This is done by sensing and recording reflected or emitted energy and processing,
analyzing and applying that information. Human apply remote sensing in their day to day business,
through vision, hearing and sense of smell. The data collected can be of many forms; variations in
acoustic wave distributions (e.g. sonar), variations in force distributions (e.g. gravity meter), variations in
electromagnetic energy distributions (e.g. eye) etc. These remotely collected data through various
sensors may be analyzed to obtain information about the objects or features under investigation.

Thus, remote sensing is the process of inferring surface parameters from measurement of the
electromagnetic radiation (EMR) form the earth’s surface. This EMR can either be reflected or emitted

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from the earth’s surface. This EMR can either be reflected or emitted from the earth’s surface. In other
words, remote sensing is detecting and measuring electromagnetic (EM) energy emanating or reflected
from distant objects made of various materials so that we can identify and categorize these objects by
class or type, substance and spatial distribution.

Remote sensing provides a means of observing large areas at finer spatial and temporal frequencies. It
finds extensive applications in civil engineering watershed studies, hydrological states and fluxes
simulations, hydrological modeling, disaster management services such as flood and drought warning
and monitoring, damage assessment in case of natural calamities, environmental monitoring, urban
planning, etc.

Principle of Remote Control Sensing

Different objects reflect or emit different amounts of energy in different bands of the electromagnetic
spectrum. The amount of energy reflected or emitted depends on the properties of both the materials
and the incident energy (angle of incidence, intensity and wavelength). Detection and discrimination of
objects or surface features is done through the uniqueness of the reflected or emitted electromagnetic
radiation from the object.

A device to detect this reflected or emitted electro-magnetic radiation from an object is called sensor. A
vehicle used to carry the sensor is called a platform (e.g. aircrafts and satellites).

The main stages in remote sensing are as follows:

 Emission of electromagnetic radiation

The sun or an EMR source located on the platform

 Transmission of energy from the source to the object

Absorption and scattering of the EMR while transmission.

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  Interaction of EMR with the object and subsequent reflection and emission

 Transmission of energy from the object to the sensor

 Recording of energy by the sensor

 Transmission of the recorded information to the ground station

 Processing of the data into digital or hard copy image

 Analysis of data

Depending on the source of electromagnetic energy, remote sensing can be classified as passive or
active remote sensing.

 Passive Remote Sensing

In case of passive remote sensing source of energy is the naturally available energy such as the sun.
Solar energy reflected by the targets at specific wavelength bands are recorded using sensors onboard
air-borne or space borne platforms. In order to ensure ample signal strength received at the sensor,
wavelength (energy bands capable of traversing through the atmospheric interaction are generally used
in remote sensing. Passive sensors can also be used to measure the earth’s radiance but they are not
very popular as the energy content is very low.

 Active Remote Sensing

In case of active remote sensing, energy is generated and sent from the remote sensing platform
towards the target. The energy reflected back from the targets are recorded using sensors onboard the
remote sensing platform. Most of the microwave remote sensing is taking a picture with camera having
built-in flash.

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Advantage of remote sensing

 Provide data of large areas.

 Rapid production of maps for interpretation.

 Easy and rapid collection of data.

 Relatively inexpensive when compared to employing a team of surveyours.

 Able to obtain imagery of any area over a continous period of time through which any
anthropogenic or natural changes in the landscape can be analyzed.

 Provides data of very remote and inaccessible regions.

Disadvantages of remote sensing

 Objects can be misclassified or confused

 Data from multiple sources may create confusion.

 Needs cross verification with grounds (field) survey data.

 The interpretation of imagery required a certain skill level.

 Distortion may occur in an image due to the relative motion of sensor and source.

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6.4 Strain Gauze Load Cell
A load cell is a transducer that is used to create an electrical signal whose magnitude is directly
proportional to the force being measured.

Basic Principle of Strain Gauge Load Cell

When steel cylinder is subjected to a force, it tends to change in dimension. On this cylinder, if the strain
gauges are bounded, the strain gauge also gets stretched or compressed causing a change in its length
and diameter. This change in dimension of the strain gauge causes its resistance to change. This change
in resistance or output voltage of the strain gauge becomes a measure of applied force.

Construction

They are a cylinder made up of steel on which four identical strain gauge are mounted and out of four
strain gauge, two of them (R1 and R4) are mounted along the direction of the applied load ( vertical
gauges). The other two strain gauges (R2 and R3) are mounted circumferentially at right angles to gauges
R1 and R4. The four resistance strain gauges are connected electrically as a four arms of Wheatstone
bridge. The circuit diagram of Wheatstone bridge is also shown below.

Case I

When there is no load (force) on the steel cylinder, all the four gauge will have the same resistance. As
the terminals N and P are at the same potential, the wheatstone bridge is balanced and hence the
output voltage will be zero.

Case II

Now, the load ( force) to be measured ( say compression force) is applied on the steel cylinder. Due to
this, the vertical gauges R1 and R4 will undergo compression and hence there will be decrease in

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resistance. At the same time, the horizontal gauges R2 and R3 will undergo tension and there will be an
increase in resistance. Thus when strained, resistance of the various gauge changes.

Now, the terminal N and P will be at different potential and the change in output voltage due to the
applied force becomes a measure of the applied force when calibrated.

Uses of Strain Gauge Load Cells

 They are used for weighting purposes.

 They are used for material testing in process industry.

 They are used in tensile test machines as a major component.

 They are used for both expansion and compression.

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