Learning in Digital Media; the Legacy of McLuhan and

his Impact on Formal Education

Ruth S. Contreras Espinosa¹, Irene García Medina¹

¹University of Vic, Barcelona, Spain

Abstract. This paper describes a bibliographic analysis of the vision of Marshal

McLuhan and the vision adopted by diverse current authors regarding the use of
new interactive learning technologies. The paper also analyzes the
transformation that will have to take place in the formal surroundings of
education in order to improve their social function. The main points of view and
contributions made by diverse authors are discussed. It is important that all
actors involved in the educational process take in consideration these
contributions in order to be ready for future changes.
Keywords: learning, digital media, McLuhan, formal education

1 Introduction

The works of McLuhan have a continuing influence upon academia and it is enough
to substitute "electronic media" by "digital media" in his work so that his conclusions
are still valid. Today, the education system faces an explosion of information and
knowledge and a distribution of social knowledge, but also faces a fight for changing
the linear speech and the frame normalized of formal technicians. This is the
inheritance that is being left to the students; a legacy where the formal surroundings
of education generate evaluation systems with standard criteria that legitimate the
knowledge but that punish more than stimulate the creativity of the student.

McLuhan was able to anticipate the inexorable transit to a new age, which some
texts named as the "Information Age", and also anticipated that education, amongst
other things, would transform adopting technologies of electronic communication.
These works were criticized in their time [14], and today also we can find critics on
the use of technologies in the learning process, an example is the International Center
of Research for the Development [12] that mentions the need to surpass this magic
vision that the introduction of technologies improves education by itself. Díaz A. [9]
bases his criticisms on the risks of implementing transformations that do not have a
conceptual or strategic basis.

For education to adopt new communication technologies a paradigm change is

required, that reflects not only modifications on a methodological level, but it also
changes the culture and the organization of education itself. During the 80s, attention
was given to the needs of teachers; in the 90s the attention was given to the
interaction, now however this decade requires a pronunciation on the effects that
bring new technologies in the learning system and the organization of the formal
surroundings of education.

This era has promoted an educational reform (definitely, most of the time) in which
the students are no longer passive, but they choose innovative and interactive learning
methodologies, in accordance with the contemporary theories of education, we could
mention like an example the use of platforms such as Facebook, Slidshare or
YouTube. The majority of these methodologies are a complement to the traditional
classroom, or they work as a product of special projects that function outside the
organization of the normalized school, but still have not been integrated on the
organization of the education on a big scale.

If the technology is going to play a very important role in other ways in which we
learn, then it would be important to pay more attention to the way institutions use
these technologies, also, it would be important to take care of teachers on their role as
managers of educational technology into use, and not only like creators of content. If
an investment of infrastructure is made (hardware, software, connectivity), then it
would be necessary to realize in a parallel way, diverse proposals for the
infrastructure (contents, connection networks), for the management (sustainability,
impact evaluation, operation), without forgetting the info-culture (digital literacy,
collaboration, participation).

The use of the technologies should not be studied as a world far away of education,
since their use generates new forms of informal learning, social expression and new
ways to perceive reality. The “Lifelong Learning” establishes that it is necessary to
recognize the value of this informal learning and for this, it is necessary to create
mechanisms that help to validate this invisible knowledge which is not certified.
Developed countries such as France promote its development [31], and some formal
qualification systems like Cedefop, already advance in its accreditation.

In this paper, we carry out a bibliographic analysis on the vision of Marshal

McLuhan and the vision adopted by diverse current authors regarding the use of the
new interactive learning technologies. The paper also analyzes the transformation that
the formal surroundings of education will have to undergo. The conclusions show us
that the technologies open new possibilities of language and expression, and that
technological advances have an impact necessarily on the social institutions that
precede them, and therefore these entities have to study the way in that these new
technologies need to be integrated into their educational work (proposals no only of
investment of infrastructure) in order to improve their social function. This change
could mean a reward for the students, and in the words of McLuhan “The citizens of
the future ... they will be rewarded by their diversity and by their originality" [32].
2 The legacy of McLuhan

The ideas of McLuhan concerning the effects of the technologies of communication

were inspired partially, by the work of Harold Innis (1894 - 1952). Harold Innis [18]
argued which ones were the particular qualities of the technologies of communication
and that the promotion of a technological invention can give place to the fall of a form
of social organization. He also wrote that the technologies of communication have a
central role in the creation of the human societies, since they affect to the flow or
control of information, and he studied the properties and dominant ways of
communication, his effects in human interaction and in social structures of power.

McLuhan [25] insisted on understanding the importance of the technological

changes aside from opinions: «The effects of technology are not produced to the level
of opinions or concepts, but they modify the sensory indexes, or guidelines of
perception, regularly and without finding resistance». The city as a classroom (that
regrettably did not have the attention that the educators wanted it to have) marked a
clear aim; to sharpen the perception of the secondary school student about the cities
where they live, and therefore mitigate the effects that the electronic life could have
on them. McLuhan wanted young students to be more able to explore their
surroundings find clues that enables them to better understand the nature of the
contemporary world1.

New generations are in a world where digital communications have a main role in
his training and in the understanding of reality. Studies, like “Observatory of
tendencies2” show precisely the habits of a digital born generation. This study was
carried by Nokia and the consultancy CONECTA over two years and was initiated in
2010. Six further studies have been added that describe with his results the relation of
the young adults with technology. Those born in the digital age of between 15 and 18
years, use currently social networks, chats and blogs without limit. They employ all
type of devices to store information. All this without forgetting the constant exchange
of archives through internet or bluetooth, which gives them the ability to obtain all
types of information.

The computer is a basic element in the life of the digital generation. McLuhan [26]
already mentioned in his writings the computer like an instrument more of electronic
fixation of the information. His book of 1962 discusses the electronic interdependence
that re-creates the world of a global village and states the following: «Instead to
evolution toward an enormous library of Alexandria, the world has turned into a
computer, an electronic brain, exactly like a story of science fiction for children». He

1
Letter from McLuhan to Elsie McLuhan, dated november 1952 in the book by Matie
Molinaro, Corinne McLuhan y William Toye (eds). Letters of Marshall McLuhan, Toronto.
Oxford University Press. 1987. p. 233
2
“4to Observatorio Tendencias.” Continuous observation concerning technology and mobile
related perceptions, attitudes, habits and demands of adolescents and adults aged between 15
& 35. Study carried out by CONECTA. http://es.scribd.com/doc/25839000/4-Observatorio-
Tendencias-FINAL
later made us a premonition that today is a reality; the “Internet Galaxy” of Manuel
Castells [3]: «the computer keeps the promise of technologically creating a state of
understanding and universal unit, a state of absorption in the logos that can join
humanity in a family».

3 Digital Media on Formal Education

One of the characteristics of traditional education is the predominance of the printed

media, and this was the case until a few years ago. McLuhan and Leonard [27]
already they referred to this: «In an age when even such staid institutions as banks and
insurance companies have been altered almost beyond recognition, today's typical
classroom - in physical layout, method and content of instruction - still resembles the
classroom of 30 or more years ago».
The organization of modern schools based in grouping the students according to
their age and/or capacity, according to knowledge, thematic area and level of
difficulty, reflects the same visual logic that is used in printed media: it is linear and
hierarchical. Some of the structures used by formal institutions and that reflect this
logic are [22]:

• Students grouped by age.

• Knowledge grouped in disciplines and/or subjects.

• Periods of time allocated to a particular subject matter or limiting access to

subjects without having studied another.

• Subject matter is divided in parts and levels of difficulty.

• Classrooms designed for the education of masses and directed by the

professor.

• The students work individually and in a competitive way.

• The hierarchical structure of knowledge in fields limiting the horizontal

movement between subjects.

• The movement of students in the classroom and the communication between

students is limited.

• Education based in projects or in studies of cases is not compatible with the

available physical areas for the student.

This linear logic is based upon a standardized system and regulated in agreement
with some formal and technical guidelines that teachers have to follow. Otherwise,
this could lead to a lack of credibility in the new forms to produce the knowledge or
result in a less rigorous system. In the case of the students, without the widest possible
standardization, they run the risk of not attaining the school aims. Those that attain
them are not necessarily the strongest, but those that have adapted to the predominant
paradigm, and not to the educational system or to the educational curriculum. This is
the legacy that must not be taken away from the university careers, in which at
present there are some standard criteria that are those that legitimate the knowledge.

McLuhan predicted that the structures and roles of the traditional school would
transform, accepting increasingly the logic of the electronic communication. This can
translate in to a situation where the current structure would have to include the
integration of mixed age classes, the learning organized around the approach and
resolution of problems, and in the learning based in projects. This would be the
beginning and tasks of multidisciplinary investigation, flexible organization for the
students and his time, and especially, classrooms designed to exert the interaction
should be included.

McLuhan and Leonard [27] describe: «New educational devices, though important,
are not as central to tomorrow's schooling as are new roles for student and teacher.
Citizens of the future will find much less need for sameness of function or vision. To
the contrary, they will be rewarded for diversity and originality. Therefore, any real
or imagined need for standardized classroom presentation may rapidly fade; the very
first casualty of the present-day school system may well be the whole business of
teacher-led instruction as we know it».

In the literature review, criticisms can be found concerning the use of technologies
in the learning [12]. The International Center of Investigations for the Development,
mentions for example the need to surpass this magic vision that the introduction of
technologies improves education by itself, while Díaz [9] directs his critique at the
risk of implementing transformations that are not accompanied by conceptual and
strategic frames.

The introduction of technologies or new devices in education although important,

are not so for education as much as the new roles of the student and of the professor.
Without a change in the roles, the introduction of the technology, massive as it has
done up to now, ends up generating an ineffective repetition of the pre-existing
situation simply expanded by the technological media.

If we concentrate on the review of Juliane Linch [22], the qualities that have to
reflect a new logic in the roles, include the following activities:

• The teachers have to facilitate the location and understanding of the

multidisciplinary information.

• The distinctions between teacher, professor, tutor and/or administrator have

to disappear.

• The students have to be free to move around the buildings and school.
 • The communication between the students has to be promoted and
maximized.

• The students have to participate directly in the solution of real problems.

• The students have to work in a cooperative way.

McLuhan himself reflects on the media and technologies, referring to his linguistic
fundamental structure. In addition, Bruce Powers, professor of the University of
Niágara and a recognized expert in the area of the technologies of communication,
reflect on the subject, referring to the media and the technologies: Not only are they
like language, if not that in its essential form, are language whose origin comes from
the capacity of man to extend himself through his senses to the part that surrounds it
[28].

4 The current vision of learning via digital media

The reforms resulting from contemporary theories, the predictions of diverse authors
on education, and the effects noticed by researchers, are ideas near to the vision
promoted by McLuhan, who discovered this phenomenon. He discovered the way in
which technology changes man and vice versa and redefines them in a bidirectional
unfinished movement [21]. For example, Cornu [6] wrote about the integration of
technology as a process that transforms the organization of the school at all levels.

Diverse authors have expressed the opinion that the application of new
technologies in formal educational institutions goes hand in hand with the reform of
the functions and structures of the education. Duchateau [11] maintains that allowing
students to work in a group represents a valuable opportunity for inter and multi
disciplined activities that are not limited by borders of the subject. The interpretation
is that subjects would no longer be grouped in future, reflecting that the main aim of
the education is turning into the act of learning in general.

In his review on the effects of information technology on education and learning,

Toomey [36] observes that diverse reports identify information technology as a cause
of reform in the school system, and concludes that the strategic introduction of
technology in schools could become daily practice.

The Group US Panel on Educational Technology [1] argued that the true promise
of the use of technology in education is its potential to facilitate fundamental and
qualitative changes in the nature of learning. Pierson [33] finds that the skills of the
professors, technology and pedagogical strategies, are all important in the
determination of how education integrates with information technology on a daily
basis. Therefore, if it is required that professors succeed to integrate information
technology in their teaching, in addition to ensuring that they have the opportunity to
develop knowledge and pertinent skills, is important to foresee the opportunities for
the continuous development of the pedagogical capacity in general.

All these visions of education and the role of new technologies, amongst other
things, show that the majority of researchers have studied whether the secondary
effects of the integration of technologies are coherent with the predictions of the
changes in the organization of education. There are also some publications that
question the structures and traditional functions of schooling. These include:
Commission of the European Communities [5], Crawford [7], Hawkins [17], Knupfer
[20], and UK Department of Education & Skills [37].

There is no doubt that the introduction of information technology and the

modification of the education system are taking place. Examples such as the project
initiated by Bill Clinton in 1996 (the report Getting America's Students Ready for the
21st Century, Meeting the Technology Literacy Challenge3, describes it) and project
1X1 implemented in Spain in 2009 by the Spanish government, demonstrate a
change, although not with the planned rapidity and scope. This can be attributed to
institutions keeping their traditional strategies and a lack of understanding concerning
the challenge and opportunities that the technology can offer.

It is necessary to take advantage of these movements to create customized new

learning surroundings, able to articulate all the dimensions and anchorages of
previous learning methodologies and generate others [10]. Web 2.0 already has
allowed the generation of diverse methodologies of learning and new options of the
use of the free tools. Facebook, Twitter, You tube, Second Life are examples of this.
As a result of the joint work of hundreds of professors, the base of digital pedagogy is
beginning to take shape [2], [34]. They are no longer the odd virtual ethnographies
and studies and can be found in common use [35], [24], [38]. The most significant
changes take place in the knowledge communities of because they represent new
forms of collaboration and participation and create a new perspective for digital
natives.

These publications show the vision of McLuhan and his influence, however, other
ideas can be found regarding the interaction of the technologies with the
institutionalized structures and its functions. Furlong, Facer and Sutherland [13], state
that the way technologies are becoming part of daily life has been much more
complex than initially planned.

In the investigations, the technology is often described with an approach in which

the roles of professors and students require of real modifications in their relation and
in the exchange of information and experience. Games, for example, represent a
format of instruction similar to immersion [29] and some educational surroundings

3 Getting America’s Students Ready for the 21th Century, Meeting the Technology Literacy
Challenge. http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/os/technology/plan/national/index.html
provide complex relations and rich experiences that the traditional educational system
does not provide.

In the report School innovation: Pathway to the knowledge society, Cuttance [8]
carried out a review in twenty schools and showed a split between learning in the
school and the learning outside the classroom due to changes in the school calendar
and changes in the physical surroundings of the classroom. It concludes that, "the
experiences of the schools that have treated to integrate information technology in its
learning environment in the last decade, indicate clearly the need for other compatible
changes".

It is therefore the moment to transform the role of teachers as managers of

technology used and not only simply creators of content. It is the moment to look for
experiences that enrich learning and generate personalized learning surroundings in
addition to promoting a real reform in the function and structure of education. What
could involve the transformation of subjects that, until now, have been grouped as we
know them to be, and succeed in transforming education into understanding how to
learn rather than just memorizing a traditional subject.

5 Conclusions

The points of view of the contemporary authors on the effects of technologies of

communication in education reflect the influence of the already adopted ideas
previously put forward by Marshall McLuhan in the years 1950 and 1960. His
contributions confirm the effects of the introduction of technologies in the
development of new societies, and verify the need to modify the operational
procedures of educational institutions, as well as the form in which individuals relate
to one other and learn.

As a conclusion, the main points of view and contributions of diverse authors are
grouped and described. They should be taken into account in future by all the actors
involved in formal education.

a) Digital Media: An Opportunity to Change the Organization of Education.

Digital media have impacted social institutions that precede them, and therefore these
entities have to study the way that the new technologies have to be integrated in
teaching. This pressure creates new rules in which digital media have to form part of
education, and thus the use of the technologies has to be studied as part of education
due of its importance. This also needs to be seen from a transversal critical and
integrated perspective. Schooling is often seen in forms that reflect the tribal logic of
these technologies, however, the realization of this logic consists in practices,
structures and functions that are incongruous with the institutions of education. The
transition of an education that reflects the logic of the impression supposes a major
change, but no only in the implementation of the technology, but it also requires
changes in the culture and the organization of education. As stated by Cobo [4], if an
investment is made to create infrastructure (hardware, software, connectivity), there
would have to exist diverse proposals for its use (contents, networks of exchange), for
the management (sustainability, evaluation of impact, operation), without forgetting
to the info-culture (digital literacy, collaboration, participation). Other authors like
Duchateau [11], Toomey [36], Cornu [6], LabCom [21], and Becker and Ravitz [1]
agree that the technology is a door to change the organization of education.

b) The New Role of Education

Juliane Linch [22], Nokia and CONECTA [30], Pierson [33], Commission of the
European Communities [5], Crawford [7], Hawkins [17], Knupfer [20], UK
Department of Education & Skills [37] mention the importance of modifying the
current roles. What matters are neither the contents nor the media that bear them, but
the structure of the space in which the student takes control, splitting of some strategic
notions of the teacher. In this situation, the teacher renounces the role of being only
actor in possession of the knowledge and yielding space to the student. In the era of
internet, a vertical transmission of the information and control of power. When new
roles between professor and student are created, the taking of decisions becomes
decentralized and contributes to generate new profiles of students. This will create
leaders of projects, creators of documentation or perhaps a community manager.
Therefore, the change of the role of the professor will allow the implementation of
strategies that promote the auto learning on a day to day basis and learning based in
problems and/or collaborative learning.

“Lifelong Learning” establishes that it is necessary to recognize the value of the

informal learning [23] and although the mechanisms have not been created that would
help to validate this knowledge and certify it, is strategic to promote the change of
roles. The aim would be that in the future it is possible to create these mechanisms to
validate knowledge that has not been learned in the classroom. Recognize the
strategic value of the knowledge obtained in an informal manner, is a pending task of
formal education, but is necessary to begin the transformation from down upwards,
changing the current roles of the education.

c) Innovative and Interactive Methodologies

Technology has been used to deliver content, in other words, the message of modern
education. This means that new technologies open up new possibilities of language
and expression, and champion a new form to carry the educational reform by
innovative uses of media that are consistent with the contemporary theories of
education [22]. With this, the students stop being passive, and opt for methodologies
of innovative and interactive learning. The use of innovative and interactive
methodologies does not mean to use alternative methodologies instead of the
traditional method. Instead, it tries to develop competitions between teachers and
students so that there is a more dynamic role, using sources of current varied and
motivating information and a definite, interactive and cooperative methodology of
work [15].

The conclusions show us that technological advances have an impact necessarily

on the social institutions that precede them, and therefore these entities have to study
the way to incorporate them into their educational work in order to improve their
social function. It is important to introduce modifications on a methodological level,
but it is important not to forget that technological advances change the culture and the
organization of education itself. It is necessary to invest in infrastructure (hardware,
software, connectivity), but also it would be necessary to realize in a parallel way,
diverse proposals for the infrastructure (contents, connection networks), for the
management (sustainability, impact evaluation, operation), without forgetting the
info-culture (digital literacy, collaboration, participation).

In summary, technology has to integrate entirely with the organization of the

education and become a complement of the traditional classroom or has to be
integrated as a special product from outside of the organization of the normal school.
If the technologies are to play an important role in the transformation of the way
schools are seen and conceived, then the institutions have to promote the use of these
technologies in order to be able to improve its social function. The development of the
native digital generation will definitively have a very strong influence over the course
of education, which undergoes radical transformations in institutions. More value will
be given to anything that wakes up interest in this generation of much more
demanding consumers and citizens who are better informed [19]. The capacity to
carry out multiple tasks represents a distinctive characteristic of this generation. The
systems of current formal education will, not without difficulty, achieve to call the
attention of individuals that understand the possibility to transform education into
being much more interactive, dynamic and of course, motivating.

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