Medicinal Plant Treasures of India

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Medicobiological applications of some promising plants
First Edition
Editors
Dr. D.K. Gaikwad
Dr. Nivas M. Desai
Dr. Umesh Pawar
Dr. Chirag Narayankar
INSC International Publishers

Title of the Book: Medicinal Plant Treasures of India
Edition: First- 2021
Copy right © 2021
Editors:
Dr. D.K. Gaikwad, Department of Botany, Shivaji University, Kolhapur

Maharashtra India.
Dr. Nivas M. Desai, Sadguru Gadage Maharaj College, Karad. Maharashtra India.
Dr. Umesh Pawar, Shri Pancham Khemraj Mahavidyalaya, Sawantwadi,

Maharashtra, India.
Dr. Chirag Narayankar,Sadguru Gadage Maharaj College, Karad. Maharashtra

India.
No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any information storage
and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the copyright owners’.
Disclaimer
The authors are solely responsible for the contents published in this book. The
publishers or editors don’t take any responsibility for the same in any manner. Errors,
if any, are purely unintentional and readers are requested to communicate such errors
to the editors or publishers to avoid discrepancies in future.
ISBN: 978-1-68576-041-0
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ii
This book is dedicated for those who encouraged
us to achieve our dreams...
iii
Preface
Medicinal plants have been the keystone of health care since ancient time. Their
innumerable uses have been documented and transformed through the generation for
over more than 4000 years. In the early 19th century, as soon as the scientific
investigations began, numerous plant based drugs have been made available to cure
large number of global diseases. The 21st century started with exploration of these
traditional remedies to meet patient needs. Now we are in the era where science and
technologies have evolved to elucidate the safety and efficacy of traditional
medicines. Even though much more information on uses of plant/plant parts in various
health practices is still unrecorded. This book will present an overall illustration of
some selected medicinal plants and their medico biological application. It will also
throw light on critical areas of ongoing research, transforming the information on
medicinal plants and their recent applications.
In the chapter 1 of Asmita Joshi, a pursuit has been made to besiege the medicinal
uses, phytochemistry, and various aspects of Plectranthus barbatus Syn. Coleus
forskohlii.
The medicobiological applications right from ancient to modern times of magical

Pongamia pinnata have been addressed in Chapter 2 by Mangal Patwardhan.
Manasi Patil, in Chapter 3, focuses on the many uses of Indian oil yielding paradise
plant: Simaruba glauca.
Surekha Borchate highlited the traditional and modern medicinal applications of grain
Amaranthus gangeticus in chapter 4.
In Chapter 5, Babu Sonar discusses aspects of the importance of Hibiscus subdarifa

with wide range of traditional and potential new health food uses.
In Chapter 6, Mangal Patwardhan discussed aspects of the variety of phyto-

constituents and versatility of Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) plant in its pharmacological
activities and uses.
The 7th chapter (Gaikwad, Powar and Kadam) offers a brief, but broad overview of
Portulaca oleracea: A traditional, oldest and common wild medicinal vegetable.
Chapter 8 (Sagar Deshmukh) examines the Bioactive compounds from Malabar

Spinach (Basella alba L.) - a potential leafy green vegetable.
Sharada Ghadage discussed the medicinal importance of Ginger in chapter 9.
We hope that this sprinkling of chapters will reveal the diverse literature of different
medicinal plant in ethno-botanical and health care applications and also we believe
iv
that the scientific information provided will help readers to understand medicinal
potentials of plants described in this volume.
Finally, we wishes to thank INSC International Publishers, for help and support
during the preparation of the book.
v
Contents
1 Plectranthus barbatus Syn. Coleus forskohlii: The Plant With 1-20

Dynamic Medicinal Potential
Dr. Asmita S. Joshi.
2 Magical Pongamea pinnata 21-38

Dr.Mangal Patwardhan
3 Simarouba glauca: A Paradise Medicinal Plant 39-55

Dr.Manasi Patil
4 Amaratnhus gangeticus: Plant With Giganticus Therapeutic Uses 56-66

Dr.Surekha Borchate
5 Hibiscus sabdarifa: Plant With Multispectral Uses 67-92

Dr.Babu Sonar
6 Versatile Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) 93-107

Dr.Mangal Patwardhan
7 Portulaca oleracea: A Traditional, Oldest And Common Wild 108-123

Medicinal Vegetable
Dr.Suvarna V. Gaikwad, Dr.Pratishtha N. Nagane and
Dr.Asha B. Kadam
8 Bioactive Compounds From Malabar Spinach (Basella alba L.) - A 124-134

Potential Leafy Green Vegetable
Dr.S. A. Deshmukh
9 Herbal Drug: Ginger 135-141

Dr. Sharada Jagannath Ghadage
vi
Plectranthus Barbatus Syn. Coleus Forskohlii:The Plant

with Dynamic Medicinal Potential
Mrs. Asmita S. Joshi.
Department of Botany
Shivaji University, Kolhapur
asmi_jasmine82@yahoo.com
Abstract
Plectranthus barbatus syn. Coleus forskohlii is a highly potential
aromatic medicinal plant belonging to family Lamiaceae (Labiatae). It is
originated and distributed in lower elevations of India, commonly known
as Makandiberu, Mainmul, Makandi or Patharcheer in India. Most
commonly found in arid and semi-arid hill slopes of Himalayas, Bhutan,
Eastern Ghats, Western ghats, Deccan and Eastern plateau. It is a perennial
herb with tuberous roots which exclusively contains highly important
medicinal substance, an active alkaloid diterpene - 'Forskolin'. It has
tremendous therapeutic potential and had been a critical part of Indian
medicines since centuries. It also shows presence of diverse
phytochemicals. The herbal preparations of it are effective in several
pharmacologic mechanisms. In Ayurveda, it is used primarily to treat heart
diseases, lung diseases, intestinal disorders, respiratory disorders,
insomnia, seizures, asthma, bronchitis, burning sensation, constipation,
angina, epilepsy, in treatment of worms and to comfort burning in
festering boils. The root extract can be used to treat eczema and other skin
infections. Recently, several studies indicated that Makandiberu or
Minemul exhibited positive effects against asthma, glaucoma,
hypertension, cancer, diabetes, infertility, sports injuries, painful urination
and obesity exhibiting a wide spectra of its therapeutic values. In this
chapter, various aspects of its medicinal and pharmacological research
development has been illustrated.
I. Introduction
Review of literature reveals that several workers have carried out

studies to review C. forskohlii plant and also to throw light on various
research developmental processes regarding its highly medicinally
important content, diterpene forskolin and other phytochemicals. De Souza
et al., (1983), Seamon and Daly (1983), Ammon and Muller (1985), De
1
Souza (1993), Lukhoba et al., (2006), Alasbahi and Melzig (2010),

Kavitha et al., (2010), Khatun et al., (2011), Singh et al., (2011), Khan et
al., (2012), Soni and Singhai (2012), Lakshmanan et al., (2013) and Paul
et al., (2013) are some of those.
Plectranthus L' Herit most commonly known as genus Coleus is a

complex genus belonging to mint family Lamiaceae (Labiatae) made up of
about 300 species scattered throughout Asia, Africa and Australia
(Lukhoba et al., 2006). As per Valdes et al., (1987) and Kavitha et al.,
(2010), the origin of C. forskohlii is Indian sub- continent. It is found on
arid and semi-arid hill slopes of Himalayas, Bhutan, Eastern Ghats,
Western ghats, Deccan plateau and Eastern plateau. The plant is
distributed on elevations of India, Nepal, Myanmar, Srilanka, Pakistan,
China, Thailand, Brazil, Africa, Egypt, Ethiopia. It is herbaceous with
annual stem and perennial root stock naturally growing most frequently in
rocky places and also cultivated as crop or in the kitchen garden. In
Kolhapur district, it is reported to be grown in Nesari, Tarewadi, Kowad
and Herale.(Yadav and Sardesai, 2002).
The genus Coleus was firstly labelled by Portuguese naturalist, João

de Loureiro (1717-1791) and was coined from the greek word ‗Coleos‘
meaning ‗sheath‘. The species name forskohlii was given in honor of
Swedish botanist, Pehr Forsskål. Later on, the chemical content obtained
by this plant was named as a forskolin by CIDR, India. (De Souza et al.,
2
(1983); Seamon and Daly, (1983); Kavitha et al., (2010); Paul et al,
(2013). It is known by vernacular names like in English- Coleus, Indian
Coleus, Hindi- Patharchur, Patharcheer, Marathi- Mainmul, Sanskrit-
Pashan Bhedi, Makandi, Gandhmulika, Gujrati- Garmalu, Tamil-
Karpooravalli (Karpuravalli), Pashan Bheda, Marunthu Koorkan,
Kannada- Makandiberu.
C. forskohlii syn P. barbatus is a perennial herb, grows to about 40 -

60 cm and has four angled stems which are branched with hairy nodes.
Leaves are 7 to 12.5 cm in length and 3 to 5 cm in width, pubescent,
narrowed into petioles,Inflorescence Raceme. The flower gets cross-
pollinated by wind or insects. The roots are tuberous, thick, golden brown
and radially spreading, straight, orange-yellowish inside and strongly
aromatic. The only species of the genus to have fasciculated tuberous roots
is Coleus forskohlii. The entire plant is aromatic however the leaves and
tubers have relatively different odours. The root exhibit interestingly
diverse morphology in different populations, being tuberous, semi
tuberous and/or fibrous (Shah, 1989; Kavitha et al., 2010; Lakshmanan et
al., 2013).
According to Shah and Kalakoti, (1996) C. forskohlii survives better

in red, sandy loam soils with a pH 5.5 to 7 with relative humidity, 80% -
95% and a temperature of 10 to 250C is perfect for the crop. An annual
rainfall of 100 to 160 cm, necessarily between June-September is
adequate. It is propagated by seeds as well as by terminal stem cuttings.
Seed propagation is difficult and slow whereas propagation by terminal
stem cutting is easy. 10 to 12 cm long terminal cuttings with 3 to 4 pairs of
leaves are planted in nursery beds and after one month of establishment,
they are transplanted to the main field. June/July and September/ October
is best time for cultivation. The crop is ready for harvest in 4 1/2 to 5
months after plantation. The plants are uprooted, the tubers separated,
cleaned, sun dried and further used for herbal preparation. It is cultivated
under contract farming system specifically in India.
II. Medicinal Importance
Plectranthus barbatus (Andr.) is an important, traditional Ayurvedic

Medicinal herb which has been used as a unique part of Indian medicine
since centuries. In 1970s, researchers firstly isolated the diterpene
3
forskolin as an active alkaloid from the roots of this species. The wide
spectra of its medicinal potential is described as below -
2.1 Heart Disorders
De Souza,(1977) and Inamdar et al., (1980) reported that methanol

extract of root tubers displayed blood pressure lowering and positive
inotrophic actions in animal system. Thorough pharmacological studies
established that forskolin helps in lowering normal or elevated blood
pressure in different animal species through a vasodilatory effect and it
exerted a positive inotropic action on the heart muscle (Dubey et al., 1981;
De Souza et al., 1983). In Ayurveda it is used primarily to treat heart
diseases, lung diseases, intestinal disorders, respiratory disorders, insomnia
and seizures (Dubey et al., (1981). According to Ayurveda, Makandis
gunas are light and dry, it is tridoshic (KPV). It enters Rasa and Rakta
dhatus and respiratory and circulatory Srotamsi. Historically it is deemed
as Chakushya (benefiting the eyes) and Kasaswasahara (alleviating
coughing and benefiting breathing).
2.2 Anti-Asthmatic
Forskolin was firstly studied as bronchodilator by Bruka, (1986) for

its promising use in the treatment of asthma. Forskolin was found to block
bronchospasm which is the chief characteristic of asthma and bronchitis in
guinea pigs caused by release of histamine and leukotriene C-4 (Kreutner
et al., 1985). A study carried out by Bauer et al., (1993) in human revealed
that inhalation of forskolin powder formulations were capable of causing
bronchodilation in asthma patients.Ammon and Muller, (1985) also stated
about its use in asthma, bronchitis, burning sensation, constipation, angina,
epilepsy, in treatment of worms and to comfort burning in festering boils.
De Souza (1993), reported it as the only plant source of forskolin thus far
known. Recently, several studies indicated that Makandiberu or Minemul
exhibited positive effects against asthma, glaucoma, hypertension, cancer,
heart disease, diabetes, infertility, sports injuries, painful urination and
obesity.
4
2.3 Psoriasis and Other Skin Ailments
An improvement in symptoms of psoriasis treated with forskolin has

been reported by Ammon and Muller, (1985). The ability of forskolin to
regulate cAMP level in skin cells has been found to be therapeutically
beneficial to patients of psoriasis. Upon mixing with mustard oil, the root
extract can be used to treat eczema and other skin infections. De Souza
and Shah, (1988), reported its use for veterinary purposes.
2.4 Folk Medicine
In Himalaya region, practitioners of folk medicine use the root to

treat constipation. The medicinal use of this plant has been traditionally
made in other countries also. In Egypt and Northern Africa, leaves and
roots are used as an expectorant, antidepressant and diuretic (Dragendorff
1898). This plant extract is used as a stomach aid and in treating intestinal
disorders in Brazil, as proposed by Valdes et al., (1987). It is also used for
veterinary purposes (De Souza and Shah, 1988). The medicines used for
preventing hair greying and restoring grey hair to its normal colour also
contains forskolin (Kavitha et al., 2010).
2.5 Anti-Glaucoma
Caprioli et. al., (1984) reported that forskohlin acts as anti-glaucoma

agent by reducing intraocular pressure by reducing aqueous inflow. The
topical application of forskolin reduced the intraocular pressure in various
animals like rabbits, monkeys and healthy human volunteers. Forskolin
caused dropping of aqueous inflow but no change in outflow facility
signifying the potential of forskolin in the healing of glaucoma. However
Lee et al. (1987) reported that forskolin had no permanent effect on
intraocular pressure in monkeys with glaucoma. As reported by Brubaker
et al., (1987) it was also not much effective on humans in reducing
aqueous flow when applied topically to the eye.
2.6 Anti obesity and Thyroid Ailments
Forskolin was found to stimulate lipolysis in fat cells and improved

the thyroid hormone production (Haye et al., 1985; Roger et al.,1987).
Rupp et al., (1986) also reported that forskolin inhibits platelet activating
factor and causes ameliorating effect on thyroid functioning. In the
5
Western countries, it is of current attention largely due to its effectiveness

in the body weight management. It is reported to break down stored fat
(Srivastava et al., 2002). The anti-obesity effects of C. forskohlii were
investigated by Han et al., (2005) in ovariectomized rats. They reported
that the administration of C. forskohlii extracts reduced body weight, food
intake and fat accumulation in those rats indicating the use of C. forskohlii
in the treatment of obesity (Patel and Saraf, 2016).
2.7 Anti Cancer
Forskolin was reported to reduce tumour colonization (melanoma

cell line – BF16F10) in the lungs by 70 %. Agarwal and Parks, (1983) and
McEwan et al., (2007) evidenced that forskolin when applied with
rolipram, helps in inhibition of colon cancer cell growth and survival.
2.8 Antithrombotic Effect
Forskolin causes inhibition of platelet aggregation through adenylate

cyclase stimulation, augmenting the effects of prostaglandins (Siegl et al.,
1982; Adnot et al., 1982). Rupp et al., (1986) also reported that forskolin
inhibits platelet activating factor. It was reported that in rabbits, the
antithrombotic properties of forskolin might be enhanced by cerebral
vasodilation. This vasodilation was not augmented by adenosine (Wysham
et al., 1986). The use of crude C. forskohlii extract as a rational
phytotherapeutic antithrombotic has been proposed by De Souza.,
(1993).Apart from forskolin, coleus also shows presence of essential oil in
tubers and leaves with a delicate odour with little spicy note. Essential oil
has uses in food flavouring industry and used as an antimicrobial agent
(Misra et al., 1994: Chowdhary and Sharma, 1998).
III. Phytochemical Studies
Forskolin was initially referred as coleonol and discovered in the

year 1974. Shah et al. (1980) reported that forskolin was not detected in
six Coleus species and found exclusively in C. forskohlii. Trivedi et al.,
(1982) determined coleonol from P. barbatus roots by technique of
spectrophotometry and showed that roots contained about 0.16% of the
compound. Later, Singh and Tandon, (1982) did comparison of coleonol
and forskolin and confirmed that both these compounds are structurally
non-identical but are stereoisomers, that is, they varied only in the
6
configuration of the acetate (-OAc) group at carbon 7, in forskolin its β

and in colenol its. However, Seamon and Daly, (1981) proposed that
forskolin and coleonol showed identical properties. The chemical
composition of Coleus forskohlii has been investigated by many workers
and it is revealed that besides forskolin, many other compounds are
present and also being identified continuously in this species. Tandon et
al., (1979) observed that crocetin dialdehyde, a guanine apocarotenoid
accumulates in roots of P. barbatus. C. forskohlii tuberous root extracts
also found to contain some other minor diterpenoids like, deactylforskolin,
9 - deoxyforskolin, 1, 9 -deoxyforskolin, 1, 9 - dideoxy - 7 -
deacetylforskolin along with forskolin (7 - acetoxy - 8, 13-epoxy-1, 6, 9 -
trihydroxylabd-14-en-11-one) as reported by Ammon and Kemper, (1982)
and De Souza and Shah, (1988). Ahmed and Vishwakarma, (1988)
reported that alcoholic extract of roots yielded caffeic acid and a new
monoterpene glycoside, coleoside. Xu et al. (2005) found six terpene
compounds from the roots of C. forskohlii and identified structures as 14-
deoxycoleon V, demethylcryptojaponol, alpha-amyrin, betulic acid, alpha-
cedrol and beta-sitosterol. The compounds such as alpha-amyrin and
betulic acid were isolated for the first time from C. forskohlii. Two new
diterpenoids forskolin I and J were separated from C. forskohlii plants in
Yunnan Province by Xu et al., (2005). Shan and Kong, (2006) isolated 6
new terpenoids as 3-hydroxy forskolin, 3-hydroxy isoforskolin, arjunic
acid, arjungerrin, euscaphic acid, 2 alpha, 3 alpha-19alpha, 23-
tetrahydroxyurs-12 en-28-oic acid. Yang et al., (2006) isolated 3 new
diterpenoids (forskolin G, forskolin H and forskolin I). Shan et al., (2007)
for the first time isolated two minor diterpene glycosides
forskoditerpenosides A, B and new eudesmane sesquiterpene -4 beta, 7
beta, 11-enantioeudesmantriol and these compounds displayed relaxative
effects on isolated guinea pig tracheal spirals In vitro. Other minor
phytochemicals reported in this species are allylroyleanone, barbatusin,
plectrin, plectrinon A, acetoxycoleosol, coleol, coleonone, coleosol,
deoxycoleonol, napthopyrones etc.(www.Biosourcing.com).
Later, Shan et al., (2008) isolated three more minor labdane

diterpene glycosides, forskoditerpenoside C, D and E and a novel labdane
diterpene forskoditerpene A from ethanolic extract of the entire plant of C.
forskohlii. Forskoditerpene A is the first known labdane derivative with a
spiro element.The roots also produce a viscous, dark brown essential oil
comprising a range of aroma compounds (Misra et al., 1994). They
reported that over 4 compounds belonging to 4 classes of aroma
7
compounds have been recovered from oil. These include sesquiterpenes,

sesquiterpene alcohols, monoterpenoids and diterpenoids. This oil
possesses antimicrobial property.Along with all these secondary
metabolites, roots are also reported to contain starch, sugars and proteins
in varied concentrations depending upon different geographic zones of
India (Srivastava et al., 2002).
IV. Forskolin - An Active Constituent
Apart from all the other diverse phytochemicals found in C.

forskohlii tuberous roots, forskolin is the key chemical component of the
tuber. The herbal preparations of it are effective in several pharmacologic
mechanisms. Dubey et al. (1974) reported the blood pressure lowering and
antispasmodic effects of extracts of roots of C. forskohlii.
Forskolin (Synonym -7beta Acetoxy-8,13 epoxy -1 alpha, 6 beta,

alpha Trihydroxylabd -14 en -11 one, coleonol, colforsin. Molecular
formula - [C22H34O7], Molecular weight - [410.50] is the most important
chemical constituent in C. forskohlii roots. It is an off-white crystalline
solid with a melting point of 228- 230 ⁰ C and UV absorption maxima at
210 nm and 305 nm. Hegde et al., (2005) carried out evaluation of P.
barbatus accessions for tuber and forskolin yield and put forth that the
accession IIHR-8 giving medium tuber yield and higher forskolin content
(0.715%) can be encouraged for commercial cultivation being vegetatively
propagating plant.
4.1 Structural Formula - Forskolin
a. Biosynthesis: In the suggested biosynthetic pathway 8, 13epoxy-labd-

14-en-11-one is the first mono oxygenated labdane diterpene to be
produced in biosynthetic pathway leading from the labdane diterpene
skeleton. Subsequent addition of oxygen gives 1,9-dideoxy forskolin, 9-
deoxy forskolin with other terpenes being Forskolin as the last
compound formed in the biosynthetic order. Engprasert et al., (2004)
8
studied biosynthesis of forskolin and reported that IPP (isopentenyl

diphosphate) is a common biosynthetic precursor to the labden
diterpene forskolin. It has been investigated that forskolin was
synthesized via non-mevalonate pathway and GGPP (geranyl geranyl
diphosphate) synthase is supposed to be involved in the biosynthesis of
forskolin which is principally synthesized in the leaves and
subsequently accumulated in the roots of the plant. Functional
expression of geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate synthase and molecular
cloning in C.forskohlii have been verified. The presence of GGPP
synthase gene in C. forskohlii is confirmed. Reddy et al., (2005) also
reported that forskolin is the end compound to be formed in the
biogenetic sequence of acetate mevalonate pathway.
b. Mode of action: De Souza (1977) recorded that the methanolic extract

from the root causes dropping of blood pressure and positive inotropic
activities in animal systems. Seamon et al., (1981), Metzger and
Lindner (1981), Litosch et al., (1982), Hersey et al., (1983), Moger and
Anakwe., (1983) and Boige et al., (1984) have studied the mode of
action of forskolin. The principle mechanism behind hypotensive
activity exerted by forskolin is because of activation of the enzyme
adenylate cyclase. This increases amount of second messenger cyclic
adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) in the cells (Seamon et al., 1981).
cAMP is the vitally significant cytoregulatory compound, which
activates various other enzymes involved in cellular metabolism.
Forskolin rightly activates almost all hormone sensitive adenylate
cyclases in intact cells, tissues and even solubilized preparation of
adenylate cyclase (Metzger and Lindner, 1981). According to Seamon
and Daly, (1981) the characteristic feature of this activation is that the
site of action for forskolin is the catalytic subunit of the enzyme or a
closely associated protein. As opined by Iwatsubo et al., (2003) among
9 types of adenylate cyclase in humans, forskolin can trigger all except
type IX, which is found in spermatozoa. Seamon et al., (1983) reported
that forskolin activates adenylate cyclase directly without the
requirement of hormone receptors, guanine nucleotide regulatory
proteins or guanine nucleotides. Thus, increased cellular cAMP level
cause several physiological and biochemical effects. Forskolin, by
increasing cAMP level in turn, lowers blood pressure and improves
vasodilation (Wysham et al., 1986), lowers intraocular pressure
(Caprioli et al., 1984) and promotes thyroid hormone secretion and
accelerates lipolysis in fat cells (Roger et al.,1987), supresses basophil,
9
mast cell degranulation and release of histamine (Marone et al., 1987),

inhibits platelet aggregation (Wong et al., 1993).
These actions of forskolin established itself as a prospective

molecule, as a precious research tool for understanding physiological
processes dependent on cyclic – AMP, and also as an efficient
therapeutic agent for health ailments like cardiac inadequacy,
hypertension, glaucoma, anti-depression, weight loss, hypothyroidism,
cancer, psoriasis, thrombosis, asthma, allergies and metastatic
condition.
c. Extraction and separation of forskolin: Forskolin is extracted

exclusively from tubers of C. forskohlii, using organic solvents selected
from the group consisting of ethyl acetate, methanol, ethanol and
dichloromethane. The obtained extracts could then be purified by the
means of column chromatography, using active charcoal as sorbent.
The obtained forskolin have been characterized by using physico-
chemical methods, such as: TLC, HPTLC, HPLC and MS. Various
methods of extraction, purification, quantification of forskolin and other
compounds are reviewed by Kavitha et al., (2010), Swamy and Rao
(2011), Lakshmanan et al., (2013). The tubers are collected on wet
basis at up to 85% moisture level and after drying stored at less than
10% moisture. Sun drying is lengthy and recorded the lowest recovery
of forskolin. Rajangam, (2005) also mentioned that mechanically dried
tubers at 40°C and kept in polyethylene lined gunny bag showed the
maximum amount of forskolin. Among several chromatographic
methods employed for quantification of forskolin, gas-liquid
chromatography (GLC) method was the first developed method
(Inamdar et al., 1980). Afterwards, TLC and HPLC methods were used.
HPLC method is found to be more rapid and less sensitive than GLC
and used to screen difference in forskolin content in diverse
germplasms as reported by Inamdar et al., (1984). Yanagihara et al.,
(1996) developed a monoclonal antibody specific for forskolin and used
for extremely sensitive quantification of forskolin in plant tissues at
various stages of development. Nuclear magnetic resonance data and a
gas chromatography-mass spectral method are also used for forskolin
quantification (Demetzos et al., 2002). Reversed-phase liquid
chromatography with a photodiode array detector at 210 nm is
successful in the qualitative and quantitative evaluation of forskolin in
plant material and in market products claiming to contain forskolin
10
(Schaneberg and Khan, 2003). Saleem et al., (2006) reported a simple,

rapid and economical reverse phase high performance liquid
chromatography (RP-HPLC) method for the isolation of high-purity
forskolin. Wu et al., (2007) reported that HPLC-ELSD fingerprint
method can be used in quality control of C. forskohlii. A spectrometric
method for detection and quantification of forskolin was developed by
Inamdar et al, (1984). They reported that forskolin gives violet
coloration with vanillin in acetic acid and perchloric acid. Presence of
forskolin and other terpenoids in tubers of C. forskohlii was reported in
TLC done with chloral hydrate washings. Rf value of forskolin was
found 0.48. Abraham et al, (1988) confirmed that the existence of
yellow-reddish brown masses in cytoplasmic vesicles in cork cells as
seen in the sections of C. forskohlii tubers containing the terpenoids
including forskolin. Histochemical localization of forskolin and
presence of forskolin in the cells of cork, cortex, medullary rays and
xylem in roots and tuber of C. forskohlii was also confirmed
(Narayanan et al., 2002; Kavitha et al., (2010), Lakshmanan et al.,
2013).
V. Progress in Development OF C. Forskohl II as A Medicinal Crop
Various attempts have been made to increase the productivity of this

plant by developing both in Vitro and In Vivo techniques which has been
briefly discussed as follows
5.1 Development in In vitro studies
In vitro propagation is a novel technique used for massive

multiplication of plants and for germplasm conservation of any
endangered plant. Sharma et al., (1991) reported the In-Vitro clonal
multiplication of P. barbatus in Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium
supplemented with kinetin (2mg/l) and IAA (1mg/l) using nodal segments
as explants. Because of succulent nature, Coleus forskohlii does well in In
vitro propagation using various explants such as nodal segments, shoot tip,
leaf etc. Shoot tip explants from 30 days old aseptically germinated
seedlings can be utilized for multiplication using 6-benzyl amino purine (2
mg/l) (Sen and Sharma, 1991). Sen et al., (1992) recorded production of
forskolin in diverse tissue culture systems such as shoot tip culture,
rhizogenic callus culture and root organ suspension respectively on MS
medium, Whites basal medium in presence or absence of growth
11
stimulants. Tripathi et al., (1995) reported the forskolin formation by root

callus cultures. Bhattacharya et al., (2001) established the most suitable
way of conservation of true to type-elite P. barbatus plant using in-vitro
culture and encapsulation technique. Reddy et al., (2001) used leaf derived
callus for developing a protocol for high frequency shoot organogenesis
and mass propagation of P. barbatus. Rajasri and Sabita, (2001)
successfully developed complete plantlets of C. forskohlii within 35-40
days by using shoot tip explant culture in MS medium with IAA (0.57 M)
and kinetin (0.46 M) by direct multiplication. Mersinger et al., (1988)
established suspension cultures for forskolin production in 20-I air
bioreactor. Krombholz et al., (1992) and Zhouli et al., (1996) established
root cultures by infecting leaves, roots and stems of P. barbatus with
Agrobacterium rhizogenes strain 15834. Higher forskolin production was
reported in hairy roots of C. forskohlii due to induced infection with A.
rhizogenes (MAFF03-1724) strain by culturing of two hairy root clones in
various liquid media (Sasaki et al., 1997). Rosmarinic acid production
along with forskolin was reported in C. forskohlii hairy root cultures by
Wei et al., (2005). They also reported the biotransformation of low
molecular weight alcohols (methanol, ethanol, 2-propanol) by P. barbatus
hairy root cultures.
5.2 Development in Cultivation Practices
Several attempts have been made to improve cultivation practices of

C. forskohlii in order to get high medicinal and economic yield. Mastiholi
and Hiremath, (2009) supported higher forskolin level, at 60cm × 30 cm of
spacing and harvesting at 180 days under irrigated condition. As per
suggestions given by Veeraragavathatham et al., (1985) the crop responds
well to organic and inorganic fertilizers. Patil (1989) reported that calcium
rich soil and potassium application significantly increased the root and
shoot biomass and K application also enhanced high forskolin content of
the root. She also reported that foliar application of Mg stimulated high
biomass yield of the root tuber and also forskolin content. Vennila and
Jeyanthi, (2008) reported that application of farm manure of 10 t/ha or
poultry manure of 3 t/ha gave significantly higher yield and forskolin
content (0.28-0.31%). Apart from this, several reports proved that Coleus
was found to respond more positively to the application of many plant
growth regulators (Joshi and Gaikwad, 2018a; 2018b and 2018c).
12
Conclusion
In the current chapter, an attempt has been made to explore various

aspects of Coleus forskohlii w. r. t its research development as a medicinal
plant for various health benefits, its phytochemistry and various analytical
methods for acquiring exclusive medicinal content that is forskolin.
Detailed analysis of available data on C. forskohlii reveals that this is the
only plant source of diterpene forskolin thus far known which has
phenomenal property of increasing activity of enzyme adenylate cyclase
and cAMP level in animal tissue without causing any side effects which
has attributed high therapeutic potential to this plant. Apart from forskolin
it also exhibits an assortment of various phytochemicals which are still
being explored. In spite of bearing higher potential, there is a dearth in the
field of research regarding applications of forskolin and its other
biomolecules for treating humans more efficiently and also more effective
ways need to be found to enhance the production of forskolin both In vitro
and In Vivo. This situation demands more attention towards this dynamic
medicinal aromatic herb.
Conclusion
Coleus forskohlii acts as a natural source of drug for many health

related disorders such as hypertension,cardiovascular health, obesity,
glaucoma and otherdiseases without any side effects. The available
evidence through literature indicates that C. forskohlii is the only known
naturalsource of the diterpenoid forskolin. The pharmacologicaland
biochemical investigations established that forskolinpossesses
multidimensional biological activities. But most ofthe studies used
concentrated extract of forskolin in anon-oral delivery form for treating
various disorders inanimal models only and the effect of oral forskolin
inhumans has not been well established. Moreover still,there is scarcity for
the mechanism of other bioactiveprinciples present in the herb except
forskolin. Furtherresearches in view of applicability of forskolin
fortreating human ailments without side effects and activityof other
bioactive principles other than forskolin areneeded.
13
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[96] Yanagihara H, Sakata R, Shoyama Y, Murakani H (1996). Rapid analysis of
small samples containing forskolin using monoclonal antibodies. Planta Med.
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new diterpenoids from Coleus forskohlii Briq. J Asian Nat Prod Res; 8: 355–
360.
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diterpenoids by Hairy Root cultures of Coleus forskohlii. Acta Botanica
Yunnanica,18 (4): 445-450.
20
Magical Pongamia pinnata (L.)

Mangal Patwardhan
Departmant of Botany
Gogate Jogalekar College, Ratnagiri
Maharashtra, India
mangal.1550@gmail.com
Abstract
Pongamia pinnata (L.) is native of India, Bangladesh, Mynmar,

grows well in all continents from tropical dry to moist through subtropical
to moist forest life zones and from sea shore to Himalayan foot hills. Seeds
remain viable up to 1 month after dispersal. More than 60 flavons, 15
alkaloids, 10 chalcones, sterols are reported from various plant parts. Seed
contains oil 30%. Seed oil shows predominance of Oleic acid with 14 fatty
oils. Roots, bark, leaves, seeds and seed oil are used in medicine from
ancient to modern times by traditional healers and different formulations
are described since Ayurvedic period. Studies on pharmacological
activities of various parts shows its variable uses as antimicrobial,
antiviral, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anti-ulcer, anti-hyperglycemic,
anti-lipidperoxidative, anti-oxidant, anti-hyperammonemic, spermicidal,
anti-plasmodial, anti-filarial, anti-convulsant etc have been reported by
several workers. Hence P. pinnata can be a magical plant in near feature
in the world of medicine.
I. Introduction
The species Pongamia pinnata (L) was first described by Pierre in

1899. According to Bentham and Hooker‘ classification it belongs to
subfamily- Papilionatae of family – Leguminosae, tribe Millettieae.Several
synonyms for the species are – Derris indica (lam.) Bennett, Millettia
novo-guineensis Kane. and Hat., Pongamia glabra Vent., Pongamia
pinnata Merr., Cytisus pinnatus L.
The species is recognized in different countries under different

names. These names are listed below. English: -Indian beech, Poonga-oil-
tree, pongam tree, Karanj, French: - arbre de pongolote, Arabic: - um al
shuur, Malay: -Unna maram, Punnam, Thinwin, Thawau, biansu, kacang
21
kayu laut, malapari, mempari, mempare, pari-pari, pongu, Nepali: -

Karangi, Karauini, Thai: -Khayi, Kom koy, yi-nam, Vietnamese: -d(aa)y
kim, d(aa)y m(aa)u, day lim, day mau, s(aa)m hoa, kh(oor)s(aa)m hoa.,
Indonesian: -bangkong, biansu, kipahang laut, krangi, melapari, Filipino:
-bani, Singhalese: -Magul Karanda, Sanskrit: -Karanja, Naktamala,
Nakta, Guchchhapushpa, Ghrutapoor, Ghrutur, Rochan, Snigdhapatra,
Prakirya, Chirbilva, Putiparna, Vruddhaphal, Netrumal, Hindi: -Karanja,
Karanji, Karanjaca, Kirmal, Papar Dithori, Karanjh, Marathi: -Karanj,
Karanja, Karanjicha, Jhada, Kannada: -Honge, Kanaga, Hunge, Pong,
Malayalum: -Potrarmu, Utrama, Gujarathi: -Kanji, Karanja, Jhada,
Oriya: -Karanja, Koransa, Koranju, Bengali: -Dahar, Karanja, Darkaranji,
Khawari, Karmuj, Dalkarancha, Karanjgachh, Gond: -Garanjei, Punjabi:
-Suchachehan, Karanj, Paphor, Rajasthani: -Charr, Tamili: -Pungam,
Punku, Ponga, Pungam maram, Telgu: -Punju, Ganuguchettu, Gaanuga,
Kanuga, Kaggera, Kranuga, Kariga, Ganuga, Ranugu, (Kirtikar and Basu,
1975; Raghunathan and Mitra, 1982; Agro-forestry
Database;TheAyurvedic pharmacopoeia of India, 1999; Gogate, 2000;
Deshpande et al, 1999).
Geographical distribution
P. pinnatais native of India, Bangladesh, Myanmar and Thailand

(The Wealth of India, 1969). It is a native of Western Ghat and is
naturalized from Pakistan and Sri Lanka throughout Southeast Asia to
northeastern Australia (Agro Forestry database). It grows well in China,
Japan, Indonesia, and Malaysia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea,
22
Philippines, United States of America, Egypt, Hawaii, Malaysia (Duke,

1983). It is found throughout India especially dominant in states such as
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, M. P. etc. but in the Himalayan foothills
it is not found above 600m (GOI, 1983).
Environmental conditions suitable
P. pinnata plants grow from tropical dry to moist through

subtropical to moist forest life zones. It can tolerate drought, frost, heat,
limestone, salinity, sand and shade. Mature trees can withstand water
logging conditions along the banks of streams and rivers or near the
seacoast in beach and tidal forests and slight frost. The plant is seen right
from sea level to an altitude of app. 1200 m.
It withstands temperatures slightly below 0°C to 50°C, the optimum

temperature from 27 to 38°C and the minimum 1 to 16°C. Annual rainfall
of 50-250 cm is found to be congenial for the plant. It is highly tolerant to
salinity. The tree grows wild on sandy and rocky soil, including oolitic
limestones but can grow in most soil types; even with its roots in salt
water. This plant species has been included by Aronson (1989) and
Yensen (1999) in the list of halophytes.
Phytochemical studies
The leaves are rich in nitrogen and carotene along with phosphorus,
potash and lime. The presence of saponins, tannins, carbohydrates,
alkaloids, flavornoids glycosides, steroids, proteins and alkaloids were
detected by simple qualitative methods (Khandelwal, 2001).The flowers
contain an aliphatic waxy matter (The Wealth of India, 1969). Destructive
distillation of wood gives (dry basis); charcoal 31.0, pyroligneous acid
36.6, acid 4.3, ester 3.4, acetone 1.9, methanol 1.1, tar 9.0, pitch and losses
4.4% and gas (as N.T. P.) 0.12 cu. m/kg. Presence of β-sitisterol has been
recorded by Shameel et al. (1996). The mature seed consists of about 5%
shell and 95% oleaginous kernel. Air-dried kernels contain fatty oil
(27.5%), protein (17.4%), starch (6.6%), crude fibre (7.3%), ash (2.4%)
and moisture (19%). The seeds contain 13.5% mucilage, traces of an
essential oil and a complex amino acid named glabrin. According to The
Wealth of India (1969) the oil resembles groundnut oil in compositions it
contains palmitic 3.7- 7.9 %, stearic 2.4 – 8.9 % then arachidic 2.2 – 4.7 %
behenic 4.2 – 5.3% lignoceric 1.1 – 3.5 %, oleic 44.5 – 71.3 %, linoleic
23
10.8 – 18.3 % and elcosenoic 9.5 – 12.4 % the presence of myristic,

dihydroxystearic, cerotic, linolenic and traces of the docosenoic and
tetracosenoic acids. The oil cake is bitter in taste and it contains moisture
7.9%, oil 7.8%, protein 31.9%, carbohydrates 39.8%, fibre 3.7% and ash
7.1%. Chemical constituents of the seeds were investigated by Shameel et
al. (1996). Six compounds (two sterols, three sterol derivatives and one
disaccharide) together with eight fatty acids have been isolated.
A detailed phytochemical analysis of different plant parts of P.

pinnata has been performed by several workers. Their findings are briefly
summarized as in Table- 1.
Phyto-constituents of Pongamia pinnata
Sr. No. Phytoconstituents Plant part Reference

I Flavones
1. Pongone SB Kitagawa et al.(1992)
2 Galbone SB Kitagawa et al.(1992)
3 Pongalabol SB Kitagawa et al.(1992)
4 Phenyl propanoid Pongapinone A SB Kitagawa et al.(1992)
5 Phenyl propanoid Pongapinone B SB Kitagawa et al.(1992)
6 Pongamone A SB Li et al. (2006)
7 Pongamone B SB Li et al. (2006)
8 Pongamone C SB Li et al. (2006)
9 Pongamone D SB Li et al. (2006)
10 Pongamone E SB Li et al. (2006)
11 Prenylated flavones 1 SB Li et al. (2006)
12 Prenylated flavones 2 SB Li et al. (2006)
13 Iso ponagaglabol SB Talapatra et al.(1982)
Yin et al. (2006a)
14 Pongaflavanol SB Yin et al. (2006a)
15 3-methoxy-(3‖,4‖-dihydroxy-3‖- SB Yin et al. (2006a)
hydroxy-4‖acetoxy)-
2‖,2‖dimethyl
pyrano(7,8,5‖,6‖)flavones
16 3-methoxy-(3‖,4‖-dihydroxy-4‖- SB Yin et al. (2006a)
hydroxy-3‖acetoxy)-
2‖,2‖dimethyl
pyrano(7,8,5‖,6‖)flavones
17 Lanceolatin-B SB Alam, (2004)
18 Pongaflavone SB Yin et al. (2004)
19 Karanjin SB Yin et al. (2004)
SD The Wealth of India,(1969)
20 Pongapin SB Yin et al. (2004)
SD The Wealth of India,(1969)
Shameel et al. (1996)
24
21 Pongachromene SB Yin et al. (2004)

22 3,7-dimethoxy-3‘,4‘- SB Yin et al. (2004)
methylenedioxy flavones
23 Millettocalyxin-C SB Yin et al. (2004)
24 3,3‘,4‘,7-tetramethoxy flavones SB Yin et al. (2004)
25 6-methoxy isopongaglabol SB Talapatra et al. (1982)
26 Kanjone SD The Wealth of India,(1969)
27 Pongaglabrone SD The Wealth of India,(1969)
28 Pongol SD Shameel et al. (1996)
29 Glabrachalcone Pathak et al. (1983)
30 Glabrachalcone SD Shameel et al. (1996)
isopongachromene
31 Karanjachromene RB S Ghosh et al.(2009),
Kage et.al. (2016)
32 Candidin SB Carcache et al.(2003)
33 Candidione SB Carcache et al.(2003)
34 3-methoxy pongapin SB Carcache et al.(2003)
35 Praecansone-B SB Carcache et al.(2003)
36 Pongapinone SB Carcache et al.(2003)
37 Α-cadinol SB Carcache et al.(2003)
38 Pongapinnol A F Yadav et al. (2004)
39 Pongapinnol B F Yadav et al. (2004)
40 Pongapinnol C F Yadav et al. (2004)
41 Pongapinnol D F Yadav et al. (2004)
42 Coumestan F Yadav et al. (2004)
43 Pongacoumestan F Yadav et al. (2004)
Kumar, (2011)
44 Pongagalabrone RB Pandye et al.(2011)
45 Pinnitin F Ahmad et al. (2004)
46 Neoglabrin F The Wealth of India, (1969)
47 Isolonchocarpin SB Yin, (2006)
48 Ovaliflavanone SB Yin, (2006)
49 4‘-O-methyl-D-genistein 7-O-β-D- L Marzouk et al. (2008)
rutinoside
50 2‘,5‘-dimethoxy-genistein 7-O-β- L Marzouk et al. (2008)
D-apiofuranosyl-(1‘‘‘6‘‘)-O-β-D-
glucopyranoside
51 Millettocalyxin SB Yin, (2004)
52 (2S)-3′,4′-dimethoxy-6′′,6′′- RB Toshiyuki et al.(1992)
dimethylpyrano[2′′,3′′:7,8]- Chopade et al. (2008)
flavanone
53 (2S)-6,3′,4′-trimethoxy-6′′,6′′- RB Toshiyuki et al. (1992)
dimethylpyrano [2′′,3′′7,8]- Chopade et al. (2008)
flavanone
54 (2S)-7-methoxy-6-O-g,g- RB Toshiyuki et al. (1992)
dimethylallyl-3′,4′- Chopade et al. (2008)
25
methylenedioxyflavanone
55 2′-hydroxy-3,4,5′-trimethoxy- RB Toshiyuki et al. (1992)
6′′,6′′-dimethylpyrano Chopade et al. (2008)
[2′′3′′:4′3′]chalcone
56 2′,4′-dimethoxy-3,4- RB Toshiyuki et al. (1992)
methylenedioxydioxy Chopade et al. (2008)
dihydrochalcone
57 2′,5′,b-trimethoxy-3,4- RB Toshiyuki et al. (1992)
methylenedioxy- Chopade et al. (2008)
6′′,6′′dimethylpyrano[2′′,3′′:4′,3′]
dihydrochalcone
58 2,b-dimethoxy-3, 4- RB Toshiyuki et al. (1992)
methylenedioxy-furano Chopade et al. (2008)
[2′′,3′′:4′,3′]-dihydrochalcone
59 b-hydroxy-2′,4′,6′-trimethoxy-3,4- RB Chopade et al. (2008)
methylenedioxychalcone
60 3-methoxy-furano- RB Chopade et al. (2008)
[2′′,3′′:7,6]flavones
61 Kanujin RB The Ayurvedic
Pharmacoepia of India,
(1999)
Li et al. (2006)
62 Demethoxy kanujin RB The Ayurvedic
Pharmacoepia of India,
(1999)
Li et al. (2006)
63 Chemnoflavanone F Kumar, (2011)
II Chalcones
1 Pongagallone A SD Yadav et al.(2011)
2 Pongagallone B SD Yadav et al.(2011)
3 Caryophyllene oxide SB Yin et al. (2006b)
4 Obovatachalcone SB Yin et al. (2006b)
5 8-hydroxy-6methoxy-3-pentyl-14- SB Yin et al. (2006b)
isochromen-1-one
6 6,7,2,2-dimethyl chromen—8,y,y- SB Yin et al. (2006b)
dimethlallylflavonone
7 Isolonchocarpin SB Yin et al. (2006b)
8 Ovaliflavinone A SB Yin et al. (2006b)
9 Pyranochalcones SB Carcache et al. (2003)
10 Glabrachalcone SD Yadav et al.(2011)
11 Tunicatachalcone SB Yin et al. (2006a)
III Alkaloids
1 Glabrin SD Shameel et al. (1996)
2 Glabrosaponin F The Wealth of India, (1969)
3 Kaempterol F The Wealth of India, (1969)
4 Kankone SD Kumar, (2011)
5 Quercitin SD Kumar, (2011)
6 12-a-hydroxy-α-toxicarol L Marzouk et al. (2008)
7 Kaempterol 3-O-β-D rutinoside L Marzouk et al. (2008)
26
8 Isoquercitin L Marzouk et al. (2008)

9 Vitexin L Marzouk et al. (2008)
10 Rutin L Marzouk et al. (2008)
11 Kaemferol 3-O-β-D L Marzouk et al. (2008)
glucopyranoside
12 11,12-a-dihydroxy-munduserone L Marzouk et al. (2008)
13 Vecinin-2 L Marzouk et al. (2008)
14 Vincristine R Kumar, (2011)
15 Vinblastin R Kumar, (2011)
16 Fluoxetine R Kumar, (2011)
17 Paclitaxel R Kumar, (2011)
IV Sterols
1 β-sitosteryl acetate SD Shameel et al. (1996)
2 Galactoside SD Shameel et al. (1996)
3 Stigmasterol SD Shameel et al. (1996)
4 β-sitosterol SB,SD,SB Shameel et al. (1996)
L,F Carcache et al. (2003)
Malik et al.(1976)
Talapatra et al. (1985)
Talapatra et al. (1980, 1982)
5 β-sitosteryl galactoside SD Shameel et al. (1996)
6 Stigma steryl galactoside SD Shameel et al. (1996)
7 Lupenone SB Carcache et al. (2003)
8 Lupeol SB Carcache et al. (2003)
9 Stigmasterol 3-O-β-D- SB Carcache et al. (2003)
glucopyranoside
10 Stearyl Alcohol SB Carcache et al. (2003)
11 Teniposide R Kumar, (2011)
12 Oetoposide derivatives R Kumar, (2011)
13 Y-sitosterol glycoside F The Wealth of India, (1969)
V Terpenoids
1 Cycloart-23-ene-3-β-25-diol SB Chatterjee, (1992)
Joy et al. (1998)
2 Friedelin SB Chatterjee, (1992)
Joy et al. (1998)
VI Dipeptide
1 Aurantinamide acetate SB Chatterjee, (1992)
Joy et al. (1998)
2 Aurantiamide acetate F Kumar, (2011)
L- leaf, SB-Stem bark, R-Root, RB-Bark, SD- Seed kernel, F- Fruit
Ethno-Medicinal uses
Pongamia is use in the field of medicine since vedic period. In

Ayurveda it is used as kaphavatanashak by usna veerya. It is used in
diseases induced by kapha and vata. The medicinal uses of P. pinnata are
27
mentioned in The Wealth of India (1969) and have been described by

Kirtikar and Basu (1975). A hot infusion of leaves is used as a medicated
bath for relieving rheumatic pains, for cleaning ulcers in gonorrhea and
scrofulous enlargement. Bark, Leaves and seeds are antiseptic, antipyretic
and analgesic. Poutice of leaves removes the bacteria from wounds. The
powdered seed and rind of pods is used as a febrifuge and tonic and used
in bronchitis and whooping cough. The seed paste is applied for leprous
sores, skin diseases and painful rheumatic joints. Powder of the seeds is
used for nasya, in various skin diseases and wounds. Oil is used for
massage in vata disorders. Oil is valuable in rheumatism, scabies, herpes,
leucoderma and other cutaneous diseases (Kirtikar and Basu,1975).
Application of root and leaves extracts and crushed seeds on abscesses for
having antiseptic properties (Burkill, 1996; NAS, 1980) by people from
primitive areas of Malaysia and India. Its bark is used in pile; leaves are
effective as medicated bath and rheumatic pains and the seeds are used in
hypertension, bronchitis, whooping cough, skin diseases and rheumatic
arthritis (Tanaka et al., 1992; Carcache et al., 2003; Ballal, 2005). P.
pinnata is used as a medicinal plant for treatment of wound and gas
trouble by traditional healers in Kancheepuram District of Tamil Nadu,
India (Muthu et al., 2006). Ganeshan et al. (2006) reported the use of
leaves which are tied around the neck to relieve whooping cough by ethnic
group Thottianaickans of Semmalai Hill (reserved forest) Tiruchirappalli
Disttrict, Tamil Nadu. Effective use of Seed oil of P. pinnata for treatment
of seasonal eczema in Kalyaran Hill of Eastern Ghats of Tamil Nadu has
been mentioned by Kadahul and Dixit (2009). Application of poultice of
P. pinnata leaves for relief from rheumatic arthritis by the tribal people
from Sriharikota Island; Andhra Pradesh has been recorded by Kumar and
Narayana (2010).
Important formulations of P. pinnata are described in The Ayurvedic

Pharmacopoeia of India, (1999) are as follows.
Root bark- Prabhanjana Vimardana Taila

Root- Dhanvantara Ghruta
Stem bark- Brhanmaujatyidi Kvatha, Mustakaranjidi Kvatha
Leaf- Jatyadi Taila
Seed--Ëragvadhada Kvatha, Pathyadi Lepa, Karaj Taila
28
Pharmacological studies
Anti-microbial and antiviral activity
Antibacterial potential of Pongamia oil and leaf extract has been

demonstrated by several workers. Alcoholic extract of the seed oil is active
against both gram +ve and gram-ve microorganisms such as Micrococcus
pyogens var. cureus, var. albus, var. citreus, Bacillus subtilis, Salmonella
typhosa, S. paratyphi A and B, Carynibacterium diphtherias and E. coli
(The wealth of India, 1969).
Pongam oil caused inhibition of Bacillusanthacis, B. mycoides, B.

pulius, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas mangiferae, Salmonella typhi,
Sarcine lutea, Staphylococcus albus, S. aureus and Xanthomonas
campestris (Chaurasia and Jain, 1978). Seed oil was tested in vitro by Jain
et al.,(1987) against 5 species of bacteria, viz. Bacillus pumilus, B. subtilis,
Salmonella typhosa (syn. S. typhi), S. paratyphi, Micrococcus pyogenes
var. albus, and Staphylococcus aureus. It showed antibacterial activity
against all the bacteria except B. pumilus.Anti-microbial effect of crude
decoction of dried leaves and its effect on production and action of
enterotoxins (Cholera toxin, Escherichia coli labile toxin and E. coli stable
toxin) and adherence of enteropathogenic E. coli and invasion of
enteroinvasive E. coli and Shigella flexneri to epithelial cells was
evaluated by Brijesh et al.(2006). The decoction reduced production of
cholera toxin and bacterial invasion to epithelial cells. Thus the decoction
of P. pinnata has selective anti-diarrhoeal action with efficacy against
cholera and enteroinvasive bacterial strains causing bloody diarrhoeal
episode.
Study of antibacterial activity of leaf extract of P. pinnata Linn in

petroleum ether, chloroform, ethyl acetate and methanol by disc diffusion
method against certain enteric bacterial pathogens like E. coli,
Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis, Klebsiella pneumonia, Bacillus
subtilis, Enterobacter aerogenes, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella
typhimurium, S. typhi, and Proteus vulgaris was carried out by Arote et al.
2009. The methanol extracts had wide range of antibacterial activity on
these bacterial pathogens than the petroleum ether extract. Ethyl acetate
extract displayed slightly higher antibacterial activity against bacterial
pathogens than chloroform extract. Maximum inhibition of bacterial
growth by the petroleum ether extracts was case of Proteus vulgaris,
Staphylococcus epidermidis, S. aureus, and Enterobacter aerogenes, and
29
no inhibitory effect on Klebsiella pneumonia and Salmonella typhi.

Chloroform extract inhibited the growth of S. aureus, P. vulgaris, S.
epidermidis and S. typhimurium. Ethyl acetate extract caused maximum
inhibitory effect on S. aureus, P. vulgaris, S. typhimurium. Methanol
extract displayed maximum inhibitory effect on S. aureus, P. vulgaris, S.
epidermidis, E. coli, P. aeruginosa, E. aerogenes, S. typhimurium andno
effect in others.Sharma et al. (2021) also proved the use of seeds and
leaves extract against the bacterial pathogens such as Klebsiella
pneumoniae, E. coli and S.typhi, Streptococcus pyogenes at a
concentration of 400 μg/ml. The flower and bark extracts can be used as an
substitute source of antibacterial agent against bacterial pathogens.
Antibacterial potential against some representative food spoilage and

food-borne pathogenic bacteria were tested by Bajpai et al. (2009) from
leaves of P. pinnata. The leaf extracts in chloroform, ethyl acetate and
methanol (2500 μg/mL), exhibited a promising antibacterial effect against
Bacillus subtilis ATCC6633, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC6538, Listeria
monocytogenes ATCC19118, L. monocytogenes ATCC19166,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC6432 and Salmonella typhimurium
ATCC2512.Complete inhibition of the growth of virus HSV-1 and HSV-2
due tocrude aqueous seed extract of P. pinnata (1 and 20 mg/ml)
respectively has been recorded by Elanchezhiyan et al. (1993). Anti-viral
activity of bis (2-methoxyheptyl) phthalate isolated from P. pinnata leaves
against white spot syndrome virus of Penaeus monodon Fabricus was
studied by Rameshthangam and Ramasamy (2007).Wagh et al. (2007)
noticed antifungal and antibacterial activity of P. pinnata seedoil against
Aspergillus niger, A. fumigantus, Staphylococcus aureus and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
Antimalarial activity
Pongamia pinnata the methanolic bark extract exhibites potent

antimalarial activity against Plasmodium falciparum in vitro and against
Plasmodium berghei in vivo and does not exhibited toxicity under in vivo
and in vitro conditions against brine shrimp larvae and THP-1 cell line
respectively (Satish and Sunita 2017).
30
Anti-inflammatory, Analgesic and Anti-ulcer Activity
Anti-inflammatory, analgesic and anti-ulcerogenic activities of

petroleum ether and chloroform extracts of P. pinnata seeds have been
demonstrated in rats by Singh et al. (1996). Further Singh and Pandey
(1996) evaluated different solvent fractioned extracts for anti-
inflammatory action in chemically induced paw inflammation in rats.
Anti-inflammatory effects were best seen against bradykinin and PGE-1
induced inflammation. Various organic solvent extracts of P. pinnata roots
were tested by Singh et al. (1997) while reduction in pentobarbitone –
induced ‗sleep time‘ was noted for benzene, chloroform, acetone and
ethnolic extracts however petroleum ether extract enhanced it. These
extract also showed anti-ulcer effects against stress or pylorus-lignated
gastric ulcers in rats. Srinivasan et al. (2001) showed significant anti-
inflammatory activity of an alcohol extract of P. pinnata leaves using a rat
model. Prabha et al. (2003) reported effect of methanolic extract of P.
pinnata roots for protection against aspirin but not against ethanol-induced
ulceration. Similarly Srinivasan et al. (2003) noticed anti-nociceptive and
antipyretic activities of leaf extract. Kage et al.(2016) proved the use of
the seed oil in traditional Indian medicine for the treatment of painful and
inflammatory conditions. The Karanjachromene present in P. pinnata
seeds mediates the action through central and peripheral mechanisms
involving inhibition of release or the actions of vasoactive substances like
prostaglandin and histamine, serotonin and kinins.
Anti-hyperglycaemic and Anti-lipidperoxidative Activity
Effect of P. pinnata flowers on blood glucose level and oxidative

stress in alloxan induced diabetic rats was studied by Punitha et al.,
(2006). They reported reduction in blood glucose level and lipid
peroxidases and enhanced status of antioxidants to an extent of the
reference drug gibenelamide due to the administration of aqueous extract
of flower at the rate of 300 mg/Kg orally after the treatment of 45 days.
Similarly Punitha and Manoharan (2006) administered orally the ethanolic
extract of P. pinnata flowers in the alloxan induced diabetic rats and
noticed significant anti-hypergycemic, anti-lipidperoxidative effects and
enhancement in antioxidant defense system. Significant antihyperglycemic
activity of two compounds pongamol and karangin isolated from P.
pinnata fruits in Streptozotocin induced diabetic rats and type 2 diabetic
db/db mice was recorded by Tamrakar et al. (2008). The
31
antihyperglycaemic activity of alcoholic (Badole and Bodhankar, 2008)

and petroleum ether extract (Badole and Bodhankar, 2009a) of stem bark
in alloxan-induced diabetic mice and increased oral glucose tolerance in
non-diabetic as well as diabetic mice. Maximum antihyperglycaemic
activity was observed in petroleum ether extract (25, 50, 100, 200 and 400
mg kg-1, p.o.) compared to alcoholic extract (100, 200 and 400 mg kg -1,
p.o.). LD50 of petroleum ether extract of P. pinnata was found to be more
than 5000 mg kg-1 p.o. (Badole and Bodhankar, 2009b) concluded that
Compound B2 (cycloart-23-ene-3Î², 25-diol) isolated from the petroleum
ether extract of stem bark of P. pinnata is the active antihyperglycaemic
compound in streptozotocin–nicotinamide induced diabetic mice. The
effect of B2 is proved to be due to increased pancreatic insulin secretion
and antioxidant activity (Badole and Bodhankar, 2010). Marked reduction
in cholesterol, triglycerides and phospholipids levels due to higher dose of
drug of P. pinnatamethanolic leaf extracthas been reported in
hyperlipidemic rats by Pricilla et al, (2010) which was comparable to the
standard drug atorvastatin. Oral treatment with extract reduced LDL levels
and increased HDL concentration significantly suggesting its beneficial
use in effective suppression of high fat diet induced hyperlipidemia or as
an antiatherogenic drug.
Antioxidant and Anti-hyperammonemic Activity
Hyperammonemia is a heterogenous group of disorders

characterized by elevated levels of ammonia, causing irritability,
somnolence, vomiting, seizures, and derangement of the cerebral function,
coma and death. The antihyperammonemic efficacy of the leaf extract of
P. pinnata, on blood ammonia, plasma urea, uric acid, non-protein
nitrogen and serum creatinine in control and ammonium chloride induced
hyperammonemic rats was evident in the studies of Essa et al. (2005). The
levels of blood ammonia, circulatory urea, uric acid, non-protein nitrogen
and creatinine increased significantly in rats treated with ammonium
chloride and decreased significantly in rats treated with P. pinnata
ethanolic extract and ammonium chloride. The antihyperammonemic
effect of P. pinnata ethanolic extract could be attributed to (1) its
nephroprotective effect by means of detoxifying excess urea and
creatinine, (2) its free radical scavenging property, and (3) its antioxidant
property. The effect of P. pinnata leaf extract on circulatory lipid
peroxidation and antioxidant status was evaluated by Essa and
Subramanian (2006) in ammonium chloride-induced hyperammonium rats.
32
It enhanced lipid peroxidation in the circulation of ammonium chloride-

treated rats was accompanied by a significant decrease in the levels of
vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin E-reduced glutathione and activities of
glutathione preoxidase, superoxide dismutase and catalase. It showed that
P. pinnata leaf extract modulated these changes by reversing the oxidant-
antioxidant imbalance during ammonium chloride-induced
hyperammonemia and this could be due to its anti-hyperammonemic effect
by means of detoxifying excess ammonia, urea and creatinine and
antioxidant property.Effect of P. pinnata leaf extract on the levels of
circulatory ammonia, urea, lipid peroxidation products such as TBARS
(thio barbituric acid reactive substances), HP (hydroperoxides) and liver
markers such as bilirubin, AST (aspartate transaminase), ALT (alanine
transaminase), ALP (alkaline phosphatase), LDH (Lactate dehydrogenase),
Gamma glutamyl-S-transferase (GGT) were studied by Essa and
Subramanian (2008) for testing its hepatoprotective effect during
ammonium chloride induced hyperammonemia. The leaf extract offered
hepatoprotection by influencing the levels of lipid peroxidation products
and liver markers in experimental hyperammonemia and in the opinion of
(Essa and Subramanian, 2006) this could be due to its ability to detoxify
excess ammonia, urea and creatinine and free radical scavenging property
(both invitro and invivo) by means of reducing lipid peroxidation and the
presence of natural antioxidants.
Mitra et al.(2018) proved thatcomponents Pongamia pinnata seed

oil appears to be an efficient multifunctional antioxidant compounds for
protection against oxidative stress mediated injuries. Karanjin is having
nitric oxide scavenging activity similar to ascorbic acid and pongapin.
Thus nitric oxide and superoxide quenching activity and strong antioxidant
status may be among the important factors responsible for formulating
new drug from active constituents of Pongamia pinnata seed oil Karanjin
for ailment of the iron overloaded diseases or NO mediated disorder like
Psoriasis, Rheumatoid arthritis, leukemia, SLE, Crohn‘s, Cancer. So also
iron chelating property of the drug associated with nitric oxide and
superoxide quenching properties of Karanjin and Pongapin help to
overcome the secondary complications of different iron overload diseases.
33
Spermicidal activity
The seed oil possesses spermicidal activity, with obvious

applications in contraception and family planning. (Bandivdekar and
Moodbidri, 2002).
Anti-plasmodial Activity
Bark, leaf and crude seed extract inhibits the activity of the malaria
parasite Plasmodium falciparum (Simonsen et al., 2001).
Anti-Convulsant activity
The anticonvulsant efficacy of the fresh leaf extract using maximal

electroshock-induced seizure (MES) in mice was demonstrated by
Manigauha et al.,(2009).
Anti-filarial activity
Aqueous and alcohol leaf and fruit extracts of P. pinnata were found
to display anti-filarial activity against the cattle parasite Setaria cervi
(Uddin et al., 2003).
Conclusion
The present review shows that the significance of Pongamia pinnata

(karanja) as an essential medicinal plant wasdefined by the plant parts for
its pharmacological propertiesand its indications. In several countries,
particularly in India,Pongamia pinnata (Karanja) has been extensively
used as atraditional medicine. In the traditional systems of medicines,such
as Ayurveda and Unani, the Pongamia pinnata plant isused for anti-
inflammatory, cardioprotective, antiplaysmodial, anti-nociceptive, anti-
diarrhoeal, anti-ulcer,anti-hyperglycaemic, anti-hyperammonic and
antioxidant,antibacterial, antiviral, anticonvulsant activity.
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38
Simarouba glauca: A Paradise Medicinal Plant

Dr.Manasi Shirish Patil
Department of Botany,
Sadguru Gadage Maharaj College, Karad.
manasipatil202@gmail.com
Abstract
Simaroubaglauca DC belonging to family Simaroubaceae
commonly known as paradise tree. Simaroubacece family includes 32
genera and more than 170 species of trees. It is medium sized
evergreen tree. It has a long history in herbal medicine in many
countries. It is one of the important herbal drugs used against
dysentery hence its bark is also known as dysenter ybark.The bark and
leaf extract of Simarouba is well known for its different types of
pharmacological properties such as haemostatic, antihelmenthic,
antiparasitic, antidysentric, antipyretic and anticancerous. The bark is
used to cure fever, malaria, stomach and bowel disorders,
haemorrhages, ameobiasis as well as leaf, fruit pulp and seeds are
possessing medicinal properties such as analgesic, antimicrobial,
antiviral, astringentemmenagogue. Thecrushedseedsareusedas antigo
against snake bites. The crude drug contents and active principles such
as glaucarubin, quassinoids, ailanthinone, benzoquinone,
holacanthone, melianone, simaroubidin, simarolide, simarubin,
simarubolide, sistosterol.
Keywords: Simarouba,glaucarubin, pharmacological, quassinoids,

simaroubidin.
I. Introduction
A rainfed wasteland evergreen ediable oil tree,

Simaroubaglauca(SG), is commonly known as ‗Laxmitaru‘ or ‗paradise
tree‘ belonging to familySimaroubaceae. The specific name glauca means
covered with bloom which refers to the bluish green foliage. It is derived
from Greek word ‗glaukos‘ (bluish).S. glaucaDC. is indigenous to
Southern Florida, the West Indies and Brazil (Cronquist,1944).It is native
to Bahamas, Costa Rica, Cuba, EI-Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras,
Jamaica, Mexico, Puertorico, united states of America. While exotic to
39
India, Srilanka, Phillippines and Myanmar. It grows under tropical

conditions in Central America spreading from Mexico to Panama
Southern Florida as well as Caribbean Islands. S. glaucawas introduced in
Kenya and Burundi in Africa in 1957.Simarouba was first introduced by
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources in the research station at
Amravati in Maharashtra in 1966 (Juyal, 1991) and to the university of
Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore in 1986. In India it is cultivated in
Orissa, Maharashtra and also at introductory stage of plantation in other
states like Anand (Gujarat) Jodhpur (Rajasthan) Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, Tamilnadu, West Bengal and Bhubaneswar (Orissa) (Joshi and
Joshi 2002). Now the cultivation of S. glaucaspread to semiarid dry and
saline land areas of other Indian states like Gujarat, Tamilnadu,
Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. S. glauca tree has an ability
to grow well even in marginal wastelands or dry land with degraded
soil(Govindaraju,et al., 1999).This tree is widely used to cure cancer
hence it is known as tree of solace of cancer (Ihe new Indian express)
Common names for S. glauca are
 English: bitter ash, bitter damson princess tree, Simarouba, Paradise

tree.
 Spanish:-acajou blanc, daguilla, daguillo gavilan, juan, primero,
laguilla, olivio, palo
amargo.
 Creole: bwablan, bwafwenn, dolivfwenn.
 French: bois amer, bois blance, bois frene, bois negresse, quinquina
d Europe.
40
Trade name: Simarouba, Dysentry bark, Mountain Damson, Acituno

(Encyclopedia of world Medicinal Plants; ICRAF Agroforestry Tree
Database, 2007; Armour, 1959).
C. General Description
This is evergreen tree which grows to a height of 12-15 m with large

circular crown (Yamamoto and Shepherd, 1999). S. glauca occurs as an
understorey shade tolerant tree, commonly growing under the canopy of
large fruit trees where birds perch and deposit the seeds. It is found to occur
as associate with subtropical moist forest plants (ICRAF Agroforestry Tree
Database, 2007). The root system is shallow suitable for mountain soils.
Stem is up to 9 m in height with 40-50 cm in diameter. It has finely cracked
and grey colored outer bark while inner bark is creamy in color (Molina et
al., 1996). Leaves are pinnatelycompound with 3-21 leaflets oblong and
often notched or smooth at apex; alternate, even, bluish oily green.
Inflorescence is terminal panicle with ultimate branches producing dichasial
cyme. Flowers are bisexual inconspicuous, calyx is green in colour and
dome shaped united with variable number of sepals. Petals are present in
single whorl creamy greenish or yellowish creamy in color. The staminate
flowers are with gynophores but without carpel with single ovule. It grows
from Mexico to Panama, South Florida, and theCaribbean Islands under
tropical conditions in CentralAmerica. In both Kenya and Burundi, SG was
introducedin 1957 (Patil & Gaikwad, 2011).
Medicinal Uses
1. Ethenobotanical aspects
Online database on Simarouba created by Lele

[http://www.svlele.com/ Simarouba.htm. 2010] indicate the leaves and
bark of Simaroubahave long been used as a natural medicine in tropics.
Simaroubawas first imported into France from Guyana in 1713 as a
remedy for dysentery. French explorers noticed that the indigenous Indian
tribes in the Guyana rainforest used Simaroubabark as an effective
treatment for malaria and dysentery. Other indigenous tribe throughout the
South uses bark for fevers, malaria and dysentery as a haemostatic agent
to stop bleeding and as a tonic. Further Lele summarized the long history
of S. glaucain herbal medicine in many other countries. In Cuba, where it
is called gavilan, an infusion of the Leaves or bark is considered to be
41
astringent and used as a digestion and menstrual stimulant and an

antiparasitic remedy. It is taken internally for diarrhea, dysentery, malaria
and colitis. It is used externally for wounds and sores. In Belize the tree is
called negrito or dysentery bark. There the bark (and occasionally the root)
is boiled in water to yield a powerful astringent and tonic used to wash
skin sores and to treat dysentery, diarrhea, stomach and bowel disorders,
hemorrhages and internal bleeding. In Brazilit isemployed much the same
way against Fever, malaria, diarrhea, dysentery, intestinal parasites
indigestion and anemia. In Brazilian herbal medicine Simaroubabark has
long been the most highly recommended (and most effective) natural
remedy against chronic and acute dysentery.
2. Pharmaceutical Aspects
SG‘s pharmacological qualities are anticancerous, anti-dysenteric,

antihelminthic, antimalarial, antimicrobial, antiparasitic, antipyretic, and
hemostatic (Pawar et al., 2019).SG leaves, seeds, pulp, and fruit are
considered to be emmenagogue, antiviral, astringent, antimicrobial,
vermifuge, and stomachic (CK et al., 2018). SG products in the form of
skin lotion and dry leaf powders are currently being sold for treating skin
disorders (Jose et al., 2019).
Antiamoebic Activity
Assendlftet al., (1956) isolated glaucarubin, a crystalline glycoside

from S. glaucaand found to have amebicidal properties in vitro and in
experimental animal amebiasis were evaluated in the treatment of human
infection. They observed that cure rate was in the order of 70 percent
following treatment by mouth for 10 days with daily doses of 5 mg/kg
(maximum daily dose 300 mg) with exception of vomiting in 2 patients
and a transitory decrease in leucocyte count in another, the drug was well
tolerated in 113 patients.Simarouba glauca contains Glaucarubin having
antiamoebicproperty (Fransworth,1985) According to Del pozo(1956)
and Cucker(1958) Glaucarubin was shown to have amoebicidal properties
by both an in vitro method and in experimental animals .
Antimalerial Property
Franssen (1997) studied the antipasmodial and cytotoxic effects of
four plants commonly used in Guatemalan folk medicine against malaria.
They noticed that the Methanol extracts of S.glaucaDC.
42
Sansevieriaguineensiswilld, Croton guatemalensisLotsy and

Neurolaenalobata(L) R.Br. significantly reduced parasitemias in
Plasmodium bergheriinfected mice. They screened Dichloromethane
fractions for their cytotoxicities on Artemiasalina(brine shrimp) larvae and
50% inhibitory concentrations were determined for Plasmodium
falciparum in vitrocultures. They concluded that both chloroquine
susceptible and resistant strains of P. falciparum were significantly
inhibited by these extracts of all dichloromethane extracts, only the S.
glaucacortex extract was considered to be toxic to nauplii of A. salinain
the brine shrimp test. Studies of Valdés et al., (2008), also revealed S.
glauca was effective against malaria a strong inhibitory activity against
allprotozoa rested, but without selectivity.Nurhananetal., (2005) isolated
alkaloids with high toxicity and quassinoids with antimalerial and
cytotoxic characteristics from Simarouba
Antiplasmodial Activity
Quassinoids a class of chemicals commonly found in members of

family Simaroubaceae, are toxic to brine shrimp (Polonsky et al.,1978 ),
strongly antiplasmodial (Kupchan et al., 1976 ) and strongly toxic to
mice (Monseur et al., 1978 )for this type if compound, toxicity in the
brine shrimp test (BST) is often used as a tool for biologically guided
fractionation of extracts (Polonsky, et al 1978).The quassinoids,
glaucarubin along with glaucarubinone and glaucarubolfrom the seeds of
S.glaucashowed promising activity against Plasmodial falciparum in
culture (Valeriote,1998).. The antiplasmodial and cytotoxic properties of
quassinoids are both linked to protein synthesis inhibition
(Fukamiya,2005), and it is likely that parasite and host cell ribosomes are
too similar to allow for development of selective inhibitors (Wright,2005).
Because some quassinoids have shown greater selectivity against P.
falciparum than against cellular lines, chemical derivation has attracted
much attention as supplying potential leads for drug design (Guo et al.,
2005).
Antipyretic Activity
Etanolic extracts of three plants were used in Cuba as antipyretic

and (Simaroubaglauca, Melaleucaleucadendronand Artemisia absinthium)
were found active in vitro against Plasmodium falciparum and marginally
active in vivo against Plasmodium berghel(Rodríguez,2006).
43
Anticancer Property
Several quassinoid from S. glaucaseed have exhibited cytotoxic

activity in vitro against KB cells (human oral epidermoid carcinoma),
including glaucarubin, glaucarubinone, glaucarubol and glaucarubolone
(Polonsky, et al 1978). The esters of glaucarubolone, ailanthinone and
glaucarubinone, exhibited significant activity in vivo in the P388
lymphocytic leukemia model (Kupchan et al, 1976 and Monseur, 1983).
The chloroform soluble extract of S. glaucaexhibited significant
cytotoxicity against several human cancer cell lines (Adams 1972 and
Gardener et al., 1996). Quassinoids led to isolation and structural
determination of the new quassinoids 2- acetylglaucarubine and 13, 18-
dehydroglaucarubinone. The previously known 2-acetylglaucarubinone
and glaucarubinone were also obtained. The new quassinoid 2 was found
significantly to inhibit growth of murine lymphocytic leukemia (Guo et
al., 2005). According to Reynertson et al., (2011) glaucarubinone present
in S. glauca is used to cure solid tumors, multidrug resistant mammary
tumors and antileukemic activity in Mice.
Antibacterial Property
Rajurkar et al., 2011 showed leaf extract of S. glauca exhibits
antibacterial activity against gram positive and gram negative bacteria.
Inhibition of microorganisms such as Bacillus subtilis, Escherchia coli,
Pseudomonasaeruginosaand Staphylococcus aureuswas observed in fresh
and dried leaf extract.
Antifungal Activity
Mikawlrawng et al., (2014) reported Methanolic and ethanolic
extract of Simaroubaglauca has potential antifungal activity against
Fusariumoxysporum and Aspergillusparasiticus. They also found that
Ethanolicextracts were found to be more effective than methanolic
extracts.
Antioxidant Property
Antioxidant Property from S. glauca leaves was demonstrated by
umesh (2015) Chloroform extract of Simaroubaglauca has capacity of
scavenging H2O2 in a concentration dependent manner.. The extracts
showed potential antioxidant activity
44
Antiulcer property
SimaroubaglaucaChloroform leaf extract has antiulcer activity

Simaroubaglauca reduced the acidity and enhanced the mucosal
secretions, in Albino rats.
HepatoprotectiveProperty
Preethu et al., (2016) carried outpreliminary pharmacological

screening of Simaroubaglauca DC leaf extracts for
hepatoprotectiveacivity. Their study revealed S. glauca exhibits
hepatoprotective property.
Aginst Patchy skin pigmentation
Simaroubaextract is used for reducing patchyskin pigmentation (US

Patent Issued on October 14, 1997). Simaroubais subject of one US
Patent, whereby its water extract was found to increase skin keratinocyte
differentiation and to improve skin hydration and moisturization
(Govindaraju, 2009).
II. Phytochemical Constituents

A. Seed
In the previous work the seeds of S. glaucahave afforded

quassinoids(Ham et al., 1954, Polonsky et al., 1978, Jeyarani, and
Reddy, 2001) and analkaloid 8- hydroxyl canthin-6-one (Waterman, and
Ampofo, 1984).In earlier studies, Rao and Lakshminarayana(1983);
Rathet al., (1987) and Chikaraet al.,(1998) have reported oil content of
Simaroubain excess of 60g/100g. Whereas Severan (1953) observed that
SimaroubaKernel contained fatis in the range of 55-65g/100g. Protein
content in the Simarouba Kernelswas18.2g/100gwhichincreased
to47.7g/100g in defatted meal of Simarouba. Meal of Simaroubacontained
residual fat of 1.1g/100g (Govindaraju etal., 2009).Its seeds contain 50-
65% oil that can be extracted by conventional methods. Each well grown
tree yields 15-30 kg nutlets per year equivalent to 2.5-5 kg oil this
amounts to 1-2 t oil per ha per year and about the same quantity of oil cake
(Kaul et al., 2003) scanty scientific literature available on Simarouba,
mainly deals with composition and characteristics of its fat. Jeyarani and
45
Reddy (2001) reported that the seeds contain 40% Kernels and the kernels
contain 60% fat, which is edible. The odorless, greenish yellow fat melts
at 26.4 c, has an iodine value of 52.6 and a saponification value of 190.5,
Fatty acid composition of Simarouba fat has been investigated by several
researchers (Rao and Lakshminarayana 1983Devan and Mahalakshmi,
2009). The major components are oleic(52-54%), stearic (27-33%)
andpalmitic(11-12%). the saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated
fatty acids are 44.50%, 51.70% and 3.70% respectively. The major fatty
acids of S. glauca seed oil are methyl esters of palmitic acids, stearic acid,
arachidic acid, oleic acid, lenoleic acid and linolenic acid ( Patil et al.,
2014) Further it has been reported that characteristics of the fat and fatty
acid composition of Indian origin do not significantly differ from those
reported from seeds of other countries (Rao and Lakshminarayana 1983,
Rath et al., 1987) considering the high fat content in the kernels and
moderate iodine value and high content of oleic and steric acids, the fat
has good potential for use as edible fat or for blending with vanaspati or
for use as cocoa butter (CB) substitute or extender. On the other hand
Chikaraet al.,(1998) during the study of Simarouba from different
sources has reported range of protein values (45.6-56.8g/100g;average,
51.8g /100g) in their deoiled meal cake. Similarly crude fibre content of
Simarouba Kernel (8.1g/100g) increased to 11.8g/100g in its deoiled meal.
In order to exploit the protein rich (47.7g/100g) Simaroubameal in
food/feed, Govindrajuet al., (2009) conducted studies on its chemical
composition with emphasis on protein characteristics and toxic
constituents. They noticed that Simaroubameal contained high calcium
(143mg/100g) and sodium (79mg/100g) while saponins with
triterpenoidaglycone (3.7g/100g), alkaloids (1.01g/100g), phenolics
(0.95g/100g) and phytic acid (0.73g/100g) as the major toxic constituents
indentified in Simarouba meal. Their results of TLC and HPLC studies
indicated that among different fractions of Simarouba saponins, one
dominant fraction accounted for about 28% proteins of Simarouba
recorded high in vitro digestibility (88%). While SDS-PAGE studies
revealed four major protein bands in molecular weight ranges of 20-24,
36-45, and 55-66 k Da. They observed that apart from glutamic acid
(23.43g/100g protein) and arginine (10.75g/100g protein), Simarouba
protein contained high essential amino acids like leucine (7.76g/100g
protein), lysine (5.62g/100g protein) and valine (6.12g/100g protein).
Finally they concluded that among nutritional indices, Simaroubameal
recorded a good EAA Index (75.02), C-PER (1.90) and PDCAAS (1.0
Adultgroup).Amino acid composition of Simarouba meal ,along with
46
that of reference Soy protein (FAO/WHO, 1958) is given in Table No. 1.

Result of amino acid analysis indicated that glutamic acid (23.43g/100g
protein), arginine (10.75g/100g protein) and aspartic acid (10.50g/100g
protein) are the major amino acids in Simarouba meal, which is typical of
oil seed proteins. Among essential amino acids, Simarouba meal
contained greater levels of leucine(7.76g/100g protein), lysine (5.62g/100g
protein) and valine (5.62g/100g protein), when compared with
EAO/WHO (1985)recommended reference soy protein Simarouba meal
was found to be deficient in sulphur containing amino acids, methionine
and cysteine. (Govindaraju et al., 2009).]
Table No. 1:Comparison of amino acid composition of Simarouba meal

and soy protein.
Soy bean
Amino acid Simaroubame
(FAO/WHO
(g/100 g protein) al
Reference Protein)
Asp 10.5 11.7
Glu 23.43 18.7
Ser 3.99 5.1
Gly 4.94 4.2
His 2.54 2.5
Arg 10.75 7.2
Thr 2.9 3.9
Ala 4.71 4.3
Pro 3.39 5.5
Tyr 2.16 3.1
Val 6.12 4.8
Met 0.38 1.3
Cys 0.4 1.3
Iso 0.62 4.5
Leu 7.76 7.8
Phe 5.86 4.9
Lys 5.62 6.4
Trya 1.35 1.3
47
a. Estimated by ninhydrin method. Source- Govindaraju et

al.,(2009)
Polar quassinoids have not yet been detected in Simaroubaamara

although the Related species S. glauca produces 15-O glucocides of
glaucarubol and glaucarubolone in the seeds (Bhatnagar, et al., 1984 ).
Quassinoids are bitter terpenoids with a polycyclic skeleton that a
modified in various ways so that, among the simaroubaceae, a number of
differences between quassinoids found in Bruecajavanica and those
presen tin S. amarais the location of the Methyleneoxy Bridge, the oxygen
is attached to C-11 in S. amaraand the carbon is attached to C-8 in both.
Arriagaet al., (2002 ),isolated quassinoids from Simaroubaversicolorroots,
stems and fruits thease are quassinoids (3, 5-7), triterpenoids (8-14), a
mixture of steroids (15-17), the flavonoid kaempferol (18) and the
squalene derivative 11,14-diacetoxy-7,10;15,18-diepoxy-6,19-dihidroxy-
6,7,10,11,14,15,18,19-octahydrosqualene (19). Epilupeol (1), four
quassinoids (2-5) and b-sitosterol (15) were previously isolated from the
leaves and stems of a specimen of Simarouba versicolor collected in the
State of Paraná, Brasil (Ghosh et al., 1977 )..Glaucarubinone (5) (Alves-
de-Lima et al., 1983) glaucarubin (6) (Polonsky et al., 1975,) were
previously obtained from Simaroubaglauca.2'-Actylglaucarubin (7)
(Alves-de-Lima et al., 1984) and tirucalla-7,24-dien-3-one (8) were
reported as bioproducts from S. amara(Buckingham et al.,1994 ).
Fig.No. 1.Structure of metronidazole and the quassinoids.
48
Fig.No. 2.Structure for compounds isolated from s. versicolarand

derivatives
B. Antinutritionalcomposition
Literature survey on toxic and antinutritional factors of Simarouba

meal indicated that very scanty literature pertaining to identification and
estimation of different toxic and anti nutritional factors in Simarouba meal
is available, systematic study was conducted by Severen(1953), Vaughan
(1970),Rath et al.,(1987). Studies of Govindaraju et al.,(2009) indicated
that deoiled meal of S. glauca is rich source of protein (47.7 g/100g) with
high solubility (92%), in vitro protein digestibility (88%)and amino acid
based computed nutritional indices, They revealed after identification and
estimation of toxic constituents that Simarouba meal required
detoxification from saponin(0.95g/100g), alkaloid(1.01g/100g),phenolics
(0.95g/100g) and phytic acid (0.73g/100g) before its usage potential could
be utilized in feed/ food formulations. Govindraju et al., (2009), further
reported that proteins of Simarouba meal show relatively in vitro
digestibility of 88%. They speculated that high in vitro protein
49
digestibility in Simarouba meal could be attributed to lower tannin levels,

which inhibit the trypsin digestion. Further Simarouba protein might not
be bound to minor constituents by glycosidic or ester linkages making it
easily digestible. Considering the high protein content of Simaroubameal
(~ 48g/100g) investigations carried out by Govindrajuet al., (2009) on its
different quality characteristics in order to determine the potential of its
usage as feed or food. Their result indicates that protein solubility profile
of Simarouba meal as a function of PHC (2-10) followed ‗U‘pattern which
is typical of oilseed proteins. Simarouba seed protein had solubility
minima (23.7%) and iso-electric precipitation at PH 4.0 on the other hand,
the Simarouba proteins showed maximum solubility (92%) at PH 9.0.
Further they indicated that of the methanolic extract of Simarouba meal
gave purple mauve color with anisaldehyde in sulphuric acid, for the
presence of saponins. They had purified saponins; the methanolic extract
of Simaroubameal was passed through ion exchange column, using di-ion
HP2O resin colorimetric determination indicated that Simarouba meal
contained 3.7g/100g total saponins. They subjected Saponins from
Simarouba meal, to Lieberman-Burchard reaction, using acetic acid and
sulphuric acid gave pink color. This indicated that aglyconeportion
ofsaponinis triterpenoidtype. They speculated that saponins are
amphiphilic compounds, in which sugars are linked to non- polar group
(Sapogenin), which may be either a sterol or a triterpene. Their studies on
haemolytic activity indicated potent haemolysis in samples of Simarouba
saponins. Samples of Simarouba saponins in 0.9% saline they reacted with
erythrocytes and haemoglobin released were measured at 540 nm. They
showed that crude saponin of Simarouba was comparable to haemolysis;
whereas purified saponin of Simarouba was much more potent in
haemolysis, showing HD5O value at 0.5.-0.60mg/ml
comparedtoHD50valueofsoysaponinat1.20- 1.40 mg/ ml.Typical protein
solubility profiles with similar solubility values were reported by Wang et
al., (1999); Rakshit and Bhagya(2008) and Vinay and
Sindhukanya(2008) for rice bran, Jatropha and Karanja Proteins
respectively toidentify different anti nutritional factors in Simarouba meal
related to quassine.
C. Bark Constituents
Simarouba bark is obtained as long pieces from 4-12 cm wide and2-

5 mm thick, folded lengthwise, light flexible, tenacious, very fibrous,
externally of a light brownish yellow color, rough warty and marked with
50
transverse ridges, internally of a pale yellow. It is without odour and of a

bitter taste. Gilling (1908) isolated from Simarouba bark a crystalline
bitter substance, simaroubin, to which he assigned a fo rmula
C22H30O9.Remington and Wood (1918) noticed that Simarouba bark is
used as a bitter and astringent in chronic dysentery. For the latter purpose,
a decoction is prepared (1 in 20), often with an equal quantity of
Cinnamon bark. Dose-1-2g (15- 30grains). Studies of Hametal.,(1954) led
to the isolation of crystalline compound from S. glauca, which has been
designated glaucarubin. Rivero- Cruz et al., (2005) investigated bioassay
guided phytochemicals of S. glauca stem extract, using the KB cell lines
as a monitor, led to the isolation and identification of canthin-6-one(1),2-
methoxy canthin-6-one(2), 9-methoxycanthin-6-one(3), 2-hydroxy
canthin-6-one (4), melianodiol(7) and 14-deacytyleurylene(8) as cytotoxic
principles together with two further canthin-6- one alkaloid derivatives.
4-5 dimethoxy canthin-6-one (5) and4-5 dihydroxy canthin-6-one(6), two
coumarins, scopoletriolein (9) and fraxidin(10) and two triglycerides,
triolein(11) andtrilinolein (12) as inactive constituents. After their
purification six canthin-6-one alkaloids (1-6), melianodiol(7),
14- deacetylleurylene(8), scopoletin(9), fraxidin(10), triolein(11)
andtrilinolein (12), isolated from twigs of ofS. glaucawere tested for
cytotoxicity against a panel of human cell lines .The main plant chemicals
in Simaroubainclude – ailanthinone, benzoquinone, canthin, dehydro–
glaucarubinone, glaucarubine, glaucarubolone, glaucarubinone,
holacanthone, melianone, simaroubidin,simarolide, simarubin,
simarubolide, sitosteroland triucalla.
Conclusion
This book chapter focuses on the pharmacological importance of

Simarouba glauca and can serve as a good starting point for future
researchers to conduct numerous studies on this plant species. Simarouba
glauca has been shown to have antiamoebic, antimalerial, antiplasmodial,
antipyretic, anticancerous, antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, and
antiulcer properties. This plant has the potential to improve human health
and cure a variety of diseases.
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55
Amaranthus gangeticus: Plant with ginganticus

Therapeutic uses
Dr. Priyanka Pravin Jadhav
Head Department of Botany,
Shree Shahaji Chha. Mahavidyalay Kolhapur
jpriyanka0510@gmail.com
Abstract
Amaranthus gangeticus: Plant with ginganticus therapeutic uses in

tatiditional as well as modern medicinal practices. A. gangeticus is a sturdy
double duty crop plant with its edible leaves, stem and grain which provide
the critically essential amino acids, lysine and methionine. It is a rich
source of omega 3 fatty acids. A. gangeticus is rich in β-carotene, folic acids
and minerals such as Ca, Fe and P. Calcium is present in the form of calcium
oxalate and hence it is biologically unavailable. It also contents many
phytochemicals such as alkaloids, carbohydrates, flavonoids, amino acids,
proteins, fixed oil, saponins, tannins, and phenolic polyphenol, and
phytosterol. This plant is used to cure various diseases such as pain,
anemia, dysentery, skin diseases, and diabetes and as a blood purifier,
decoction for piles and diarrhea in children blood purifier, tonic in dropsy,
as ascaricide, in tooth ache, sore throat, cough and bronchitis.Roots and
seeds are also used in leucorrhoea, impotence, against colic, gonorrhea,
eczema. It is used as astringent, in heavy bleeding during menstrual
period. Italso plays important role in Antioxident, radioprotective,
anticancer, antimalarial and antiviral treatments. It has also therapeutic
potential for protective complications during postmenopause. In this
chapter nutritional, antinutritonal, phytochemical, antioxidant, medicinal
and phytochemical properties of A. gangeticus has been described.
I. Introduction
The world Amaranthus comes from the Greek amarantos, means ‗never
–fading flowers‘ or ‗one that does not wither‘. The genus Amaranthus consist
approximately 60 species. It is native of South and Central America. A.
gangeticus has been cultivated in China for more than 400 years (USDA-
NRCS2020).Amaranthus gangeticusL. has somesynonyms these are A
tricolorL., A.mangostenus,A. melancholicusL, A. Oleraceus Burmf, and A.
56
tristis. A. gangeticus iscommonly known as elephant head amaranth and

Chinaspinach.Plantisdistributed throughout India, Ceylon, tropical Asia, Africa
and America. Plant requires full exposure of Sunlight, Sand to loamy soil with
pH range5.5to7,waterregularly,overwateringisharmful.A. gangeticus is
commonly used as stem vegetable in Satara district of Maharashtra and locally
sold as―Desha‖in the form of stickswhich arecookedasvegetables. Thesoft
stems are eaten like asparagus in India.It is also used as a leaf vegetable. In
Asian countries A. gangeticus is eaten raw in salads, in India its soft stems are
eaten like Moringa fruits.
Stem Vegetable
II. Antioxidant Properties
Antioxidants are present in relatively small concentration, inhibit the

process of oxidation and play diverse physiological role in the body.
Antioxidants are constituents of the plant material act as radical
scavengers and helps in converting the radicals to less reactive species.
Verma et al. (2002) reported that radioprotective role of A. gangeticus by
biochemical study on mouse brain. They found that supplementation of
alcoholic extract of A. gangeticus leaves prevented radiation induced lipid
peroxidation in mouse brain. Anilakumar et al. (2004) examined the effect
of A. gangeticus leaves on dimethyl hydrazine induced changes in
multicomponent antioxidant system of rat liver. They found that
consumption of Amaranthus leaves at 20% level inhibit
Dimethylhydrazine induced changes in multicomponent antioxidant in rat
liver. Khandaker et al. (2009) studied antioxidant potential of A. tricolor
and they found that antioxidant activity was higher in leaves from plant
grown under full sunlight without shading. Khandaker et al. (2011) further
reported that foliar application of SA increases polyphenol content of A.
57
tricolor which results in increased antioxidant activity of A. tricolor.

Rajalakshmi et al. (2011) studied toxicokinetic properties of antioxidant
enzyme such as superoxide dismutase, catalase and total antioxidant
activity in the A. tricolor. They reported that activity of all the enzymes
increased in the presence of lead and displayed an important adaptability
of the plant to avoid lead toxicity. Clemente and Desai (2011) studied
antioxidant potential in aqueous extract of A. tricolor. They reported that
total antioxidant activity in leaves was equivalent to 0.035 gm/ml of
ascorbic acid. They also observed that ferric reducing ability was much
higher (14.6 mM/L) than the FeSO4 standard (2 mM/L) and DPPH activity
showed inhibition of 65% at 30 min compared with butylated hydroxyl
touene (BHT) inhibition value (78.1%). Malathy et al. (2012) studied
antioxidant activity in four accession of A. tricolor such as DOA red, pure
green, Diyapalagoda and DOA green. They found that DOA red showed
higher DPPH free radical activity while DOA green showed lowest
activity of antioxidant. Ali et al. (2010) performed an experiment to study
changes in antioxidant activity of red and green edible Amaranthus (A.
tricolor) leaves under different shade levels. They found that antioxidant
activity in red Amaranthus cultivars were greater values than green at
shade level. Amin et al. (2006) studied effect of blanching on (10 and 15
min.) on antioxidant activity of A. gangeticus. They found that blanching
treatment inhibits total antioxidant activity and phenolic content.Anitha
and Ponbavani (2013) studied antioxidants and anticoagulant activity in
aqueous extract of A. gangeticus leaf. They found that A. gangeticus leaf
contains total phenols (58µg/ml), total flavonoids (49 mg/ml), ferric ion
reducing activity (82µg/ml) and anticoagulant activity (54%). They also
noticed secondary antioxidants such as ion chelating, superoxide anion
activity. Amin (2006) studied DPPH antioxidant activity of raw and
blanched A. gangeticus and found that DPPH free radical activity for raw
was 63±1%, while DPPH free radical scavenging activity after being
blanched for 10 min was 29 ± 4%. Yadav et al. (2013) studied antioxidant
and nutritional activity of green leafy vegetable. They found that activity
of FRAP in A. tricolor cultivar (Pusa lal Chaulai and Pusa Kiran) were
2.27± 0.21 and 1.40 ± 0.36 µmol AA /g FW. Jadhav (2015) reported that
the various organic and inorganic constituents are considerably altered due
to salt stress and further these are maintained due to foliar application of
plant growth regulators such as SA, Putrescine, GABA and Biotonic
formulation. The enzymatic and nonenzymatic antioxidants are well
maintained due to foliar application of these PGRs which will improve the
antioxidant potential of A. gangeticus.
58
III. Nutritional Properties
Srivastava (2011) studied nutritional quality of Amaranthus species

and reported that Na and K content varied from species to species A.
viridis showed higher content of Na followed by A. blitum, A. tricolor and
A. spinosus. A. gangeticus is rich in β-carotene, folic acids and minerals such
as Ca, Fe and P (Ali and T Sou, 1997 and Lakshmi and Vimala, 2000). Long
et al. (2010) studied hydroperoxide lyse (HPL) activity in A. tricolor
leaves. This enzyme used for flavour production. They found that glycerol,
polyols and aminoacid glycine enhanced the thermostability, while KCl
and Polyol mannitol decreases the thermostability of enzyme HPL.
Malathy et al. (2012) studied protein content in four accession of A.
tricolor such as DOA red, pure green, Diyapalagoda and DOA green.
They found that DOA green showed higher level of crude protein while
pure green showed lower content of crude protein.Linolenic, palmitic acid
and spinasterol are also reported to be present in the leaves of A. gangeticus
(Harborne, 1984).A. gangeticus leaves contain rich flavonoids, and regular
intake of this will help in avoiding heart diseases and other ailments
(Anitha and Ponbavani 2013). Fernando and Bean (1984) studied the fatty
acids of Amaranthus tricolor L. by gas chromatography. They found that
the major unsaturated fatty acids in A. tricolor are linoleic acid in seeds
(49 %) and stems (46 %) and linolenic acid in leaves (42 %), while the
major saturated fatty acid in seeds, stems and leaves is palmitic acid at 18-
25 % of total fatty acids.
IV. Antinutritional Properties
Vityakonand Standal (1989) studied oxalate content in A.

gangeticus, they reported that A. gangeticus showed total oxalate content
was 91 g Kg-1 on dry weight basis they also found two dominant fractions
of oxalate. These are soluble in boiling water is in the form of potassium
and magnesium oxalate and other forms insoluble residue in the form of
calcium oxalate. Larsen et al. (2003) reported that A. gangeticus
(0.66g/100g) in rice based diet significantly reduces the fractional Ca
absorption and retention. They also found that femur bone mass and Ca
and P content were inhibited in the rat fed the diets that contains
Amaranthus leaves. Form these results they concluded that inhibitory
effect of the Amaranthus leaves on calcium absorption and utilization was
due to the high oxalate content. A. tricolorcontains anti-nutrients
(nitrates, oxalates) these are removed by adequate cooking and also
59
contain hydrocyanic acid and oxalic acid, which make these plants less
suitable for human consumption (Grubbens and Denton, 2004; Oomen,
1971; Oomen and Grubbens, 1978 and Schippers, 2002).
V. Phytochemicals
Rao et al. (2010) analyzed phytochemical constituents of A. tricolor

and they reported that presence of carbohydrates, glycosides, phenols,
flavonoids and saponins. Ashok- kumar et al. (2010) examined
phytochemical screening of A. tricolor they found that presence of
alkaloids, cardiacglycoside, flavonoids, tannins, amino acids,
carbohydrates and phenolic compounds. Clemente and Desai (2011)
performed an experiment to study phytochemical analysis of aqueous
extract of A. tricolor and they found that presence of tannins and phenols.
They also found major phytoconstituents of extract are lipids, polyphenol,
tannins and phytosterol approximately 2%, 1.56%, 1.25% and 0.18%
respectively. Bihani et al. (2013) observed that presence of
phytochemicals like flavonoids, alkaloids, phenolic compounds etc. in
hydroalcoholic leaf extract of A. tricolor and showed pharmacological
activities. Aneja et al. (2011) studied the phytochemical screening of the
aqueous extract of A. tricolor showed the presence of alkaloids,
carbohydrates, flavonoids, amino acids, proteins, fixed oil, saponins,
tannins, and phenolic compounds.A. tricolor justifying its use in the
indigenous system of medicine by its significant antimicrobial and
antioxidant activity due to the presence active constituents like phenolic
compounds (Tharun et al., 2012). Khairet al. (2013) reported that in A.
tricolor and A. hypochondriacus contains most common phenolic acids
were salicylic acid, syringic acid, gallic acid, vanilic acid, ferulic acid, p-
coumaric acid and sinapic acid.
VI. Redioprotetective Role

Verma et al. (2002) reported that alcoholic extract of A. gangeticus
leaves protected brain biochemical activity and play vital role for clinical
use as radioprotector.
VII. Anticancer Properties

Huzaimah et al. (2004) studied anticancer potential of A.
gangeticusin vitro and in vivo. They found that aqueous extract of A.
gangeticusinhibited the proliferation of liver cancer cell line (HepG2) and
60
breast cancer cell line (MCF-7) and also observed inhibitory effect in
colon cancer cell line (Caco-2) but at lower percentage than (HepG2) and
(MCF-7).
VIII. Antidiabetic Properties
Clemente and Desai (2011) performed an experiment by using

aqueous extract of A. tricolor (200 and 400 mg/Kg) applied to the diabetic
rats. They observed that diabetic rats showed decreased serum glucose,
serum triglyceride, total cholesterol low density lipoprotein and enhanced
the level of high density lipoprotein. They also found that the extract
increases the hemoglobin level and prevent the decrease in body
hemoglobin and body weight as compared to diabetic control rats.
IX. Medicinal Properties
Kushwaha et al. (2012) reported that A. tricolor leaf powder showed

significant antioxidant property and have therapeutic potential for
protective complications during postmenopause. Bihani et al. (2013)
reported anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory activity of hydroalcoholic
extract of leaves of A. tricolor L. Aneja et al. (2013) found that aqueous
extract A. tricolor roots protect paracetamol (PCM) overdose induced
hepatotoxicity.A. tricolor whole plants are used by folk medicinal
practitioners of Bangladesh for treatment of pain, anaemia, dysentery, skin
diseases and as a blood purifier (Mohammed et al., 2013). A. tricolor used
for treatment of inflammations and internally as a diuretic (Grubbens and
Denton, 2004; Oomen, 1971; Oomen and Grubbens, 1978 and Schippers,
2002). Kirtikar and Basu (2003) reported that roots of A. tricolor are used
as demulcent and in the form of decoction used for piles and diarrhea in
children. A. gangeticus is used as blood purifier, tonic in dropsy, as
ascaricide, in tooth ache, sore throat, cough and bronchitis. The roots,
leaves and stems are eaten in bilious disorders and are used as an aperient.
Roots and seeds are used in leucorrhoea, impotence, against colic,
gonorrhea, eczema and have galactagogue properties while decoction of
roots with Cucurbita pepo Linn. is used to control hemorrhages following
abortion (The Wealth of India- A Dictionary of India Raw Materials and
Industrial Products).
61
X. Antimicrobial Properties
Behari and Sharma (1991) reported that A. tricolor petroleum ether

extract showed significant antimicrobial activity due to the presence of
steroids. Shariff et al. (2008) studied antimicrobial properties of
methanolic extract of A. gangeticus on Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Candida albicans,
Cryptococcus neoformans and Tricophyton mentagophytes. They found
that all the test microorganisms are resistant against leaf and stem extracts
from A. gangeticus except P. aeruginosa. Abd Aziz et al. (2011) studied
antibacterial properties of ethanolic leaf extract of A. tricolor against
fifteen strains of different gram positive and gram negative pathogenic
bacteria such as Bacillus cereus, Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus
aureus, Vibrio para, and Escherichia coli. They observed that A. tricolor
exhibited specific inhibition of Bacillus cereus.
XI. Phytoremediation
Phytoremediation is the term which is mostly used to refer to use

pollutant-accumulating plants to contaminants (metals) from soils;
transport and concentrate them into harvestable parts of the plant to render
them harmless. Phytoremediation gained significant interest for the
remediation of polluted areas so it is best suited and at the much less costs
than other methods (Yan-de et al., 2007). Bhanuprakash et al. (2013)
reported that A. tricolor has Al-tolerant mechanism and play an important
role in the acclimation of the genotype to Al stress. Rajalakshmi et al.
(2011) reported that A. tricolor used to phytoremediation of lead
contaminated soil because the plants showed high lead accumulation
property. Sakr and Husein (2012) reported that A. tricolor plant was
potential for hyper accumulation of lead but there are some limitations for
the bio accumulation of cobalt.
Conclution
In this chapter, information of A. gangeticusis reviewed to gather the

antioxidant, nutritional, antinutritinal, medicinal properties and
phytochemical properties. This plant with huge medicinal properties and is
used to cure various diseases.Anattempt has been made to determine
several aspects of A. gangeticus intherapeutic uses in tatiditional as well as
modern medicinal practices.Hence the above information of A.
62
gangeticusmay be helpful for further research to screen the compounds

responsible for varius theurapatic trearments.
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66
Hibiscus Sabdariffa: Plant with Multispectral Uses

Dr. B. A. Sonar
Abasaheb Marathe Arts & New Commerce Science College,
Rajapur Ratnagiri - 416702 (Maharashtra)
baburao.2007sonar@gmail.com
Abstract
Hibiscus sabdariffa Linn. var. sabdariffa known as Lal Ambari in

India but more popular under the name roselle is one of the noteworthy
species belonging to genus Hibiscus. On the basis of growth habit and
mode of utilization H. sabdariffa is broadly classified under two varieties
H. sabdariffa L. var. sabdariffa and H. sabdariffa L. var. altissima Wester.
Hibiscus sabdariffa is a multipurpose species yielding vegetable, fibre and
economically important red calyx. The species has been used traditionally
in Human nutrition, as food, herbal drinks and beverages. The species has
also appreciable medicinal value and numbers of pharmacological studies
have been carried out. Roselle has antiseptic, aphrodisiac, astringent,
cholagogue, demulcent, digestive, diuretic, emollient, purgative,
refrigerant, resolvent, sedative, stomachic effects and as tonic.
B. About Hibiscus sabdariffa Linn.

I. Introduction
67
Hibiscus sabdariffa Linn. var. sabdariffa known as Lal Ambari in

India but more popular under the name roselle is one of the noteworthy
species belonging to genus Hibiscus. The species was first described by
Flemish botanist M. de L‘Obel. According to McClintock and El-Tahir
(2004), the species probably originated in Africa and was perhaps first
domesticated in Sudan about 6000 years ago. At the same time, some
workers consider it to be a native of Asia (India to Malaysia). At present,
the plant is cultivated in different Asian and African countries. In India
roselle is cultivated in various parts of Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and West Bengal
(Gautam, 2004). The wide cultivation range indicates wide adaptability of
this species to variety of climatic conditions. On the basis of growth habit
and mode of utilization H. sabdariffa is broadly classified under two
varieties H. sabdariffa L. var. sabdariffa and H. sabdariffa L. var.
altissima Wester. Hibiscus sabdariffa is a multipurpose species yielding
vegetable, fibre and economically important red calyx. The species has
also appreciable medicinal value and numbers of pharmacological studies
have been carried out.
There are different vernacular names for H. sabdariffa L. in different

languages. These are presented in Table 1
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Table 1. Vernacular names of Hibiscus sabdariffa
L.
Hibiscus sabdariffa has some synonyms, these include Abelmoschus

cruentus Bertol, Hibiscus digitatus Cav., Hibiscus gossypiifolius Mill.,
Hibiscus sanguineus Griff., Sabdariffa rubra Kostel and Hibiscus rosa-
sinensis L. var. schizopetalus Mast (http: //www. plant names. unimelb.
edu. au/new/ Hibiscus. html# cannabinus, Multilingual Multiscript Plant
Name Database Sorting Hibiscus names)
69
II. Botany
The plant is erect, glabrous and unarmed and attains a height of
about 3 to 3.5 m. having basal diameter of 1.0 to 2.0 cm (Singh, 2010). It
has deep penetrating tap root (Duke, 1983). Stem is with branches and is
purple. Hibiscus sabdariffa species is broadly classified under two
varieties H. sabdariffa var. sabdariffa and H. sabdariffa var. altisimma
Webster (Mahadevan et al.,2009), former is generally bushy and
pigmented and cultivated for its edible calyces and the latter comprises tall
growing unbranched types cultivated for the stem fibre, roselle. It is
classified into four main groups on the basis of presence of pigmentation
on the stem. They are full green, green pigmented, green light red and red
(Singh, 2010). Leaves are compound 2-3 inches long, usually 3-5 deeply
lobed, cuneate at the base. Sometimes the lower leaves are entire and
alternately borne on the stem. The leaf lobes are lanceolate or oblong, the
mid-lobe is longest, serrate, glandular, on the midrib beneath, often
scorched with purple. Petioles are 1 ½ -2 ½ inch. long and reddish-purple.
Stipules are½ inch long, linear, acute. Flowers are borne singly in the axil
upto 12.5 cm wide yellow or buff with a rose or maroon eye. Pedicels are
very short, stout, jointed near the base and purple in colour. Involucral
bracts are 10, lanceolate, shorter than the calyx, adnate to its base, purple,
Calyx glabrous becoming fleshy and bright red in fruit (Sivarajan and
Pradeep, 1996 and Singh, 2010), lobes lanceolate three nerved, purple and
together with the involucre acrescent, in fruit. Corolla is yellow withpurple
at center. Stamens numerous, forming a column of 2 cm length, pink in
colour; ovary is superior and 5-celled, style with 5 branches. Roselle is a
self-pollinating plant (McClintock and El-Tahir, 2004). But Vaidya,
(1994) noticed natural cross pollination in roselle. There is insect
pollination. Abdel-Moniema et al. (2011) reported insect prevailance on
the roselle plants and their efficiency of pollination. They reported that
total of 16 species of insects belonging to seven orders (Hemiptera,
Homoptera, Lepidoptera, Herothera, Coleoptera, Diptera and
Hymenoptera) are found on the plants in two seasons. Honey bees are also
found to be frequent visitors around 10 am to mid day. Fruit is ovoid,
beaked, hairy and velvety. Capsules are 5 valved with each valve
containing 3-4 seeds. Seeds are large, black-brown, closely covered with
minute stout stellate hairs (Yadav and Sardesai, 2002 and Mahadevan et
al., 2009).
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III. Phytochemical Constituents
The chemical composition of different parts of roselle has been

studied by number of workers. The composition of leaf is summarized in
Table 2.
Table 2. Chemical composition of Hibiscus sabdariffa leaf.
Ibnusaud and coworkers were granted US Patent (US 6127553 A) in

the year 2000 for developing a process for isolation of Hibiscus acid ((+)
hydroxyl citric acid lactone) from leaves of H. sabdariffa L.
Calyx is perhaps the most thoroughly investigated plant part with

respect to phytochemistry. A proximate chemical composition of roselle
fleshy calyx is summarized below.
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Table 3. Chemical composition of Hibiscus sabdariffa fleshy calyx.
Babalola et al. (2000) reported that the leaves and calyx of green
roselle variety are very rich in β-carotene, vit.-C and riboflavin with some
mineral elements. They also reported that ascorbic acid and crude fibre
content of green coloured calyx were significantly higher than the red and
dark red roselle. Major organic acids present in flower extracts were citric
acid, malic acid and ascorbic acid (Buogo and Picchinenna, 1937 and
Reaubourg and Monceaux, 1940). Hida et al. (2005) stated that
hydroxycitric acid is a major acid present in calyx of H. sabdariffa. Kafaga
and Koch, (1980 a, b, c and d) studied effect of stage of maturity on
quality of roselle with respect to anthocyanins content from flowering to
over ripeness. The strains from Central America and Thiland needed 45-50
days to reach this stage of maturity. They noticed presence of organic
acids such as citric acid, Hibiscus acid, malic acid and tartaric acid,
anthocyanins, mucilage pectin and carbohydrates in the calyces from five
strains of roselle varieties. Wong et al. (2002) studied physico-chemical
characteristics of roselle. They reported 141.09 mg 100 g-1 of ascorbic
acid, 1.88 mg 100g-1 of β-carotene and 164.34 μg 100g-1 of lycopene.
Mueller and Franz, (1992) studied the chemical structure and biological
activity of polysaccharides from roselle. They reported that floral bud
extracts have three water soluble polysaccharides HIB 1 and 2 composed
of arabinans and arabinogalactans. Thin layer chromatography and HPLC
72
techniques were used to determine and identify anthocyanins. Delphinidin-

3- sambubioside and cyanidin-3-sambubioside are two main anthocyanins
in roselle (Wong et al., 2002 and Juliani et al., 2009). Rodriguez-Medina
et al. (2009) reported presence of phenolic fractions and polar compounds
in calyx. Using HPLC technique Segura-Carretero et al. (2008) reported
presence of anthocyanins and chlorogenic acid in dried calyces of roselle.
They identified Delphinidin-3-Sambubioside, Cyanidin-3- Sambubioside
along with cyanidine-3-O rutinoside, delphinidin-3-O gluoside, and
cynidine-3-5-diglucoside and chlorogenic acid as minor constituents in
aqueous extract. The antioxidant compounds such as protocatechuic acid
are also detected in roselle calyx (Osman et al., 1975 and Tee et al., 2002).
The chemical analysis of roselle seeds has been carried out by some
workers (Samy, 1980, Rao, 1996, Hainida et al., 2008 and Nzikou et al.,
2011). The proximate analysis of the seed is given in Table 4.
Table 4: Proximate analysis of roselle seeds
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Seed proteins of different varieties of roselle have been analyzed for

amino acid makeup (Morton, 1987, El-Adawy and Khalil, 1994 and Rao,
1996). Some of these findings are recorded in Table 5.
Table 5. Amino acid composition of seed proteins in different roselle

varieties
Roselle seeds contain appreciable quantity of oil. The characteristics

of the seed oil are summarized in Table 6.
Table 6. Roselle seed oil characteristics
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The chemical composition of the oil is presented in the Table 7.
Table 7. Roselle seed oil chemical composition
The results of fatty acid analysis of the roselle oil are depicted in Table 8.
Table 8. Fatty acid composition of Hibiscus sabdariffa seed oil
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Jirovetz et al. (1992) studied seed oil of roselle for the evaluation of
the volatiles by means of GC MS and GC FTIR. They reported presence of
volatiles, mainly unsaturated (one or two double bonds) hydrocarbons,
alcohols and aldehydes ranging from C8 to C13. Fang et al. (2004)
performed isolation and structural analysis of saponin from seed of roselle.
A study done by El-Adawy and Khalil, (1994) revealed that there are no
distinct differences in three cultivars of roselle seeds from Egypt and these
showed a low tannin and phytic acid content and the absence of
hemagglutinin activity. Al-Wandawi et al. (1984) and Abu-Tarboush and
Ahmed, (1996) reported that whole roselle seeds had a lower percentage or
trace of free and bound gossypol compounds. Trypsin and α-chymotrypsin
inhibitor activities in defatted roselle seed flour were found to be lower
than soybean defatted flour (Abu- Tarboush and Ahmed, 1996).
IV. Uses
a. Human Nutrition
i. Food
The fruits of roselle are edible (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).

According to Tanaka (1976), tender leaves and stalks of this species are
eaten as salad and used for seasoning curries. He has further mentioned
that dried calyces are used as potherb. The leaves and fresh green calyces
are used to make soup in Africa while in USA the leaves and young shoots
are also eaten raw in salads and red fleshy calyx lobes are chopped and
used in fruit salads (McClintock and El-Tahir, 2004). For preparation of
vegetables, green roselle types are preferred over red types. Fleshy roselle
calyces are used in wine jelly, syrup, gelatin, refreshing beverages, jams,
sauces, pudding and cakes. Dried roselle is used for tea, jelly, marmalade,
ices, ice-cream, sherbets, butter, pies, sauces, tarts and other desserts
outside India. In India fleshy fruiting calyces are used in preparation of
sauce or jelly (Sivarajan and Pradeep, 1996). Seeds of roselle are roasted
and eaten.Ismail et al.(2008) have reported that in Africa, the seeds are
roasted and ground into a powder then used in oil, soup and sauces as a
meal for human consumption. According to Rao (1996), the cooked Mesta
seeds can be consumed as good quality food, with proteins rather than raw
consumption. Yagoub et al.(2004) stated that ‗Furunda‘ a meat substitute
is traditionally made by cooking seeds and fermenting them for 9 days.
Roselle seeds are also used to prepare ‗Bikalga‘ an alkaline fermented
76
food in Africa (Ouoba et al., 2009). The oil of roselle seed is used for
cooking in Chad, Tanzania and China (McClintock and El-Tahir, 2004).
ii. Beverages
Among different plant parts of roselle, calyces are perhaps the most
popular and commercially most exploited. The fresh as well as dried
calyces have been extensively used for preparation of beverages. These are
consumed worldwide as cold beverages and as a hot drink-sour tea (Ismail
et al., 2004). Roselle drinks are popular under different names such as
Karkade, ‗bissap‘, ‗da bilenni‘, ‗Jamaica‘ and ‗Zobo‘ in different countries
(McClintock and El-Tahir, 2004, Ismail et al., 2004 and Kolawole and
Maduenyi, 2004). According to Sayago et al. (2007), the intake of roselle
flower beverages in Mexican diet contribute to a consumption of 166 and
165 mg per serving to the dietary fibre and polyphenols respectively.
Olvera-García et al. (2008) reported that hot aqueous extract of roselle
(HAE) is used as refreshing beverages. Calyx is utilized to colour and
flavor the rum. Seeds are also used as an aphrodisiac coffee substitute
(Duke, 1983).
b. Fibre
Roselle produces a white and somewhat coarse bast fibre which is

locally used in Asia and West Africa for making twine cordage rope
retting and sacks (McClintock and El-Tahir, 2004). A strong silky fibre is
extracted from the stems of roselle and it is employed in Tamil Nadu by
local people for cordage and manufacture of gunnies (Maharashtra State
Gazzetters, 1961). Some of the roselle fibre characteristics are recorded in
the Table 17.
Table 9. Proximate analysis and fibre dimensions of roselle fibres.
Sr. No. Dimension/Component Quantity

1. Length (mm) 19-3.
2. Width (μm) 12-25
3. Cell wall thickness (μm) 3-7
4. Cold water solubility (%) 5.81
5. Hot water solubility (%) 8.24
6. Alcohol benzene solubility(1:2v v-1) (%) 3.88
7. 1% NaOH solubility(%) 25.80
8. Lignin(%) 19.20
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9. Pentosans(%) 18.45
10. Holocellulose (%) 71.40
11. Hemicellulose(%) 22.80
12. α-cellulose(%) 48.60
13. β-cellulose(%) 9.56
14. γ-cellulose(%) 13.20
15. Ash (%) 1.40
16. Silica(%) 0.28
Source: McClintock and El-Tahir, 2004.

Holocellulose: Hemicellulose+Cellulose
According to Crane (1949), average fibre yields run ca 1600 kg ha-1
with yields in West Africa closer to 650 kg ha-1, 2100 kg ha-1 in Sri Lanka,
1500 in Java, and experimental yields of 1200 to 3400 kg ha-1 in Malaya.
If roselle is grown for fibre much biomass remains as residue.
c. Paper and Pulp Industry
The bast fibres and stems of roselle are sometimes used for paper
production in USA and Asian countries (McClintock and El-Tahir, 2004).
Khristova and Tissot (1995) studied Soda anthraquinone pulping of
roselleand Calotropis procera from Sudan. Ahmed, et al. (1998 and 2000)
studied delignification of roselle stem with acetic acid, formic acid and
propionic acid in organosolv pulping process. Saikia, and Ali, (1999)
reported Graft copolymerization of methylmethacrylate on to high alpha
cellulose pulp extracted from roselle.
d. Medicinal Uses
i. Role in Human Health
Essa and Subramanian (2007) reported that roselle is used in

Ayurveda and Traditional medicine in India, China and Thiland. The
aqueous, methanolic and ethanolic extracts of roselle plant are reported to
play role in folk medicine (Dafallah and al-Mustafa, 1996, Odigie et al.,
2003, Adigun et al., 2006, Lans, 2006 and Alarcon-Aguilar et al., 2007).
Duke (1983) reported several medicinal uses of roselle. Roselle is reported
to have antiseptic, aphrodisiac, astringent, cholagogue, demulcent,
digestive, diuretic, emollient, purgative, refrigerant, resolvent, sedative,
stomachic, and tonic. Roselle is a folk remedy for abscesses, bilious
78
conditions, cancer, cough, debility, dyspepsia, dysuria, fever, hangover,

heart ailments, hypertension, neurosis, scurvy, and strangury properties.
The calyx drink prepared in water, is used as a folk remedy against cancer.
Chen et al.(2003) reported that roselle is usually effective in native
medicines against hypertension, pyrexia and liver disorders. Kim et
al.(2007) stated that roselle a tropical beverage material and medicinal
herb, is used commonly as in folk medicines against hypertension pyrexia,
inflammation, liver disorders and obesity. Wright et al.(2007) in his
review on ‗Herbal Medicines‘, reported that roselleplant has diuretic
effects. Polysaccharides extracted from roselleflowers were helpful to
stimulate proliferation and differentiation of human Keratinocytes
(Brunold et al., 2004).Regarding its antihypertensive effect, Zheoat et al.,
(2019) conducted a comparative study between a crude extract of Hibiscus
sabdariffa and the HA derived from the same extract on the direct
vasorelaxant effect in the Sprague-Dawley rat aorta. At the end of the
study, they confirmed that HA was more potent and effective, attributing
its vasorelaxant action to the inhibition of Ca2+ influx via voltage-
dependent Ca2+ channels (an identical mechanism observed in garcinia
acid; Ha diastereoisomer).
Different parts of roselle plant are used in traditional medicinal

practices in different countries. Philippines use the bitter root as an
aperitive and tonic (Perry, 1980). In Brazil, stomachic, emollient and
resolutive properties are attributed to the bitter roots (Morton, 1987).
According to McClintock and El-Tahir (2004), root decoction of roselle
can be used as luxative. McClintock and El-Tahir, (2004) have listed
several medicinal applications of leaves. Leaf extracts are often used
medicinally to treat colds, toothache, urinary tract infection and hangovers.
Leaves are applied as a poultice to treat sores and ulcers. In Senegal leaf
juice is used to treat conjunctivitis. Heated leaves are applied on the cracks
in feet and boils and ulcers to speed maturation. A lotion made from leaves
is used on sores and wounds. Medicinally, leaves are emollient and are
much used in Guinea as a diuretic, refrigerant, and sedative. Angolans use
the mucilaginous leaves as an emollient and as a soothing cough remedy.
Central Africans poultice the leaves on abscesses (Watt and Breyer-
Brandwijk, 1962). According to Morton (1987), leaf infusions are used as
diuretic, cholectic, febrifuge and hypotensive and these also help to
decrease viscosity of blood. In East Africa the calyx infusion (Sudan tea)
is taken to relieve from coughs. Sharaf (1962) highlighted the hypotensive,
antispasmodic, antihelmintic and antibacterial activity of the calyx. Calyx
79
infusions are used as a diuretic, cholerectic, Febrifugal and hypotensive. It

also helps to decrease viscosity of the blood and stimulates intestinal
peristalsis (Morton, 1987). Kirdpon et al.(1994) reported that consumption
of roselle juice in different concentrations and duration may helps to treat
and prevent the renal stone diseases. The seeds are diuretic and with tonic
action. The brownish yellow seed oil is claimed to heal sores on camels.
Seed decoction is used against dysuria, strangury and mild cases of
dyspedpsia and debility (Morton, 1987). Ripe calyces are diuretic and
antiscorbutic and fruits are antiscorbutic. Seeds are reported to be diuretic
and antiscorbic (Duke, 1983). In Burma, the seed are used for debility and
the leaves as emollient. Taiwanese regard the seed as diuretic, luxative,
and tonic (Perry, 1980). Leaf and Roselle calyx juice with salt pepper,
asafoeitida and Molasses, is taken as a remedy for biliousness.
ii. Pharmacological Studies
The antioxidant activity of roselle leaves and calyx has been

demonstrated in several experiments. It is attributed to presence of
anthocyanins, Hibiscus protocatechuic acid and polyphenolics (Duh and
Yen, 1997, Tsai et al., 2002, Wong et al., 2002 and Lee et al., 2009).
Tseng, et al.(1997) demonstrated protective effects of dried flower

extracts of roselle against oxidative stress in rat primary hepatocytes.
Farombi and Fakoya (2005) reported that dried flowers of roselle show
free radical scavenging and antigenotoxic activities of natural phenolic
compounds. Prenesti et al.(2007) made antioxidant power quantification of
decoction and cold infusions of roselle flowers.
Protective role of roselle has been noticed by several workers against

protein degradation, lipid peroxidation and deformability loss of human
erythrocytes due to oxidative stress (Suboh et al., 2004). Amin and Hamza
(2006) analyzed hepatoprotective role of roselle against Azathioprine
induced toxicity in rats. Azathioprine inhibited the de novo and salvage
pathways of purine synthesis. This led to hepatotoxicity and oxidative
damage. These problems could be relived with administration of aqueous
extracts of roselle. Further, they observed that the treatment caused
reduction in levels of MDA which could successfully release the inhibitory
effects of Azathioprine on catalase. Hirunpanich et al. (2005) reported that
aqueous extracts of dried calyces of roselle had antioxidant effects in CU
mediated oxidation of rat low density lipoproteins (LDL (p 0.05)).
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Hirunpanich et al.(2006) reported hypocholesterolemic and antioxidant

effects of aqueous extracts of the dried calyx of roselle in
hypercholesterolemic rats. Rasdhari et al.(2008) reported that
incorporation of roselle calyx extracts in yoghurt enhanced the total
antioxidant property and organoleptic qualities. Amin and Hamza, (2006)
studied effects of roselle ethanol extracts on cisplatin induced reproductive
toxicity in (1g kg-1 26 days stage) rats. They found that 10 mg kg-1body
weight injection of rosellehad protective effects and treatment increased
the activity of testicular antioxidant enzymes like GSH, SOD, CAT etc.
This also helped in restoring sperm mobility of cisplatin-treated rats.
According to them, protective effects of roselle might be mediated through
their potent antioxidant activities. Kao et al.(2009) reported that some
polyphenol rich extracts of roselle were beneficial in minimizing
inflammation, including anti-oxidative mechanism (enhanced catalase
activity and glutathione) thereby improving status under cancer and
arthrosclerosis. It also reduced the liver problems such as lipid
peroxidation and liver lesions.
Kim et al.(2003) reported that H. sabdariffa extract inhibited the

accumulation of lipids and caused suppression of 373=L1 preadipocytes,
adipogenic transcription factors so as to block the adipogenesis in part by
suppressing the expression of C/EB p-alpha and PPAR gamma at protein
levels. The rats were fed during 4 weeks with either a basal diet,
containing high cholesterol (1 %), cholic acid (0.25 %), lard oil (10 %), or
a supplemental diet with roselle extract at 5 %, 10 %, and 15 % levels
(SD(5), SD(10), SD(15)). The significant decrease was noticed in LDL
level and triacylglycerol synthesis inhibition. Five percent roselle extract
addition in basal or supplementary diet showed the best results in the
reduction of serum lipids under study conditions. In Mexico, trials with
Sprangue-Dawley rats with respect to lipid profile showed that roselle
extract decreased triacylglycerols and LDL levels in all groups of
treatment, however, total lipids were decreased at SD (10) and SD (15%).
There were significant alterations in triacylglycerols due to hibiscus acid
recemizationfrom(+) –HCA to (-) – HCA in HSE treated Sprangue-
Dawley rats (Carvajal-Zarrabal et al., 2005). Liu et al.(2006) noticed
protective effects of roselle extract on CCl4 induced liver fibrosis in rats.
Administration of the dried calyx extracts of roselle at doses of 250, 500
and 1,000 mg kg-1 of the extracts significantly decreased thiobarbituric
acid reactive substances (TBARs) formation (p<0.05) (Hirunpanich et al.,
2006).The effect of roselle calyx extract on the fat absorption, excretion
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and body weight in rats was studied by Carvajal-Zarrabal et al.(2009). The

study indicated that roselle extract can be considered as anti-obesity agent.
The flowers of roselle contain gossypetin, anthocyanin, and

glucoside hibiscin, which may cause diuretic and choleretic effects,
decreasing the viscosity of the blood, reducing blood pressure and
stimulating intestinal peristalsis (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). The
effects of aqueous extracts of petals of roselleon kidney 1-Cl, renovascular
hypertension were investigated by Odigie et al.(2003). 250mg.kg-1.day-1
dose in drinking water was able to reduce BP. Haematological
investigations showed that dose dependent oral administration was
beneficial to enhance Haemoglobin, haematocrit but not haemoglobin.
Onyenekwe et al.(1999) observed significant decrease in serum

creatinine, cholesterol and glucose in rosellecalyces infusion treated
spontaneously hypertensive rats. According to Faraji and Tarkhani (1999),
rosellesour tea is reported to have properties of lowering of high blood
pressure and suggested more extensive studies on this subject. Odigie, et
al.(2003) reported that chronic administration of aqueous extract of roselle
attenuated hypertension and reversed cardiac hypertrophy in 2K 1C
hypertensive rats. Hibiscus sabdariffa Extract (HSE) significantly reduced
foam cell formation and inhibited smooth muscle cell migration and
calcification in the blood vessels of rabbits. The results showed that HSE
inhibited serum lipids and showed an anti atherosclerosis activity (Chen et
al., 2003). Chen, et al.(2003) reported that roselle extract inhibited the
development of atherosclerosis in cholesterol fed rabbits. Herrera-
Arellanoet al.(2004) studied effectiveness and tolerability of a
standardized extract from roselle in patients with mild to moderate
hypertension in a controlled and randomized clinical trial. They reported a
cure of mild and moderate hypertension with roselle extracts infusion. It
was proved to be a significant antihypertensive drug (at 9.6 mg
anthocyanin per day (from 10g of dried calyces on 0.5% water) daily
before breakfast. Lans (2006) in his survey of some medicinal plants
noticed that roselle is used against hypertension. Mojiminiyi et al. (2007)
observed antihypertensive, hypotensive and negative chromotropic effects
in rats after application of aqueous calyces extract of roselleon two types
of experimental hypertension, salt induced and L- NAME (NC0mega)- L-
arginine methyl ester) induced in permosensive controls. Iyare and
Adegoke, (2008) showed that maternal consumption of aqueous extracts of
roselle during lactation decreasedpostnatal weight gain and delayed onset
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of puberty in the female offspring. Mozaffari-Khosravi et al. (2009)

reported antihypertensive effectiveness of sour teat (ST-H. sabdariffa)
infusion in diabetic patients after consumption of ST infusion. Lee et
al.(2009) recommended polyphenolics rich extracts of roselle for
neutropathy in diabetes. Ojeda et al.(2009) showed inhibitory action of
roselle extract on activities of ACE (Angiotensin Converting Enzyme).
This observation supports the data related to folk medicine use of
rosellecalycesas antihypertensive agent.
A low dose of roselle juice was found beneficial than a high dose in
renal stone diseases (Kirdpon et al., 1994). Chen et al. (2004) reported
inhibitory effects of roselle extract on low density lipoprotein oxidation
and anti hyperlipidemia in fructose fed and cholesterol fed rats. In human
beings also better results were obtained against urinary problems. Herbal
infusion of roselle significantly reduced the creatinine, uric acid, citrate,
tartarate, Ca, Na, K and phosphate in the urine. But it did not affect the
reduction of oxalates (Ali et al., 2005). Orisakwe, et al.(2004) reported
testicular effects of sub chronic administration of roselle calyx aqueous
extract in rats.
Lin et al. (2002) reported anti-hepatoma activity of fifteen natural

medicines (including roselle) from Canada on liver cancer cell lines and
indicated that the crude drugs are highly effective against hepatitis B virus
having cytotoxic properties.
Chewonarin, et al.(1999) studied the effects of roselle on the

mutagenecity of various known mutagens in Salmonella typhimurium and
on formation of aberrant crypt foci induced by the colon carcinogens
azoxymethane and 2 amino 1 methyl 6 phenylimidazo (4, 5 b) pyridine in
F 344 rats. They noticed that at the initiation stage, the number of AOM-
induced ACF in the colon was significantly decreased by roselle (17-25 %)
compared with that in rats treated with AOM alone. The amount of O6-
methylguanine in the colonic mucosa was found to be decreased in the
roselle-treated rats. The number of PhIP-induced ACF was also
significantly decreased by roselle treatment (22 %) at a concentration of
1.0 g kg-1 body weight in the initiation stage. However, in the post-
initiation stage of AOM-induced ACF formation, roselle increased the
number of ACF, especially the number of foci which had more than three
crypts/focus. These results indicate that roselle has antimutagenic activity
against MAM acetate and heterocyclic amines and that it decreases the
83
number of AOM- and PhIP-induced ACF in the initiation stage, although

it rather increased the number of ACF in the post-initiation stage.
Fakeye et al.(2008) have stated that there was significant decrease in

onset of sleep and increasing in sleeping time after a dose of system at
A300, AE50 and AE300 mg kg-1 doses groups (P<0.001; P<0.01 and
P<0.05 respectively). However, ethanol extract had slow impact on
sleeping time and some doses (EAC at 50 mg kg-1 = with P<0.05) is
beneficial in reduction of sleeping time. This observation reveals
anxiotypic and sedative effects of roselleextract.
Asagba et al.(2007) reported protective role of aqueous extract of

rosellepetal against chronic exposure to Cd after study of some selected
biochemical parameters in 12 week old male wistar albino rats. It also
protected against Cd induced liver prostate, and testes lipid peroxidation as
evidenced by significantly reduced MDA values in these organs.
Ali et al.(1991) investigated the antispasmodic potential of roselle

calyces. The succulent calyx, boiled in water, is used as a drink in bilious
attacks (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962).
Chua et al.(1987) studied antimicrobial properties of roselle. They

reported that the antimicrobial property of roselle calyx extracts (aqueous
and ethanol) was not affected by heat treatments. However, in combination
with protocatechuic acid, ethanol extract of roselle calyx exhibited dose
dependent inhibitory activity. The ethanol extracts of roselle calyx
exhibited greater antibacterial effects than the aqueous extract. They
suggested that in ethanol extract of roselle calyx, protocatechuic acid
might become potent agents as food additives to prevent contamination
from the bacteria. Rukayadi et al.(2008) assessed thi medicinal plant (H.
sabdariffa) for their anticandidal activity against six Candida species viz.
C. albicans, C. glabrata, C. guilliermondii, C. Kruisei, C. parapsilosis and
C. tropicallis. They found that methanolic extracts of roselle fruits had low
anticandidal activity (range of 100-500 mg ml-1).
Rukmini et al.(1982) made toxicological evaluation of roselle oil.

The oil has cyclopropenoid fatty acids (2.9 %) and epoxy fatty acids (2.6
%) along with normal fatty acids in vegetable oil. Rats fed with this oil
showed slower growth and inferior reproductive performance with some
alterations in liver metabolism. From the acids identified from this oil,
84
sterculic acid (C19) and malvalic acids (C18) are toxic one. It is evident
from this report that the roselle seed oil in raw state is unsafe for human
consumption.
e. Other Uses
The seeds are used as feed for chickens. Roselle cake is used as
cattle feed when available in large quantity (Morton, 1987). The leaves are
a source of mucilage and are used in pharmacy and cosmetics (McClintock
and El-Tahir, 2004). According to Wiam et al.(2006), roselle can be used
as a histological stain. Sato et al.(1991) studied structure and contents of
main coloring constituents in the calyces of roselle and commercial roselle
color. Recently, the ornamental use of roselle as a garden plant, as cut
flowers is under consideration (McClintock and El-Tahir, 2004). The red
stalks with ripe red flowers are used in flower arrangement in Europe.
Conclusion
The scientific evidence shown in this manuscript confirms that the

organic acids present in Hibiscus sabdariffa L. (Hs) may have important
therapeutic and/or pharmacological effects for humans. It has the potential
to be developed as antihypertensive, antidyslipidemic, antidiabetic, and
antiobesity drugs. Rosella probably functions as an antistress herbal
medicine. This review reveals that Hibiscus sabdariffa Linn.shows
significant antimicrobial, antioxidant andanticancer properties against
common humanpathogens tested. Some of the bioactiveconstituents of this
plant were isolated, purifiedand analyzed for possible use in making drugs.
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Fitoterapia. 2019;134:5–13. doi: 10.1016/j.fitote.2019.01.012.
92
Versatile Caesalpinia bonduc (L.)

Mangal Patwardhan
Departmant of Botany
Gogate Jogalekar College, Ratnagiri
Maharashtra, India
mangal.1550@gmail.com
Abstract
Caesalpiniabonduc (L.) native of central and south coastal dunes of

Florida established in every tropical shore worldwide also inhabit in
deserts, salt deserts and common in hedges around fields and villages. All
parts of this plant (including seed oil) are used in medicine since ancient
times in Ayurveda, Unani, in India and other tropical countries by local
people and in modern medicine too. A variety of phyto-constituents
including glycosides, cassane diterpenes, triterpenoids, sterols, flavonoids,
quinine have been reported. Versatility of this plant also reflects in its
pharmacological activities and uses. Nearly all sorts of metabolic (viz.
diabetes, cancer), infectious (viz. malaria, skin infection) and stress related
(viz. anxiety) disorders of the human body can be cured using various
parts of this plants in various concentrations and in various forms. Various
drug formulations of C. bonduc are available in market.
I. Introduction
The species Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) was first described by

Roxbourgh in 1832. According to Bentham and Hooker‘ classification it
belongs to Family –Leguminosae, Subfamily – Caesalpinoidae. The
synonyms Caesalpinia bonduc (L.)are Caesalpinia bonducella ( L.)
Fleming, Caesalpinia crista, Caesalpinia jiyaba Maza, Caesalpinia
sogerensis Baker, Guilandina bonduc L., Guilandina bonducella L.,
Guilandina crista (L.) (Dandy and Exell,1938; Cooke,1958; The Wealth
of India,1969; Hattink,1974).
C. bonduc is familiar with number of vernacular names in different

languages from all parts of the world such as in English: Nicker nut, Fever
nut, Ponduo nut, Bonduc nut, Physic nut, Nicker bean, Gray Nicker, Indian
Fillbern. Sanskrit: Lata karanj, Pooti karanj, Puti karanj, Ghrut karanj,
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Kantaki karanj, Kuberaksha, Kuberrakshi, Krakachika, Kantakini,

Kakachika. Persian: Khayahe-i-ibis, Finduk. Arabic: Kitmacit, Najiul
biladal, Bonduc, Kitmakit, Hajarelukab. Japanese: Shirotsubu. French:
Bois canic, Bois ouetie, Bonduc, Bonduc gris, Codoc, Cniquier, Crete de
paon, Pois genic, Pois quenique, Queniquier, Yeux de chat. French
Guiana: Couri, Grainestiques. Spanish: Unas de gato. Indo China: Moc
meo nuit, Vout bum. Java: Kalitji. Matahijang. Kumaen: Karaunj
Ceylon: Punaikkalaichi Cutch: Sagergota. Malay: Buoa gove Burmese:
Kaliandza, Kalein. Myanmar: Ka-Lain Singapuri: Kurnburu alta, Ewe:
Worle. La Reunion: Cadoque. Lepcha: Kup, Yang, Yangkup.
Madagascar: Buvagore. Phillippines: Calambit. Hindi: Kanja, Karanjva.
Urdu: Akitmakit, Bunduk, Karanjwa. Sinhalese: Kumburu-wel, wael-
kumburu Hausa: Yayandara. Santal: Bagni. Marathi: Sagargota, Gajaga,
Rohedo, Gajra, Gajarghota, Kanchari, Karbath Kannad: Gajagakayi.
Malayalum: Kazhan chikkara, Kinanchik, Kura, Kanka, Kazauchikuri.
Gujrathi: Kakachia, Gajaga, Kackki, Gajga, Kanka. Begali: Nata, Nata
karanja, Natukaranja, Kata karanj. Tamili: Kazhar-shikkay, Kalichi
kalishikkay, Cechchakkay, Kazhiahikay. Telgu: Gachchakaya, Gachcha.
Deccan: Gaja, Gudagega, Gutakka. Porebunder: Kakcha.
Mundari: Janum Koronjo Sadani: Kataphar Twi: Abobadwe,
Aworaworadwe, Orwareaba. Uriya: Kotokoleja, Nota. Visayan:
Dalugdug. (Cooke,1958; The Wealth of India, 1969; Raghunathan and
Mitra,1982; Standardisation of single drugs of Unani medicine,1987;
Caius,1989; The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India,1999; Daehler, 2005).
94
C. bonduc is native of central and south coastal dunes of Florida (Aronson,

1989) established in nearly every tropical shore worldwide. It is also
reported in deserts, salt desert and common in hedges around fields and
villages from sea coast up to 850m the hills (The Wealth of India,1969)
Chemical composition
A phyto-chemical analysis of different plant parts of C. bonduc has

been performed by several workers. Their findings are summarized as in
Table- 1.
Sr.No. Phytoconstituents Plant part Reference

I Glycoside-
Bonducin/ Bonducellin S Joshi and Nigam (1976) ,
1.
Moon et al. (2010)
Pipataline S, B Lyder et al.(1998),
2.
Khuda et al. (1961)
3. Brazillin L Joshi and Nigam (1976),
4. 6‘-O-acetyllogenic acid B Khuda et al. (1961)
5. 4‘-O-acetyllogenic acid B Khuda et al. (1961)
2-O-β-d-glucosyloxy-4- B Khuda et al. (1961)
6. methoxybenzenepropionic
acid
II Cassane diterpenes-
1 F-Caesalpin S Yadav et al. (2009)
2 E- Caesalpin S Yadav et al. (2009)
3 1,5,6,7,14 Voucapanepentol S Moon et al. (2010)
α-Caesalpin S Moon et al. (2010)
4
Canonica et al. (1963)
β-Caesalpin S Moon et al. (2010)
5
γ-Caesalpin S Moon et al. (2010)
6
Canonica et al.(1963)
δ-Caesalpin S Moon et al. (2010)
7
8 ε-Caesalpin S Canonica et al. (1963)
9 Caesaldekarin A R Lyder et al. (1998)
10 Caesaldekarin C R Peter et al. (1997)
11 Caesaldekarin-F R Peter et al. (1997)
12 Caesaldekarin- G R Yadav et al. (2009)
Caesaldekarin- J B Ata et al. (2009a)
13
Udenigwe et al. (2007)
14 Caesalpinolide- A R Yadav et al. (2009)
15 Caesalpinolide- C S,WP Yadav et al. (2009)
16 Caesalpinolide-E S,WP Yadav et al. (2009)
17 Caesalpinolide-D S,WP Yadav et al. (2009)
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12 α acetoxy WP Canonica et al. (1963)

18
Caesalpinolide-C
6 β ,12 α acetoxy WP Canonica et al. (1963)
19
Caesalpinolide-C
12 α-acetoxy WP Yadav et al. (2009)
20
Caesalpinolide-D
6 β, acetoxy 14-methoxy WP Yadav et al. (2009)
21 voucapane-8(14)-9(11)-
diene
14 methyl voucapane- R,S Ata et al. (2009a)
22
8(14)-9(11)-diene
5,6 α-dihydroxy, 7,14 β, S Moon et al. (2010)
23
diacetoxy voucapane1-one
7 β acetoxy,5,6 α- S Moon et al. (2010)
24 dihydroxy, 14methyene
voucapane-1-one
1,6 α-diacetoxy,5 α- S Moon et al. (2010)
25 hydroxy,14 methylene
voucapane
26 Neocaesalpin P R Ata et al. (2009a)
27 Neocaesalpin H R Ata et al. (2009a)
28 Neocaesalpin C S Kinoshita, (2000)
29 Neocaesalpin D S Kinoshita, (2000)
30 Neocaesalpin W S Wu et al. (2007)
31 Cordylane A R Ata et al. (2009a)
32 Caesalpinin R Peter and Tinto, (1997)
33 Caesalpinin B R Ata et al. (2009a)
34 Bonducellpin A R Peter and Tinto, (1997)
35 Bonducellpin B R Peter and Tinto, (1997)
36 Bonducellpin C R Peter and Tinto, (1997)
37 Bonducellpin D R Peter and Tinto, (1997)
Bonducellpin E R Ata et al. (2009a),
38
S Pudhom et al. (2007)
39 Bonducellpin F S Pudhom et al. (2007)
40 Bonducellpin G S Pudhom et al. (2007)
III Cassane triterpenoids
1 α-amyrin (12-ursen-3 β-ol) S Ali et al. (2008)
β-amyrin (12 oleanex-3 β- S Ali et al. (2008)
2
ol)
Lupeol (Lup-20(29)-en-3 β- S Ali et al. (2008)
3
ol)
Lupeol acetate (Lup- S Ali et al. (2008)
4
20(20)-en-3 β-yl acetate)
IV Sterols
17-hydroxy-campesta-4,6- B Udenigwe et al. (2007)
1
dien-3-one Ata et al. (2009a)
13,14-seco-stigmasta- B Udenigwe et al. (2007)
2
5,140dien-3 α-ol, S Ata et al. (2009a)
3 13,14-seco-stigmasta-9(11), B Udenigwe et al.(2007)
96
S Ata et al. (2009a)

14-dien-3α-ol B Udenigwe et al.(2007)
4
S Ata et al. (2009a)
5 β Sitosterol P Ali et al. (2008)
6 β Sitosterol galoctoside P Ali et al. (2008)
7 Pinitol L Khuda et al. (1961)
8 Hematoxylol B Ata et al. (2009b)
V Steroidal saponin-
1 Diosgenin R Jain et al. (1991)
VI Flavonoids
Caesalpinianone B Moon et al. (2010)
1.
Ata et al. (2009b)
Caesalpinianone B B Moon et al. (2010)
2.
Ata et al. (2009a)
6-O-methylcaesalpinianone B Khuda et al. (1961)
3.
B
4. Bonducillin S Purshotaman et al. (1982)
VI Quinone
1 Stereochenol B Khuda et al. (1961)
II. Ethno Medicinal Uses
The medicinal uses of Caesalpinia bonduc have been recognized

since early days in India and other tropical countries by local people.
Medicinally seeds are used for oil extraction. (Standardisation of single
drugs of Unani medicine, 1987; Oudhia, 2007). The medicinal applications
of different plant parts are summarized as follows.
Root
1. Antiperiodic and antiplasmodic; Astringent used in leucorrhoea and blennorrhagia,
Rubifacient, as a local application for sores. (Chopra et al., 1958)
2. Bark is good for tumors and for removing the placenta. (Kirtikar and Basu,1975)
3. Bark powder with honey is taken in cases of hernia. (Reddy et al., 1988)
4. Bark is bitter tonic, anthelmintic and febrifuge. It is considered valuable in simple,
continued and intermittent fevers, asthma, and colic.(Baquar, 1989)
5. In malarial fever(www.Indiascience.org)
6. Edematous, Sexual weakness, hernia, prevention of prostate gland disease,
blackwater fever, angina, chicken pox, stomachache. To fight against childbirth, to
treat burns (Assogbadjo et al.,2011).
Leaf
1. Juice used in small pox; destroys the bad perspiration odour. (Kirtikar and
Basu,1975)
Deobstruent and emmenagogue. (Baquar, 1989)
2. Intermittent fevers and for expelling intestinal worms and applied for toothache.
(Dassanayake,1981)
3. Anthelmintic, emmenagogue and febrifuse and used in elephantiasis, intestinal
97
worms, splenomegaly, amenorhoea, dysmenorrhoea, fevers and pharyngodynia.

(Sala, 1995)
4. Root paste taken with black pepper powder to treat diarrhoea, (Sen and Behera,
2008)
5. To fight against childbirth, to treat burns Memory weakness, painful menstruation,
weakness after delivery, hyperthermia, burn, candidose, stomachache, hypertension
prevention, malaria (Assogbadjo et al.,2011)
6. For the treatment of psoriasis (Muruganantham, 2011)
Flower
1. Cures ‘Kapha‖ and ‗Vata‘; the ash is used in ascites.( Kirtikar and Basu,1975)
Fruit
1. Acrid, heating the body.( Kirtikar and Basu,1975)
2. Astringent to the bowls, aphrodisiac, anthelmintic; Cures urinary discharges,
leucorrhoea, piles, wounds.(Gogate, 2000)
Seed
1. Seed extract as blood purifier and pulmonary aid to clear chest phelgrum and
laxative. (Akaiko, 1922).
2. To treat kidney trouble, diabetes and high blood pressure. (Asprey and
Thornton,1955)
3. Hot and dry; styptic, antiperiodic, prevents contagious diseases; useful in colic,
malaria, hydrocele, skin disorders, leprosy, febrifuge and asthmatic.(Dhar, 1968)
4. Antimaleric and antiperiodic properties.( Kirtikar and Basu,1975)
5. Roasted leaves and seeds with castor oil applied externally to inflammatory
swellings to hydrocele and orchitis. (Nadkarni and Nadkarni,1976)
6. A medicine for stomach trouble; 10-12 nuts at a time for adult.(Caius, 1989)
7. Bitter, astringent, acrid, thermogenic, anodyne, anti-inflammatory, anthelminatic,
digestive, stomachic, liver tonic, depurative, expectorant, contraceptive, antipyretic,
tonic and aphrodisiac. (Sala, 1995)
8. Seed powder mixed with oil is applied to relieve body-ache.(Kumar and Jain, 1998)
9. Seed gives strength, cures fever, vaginal and skin disorders, intestinal obstruction,
piles, ulcer, and abdominal enlargement. It is useful in blood diseases, enlargement
of the spleen and as a single drug for treatment of amoebiasis characterized by
blood and mucos in the stool. Powdered seeds with black pepper are tonic,
febrifuge and anti-periodic and also used in chronic fever. Used in simple,
continued and intermittent fever, asthma and colic. (The Ayuvedic Pharmacopoeia
of India,1999).
10. Seed powder with hot milk for relief for flatulence (Kottaimuthu,2008).
11. Seed powder as antacid, antiulcer, gastrointestinal disorders in northwest
Maharashtra, India (Kamble et al., 2008).
12. For curing hydrocele seed powder along with Zingiber officinale rhizome and
Curcuma longa. (Shivaana and Rajakumar, 2010).
13. Seed powder used in fever, leprosy, urinary trouble, and antidote to snake bite
(Singh et al., 2010).
14. Used to treat gastric problems and Melina by Tai-Khamyangs of Assam, India.
(Sonowal and Barua, 2011).
15. To fight against childbirth, to treat burns (Assogbadjo et al., 2011).
98
Seed oil
1. Seed oil is emollient; used as an embrocating, to remove freckles from face, as a
cosmetics and for stopping discharges from ear.(The Wealth of India, 1969).
2. Oil is given in convulsions, palsy and similar complaints.( Baquar, 1989).
III. Pharmacological Studies
Hypoglycaemic, Antihyperglycaemic and hypolipidemic activity
Aqueous and 50% ethanolic extracts of C. bonduc seeds show

activity of in normal and streptozotocin (SZ) diabetic rats. (Sharma et al.,
1997). Petroleum ether, ether, ethyl acetate and aqueous extracts of C.
bonduc seed kernels were evaluated for anti-diabetic activity (Rao et al.,
2001) and a significant hypoglycemia was observed in normal as well as
diabetic rat with ethyl acetate and aqueous extracts. Along with significant
reduction in fasting blood sugar, reversal in the diabetics induced
hyperlipidelia and liver glycogen depletion was also noticed. Anti-diabetic
potential of C. bonduc seed extracted in different solvents was also evident
(Grower et al., 2002; Sudeep et al., 2002; Chakrabarti et al., 2003; Kannur
et al., 2006).
C. bonduc seed kernel ethanolic extract show hypoglycemic action

on normal and Allozan induced diabetic rats due to insulin like effect of
the drug (Sarma and Das (2009). It may be due to the presence of
flavonoids, which protect the existing ß-cells from dying by their free
radical scavenging action. Triterpenoids (lupeol) have ability to protect the
cells and tissues from oxidative stress which induces the formation of
cyto-protective enzymes like catalase, superoxide dismutase. Saponins
present in the seed kernel of C. bonduc might contribute to its
antihyperglycemic action. Potential antioxidant effect of C. bonduc has
been noted by Luqman et al., (2009) against oxidative stress in
erythrocytes. Similarly role of seed as antioxidant to scavenge the
superoxide generated by EDTA/ NBT system has been noticed by Shukla
et al., (2009).
Antipyretic and Analgesic Activity
C. bonduc flower extract has a significant anti-nociceptive effect in

inflammatory phase of formalin induced and acetic acid induced pains
(Aruna Devi et al., 2008). Adult albino rats when subjected to 70%
99
ethanolic C. bonduc seed kernel extract caused marked antipyretic activity

against Brewer‗s yeast induced pyrexia in rat and had central analgesic
activity in hot plate and tail flick methods. Acetic-acid induced writhing
test in mice and Randall-Selitto assay in rats, revealed marked peripheral
analgesic effect of the extract (Archana et al., 2005). C. bonduc seed oil
has anti-inflammatory, antipyretic and analgesic properties Shukla et al.,
(2010).
Antimicrobial Activity
The aqueous, methanolic and ethyl acetate seed extract of C. bonduc

showed antibacterial and antifungal activity (Simin et al., 2001) with the
help of agar diffusion method against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, while the
methanol extract, ethylacetate and bondenolide exhibited activities against
Klebsiella pneumoniae, E. coli and Staphylococcus aureus. The aqueous
portion was most active against Corynebacterium diptheriae,
Streptococcus pyrogenes and Shigella flexneri. Activities against test
fungi, Khuskia oryzae, Stachybotrys atra, Cochliobolus lunatus,
Setosphaeria rostrata, Aspergillus niger, Pleurotus oustreatus,
Pseudallescheria boydii, Microsporum canis and Epidermophyton
floccosum except Candida albicans, were confirmed. The methanol extract
of C. bonduc seeds and four triterpenoids isolated from the seeds show a
wide range of inhibiting action against both gram-positive and gram -ve
bacteria (Saeed and Sabir, 2003). Aquil and Ahmad, (2003) reported
antibacterial activity of seed against seven genera- Staphalococcus aureus,
Salmonella dysenterica, S. paratyphi, S. typhi, E, coli, Shaigells dysenterie
and Pseudomonas aerugginosa and five filamentous fungi- Aspergillus
niger, Alternaria alterata, Fusarium chlamydosporum, Rhizoctonia
bataticola, Trichoderma viride and a yeast Candida albicans of clinical
origin. Leaf and bark methanolic extract shows the antibacterial activity
against gram +ve bacteria Staphyloccous aureus, Bacillus megaterium, B.
proteus, gram -ve bacteria Shigella sonnei, Klebsillea sp. S. siga and
toxicity against brine shrimp napulii with LC50 value 122.83(μg/ml)(
Ashan et al., 2009).
The bark of C. bonduc, exhibited glutathione S-transferase (GST)

inhibitory and antifungal activities (Ata et al., 2009a) due to the presence
of two homoisoflavonoids, caesalpinianone and 6-O-
methylcaesalpinianone, hematoxylol, stereochenol A, 6′-O-acetylloganic
acid, 4′O-acetylloganic acid, and 2-O-β-d-glucosyloxy-4-
100
methoxybenzenepropanoic acid and antibacterial activities due to

diterpene, neocaesalpin P and diterpenoids, neocaesalpin H, cordylane A,
caesalpinin B, bonducellpin E, caesalpinolide A, and 17-
methylvouacapane-8(14),-9(11)-diene (Ata et al.,2009 b). Seed extract
exhibited in vitro antimicrobial activities in a range of 22-350 μg/ml (Arif
et al., 2009) against methicillin resistant (MR) Staphylococcus aureus and
ampicillin resistant (AR) Pseudomonas aeruginosa as in the sensitive
strains. In rat model of chronic P. aeruginosa pneumonia, injections of
hydro-alcoholic extracts of C. bonduc seed kernel and C. bonduc seed coat
showed a significant bacterial clearance from the lungs (P<0.04) and less
severe incidence of lung abscess (P<0.05) after two weeks. Thus C.
bonduc have the potential to be promising natural medicine, for cystic
fibrosis patients with chronic Pseudomonas aeruginosa lung infections.
The leaf extrct of C. bonducella shows the presence of good amount
of alkaloid and N – Oxides showing its antibacterial and antifungal
activities against different fungi and bacteria (Pingale et al.,2017)
Antitumor activity
Gupta et al., (2004) tested C. bonduc methanol extract of leaves for

anti-tumor activity and antioxidant status against Egrich ascites carcinoma
(EAC) in Swiss albino miceat the doses of 50, 100 and 200 mg/kg body
weight per day for 14 days after tumour inoculation. The effect of
treatment on the growth of transplantable murine tumour, life span of EAC
bearing mice, hematological profile and biochemical parameters related to
oxidative stress was evaluated. Treated mice showed decrease in tumour
volume, packed cell volume and viable cell count and the treatment
prolonged the life span of EAC-tumor bearing mice. Hematological profile
converted to normal levels in extract treated mice and decrease in the level
of lipid peroxidation and increased levels of GSH, SOD and CAT was also
noted.
Antimalarial action
Anti-malarial trials of leaf and seed extract of C. bonduc were found

to possess anti-malarial activity (Goswami, 2001). However reports
(Addae and Wright, 1997; Goswami, 2001) regarding the antimalarial
action of C. bonduc indicate C. bonduc root extract was the most active of
(ID50 42.8 mg/kg body wt). Three cassane furanoditerpenoids are reported
by Pudhom et al.,(2007) exhibit good antimalarial activity against the
101
multi-resistant K1 strain of Plasmodium falciparum. Innocent et al.,

(2009) reported 80% ethanol extract of root had potential to yield a
compound/s with antimalarial activity in miceduring screening of
traditionally used plantsin vivo.
Antifilarial activity
Saravanan et al.,(2007) evaluated antifilarial activity (in vitro) of C.

bonduc leaf extracts (petroleum ether, ethanolic, aqueous) and fixed oil
from seeds, against the microfilariae of Wuchereria bancrofti, a human
parasite and macrofilariae of Setaria digitata, animal parasite. The
mortality of the microfilariae of W. bancrofti over the 24 hr observation
period in 96 well micro titre plate was used a measure of the activity,
whereas the time for paralysis and death were used as a measure of the
activity for the animal parasite, S. digitata. Ethanolic extract of leaf and
fixed oil demonstrated the strongest activity against both the parasites i.e.,
animal and human parasite.
Gaur et al., (2008) noted that the dose of 1.0 g and 150mg/ Kg of
seed kernel ethenolic extract was most effective. C. bonduc leaf powder
was clinically proved by Prasad et al., (2010) to have antifilarial activity.
Anxiolytic activity
Seed extract of C. bonduc inpetroleum ether, ethanol, methanol and

water was studied by Ali et al., (2008) for the anxiolytic activity in
laboratory animal mice and rats. In Stair-case model, petroleum ether C.
bonduc extract had showed a significant and dose dependent anxiolytic
activity.
Antistress activity
Kannur et al., (2006) demonstrated adaptogenic activity C. bonduc

seeds in case of cold stress model and swim model. Seed coat and kernel
extracts (300 mg/Kg) oral administration showed significant anti-stress
activity in rats. It improved stress induced imbalance in the blood sugar,
serum cortisol level and total leukocyte count in the animals. It also
controlled stress induced hyperlipidimic condition.
102
Muscle contractile activity
The calcium dependency and the cholinergic effects of leaf extract

of C. bonduc on the contractile activity by increasing the contractile force
of uterine smooth muscle in the isolated strips of pregnant rats comparable
with the effect of acetylcholine (Datte et al., 1998). The cholinergic
receptors sensitive to extract influence the influx of calcium (phasic
contraction) and mobilize the calcium from cellular stores (tonic
contraction) are responsible for the increase of contractile activity and
development of the contracture of uterine smooth muscle. The mechanism
of action gallamine-induced relaxation in rat tibial muscle contractility of
C. bonduc extract was also studied (Datte et al., 2004)
Anticancer drug resistance
Naturally occurring Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) are

responsible for decreasing the effectiveness of anticancer/antiparasitic
agents used for the treatment of cancer and parasitic diseases. Bioactivity
of sterol, 17-hydroxy-campesta-4,6-dien-3-one; 13, 14-seco-stigmasta-
5,14-dien-3α-ol; 13,14-seco-stigmasta-9(11),14-dien-3α-ol and
caesaldekarin J present in C. bonduc showed GST inhibition activity
significantly higher than that of sodium taurocholate a standard steroidal
GST inhibitor.
Neocaesalpin P and diterpenoids, neocaesalpin H, cordylane A,
caesalpinin B, bonducellin E, caesalpinolide A, and 17-methylvouacapane-
8(14),-9(11)-diene also showed weak activity in glutathione S- tranferase
inhibition assays (Khuda et al.,1961)
Antipsriatic activity
Butanol and water fraction of hydroalcoholic extract of C. bonduc

leaves produced significant orthokeratosis showing maximum
antiproliferant activity with IC50 77.5 ±12.7μg/ml and antilipoxygenase
activity with IC50 of 164.71± 4.57 μg/ml (Muruganantham et al., 2011)
Antioxidant activity
C. bonducella seeds exhibite 90% of maximum free
–1
radical scavenging activity at 1000 μg mL and low effect (22.39%) at
1.95 μg mL–1 concentration which confirms the dose-dependent aqueous
extract antioxidant activity (Manikandaselvi et al., 2016)
103
Antispermatogenic acidity
Aqueous seed extract of C. bonduc decreases the sperm density in

male albino rat indicating its antieprmatogenic activity, thus suggests its
use in contraceptive pills Kanerkar et al (2015).
Immunomodulatory activity
C. bonduc seeds aqueous extract when tested for effect on cell

mediated and humoral components of the immune system in rats increased
hemagglutinating antibody titer and delayed type of hypersensitivity.
(Shukla et al., 2010).
Diuretic activity
Oral administration of aqueous and methanol seeds extracts of C.

bonduc to normal rats increased volume of urine, Khedekar et al.,(2011).
Conclusion
C. bonduc was one of the most prominent of them. Antiulcer,

anticancer, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, anti-rheumatic, antimicrobial,
antibacterial, and cytotoxic properties were all demonstrated by C.
bonduc. As stated in this review, C. bonduc has a number of essential
pharmacological properties. As a result, the data accessible in the literature
to far, when combined with the diversity of metabolites, clearly show that
chemical/pharmacological research of C. bonduc could lead to novel drug
prototypes.
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107
Portulaca oleracea: A Traditional, Oldest and Common

Wild Medicinal Vegetable
Suvarna V. Gaikwad
Dada Patil Mahavidyalaya, Karjat
Dist. Ahmednagar- 414402. (MS)
India
Pratishtha N. Nagane
Dist. Ahmednagar- 414402. (MS), India
Asha B. Kadam
Dist. Ahmednagar- 414402. (MS), India
pratishthanagane13@gmail.com
Abstract
Portulaca oleracea L. is a traditional, oldest and common wild

vegetable used by man as a part of folk medicine.It isa genus of succulent
herbs distributed in the warmer parts of the world. Four species are found
wild in India and two exotics have become naturalized. It is a rich source
of highly nutritional values and also richest source of secondary
metabolites as alkaloids, flavonoids, omega-3 fatty acids, polysaccharides,
proteins, minerals, vitamins, terpenoids and sterols. The Portulaca is an
easily available wild vegetable and also found in all the parts of the xeric
climates. It is having a very good potential of near about thirty one
biological activities from all the parts of plant like root, stem and leaves.
Whole plant is a richest source of unique phytochemicals. Portulaca has
been proved to have potential as best ethnobotanical and pharmacological
actions. It has a very good antioxidant, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory,
antimicrobial, neuroprotective, and anticancer, antihypertensive activities.
This attempt was made to high lighten the detailed information on various
bioactivities along with its natural bioactive compounds which are
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responsible to give pharmacological aspects of Portulaca to push this plant

in our daily common food as a source of nutritional and balanced diet.
Keywords: Portulaca oleracea, Phytoconstituents, Ethnobotanical and

Pharmacological actions.
I. Introduction
The most common plant in India is herb, with fleshy succulent

leaves, evergreen and forms a mat over an area due to its special
propagation method. The name of this plant is Portulaca oleracea L.
commonly, we called it as Purslane and in Marathi it is Ghol because of its
mat, we never find from where it starts its propagation. Because of its
ability to produce large numbers of seeds, common Portulaca can rapidly
colonize at any warm, moist site. It prefers a moist light rich well-drained
soil in a sunny position (Huxley, 1992). It is common vegetable used by us
as wild vegetable due to its medicinal value.It is known by various names
by local people at various places of the world like, as in USA and
Australia it is Purslane, in England as Pigweed, in Malaysia as Andulam in
France as Pourpier, (Elkhayat et al.., 2008).It comprises from family
Portulacaceae, and it is an annual prostate herb. The name nomenclature
of plant Portulaca is derived from the Latin words as ‗porto‘ meaning ―to
carry‖ and ‗lac‘ meaning milk. The plant contains a milky juice (Loutfy
and Nabil, 1994). It shows diuridinal fluctuations as it follows Crassulian
acid metabolism (CAM) pathway. During night it captures carbon dioxide
and utilizes it in day time. This is a capacity of plant to defend against
water stress as it faces xeric stress conditions.
The swollen stems of Portuulaca can remain moist and viable for
several days after cultivation and hoeing, and reroots to form ―new‖ plants
when gardens or fields are irrigated. To produce a plant from seed, it takes
near about six to eight weeks and then it was harvested on a cut
periodically and providing edible leaves for most of the summer season
(Grieve, 1995). It is distributed in various countries like French, Mexican,
Spanish, and Venezuelan Pharmacopoeias along with India (Eduardo,
1978). Now, it becomes very common and distributed through in the all
tropical and subtropical areas of the world including the United States,
India.
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Due to its nutritional value Ghol has been used in salads and as a
medicinal plant from ancient times from hundreds of years ago. The
various records were found on ethnobotanical uses of the Ghol plant parts
like leaves and stem are used by various people of world to cure a lot of
troubles. In Jamaica, the juice of the stems and leaves are rich sources of
acid and is applied as a cooling and moistening herb in fevers and also on
to scorpion sting. In Indo China the fresh leaves juice is applied to
abscesses, and used as a collyrium, and also employed its decoction over
dysentery and liver diseases (Nadkarni et al., 1999). In Nigeria the leaves
are used as a local application to swellings (Kirtikar et al., 2000). In
North America, the seeds are used as a cooling diuretic, and also as to be
anthelmintic, though now known to be inert.
Due to its nutritional aspects now, it will gain the interest of

researchers. Around the Mediterranean and tropical Asian countries, it is
eaten widely as a main content to soups and salads. Its soft stem and leaves
are used a raw, alone or with other green vegetables to make various
dishes from it. (Palaniswamy et al., 2002). Their young leaves are a very
acceptable addition due to its high content of mucilage and quality it added
to salads and also major content of a good substitute for okra and as a
thickener in soups too. (Facciola, 1990 and Grieve, 1984).
This plant is also preferred by the Ancient people of Romes as a

remedy of dysentery, headache, stomach ache and it has the potential of
vermifuge (Duke, 2002). The ground seed powder is mixed with cereals
and used in gruels, bread, pancakes (Khare, 2007). The plant is reported to
have antibacterial, antiscorbutic, depurative, diuretic, febrifuge and its
fresh juice is also used in the treatment of strangury, coughs and sore
(Chiej, 1984; Arruda et al., 2004; Xiao et al., 2005 and Movahedian et al.,
2007).The juice of plant and leaves are very effective in the treatment of
skin diseases and insect stings (Bown, 1995 and Chiej, 1984). The leaf
juice is applied to earaches, it is also said to alleviate caterpillar stings.
Foster, S. and J. A. Duke (2000) reported that the application of leaves as a
poultice is very useful on burns. They also prepared tea from these leaves
is also effective in the treatment of stomach aches and headaches.
Every part of plant is a medicinal and variety of research was made

to study a lot of bioactivities. This plant also has a potential of an
antimicrobial plant (Dan, 2006), and an antioxidant potential of plant as
reported by Karimi et al. (2011). All the plants parts such as seeds, leaves,
110
stems, and roots of extracts shows a very good are antioxidant property
(Habibian. et al., 2020). It also proved to have a potential of anti-
inflammatory, a liver protector (Eidi et al., 2015) activity.
The plant also effective against the intestinal worm useful as a

wound healing (Rashed et al., 2003) vermifuge activity and also useful for
contraceptive effects (Hanumantapa et al., 2014). Additionally, it helps as
a booster for the immune system and also in controlling heart attack,
(Hozayen et al., 2011); the plant possesses blood purification activity
(Amiri and Joharchi, 2013). Cario and Wallis (2012) reported from eastern
Mallorca, it is used to regulate blood pressure The plant is also tested by
various scientists for therapeutic application in rectal and mouth ulcers
such as hemorrhoids and constipation (Kumar et al., 2008). Portulaca
oleracea is a highly medicinal plant due to its phytochemicals rich content.
It is a proved to have many positive activities and found essential drug
among herb and family portulacaceae. This family contents near about 120
species. In this paper we are focusing over phytochemical, bioactivities
and pharmacological potential of this plant.
Figure of Habit of Portulaca oleracea Herb

(Source: https://florafinder.org/Species/Portulaca_oleracea.php)
II. Botanical Description
Portulaca oleracea L. (purslane) is a worldwide species, and the

genus Portulaca belongs to the Portulacaceae family with 21 genera and
580 species. It is reported that Purslane exists about 4000 years ago. It has
a cosmopolitan range, with some species found in Arabia (Uddin et al.,
2014). Purslane is a succulent annual herbaceous plant that grows up to 30
cm tall and is erect or decumbent. The stems are cylindrical, with the
111
longest reaching 30 cm in length and a diameter of 1-2 mm. The surface is

yellowish-brown in colour and features a longitudinal furrow. The leaves
are arranged in opposite or alternate directions and are readily damaged.
The entire leaf is obovate in shape, measuring 1 -2.5 cm long and 0.5 -1.5
cm wide. The leaves are a greenish-brown colour. The leaves are greenish-
brown in colour. At the tip and throughout the entire border, the leaf form
is obtuse or slightly notched. The flowers are tiny and clustered in groups
of three to five at the branchlet terminals. The flowers are golden in colour
and have five petals. The fruit is conical in shape and about 5 mm long,
with many tiny seeds inside. It has a faint odour and a slightly sour flavour
(Chen et al., 2014).
Kingdom Plantae
Subkingdom Tracheobionta
Super division Spermatophyta
Division Magnoliophyta
Class Magnoliopsida
Subclass Caryophllidae
Order Caryophyllales
Family Portulacaceae
Genus Portulaca
Species Oleracea Linn.
Table of Scientific Classification of Portulaca oleracea L. (Okafor et al.,

2014)
III. Habitat
Purslane can be found in fields, vineyards, lawns, driveways, dunes,

beaches, salt marshes, waste areas, eroded slopes, bluffs, and riverbanks,
among other places (Chug et al., 2019)
Vernacular Names of Portulaca Oleracea LINN. (Kirtikar et al., 2003)
 English: Common purslane, garden purslane, purslane

 Greek: Andrachni, andrakala, antrakala
 Hindi: Baralunia, chhotalunia, lonia, khurfa, khursa
 Bengali: Baraloniya, chotaluniya, kulfi, munya
 Kannada: Doddagonisoppu, gonisoppu;
112
 Persian: Cholza, khurfah, kurfah, lonika

 Sanskrit: Brihalloni, lonika, lonamla, gholika
 Tamil: Karikkirai, parapukkiray, pullikirai
IV. Phytoconstituents Reported
It has been reported that the water, crude protein, crude fat, total
sugar, dietary fibre and ash contents in fresh purslane were 88.9, 2.8, 0.6,
3.2, 5.6 and 1.4 g/100 g, respectively (Zhao et al., 2016). Research has
been shown that P. oleracea contains 10 to 20 times more melatonin, a
cancer-fighting antioxidant, than any other fruit or vegetable studied. Its
leaves contain up to 300 mg of vitamin C, vitamins B, E, PP, carotene,
iron, magnesium, phosphorus, calcium, potassium, selenium, manganese,
and a high content of Omega 3 and fatty acids (Zheng et al., 2017).
Analysis of edible leaves and stems of Portulaca oleracea Linn.

demonstrated the presence of bioactive compounds like flavonoids,
coumarins, monoterpene glycoside (Yue et al., 2015)), phenolic
compounds (Li et al., 2006), fatty acids as well as alpha- linolenic acid
(Omega-3), alkaloids (Askari et al., 2016), vitamins, and minerals.
Flavonoids like Kaempferol and apigenin have been mainly isolated from
leaf and stem of Purslane. Several alkaloids like Dopamine, noradrenalin
and DOPA found in stem, leaf and seeds of Purslane. It is reported that
Purslane also contains various vitamins including vitamin A, riboflavin,
niacin, pyridoxine, vitamin C, folates, pantothenic acid and thiamine as
well as hesperidin and α-tocopherol (Palaniswamy et al., 2001).
Different researchers analysed bioactive ingredients in Purslane and

revealed that it contains flavone like quercetin (Wang and Kong, 2016),
portulacanone (Yan et al., 2012), polysaccharides (Yuan, 2016), fatty
acids like α-Linolenic acids, coumarin (Seo et al., 2003) and other
phenolic compounds, alkaloids like dopamine, terpenes like friedelin (Yao
et al.,2007), and steroid ingredients like β-sitosterol and β-sitosteryl-
glucoside (Rasheed et al., 2004).
113
V. Pharmacological Properties
According to the literature Portulaca oleracea has been reported to

possess Antioxidant activity, Immuno-modulatory Activity, Antitumor
Activity, Antimicrobial effect, Nephroprotective activity, Skeletal muscle
relaxant activity, Antiulcer activity, Antidiabetic activity, Hepatoprotective
activity, Anti- arthritic activity, Neuroprotective effects, Anti-
inflammatory effect, Anti-fungal activity, Anti-fertility effect, Wound
Healing Properties, Gastroprotective effects and many other biological
activities. Further pharmacological studies regardingthese activities have
been undertaken by various workers which are given below-
1. Antioxidant Activity
Antioxidants are the substances that remove potentially damaging

oxidizing agents in a living organism.Vafa Baradaran Rahimi, et al. (2019)
reviewed on Portulaca oleracea L. and reported various anti-
Inflammatory, anti- Oxidant, immuno-modulatory and antitumor activities.
Mulry et al. assessed antioxidant activity of Purslane in different extracts.
Study revealed that proline and betalain pigments found in Purslane
protect plant and showed antioxidant activity (Mulry et al., 2015).
Ahangarpour, (2016) investigated that ethanolic extract decrease LH and
FSH levels well as increases estrogen and progesterone levels. Behravan et
al. (2011)studied that aqueous extract of Portulaca inhibited DNA damage
by comet assay.
2. Immuno-Modulatory Activity
Several studies showed immuno modulatory properties of Portulaca.

Georgiev et al. (2017) reported that polysaccharide complexes isolated
from aerial parts of Purslane activated phagocytes, enhanced immuno-
modulatory activities by interacting with immune cells in Peyer‘s patch
cells. Li Y et al. (2014)investigated that Purslane polysaccharides raised
the body weight, lymphocyte proliferation, and WBC count and
splenocytes proliferation. Barakat LA reported that Pumplkin-Purslane
seed mixture improved IgG and IgM levels (Barakat et al., 2011).
114
3. Antitumor Activity
Study has been shown that Portulaca acts as potential anticancer

drug. Shen et al. (2013)reported that Polysaccharides in Purslane enhanced
the amount of T lymphocytes and decreased tumour growth. You et al.
(2009)revealed that Purslane polysaccharids prevented the RBC hemolysis
and scavenge DPPH, NO and hydroxyl radicals.
4. Antimicrobial Effect
Bae (2004) evaluated the antimicrobial activity of P. oleracea

extracts on food-borne pathogens. In compared to petroleum ether,
chloroform, and methanol extracts, he discovered that ethyl acetate extract
had the most antimicrobial efficacy against Staphylococcus aureus and
Shigella dysenterica.At 4000 ppm, the ethyl acetate extract of P. oleracea
demonstrated excellent antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus (Bae,
2004).
5. Nephroprotective Activity
Karimi G et al. (2010) studied nephroprotective activity of P.

oleracea against cisplatin induced acute renal toxicity in rats. This study
revealed that rats treated with aqueous and ethanolic extract, 6 and 12 hr
after cisplatin injection had blood urea nitrogen and serum creatinine
levels significantly lower than those receiving cisplatin alone but mild to
moderate cell injury was observed. This finding revealed some
nephroprotective potential of Portulaca oleracea L
6. Skeletal Muscle Relaxant Activity
The skeletal muscle relaxant activity of aqueous extract of the stems

and leaves of P. oleracea was examined by Parry et al. (1993) They noted
that extract of Purslane abolishes the twitch contraction of the directly
stimulated rat hemidiaphragm preparation. Further they found that the
extract's effects on the diaphragm are qualitatively similar to potassium
oxalate (a recognised ingredient of P. oleracea). The relaxing action
reported on the isolated rat diaphragm is thought to be at least partly due to
the K+ ion concentration of P. oleracea
115
7. Antiulcer Activity
Tahereh (2018) reviewed some therapeutic effects of Portulaca

oleracea L. in hepatogastric disorders. Karimi et al. (2004) assessed some
antiulcer activities and found that in mice, ethanol-induced stomach
lesions were reduced by aqueous and ethanolic extracts of P. oleracea L.
(0.8-—1.77 g/kg). They also discovered that giving extracts to pylorus-
ligated animals lowered stomach acidity (Karimi et al., 2004). In rats, the
gastroprotective properties of P. oleracea L. were investigated by Kumar
et.al. (2010) in acute gastric ulcers caused by aspirin, ethanol, cold
restraint stress, pyloric ligation, and chronic ulcers caused by acetic acid.
According to the findings, P. oleracea L. protects the stomach mucosa
from oxidative damage by enhancing superoxide dismutase (SOD) and
catalase (CAT) activity and lowering lipid peroxidation. Furthermore, P.
oleracea L. reduced acid and pepsin secretions while increasing mucus
synthesis.
8. Antidiabetic Activity
Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic illness marked by high blood sugar,

improper lipid and protein metabolism, and long-term consequences
affecting the retina, kidneys, liver, and neurological system
(Radhakrishnan et al., 2001). Li (2009) investigated that polysaccharide
extracted from P. oleracea L. can control blood glucose and modulate the
metabolism of glucose and blood lipid in diabetes mellitus mice.
9. Hepatoprotective Activity
Purslane (Portulaca oleracea L, Portulacaceae) has long been used

in folk medicine to protect against liver injury, while its effectiveness has
been questioned (Vishal et al., 2019). Purslane ethanol extract was
examined by Eidi et al. (2015) for its hepatoprotective efficacy against
carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced liver damage in rats. Increases in
hepatic marker enzymes (ALT, AST, ALP, GGT, and SOD) as well as
histological changes suggested liver injury. In CCl4-treated rats,
administration of purslane extract (0.01, 0.05, 0.1, and 0.15 g/kg b.w.)
resulted in a substantial tendency toward normalisation of all evaluated
biochemical parameters. Purslane protects the rat liver from CCl4-induced
damage, as seen by histopathological changes that corresponded to
changes in liver function markers. This suggests that purslane could be
116
used as a therapeutic alternative for individuals with liver problems (Eidi

et al., 2015).
10. Anti- Arthritic Activity
The anti-arhtritic effect of petroleum-ether extract of Portulaca

oleracea Linn via Fruends adjuvant arthritis model in male wistar rats was
investigated by Jagan et al. (2014). The test extracts were given at doses of
100, 200, and 300 mg/kg/p.o., with Indomethacin at a dose of 100 mg/kg
serving as the standard. On the 21st day, a maximum of 77.82 percent
inhibition was observed. Similarly, treatment with petroleum ether extract
reduced the increase in paw diameter caused by Fruends adjuvant delivery,
with the effect being stronger at 300mg/kg of petroleum ether extract of
Portulaca oleracea. This study revealed the anti-arthritic activity of
aqueous extract of Portulaca oleracea. On the 21st day, a maximum of
75.69 percent inhibition was observed. This study revealed anti-arthritic
potential of Portulaca oleracea L. (Jagan et al., 2012)
11. Neuroprotective Effects
Portulaca extracts were studied in mice for their hypoxia

neuroprotective properties by Wang et al. Mice were housed in a
normobaric low oxygen environment (10 percent oxygen and 90 percent
nitrogen) for various periods of time after oral administration of the
extracts or distilled water for seven days, and then slaughtered.
Histological examination was conducted on mouse cortices. These results
showed that PO extracts had protective effects on hypoxic nerve tissue.
(Wang et al., 2007)
12. Anti-Inflammatory Effect
Purslane's anti-inflammatory properties were investigated in an

animal study(Sepide Miraj,2016). The findings revealed that Oleracone, a
new alkaloid with rapid distribution and high bioavailability, had a strong
anti-inflammatory impact (Meng et al., 2016).
13. Anti-Fungal Activity
Mizutani et al. (1998) assessed antifungal activity in Purslane.

Purslane root extracts were found to reduce zoospore movement. Inhibited
zoospores settled quickly to the bottom of the petri dishes, where they
117
encysted before germinating in 1-2 hours. This finding revealed that

Portulaca oleracea L. has potent antifungal activity.
14. Anti-Fertility Effect
Antifertility activity means prevention of pregnancy. Many herbs are

used for contraception purpose from ancient days. Asha et.al. (2013)
reported that due to natural alternatives; contraception could bring more
benefits to more people at less cost than any other single technology.
Hanumanatappa et al. (2014) worked over albino rats to test antifertility
effect of chloroform extract of aerial parts of Purslane. This finding
reveals that Portulaca has very good anti-fertility activity. Verma et al.
(1982) investigated the antifertility effects of alcoholic extract of P.
oleracea seeds on the reproductive organs of male albino mice. They
found that the administration (s. c.) of alcoholic extract of P. oleracea seed
induced an effective impairment of spermatogenesis.
15. Wound Healing Properties
Rashed et al. (2003) studied that in Mus musculus JVI-1, the

preliminary wound healing activity of Portulaca oleracea was assessed,
and it was discovered that a fresh crude extract greatly accelerates wound
healing by stimulating wound contraction and decreasing the surface area
of the excision wound.
16. Gastro-protective Effects
Karimi et al. (2004) reported that extracts of P. oleracea L. in

aqueous and ethanolic forms Gastric ulcers caused by ethanol in mice were
reduced by (0.8-1.77 g/kg). Extracts lowered stomach acidity in pylorus-
ligated mice.
Conclusion
This review is an attempt to compile the pharmacological and

phytochemical literature on Portulaca oleracea, to highlight and critically
assess the pharmaceutical potential of this plant. The extensive survey of
literature revealed that Portulaca oleracea, is an important medicinal plant
with diverse pharmacological spectrum. Due to its high content of
nutrients, especially antioxidants (vitamins A and C) and omega-3 fatty
118
acids, and its wound healing and antimicrobial effects as well as its
traditional use in the topical treatment of inflammatory conditions. Further
evaluation needs to be carried out in order to explore the concealed areas
and their practical clinical applications, which can be used for the welfare
of the mankind.
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123
Bioactive Compounds from Malabar Spinach (Basella alba

L.) - A Potential Leafy Green Vegetable.
Sagar A. Deshmukh
The New College,
Kolhapur- 416 012, Maharashtra
India
sageraea@gmail.com
Abstract
Basella alba L. is ethnobotanically very important plant thus it is

useful to know the bioactive compounds present within the plant. The
ethanol extracts from the leaves of Basella alba L. and Basella rubra
Roxb. (Basellaceae) were examined to exemplify various bioactive
compounds. There are certain taxonomical conflicts regarding the
nomenclature of the Basella alba L. and Basella rubra Roxb. Some
researchers considered these two as separate species while some have
treated them as a single species. At present as per International Plant
Names Index (IPNI) both the plants are treated as Basella alba. Further
molecular studies will definitely solve the taxonomical conflicts between
these two plants. In the light of ethnobotanical importance, the active
metabolites from the leaves of Basella alba and Basella rubra were
determined with the help of GC-MS. The detected metabolites were found
biologically very important.
Keywords: Bioactive compounds, Basella alba (L.), Basella rubra

(Roxb.), GC-MS, Malabar Spinach.
I. Introduction
Both the Basella alba L. and Basella rubra Roxb. are green leafy
vegetables which belong to family Basellaceae [1] and are likely to be
originated from Southeast Asia with common names as Indian spinach,
Malabar spinach, Chinese spinach, Ceylon spinach, East Indian spinach
etc. [2, 3, 4].Basella alba and Basella rubra are with ethnomedicinal
importance and are widely employed to cure many diseases. Basella alba
and B. rubra possess many biological activities (viz. wound healing,
124
antimicrobial, anti viral, anti inflammatory, anti ulcer, CNS depressant,

sex reversion, androgenic potential, hepatoprotective, anti haemolytic,
antidiabetic, hypocholesterolemic, immuno stimulant and antioxidative
[5].
II. Plant Description
2.1 Basella alba L.
It is a perennial climber. Stem is yellowish green coloured, much

branched, fleshy and glabrous. Branched tap root system is present. Leaves
are alternate, broad, entire, ovate, acute, and thick with cordate base.
Flowers are small, ureolate, white tinged with red at apex. Bracts and
bracteoles are present. Bracteoles are longer than the perianth. Perianth
segments are elliptic, obtuse and fleshy. Stamens are five with short
filaments and versatile anthers. Ovary is globose with three styles having
linear clavate stigmas. Fruit is pea sized, green in colour when young
which turns dark red at the maturity. Seed is erect, globose with
crustaceous testa.
2.2 Basella rubra Roxb.
It is a perennial climber. Stem is reddish pink coloured, much

branched, fleshy and glabrous. Branched tap root system is present. Leaves
are alternate, broad, entire, ovate, acute, and thick with cordate base.
Flowers are small, ureolate, white tinged with red at apex. Bracts and
bracteoles are present. Bracteoles are longer than the perianth. Perianth
segments are elliptic, obtuse and fleshy. Stamens are five with short
filaments and versatile anthers. Ovary is globose with three styles having
linear clavate stigmas. Fruit is pea sized, green in colour when young
which turns dark red at the maturity. Seed is erect, globose with
crustaceous testa.
III. Bioactive Compounds Isolated from Basella Leaves
The seeds of Basella albaand Basella rubrawere collected locally

from Kolhapur District of Maharashtra state, India, in 2016 and the
seedlings were raised. The seedlings were allowed to grow for two months
under normal conditions with regular irrigation and then the leaves were
collected for the study purpose. The leaves of Basella alba and Basella
125
rubra were collected and washed thoroughly with distilled water to

remove the dust particles then the leaves were air dried at room
temperature for 5 days and after attaining constant weight, the leaves were
ground with the help of mortar and pestle. The plant leaf ethanol extracts
were prepared as per [6, 7] with slight modifications. 0.5 g of powdered
sample from each treatment alongwith control was mixed thoroughly with
50 ml ethanol and then was treated with 30 seconds shock in sonicator.
After the extract was constantly shaken on electric shaker at 200 rpm for
48 hours and then they were filtered through Whatman No. 1 filter paper.
Obtained residue was re-extracted with ethanol and whole the extracts
were concentrated on water bath at 450C and known quantity of dry
powder thus obtained was further used for determination of biochemical
metabolites.The bioactive compounds from leaf ethanol extract of B. alba
and B. rubra were analyzed using Agilent GC system with HP - 5MS 5 %
phenyl methyl silox column (30 m length × 320 μm in diameter × 0.25 μm
in thickness). The oven temperature program was with equilibrium time 1
min, oven program was 35 °C for 3 min then 5 °C / min to 150 °C for 0
min and then 10 °C / min to 300 °C for 5 min. Front injector was with
heater 300 °C, pressure on 6.7776 psi with total flow on 54 ml/min. and
spectrum purge flow on 3 ml/min. The mode and split ratio was split less,
gas saver was on 20 ml / min and split flow of 10 ml / min, injection pulse
pressure 25 psi until 0.5 min. the quantity of biochemical compounds
detected were expressed as percentage based peak area shown in the
chromatogram.
The GC-MS analysis was employed to investigate the biochemical

compounds from ethanol leaf extracts of Basella alba and Basella rubra.
The number of active metabolites in Basella spp. is represented in Table 1.
Among theses azulene and naphthalene were the common compounds
found to be present in both the plants. The identification and
characterization of the biochemical compounds in B. alba and B. rubra
based on the retention time and the specific peaks with their elution order
in a HP-5MS column is presented in GC-MS chromatograms i.e. Figure 1,
2 and are tabulated in Table 1,2,3,4,.
126
Table 1. GC-MS analysis of the metabolites in the leaves of Basella alba

L. and Basellarubra Roxb.
Sr. No. Metabolites in Basella (Malabar spinach) Basella alba Basella rubra
1 (2,3-Diphenylcyclopropyl) methyl phenyl+ -
sulfoxide,trans-
2 9,19-Cyclocholestan-3-one,4,14-dimethyl- + -
3 Azulene + +
4 Benzaldehyde + -
5 Benzoic acid, ethyl ester + -
6 Cyclohexanol,1-methyl-4-(1- + -
methylethenyl),acetate
7 Hexadecanoic acid, ethyl ester + -
8 Naphthalene + +
9 2,4-Hexadiyne - +
10 3,7,11,15-Tetramethyl-2-hexadecen-1-ol - +
11 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid (Z,Z) - +
12 Cyclohexane, 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethynyl)-- +
,(S)- (C10H6)
13 Lanosterol - +
14 n-Hexadecanoic acid - +
3.1 Bioactive compounds isolated from Basella alba L.
Eight active biochemical compounds were found in the leaves of B.

alba. These are (2,3-Diphenylcyclopropyl) methyl phenyl sulfoxide,trans-
(C22H20O5), 9,19-Cyclocholestan-3-one,4,14-dimethyl-, Azulene,
Benzaldehyde, Benzoic acid, ethyl ester; Cyclohexanol,1-methyl-4-(1-
methylethenyl)-,acetate; Hexadecanoic acid, ethyl ester and Napthalene.
These metabolite alongwith their synonyms and molecular weight are
tabulated in Table 2.
Table 2. Metabolites in the leaves of Basella alba L.
Sr. Metabolites in Basella albaSynonyms Molecular

No. with molecular formula weight
1 (2,3-Diphenylcyclopropyl) (2-phenyl-3-[(phenylsulfinyl) 332
methyl phenyl sulfoxide,trans- methyl] cyclopropyl) benzene
(C22H20O5)
2 9,19-Cyclocholestan-3-one,4,14- 1-(1,5-dimethylhexyl)-3a,6,12a- 412
dimethyl- trimethyltrtradecahydro-7H-
(C29H48O) cyclopenta[a]
cyclopropa[e] phenanthren-7-one
3 Azulene (C10H8) Bicyclo[5.3.0] decapentaene,128
Cyclopenta-
Cycloheptene, Azunamic.
127
4 Benzaldehyde Artificial almond oil, Benzaldehyde 106

(C7H6O) FFC,
Benzenecarbonal, Benzene-
Carboxaldehyde
5 Benzoic acid, ethyl ester Ethyl benzene- Carboxylate, Ethyl 150
(C9H10O2) benzoate, Benzoic ether, Essence of
niobe,
6 Cyclohexanol,1-methyl-4-(1- p-menth-8-en-1-ol, acetate, à -terpinyl196
methylethenyl)-,acetate acetate 4-isopropenyl-1-
(C12H20O2) methylcyclohexyl acetate
7 Hexadecanoic acid, ethyl ester Palmitic acid, ethyl ester, 284
(C18H36O2) Ethyl hexadecanoate,
Ethyl palmitate.
8 Napthalene(C10H8) Albocarbon, Dezodorator, Moth128
flakes,
3.2 Bioactive compounds isolated from Basella rubra Roxb.
Eight active biochemical compounds were found in the leaves of

B.rubra. These are 2,4-Hexadiyne; 3,7,11,15-Tetramethyl-2-hexadecen-1-
ol; 3,7,11,15-Tetramethyl-2-exadecen-1-ol; 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid
(Z,Z); Azulene; Cyclohexane, 1-methyl-4-(1-ethylethynyl)-,(S)-;
Lanosterol; Napthalene and n-Hexadecanoic acid. These metabolite
alongwith their synonyms and molecular weight are tabulated in Table 3. .
Table 3. Metabolites in the leaves of Basella rubra Roxb.
Sr. Metabolites in Basella rubraSynonyms Molecular

No. with molecular formula weight
2,4-Hexadiyne Dimethylbutadiyne, 78
1
(C6H6) Dimethylldiacetylene,Hexa 2,4-diyne.
3,7,11,15-Tetramethyl-2- (2E)-3,7,11,15-Tetramethyl-2- 296
2 hexadecen-1-ol hexadecen-1-ol.#
(C20H40O)
9,12-Octadecadienoic cis-9,cis-12-octadecadienoic acid, 280
3 acid (Z,Z) cis-linoleic acid, grape seed oil.
(C18H32O2)
Azulene Bicyclo [5.3.0] decapentaene, 128
4 (C10H8) Cyclopenta- Cycloheptene,
Azunamic.
Cyclohexane, 1-methyl-4-(1-p-mentha-1,8-diene, (S)-(-), 136
5 methylethynyl)-,(S)- (-)-Limonene, L-Limonene,
(C10H16) Limonene.
Lanosterol Lanosta-8,24-dien-3-ol,(3 à)-, 426
(C30H50O) Lanosta-8,24-dien- 3 à –ol,
6
Botalan base 138,
Cholesta-8,24-dien-3-ol,4,4,14-
128
trimethyl-,(3 à,5 à )-, Lanosta-8,24-

dienol, Lanosterin
Napthalene Albocarbon, Dezodorator, Moth128
7
(C10H8) flakes,
n-Hexadecanoic acid Hexadecanoic acid, n-hexadecacoic256
(C16H32O2) acid,
8
Palmitic acid,
Pentadecanecarboxylic acid.
IV. Biological Activities of Compounds Isolated from Basella

Alba and Basella Rubra
Basella alba and Basella rubra exhibits wound healing property,

antimicrobial activity, antiviral activity, anti-inflammatory activity, anti
ulcer activity, CNS depressant activity, androgenic potential,
hepatoprotective activity, antidiabetic activity, antioxidant activity
alongwith many ethnobotanical uses. Detailed account of all these
activities, ethnobotanical uses and compounds isolated from these plants
have been earlier reviewed by Deshmukh and Gaikwad (5). The GC-MS
studies give a generous and impartial analysis of the plant metabolites [8].
In present study, GC - MS analysis of leaf ethanol extracts of Basella alba
and Basella rubra revealed the existence of various biochemical
metabolites having pharmacological activities which enriches the
medicinal potential of the plants. Detailed account of the biological
activities of the isolated bioactive compounds from the Basella Alba and
Basella rubra are presented in Table 4.
4.1 Biological activities of compounds isolated from Basella alba L.
In Basela Alba the metabolites found are (2, 3- diphenylcyclopropyl)

methyl phenyl sulfoxide Trans; benzaldehyde; benzoic acid ethyl ester;
hexadecanoic acid ethyl ester and oleic acid.
(2, 3-diphenylcyclopropyl) methyl phenyl sulfoxide trans is an active

metabolite in cancer metabolism [9];Benzaldehyde has carcinostatic
properties, used in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and soap products also used
commonly to confer almond flavor to foods [10, 11]. Benzoic acid ethyl
ester is a constituent of many fragrances and artificial fruit flavors [12].
Hexadecanoic acid is used in cosmetics as a skin - and - hair conditioning
agent [13], oleic acid is used as an emollient and excipient in
pharmaceuticals [14].
129
4.2 Biological activities of compounds isolate from Basella rubra

Roxb.
In Basella rubra the found active biochemical metabolites were 3, 7,

11, 15 tetramethyl - 2 - hexadecen - 1- ol; 9, 12 - octadecadienoic acid (Z,
Z); azulene; cyclohexane 1- methyl - 4 - (1- methylethynyl) - (S) -;
lanosterol; naphthalene and n - hexadecanoic acid.
3,7,11,15 tetramethyl -2 - hexadecen - 1- ol precursor of the

synthetic forms of vitamin E and vitamin K1 was found to be used in
cosmetics, shampoos, toilet soaps, household cleaners, detergents and
fragrance industries [15, 16, 17]. 9, 12 - Octadecadienoic acid used in
cosmetics for having anti inflammatory, acne reductive and moisture
retentive properties [18, 19, 20]. Azulene was confirmed to be present and
has antifungal, anti inflammatory, analgesic, antipyretic, antiplatelet
inhibitory, antispasmodic, reduced histamine induced reactions [21, 22,
23]. Cyclohexane 1- methyl - 4- (1- methylethynyl) - (S) - is commonly
used in cosmetics, food manufacturing and some medicines for fragrance
purpose. It has insecticidal property and also used to reduce heart burn and
gastrophageal disease. It is an alternative to xylene as a clearing agent [24,
25, 26, 27]. Lanosterol can prevent or retract cataract formation [28, 29]. It
is a known as the main ingredient of traditional mothballs. Naphthalene
has insecticidal properties and is used as a household fumigant [30]. n -
Hexadecanoic acid is used in food stuffs and to produce soaps, cosmetics
and industrial mold release agents. Recently invega sustenna has been
synthesized from oily palmitate which is used in the treatment of
schizophrenia [31].
Table 4. Activity and uses of active metabolites identified in the ethanolic

extract of leaves of Basella alba L. and Basella rubra Roxb.
Sr. Metabolites in Basella alba and Basella Activity and uses

No. rubra with molecular formula
1 (2,3-Diphenylcyclopropyl) Metabolite observed in cancer
methyl phenyl sulfoxide,trans- metabolism [9].
2 9,19-Cyclocholestan-3-one,4,14- NA
dimethyl-
3 Azulene Azulene has anti inflammatory,
analgesic, antipyretic, anti platelet
inhibitory, antispasmodic, reduced
histamine induced reactions [21, 22].
Azulene has antifungal activity [23].
130
4 Benzaldehyde Benzaldehyde is commonly used to

confer almond flavor to foods and is
sometimes used in cosmetics and
pharmaceuticals, and soap products.
It may have carcinostatic properties
[10, 11].
5 Benzoic acid, ethyl ester It is a component of some fragrances
and artificial fruit flavors [12].
6 Cyclohexanol,1-methyl-4-(1- NA
methylethenyl)-,acetate
7 Hexadecanoic acid, ethyl ester It is used as a hair- and skin-
conditioning agent [13].
8 Naphthalene It is a known as the main ingredient
of traditional mothballs. It is used as
a household fumigant and has
insecticidal properties [30].
9 2,4-Hexadiyne NA
10 3,7,11,15-Tetramethyl-2-hexadecen-1-ol It can be used as a precursor for the
manufacture of synthetic forms of
vitamin E and vitamin K1. It is also
used in fragrance industry and used
in cosmetics, shampoos, toilet soaps,
household cleaners and detergents
[15, 16, 17].
11 9,12-Octadecadienoic Linoleic acids anti inflammatory,
acid (Z,Z) acne reductive and moisture
retentive properties when applied
typically on the skin [18, 19, 20].
12 Cyclohexane, 1-methyl-4-(1- It is common in cosmetic products
methylethynyl)-,(S)- the isomer is used in food
manufacturing and some medicines
for fragrance purpose (limonene.
cosmeticsinfo.org.). It is used as a
botanical insecticide [25]. In natural
and alternative medicine d-limonene
is marketed to relieve gastrophageal
reflux disease and heartburn [27]. In
histopathology it is also used as a
clearing agent less toxic substitute
for xylene which clears dehydrated
specimens [26].
13 Lanosterol Lanosterol can prevent and can even
reverse cataract formation [29, 30].
14 n-Hexadecanoic acid It is important for membrane
localization of proteins. It is used to
produce soaps, cosmetics and
industrial mold release agents.
Widely used in food stuffs. Recently
a long acting antipsychotic
medication (i.e. Invega sustenna)
131
used in the treatment of

schizophrenia has been synthesized
using the oily palmitate [31].
Conclusion
Various compounds found in Basellaalba and Basella rubra are with

biochemical activities thus favors the medicinal potential and
ethnobotanical importance of the plant. As the plant in many parts of
Asian countries is utilized as one of the green leafy vegetable is definitely
serving as an active ingredient for possible health benefits to the mankind.
At present according to IPNI both theB. alba and B. rubra are treated as
Basella alba. Further molecular studies will definitely solve the
taxonomical conflicts between these two plants. In the light of
ethnobotanical importance, the active metabolites from the leaves of
Basella alba were found biologically very important.
Acknowledgements: Authors are very much thankful to Prof. P. D.

Chavan, Prof. D. K. Gaikwad, Dr. A. S. Nigwekar, Dr. B. B. Nalawade,
The Principal, The New College, Kolhapur for their support and co-
operation.
References
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antibacterial activity of Basella alba whole plant: A relatively unexplored
plant. Pharmacology 3: 651-658
[2] Roy SK, Gangopadhyay G, Mukherjee KK (2010) Is stem twining form of
Basella alba L. a naturally occurring variant? Current Science98:1370-1375
[3] Bamidele O, Akinnuga AM, Olorunfemi JO, Odetolo OA, Oparaji CK,
Ezelgbo N (2010) Effects of aqueous extract of Basella alba leaves on
haematological and biochemical parameters in Albino rats. African Journal of
Biotechnology 9:6952-6955
[4] Saroj V, Rao PS, Rao SK, Krunal S (2012) Pharmacognostical study of
Basella alba stem. Int J of Research in Pharmaceutical and Biological
Sciences3:1093-1094
[5] Deshmukh SA, Gaikwad, DK (2014)A review of the taxonomy, ethnobotany,
phytochemistry and pharmacology of Basella alba (Basellaceae).JAPS. 4 :
153-165
[6] Anwar F, Latif S, Ashraf M (2006) Analytical characterization of hemp
(Cannabis sativa) seed oil from different agro-ecological zones of Pakistan. J
Amer Oil Chem Soc83:323-329
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[7] Sultana B, Anwar F, Iqbal S (2008) Effect of different cooking methods on the
antioxidant activity of some vegetables from Pakistan. Int J Food Sci Technol
43:560-567
[8] Weckwerth W (2007) Metabolics: Methods and Protocols, edited by (Methods
in Molecular Biology Volume 358 series Editor John M. Walker) Humana
Press Totowa NJ
[9] www.ebi.ac.uk/chebi/searchId.do?chebiId=CHEBI:84273
[10] Friedrich B, Wright E (2002) Benzaldehyde in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of
Industrial Chemistry Wiley-VCH, Weinheim.
[11] [11] Andersen A (2006) Final report on the safety assessment of
benzaldehyde. International Journal of Toxicology 25:11-27
[12] Ethyl benzoate, thegoodscentscompany.com
[13] https://www.ewg.org/skindeep/ingredient/718977/ETHYL PALMITATE/
[14] Carrasco F (2009) Handbook of Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Excipients
[15] Daines Alison, Richard P, Mark H, Andrew A (2003) The Synthesis of
Naturally Occurring Vitamin K and Vitamin K Analogues. Current Organic
Chemistry7:1625-1634
[16] Netscher T (2007) Synthesis of Vitamin E. In Litwack, Gerald. Vitamin E.
Vitamins and Hormone 76:155-202
[17] McGinty D, Letizia CS, Api AM (2010) Fragrance material review on
phytol. Food and Chemical Toxicology 48:59-63
[18] Diezel WE, Schulz E, Skanks M, Heise H (1993) Plant oils: Topical
application and anti-inflammatory effects (croton oil test). Dermatologische
Monatsschrif 179:173
[19] Letawe C, Boone M, Pierard GE (1998) Digital image analysis of the effect of
topically applied linoleic acid on acne microcomedones. Clinical &
Experimental Dermatology 23 :56-58
[20] Darmstadt GL, Mao-Qiang M, Chi E, Saha SK, Ziboh VA, Black RE,
Santosham M and Elias PM (2002). Impact of tropical oils on the skin barrier:
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[22] Khare CP (2007) Indian Medicinal Plants: An illustrated dictionary. Springer-
Verlag Berlin / Heidenberg
[23] Arif T, Bhosale JD, Kumar N, Mandal TK, Bendre RS, Lavekar GS, Dabur R
(2009) Natural products- antifungal agents derived from plants. Journal of
Asian Natural Products Research11:621-638
[24] limonene. cosmeticsinfo.org
[25] EPA RED fact sheet on limonene 1994
[26] Wynnchuk M (1994) Evaluation of xylene substitutes for a paraffin tissue
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[27] [Sun J (2007) D-Limonene: Safety and clinical applications. Altern Med
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134
Herbal Drug: Ginger

Dr. Sharada Jagannath Ghadage
Department of Botany and Plant protection
S.G. M. College, Karad
ssharada1980@gmail.com
Abstract
Ginger (Zingiber officinale L) is loaded with antioxidants, the

compounds that present on ginger; prevents stress and damage to body's
DNA. They may help your body fight off chronic diseases like high blood
pressure, heart disease, and diseases of the lungs, plus promote healthy
aging.Ginger is a plant with leafy stems and yellowish green flowers.
From the roots of the plant the ginger spice comes. Ginger is native to
warmer parts of Asia, viz. China, Japan, and India, but now is grown in
parts of South Africa and American. It is also now grown in the Middle
East to use as medicine and with food. Medicinal properties of the drug
ginger makes it valuable and key ingredient of each and every kitchen.
Key words: Ginger, Zingiber officinale, antioxidents.
I. Introduction
Ginger is a medicinal plant and is widely used as a spice and a folk

medicine. The ginger plant roots were used as spice. Ginger is most
commonly consumed dietary condiments all over the world (Surh et al.
1999). There are debates regarding effectiveness and remedy about ginger,
information gathered from historical accounts which misleading and might
even be detrimental (Ernst and Schmidt 2002). In Indian cuisine, ginger is
a key ingredient in both vegetarian and meat-based especially in thicker
gravies, as well as in many other dishes. It has a role in traditional
Ayurvedic medicine. In traditional Indian drinks, both cold and hot
breverages were prepared by using ginger, including spiced masala
chai.Ginger is also candied and pickled. In Western cusine, ginger is
traditionally used mainly making ginger bread, snaps, parkin and
speculaas. Ginger in Burma called gyin; It is widely used in cooking and
as a main ingredient in traditional medicines. In the Caribbean, ginger is
used as a popular spice for cooking and for making drinks. There are some
135
varieties of ginger viz. Culinary, Globba, Grocery Store, Hedychium,

Kaempferia and small Rhizome ginger mostly cultivated all over the
world.
II. Active Ingredients of Ginger
The medicinal, chemical, and pharmacological properties of ginger

have been extensively reviewed (Eliopoulos 2007; Shukla and Singh 2007,
White 2007; Ali et al. 2008; Nicoll and Henein 2009). Active components
of gingerare6-gingerol, 6-shogaol, and 6-paradol. Aromatic constituents
are zingiberene and bisabolene, while gingerols, phenolics, flavonoids,
gingerol, zingerone and shogaols are the pungent constituents.
III. Medicinal Properties of Ginger
Ginger not only adds delicious flavor to food — it‘s also full of
nutrients. People have been using the root for cooking and healing for
thousands of years.
Ancient writings describe the medicinal uses of ginger from Rome,

Greece, China, and Arab countries. It was especially popular in Asian
medicine as a treatment for nausea and diarrhea along with stomach issues.
Other traditional medical uses for ginger include treating muscle and joint
pain, cold and flu symptoms, stomach pain, menstrual cramps, and skin
burns.
Today, people still consider ginger a natural way to soothe an upset

stomach, and there‘s research to back up its health benefits. In modern
recopies ginger is the main ingredient as a spice. Some of the main
medicinal properties of ginger described here.
136
1. Soothes an Upset Stomach:
The chemical compounds in ginger are believed to ease stomach

pain and aid digestion. Modern research has found evidence that it can
helpful.Ginger has long been proposed as a remedy to ease morning
sickness during pregnancy — studies have shown it‘s a safe and possibly
effective way to help reduce nausea.But its ability to help with stomach
issues goes beyond pregnancy. Ginger may also help to get rid from
nausea and vomiting after surgery and also in people going
through chemotherapy. Eating ginger may improve indigestion symptoms.
2. Reduces Inflammation
Ginger is sometimes taken as a supplement for rheumatoid

arthritis and osteoarthritis. Since ginger is an anti-inflammatory, it may
also be able to ease joint pain due to inflammation from arthritis. (Grzanna
et al 2005)
3. Lowers Blood Sugar
Adding ginger to your diet could help improve blood sugar levels
and lower your risk of developing type 2 diabetes.
4. Reduces Cancer Risk
The root might be a powerful weapon in the fight against cancer.

Researchers have found evidence that gingerol (an active compound in
ginger) has cancer-fighting abilities.
5. Shortening or Preventing the Common Cold
Fresh ginger juice may be a better choice for warding off a cold. The
root has a warming effect, which is believed to help with cold symptoms.
Drinking ginger can keep you warm, while also helping the body sweat
and get rid of infections.
In addition to its many other benefits, gingerol might help prevent

infections. One study found fresh ginger may be effective against the
respiratory syncytial virus (HRSV), a common cause of cold-like
symptoms and respiratory infections.
137
Gingerol and shogaol the ginger compounds may help fight off a
cold because they can lower a fever, reduce pain, and cough suppress.
Medico-biological applications of Ginger
 Menstrual cramps (dysmenorrhea): Research shows that with painful

menstrual periods in women and teens; taking ginger powder 500-2000
mg during the first 3-4 days of a menstrual cycle moderately decreases
pain.
 Osteoarthritis: Most research shows that taking ginger by mouth in
some people with osteoarthritis can slightly reduce pain.
 Morning sickness: To reduce nausea and vomiting in some pregnant
women taking ginger by mouth seems become helpful.
 Hay fever: The prescription drug loratadine in people with hay fever
prescribed which is made by using ginger extract.
 Lack of appetite and nausea and vomiting in people with cancer:
Taking ginger for 2 weeks might improve appetite, nausea, reflux, and
other stomach problems in people with this condition.
 A lung disease that makes it harder to breathe. Research shows that two
capsules containing ginger with specific combination product (AKL1,
AKL International Ltd) twice daily for 8 weeks reduce respiratory
symptoms in people with COPD.
 Diabetes. In some people with diabetes; taking ginger seems to lower
blood sugar. Also it lower diabetes during pregnancy (gestational
diabetes).
 Indigestion (dyspepsia). To speeds up digestion; 1.2 grams of ginger
root powder prescribed one hour before eating.
 Hangover. taking a combination of ginger, pith of Citrus tangerine, and
brown sugar before drinking decreases symptoms of alcohol hangovers,
including nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.
 High levels of cholesterol or other fats (lipids) in the blood
(hyperlipidemia). Taking 1 gram of ginger three times daily for 45 days
lowers triglyceride and cholesterol levels in people with high
cholesterol. Ginger powder (3 g/day in 1-g capsule 3xd) significantly
lowered lipid levels in volunteer patients (Alizadeh-Navaei et al.).
Ginger consumption might improve lipid metabolism (Matsuda et al.
2009).
138
 High blood pressure. Drinking ginger black tea might lower blood
pressure by a small amount in people with diabetes and high blood
pressure.
 Nausea and vomiting during surgery. Taking ginger before a C-section
might help reduce nausea.
 Joint pain- Taking capsules of a specific combination product (Instaflex
Joint Support, Direct Digital, and Charlotte, NC) containing ginger for
8 weeks reduces joint pain by 37%.
 Reduce abnormally heavy bleeding during menstrual periods: Taking
ginger might reduce menstrual bleeding in some young women.
 Migraine: Some reports suggest that the length and intensity of
migraine pain reduces by taking ginger or a combination of ginger and
feverfew.
 Obesity: Taking a ginger with other herbs result in consistent
improvements in weight loss.
 Childbirth. Bathing in water containing ginger oil does not shorten the
length of labor.
 Recovery after surgery: taking ginger by mouth might help reduce pain
and improve wound healing in children who've had their tonsils
removed.
 Rheumatoid arthritis (RA):.Ginger might be helpful for decreasing joint
pain and swelling in people with RA.
 Trouble swallowing: spraying a product containing ginger and clematis
root in the mouth improves severe problems swallowing.
 Liver damage caused by chemicals: Taking ginger along with these
drugs might help prevent liver damage in some people.
 Dizziness (vertigo): Taking ginger might reduce nausea in people with
vertigo.
 Ginger also used in erectile dysfunction (ED), anorexia, an infection of
the intestines that causes diarrhea (cholera), baldness, bleeding, colds,
flu, loss of appetite, toothaches.
Varieties of Ginger
Variety Fresh mean yield (t/ha) Maturity (days)

Suprabha 16.6 229
Suruchi 11.6 218
Suravi 17.5 23.5
139
Conclusion
Although in vitro, in vivo medicinal properties of ginger have been

known for thousands of years, and epidemiological studies further provide
fundamental evidence that ginger and its active compounds are effective
against many human diseases including GI cancer.e It can found very
effective against variety of GI cancers, pancreatic cancer, liver cancer,
colorectal cancer. To target multiple signaling molecules Ginger and its
polyphenols have been used; that provide a basis for its use against
different human diseases. Moreover, most of the known activities of
ginger components are based only on in vitro and in vivo studies.
Therefore, more extensive and well-controlled human studies are required
to demonstrate its efficacy.
Acknowledgment
Author is thankful to Dr. Mohan Rajmane, Principal, S.G.M.

college, Karad. Also I am thankful to Head, Department of botany and
plant protection, S.G.M. College, Karad for encouragement during this
work as well as I am thankful to all my colleagues and friends for the
support and keen interest during this work.
References
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pharmacological and toxicological properties of ginger (Zingiber officinale
Roscoe): A review of recent research. Food Chem Toxicol. 46 (2):409–20.
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Medicinal Plant Treasures of India

Book · April 2022

Chirag Narayankar Umesh Pawar

Dattatraya K Gaikwad Nivas Manohar Desai

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INSC International Publishers

Edition: First- 2021

Copy right © 2021

Dr. D.K. Gaikwad, Department of Botany, Shivaji University, Kolhapur

Dr. Umesh Pawar, Shri Pancham Khemraj Mahavidyalaya, Sawantwadi,

Dr. Chirag Narayankar,Sadguru Gadage Maharaj College, Karad. Maharashtra

PUBLISHERS & PRINTER: INSC International Publishers

The medicobiological applications right from ancient to modern times of magical

In Chapter 5, Babu Sonar discusses aspects of the importance of Hibiscus subdarifa

In Chapter 6, Mangal Patwardhan discussed aspects of the variety of phyto-

Chapter 8 (Sagar Deshmukh) examines the Bioactive compounds from Malabar

Sharada Ghadage discussed the medicinal importance of Ginger in chapter 9.

1 Plectranthus barbatus Syn. Coleus forskohlii: The Plant With 1-20

2 Magical Pongamea pinnata 21-38

3 Simarouba glauca: A Paradise Medicinal Plant 39-55

4 Amaratnhus gangeticus: Plant With Giganticus Therapeutic Uses 56-66

5 Hibiscus sabdarifa: Plant With Multispectral Uses 67-92

6 Versatile Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) 93-107

7 Portulaca oleracea: A Traditional, Oldest And Common Wild 108-123

8 Bioactive Compounds From Malabar Spinach (Basella alba L.) - A 124-134

9 Herbal Drug: Ginger 135-141

Plectranthus Barbatus Syn. Coleus Forskohlii:The Plant

Review of literature reveals that several workers have carried out

Souza (1993), Lukhoba et al., (2006), Alasbahi and Melzig (2010),

Plectranthus L' Herit most commonly known as genus Coleus is a

The genus Coleus was firstly labelled by Portuguese naturalist, João

C. forskohlii syn P. barbatus is a perennial herb, grows to about 40 -

According to Shah and Kalakoti, (1996) C. forskohlii survives better

II. Medicinal Importance

Plectranthus barbatus (Andr.) is an important, traditional Ayurvedic

2.1 Heart Disorders

De Souza,(1977) and Inamdar et al., (1980) reported that methanol

Forskolin was firstly studied as bronchodilator by Bruka, (1986) for

2.3 Psoriasis and Other Skin Ailments

An improvement in symptoms of psoriasis treated with forskolin has

2.4 Folk Medicine

In Himalaya region, practitioners of folk medicine use the root to

Caprioli et. al., (1984) reported that forskohlin acts as anti-glaucoma

2.6 Anti obesity and Thyroid Ailments

Forskolin was found to stimulate lipolysis in fat cells and improved

Western countries, it is of current attention largely due to its effectiveness

2.7 Anti Cancer

Forskolin was reported to reduce tumour colonization (melanoma

2.8 Antithrombotic Effect

Forskolin causes inhibition of platelet aggregation through adenylate

III. Phytochemical Studies

Forskolin was initially referred as coleonol and discovered in the

configuration of the acetate (-OAc) group at carbon 7, in forskolin its β

Later, Shan et al., (2008) isolated three more minor labdane

compounds have been recovered from oil. These include sesquiterpenes,

IV. Forskolin - An Active Constituent

Apart from all the other diverse phytochemicals found in C.

Forskolin (Synonym -7beta Acetoxy-8,13 epoxy -1 alpha, 6 beta,