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On the Teaching Situationof Irrational

Numbers:
EpistemologicalConsiderationsas the Basis of
Designing for Conceptual Change'
Yusuke SHINNO

Generally we can point out two differentways in introducingnew kinds of numbers as follows.
The firstis te represent a result of measurement. The second is to solve algebraic equations.
Altheugh the relation between these two ways might have been overleokecl in any teaching
situations, this can be didactically explicit in the teaching situation of irrational numbers from the
conceptual change perspective. The purpose of thispaper isto derivesome didactical implications
"incommensurability"
for a conceptual change situation by focusing on a knowing of that can be an
essential aspect of irrationals. For attaining thispurpose, the epistemological censiderations take
place in three centexts: curricular contents, history and teaching experiment. In conclusion, three
points as didactical implications are shown: 1)problematic situation regarding the representation of
''concrete";
number; 2) eliminating the tendency to cling te the 3} shiiting attitudes toward the
mathematical knowledge.

1.Introduction

The aim of this paper is toclidactical

show implicationsfor designing
some
teaching situation for conceptual change by focusingon the irrational numbers as
content, As the backgroundsof this aim, thereare two main research concerns; one is
about the teaching content, the other isabout the theoreticalperspective. For one
thing, a very small number of research papers on irrational numbers have been
reported. Some have investigatedstudents'
researches and!or prospective teachers'
understanding of some contents related to irrationalnumbers Arcavi et al., 1987;
(e.g,,
Fischbein et al., 1994, 1995; Zazkis & Sirotic,2004; Sirotic& Zazkis, 2007a,2007bL
although these researches have not focused on the teaching situation of irrational
numbers, In fact,only a few researches on the teaching situation of irrational numbers
have been proposed <e.g., Ohara, 2003).Furthermore in such earlier researches, the
prior knowledge for understanding irrational
numbers has been presupposed, and
therefore few didactical implications derivedfrom the viewpoint ef learners' prior
knowledge have been discussed,This paper explores such presuppositions themselves
and discusses on the teaching situation in terms of learners'prior knowledge from
conceptual change perspective.
On the 'research concern above we argue in this paper the relation between two
different
ways in introducing new kindsof numbers: the first
isto represent a result of

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measurement; the second is to solve algebraic equations. As will see later,a knowing of
the incommensurability (no common unit between two magnitudes) can be crucial to
bridge the two different ways. This issue will be considered or interpreted from the
epistemological points of view, discussingthree contexts: the curricular contents, history
and teaching experiment, Then, in the finalplace, some didactical implications are
derivedwith the help of such considerations,
Another research concern here is with the theoreticalperspective in this paper:
theory of conceptual change in mathematics education research. In the next section,
we discuss about itin order to highlight thisresearch concern.

2.ConceptualChange: A TheoreticalPerspective

Originally,the theory of conceptual change was developedby drawing on the

philosophy and history of science, in particular Thomas Kuhn's account of theory
Generally
speaking, ineducational isa
"conceptual

change, studies change" word with

many shades of meaning as fo11ows:
"conceptual

The term change" embodies a firstapproximation of what

the primary diMculty, [...] "conceptual"
Hence, there is
"change"

constitutes the emphasis on

rather than on simple acquisition. [...]
The part of the conceptual
change labelmust be treated lessliterally. Varioustheorieslocatethe diMculty
"beliefs","theories"
insuch entities as in addition to
"ontologies," "concepts,"

or
(diSessa,
2006,p, 265).
The thinks that the substantial
author conception of the theory of conceptual
change isto focuson drasticreorganization of learner'sprior knowledge. So far it has
been widely used to explain students' understanding in a
developrnental
series of
studies referring to science education (e,g.Posner et"when al. 1992; West & Pines,1985;
diSessa, 2006>,According to Tirosh & Tsamir (2006), studying mathematics, in
the course of accumulating mathematical knowledge, the students go through
successive processes of generalization, while also experiencing the extellsion oi various
mathematical systems" (p.160); the most typicalcase of such kind of generalizationor
extension is the number concept (see, e.g., Merenluoto& Lehtinen, 2004).As a matter
"there
of fact, however, as ispointed out is a general reluctance in philosophy and
historyof science circles to apply the conceptual change approach to mathematics"
(Vosniadou & Verschaffel, 2004, p,448), it seems te be still unclear what is the conceptual
change in mathematics, and what the mechanism of conceptual change in learning
mathematics can be, Therefore, as a basisforcharacterization of conceptual change in
mathematics education, we need to take thespecijicity ofmathematical hnowgecige into
account with a deep epistemological analysis of what the concepts considered consist of
as mathematical concepts (Balacheff,
1990,p,136).
In the fo11owing section, we attempt to explore what isspecial about the teaching
situation of irrational numbers from conceptual change perspective, In doing so,
epistemological considerations take place in the different contexts of mathematical
concepts/ knowledge:curricular contents, history, and teaching experiment.

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EPistemologicat
tzs the Basis ofDesigningfor
Consideratiens Cencoptuai
Change 69

3.EpistemologicalConsiderations

3.1Issuesin the mathematics curricular contents relating to irrational numbers

The significance of irrational numbers as a subject matter can be describedas
follows: the existence of incommensurable quantity; itsadmittance and symbolism;
curiosity about that the computational rules with infinite non-repeating decimalsare
available same as with rational numbers; and the rationale of the new number system,
Irrationalnumbers are introduced in the forms of
"square

so on, root numbers" at

lewer secondary level<15-year-old students in the case of Japan),In the teaching
situation of the square root, it is usually introduced in lightof the practical need to
represent the cencrete quantity (magnitude} as well as the teaching situations at the
primary school leveL For examples, ithas been often taken the instructional way for
findingout the lengthof the diagonalof the square, or the side of square having the
double area Indeed is an object of measurement,
"quantity"
given square.
of a
However a nalve practical conceptioni) eannot reach to student's understanding of an
because here we deal with "incommensurable
essential aspect of irrationalnumbers,
-ttt - --
quantity m question. In addition, the teaching situation of irrational numbers can
distinguish the situation dealingwith the concrete quantityand the situation dealing
with the computational rules fo11owing introductionof the symbol !", In doing so, itis
not justthe transition between situations but it is required to prepare mediated
activities shifting from concretel practicalconceptien to more theoretical/formalone,
Students come to learn new kinds of numbers as school year advances. The
introductionof new numbers must be a purposeful activity to respond to some
limitations.For it is explained
"the

necessities or overcome some example,

generalization from the natural to the rational numbers satisfies both the theoretical
need forremoving the restrictions en subtraction and division, and the Pmcticalneed for
numbers to represent the results of measurement. It is the factthat the rational
numbers fillthis twofold need that gives them their true significance" <my own
emphasis) <Courant
& Robbins, 1996, p.56). In the primary school mathematics. new
numbers emerge from
some actions on quantities, that is,the practical need for
numbers to represent the results of measurement. Although the need fbr introducing
irrationalnumbers can also emerge from some actions on quantities,the object of the
"the
actions is length of a segment incommensurablewith the unit" and itsapproach
comes from responding to the situation that itcannot represent by sub-dividing the
original unit, Here we can see thelimitation on the measuring approach, since this can
attribute the introduction of irrational numbers to the theoreticalneed; that is,to solve
the equation x2=2, Because the awareness of such kind of limitation can lead to a
knowing of incommensurability, itis necessary as itsdidactical orientation to prepare
some effective activities for becoming aware ef incommensurability.

3.2Issues in historical
context
One of the most important dimension
of epistemological considerations is to
examine why incomrnensurability
the question of arise in the course of history. In this
paper the historical isto see history of mathematics as a kind of
"the

examination
epistemological laboratoryin which to explore the development of mathematical
knowledge" <Radford, 1997,p.26). This requires us to investigate status of human
cognition inconfronting with the question ina historical section.
The number theory in ancient Greek is concerning with the mathematics for

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handling discretenumbers
"figural

world, such as numbers". In such a primitive state

itisno doubt to see that two segments are commensurable each other, The following
statements are described in the modern manner about that (See, more detailsin
Courant & Robbins(1996, pp.58-59)): In comparing the magnitudes of two linesegments
a and b,itmay that while no integralmultiple of a equals b,we can dividea inte,say, n
equal segments each of length a/n, such that sorne integral multiple m of the segment
tzx'/nisequal to bi
m
(1} h=-a
n
When an equation the form (1)holdswe say that the two segments
of a andb are
commensurabte, since they have as a common measure the segment aln which goes n
times intoa and m times intob, The totality of all segments commensurable with a will
be those lengthcan be expressed in the form (1)forsorne choice of integersm and n (n
io).
The situation is,however, by no means so simple, It was getting to be doubtful to
the existence of a kind of the segment, according to Boyer (1968), the Pythagorean's
successors raised the question of incommensurability in earlier than B.C,410, The
Ettclid'sElements Book X Defl 1 states that to be
"Those

mtrgnitude are said

commensurabie which are measured by the same measure, and those incommensurabte
which cannot have any commen measure" {Heath, 1956. p.10}. The discoveryof the
incommensurability isone of the most remarkable problems of historyof mathematics
regarding the disintegration of parallel between the (figural) number and quantity
(magnitude) theories (of Eudoxus's theory). We human beings became aware of the
world where we can reach only by thought purely {Szab6, 1978>. but itmay be said that
this was a product of the Greek intrinsic viewpoint of the academism towards
mathematics. Thus it is pointed out that the concept of incommensurability did
originate not from the practical source but from the theoreticalone (Szab6, 1978).
The following statement quoted from Euclids ElementsBook X Prop 2 forms a
of incommensurable relation: the less of two unequal
"lf

criterion when magnitudes is

continually subtracted in turn fremthe greaten that which islqfinever measures theone
bqfore ie the mtrgnitudes will be incommensurable" (Heath, 1956,p.17), Ithas to take
into consideration that since the infinite continuable algorithm (so-called Euclidean
aCgorithm) has a purely theoretical characteristic, it cannot be applied to twe
magnitudes as aP2zzctical criterion, Thereforethe criterion had never been used in any
ancient literatures {Szab6,1978). In this context human cognition confronts the
discontinuity that, in the case of two incommensurable magnitudes, the magnitudes
must exist in theoretical, but they are never realized in practical becauseof the events
only for thought. Furthermore itis also pointed out that,because of the question of
incommensurability,the internalinspirationlookingfor a more rigorous mode of
thinking arises (Wilder, 1987>, The new proof technique, namely reductio ad absurdum,
was established in this context. Arpad Szab6 refers to the proof of the
incommensurability between a side of a square and the diagonal, and he emphasizes the
connection between the establishment of thenew proof technique and the shift to "anti-

empirical and anti-intuitive tendency that underlying ancient Greek mathematics"

{Szab6,
1978).

3.3Issuesinteaching-experiment designedfor the awareness of incommensurability

The teaching experiment was performed with 9 ninth grade students (15-year-old)

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ConcoptualChasrge 71

in a classroom of a lower secondary school attached to national university in Japanin

October 2005. The question
main of this teaching experiment is to identifyhow the
students can become of incommensurability, In relation to sueh aim the teaching
aware
experiment consists of three phases: (i} introducing Euclidean algorithm;(ii)dealingwith
the existence of common measure; (iii) justifying the recursive or infiniteprocess of
operations, In this report we focus on the phase {iii)because itisthe most crucial
situation interms of becoming aware of incommensurability,
The following tasks used in this experirnent are relied on the earlier
developmental research <Iwasaki, 2004).

Taskl:There is a rectangle board 30cm by 42cm. Ybas want to cover itwith

square tiles,the size ofwhich must be same and ltrger as Possibte as you
can, FVnd the size ofs4uare tiles,
Task2 : There isa sheet ofthe A3 slandard here. Censiderzvhether puou can find
the s4uares that tessellatethe sheet.

In the phase (i)and (ii), the students worked on the task 1 and some extra tasks,

They came to know a conception of Euclideanalgorithm under a concrete situation of

findingthe GCD (greatest common divisor) of given two positive integers by foldinga
sheet and by showing algebraic expressions, In the phase <ii), the students recognized
the factthat ifone findsa remainder then measure the previous measure by the
remainder as a new measure, and if one finds no remainder then the algorithm

terminates;common measure isfound,

In the phase (iii),
the students worked on the task 2 by applying Euclidean
algorithm to a side of square and the diagonal (i,e.
in the A3 standard sheet, the larger
side is equal to the diagonalof the square with the smaller side), The students
developed gradually their activities with the help of some geometrical relationship,
which can be illustratedas follows {Fig.1).
In doing so, such operative activities could
undergo a kindof thozrghtettperiment.

D C

c
G
Erl'''''''
tt H
'''
'･
rl ''
1 '

F E

.-･A'' ri

A l B

Fig 1:Measuring the diagonalof the square vvith the side

Consequently,
we only needthe first
threesteps of the operative activity.
to remark
Because, as we can see Fig.1, you start measuring the diagonal of the square (:::AC)
with

itsside {=AB}, and repeat twice the procedure of subtracting small one from Iarge one,
then another smaller square and itsdiagonal(=IC) will appear, Under the thought
experiment, itimpliesthatthe procedure can be recursive or infinite process,

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1 T (teacher}: How much issize of your findingsquare next?

2 Si (astudenO: ...[pointedthe small square {rightisosceles triangle)]
3 T: A side of the square may be followingS4'sexpressions [Seethe Appendix],
`c'

So,now we found a small square, itsside is We don'tprepare smaller sheet

`cl

forfoldinganymore, but what does itimply?

4SS(students):iltLggptules-cudless!M
cont dl 1･
5 T: Endlessly?
6 S2:...Surprising.
7 T: OK, letus reflect why you say itisendless. Explain in your own word.
8 S3:Because the remainders are alwa s made in the constant ro ortion.
9 T: Anything else?
10 S4:The square,.,because ifs uares are found then we can alwa s find the ri ht
isgsggpm/tr1.
All participating students became aware of the censtancy of the procedure
throughabove conversations, At the end, teacher suggested that the continued fraction
might be useful forformalizing the operative processes, As a result, we obtained the
developmentof the diagonal<=x)inthe general form:(r: remainder)

1 1 1

i
x=i+4=i+ =i+2+k ='"=i+2+2+

t i

'･.2+ r.
.1

rn

Itiswell known that we can obtain an approximate value of the square root of 2
successively using the form above.

4. Didactical Implications

Let me summarize the main points that have been made. Firstlythe curricular
contents show that new numbers have been introducing from the practicalneed in the
primary school mathematics, while irrationals tend to be introducedfrom theoretical
need because the limitation
of on the measuring approach, But in the existing
curricular contents there are no didactical opportunities in order to relate two different
ways. Secondly the historical context shows that the discovery of the
incommensurability can lead to the theoreticalnature of mathernatics by establishing
the reductio ad absurdum. Thirdlythe teaching experiment shows that the students
can become aware of the incommensurability under the thought experiment, As a
result of such considerations, itcan be pointed out that as the basisof designingfor
conceptual change, at leastthe following threekey points have to be taken intoaccount.
1) Problematic situation the rePresentetion ofnumber
regnrding
The thatlearners have already Iearnt before introducing irrationals
"number"

can
be represented as fractionsand finite decimals.The familiarnotation (i.e., place value
system of decimal notation) cannot represent the quantity {magnitude}
in question, This
can bring on a problematic situation2). According to Tirosh & Tsamir (2004),

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Abumbers: EPistemolagical
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Cencoptblai
Change 73

distinguished
from the in the
`'problematic" "friendly"

situations that are situations

course of mathematics learningcan lead to learners' conceptual change. It is not to say
that we suggest the introduction of square root numbers (-NEas a symbolic
representation> by computational approach in terms of solving the equation x2 2. But =

itisquite importantto raise the followingquestion:isitPossible to ropresent a result of

measurement ofthe magnitudes aength) at hand.P In addition, at the lower secondary
"measuring"
school leveLthere might be no situation forreflecting on the action of and
for appreciating the ideaof dividing of unit, except forthe situation of the introducing
square root numbers.

21)Eliminatingthe tendenc3,to cling to the

"cencrete"

A conception of numbers clinging to the concrete has been well acting on the old
numbers {rational numbers) in taking intoconsideration of itsexistence, and these
numbers can become intuitive on the number line,However we should not overlook
the following remarks] in our can help us to the irrational
`Nothing "intuition" "see:'

points as distinct from the rational ones' (Courant & Robbins, 1996, p,60). A practical
conception of quantities (magnitudes) involvingthe concrete cannot be a position to
make the incommensurability sense. It will be importantto eliminate such a tendency
ontologically {itisalso discussedin the case of negative numbers in Hefendehl-Hebeker
(1991>), It does not only suggest that square root numbers can be used as a
computational object likethe use of literal symbol in algebra. As a didactical
implication, the tasks used in the teaching experiment can be effective settings for
becoming aware of incommensurability. In short, context of justification in the history
could be recontextualized intothe context of discoveryin the classroom.
3)Shijtingattitudes toward the mathematical knowlecige
More important point to is,belongingto layer'in
`meta-mathematical

note
Sierpinska & Lerman (1996)'sense, what we aim at by developingEuclideanaigorithmas
a Iearning activity. Meta-mathematical layer is the issue concerning the nature of
mathematical knowledge toward the mathematical
or attitude knowledge, The
interactive activities of operating with folding a sheet and expressing itsprocess have to
leadto the activities by the thought-experiment. In doing so, Euclideanalgorithm is
primitivelyregarded as a practicalmethod. forapplying itto the material (reaD objects,
measuring the diagonal of square with itsside, This ontological view en the method can
undergo changes through the students' applying the method and then derivingthe
theoreticalconclusion from itsinfiniteprocess. This impliesthe students' seeing as the
ideal object. Under the thought-experiment itisexpected or required forthe students to
shift their attitudes toward the mathematical knowledge underlying the points 1)and 2).

5. Brief Summary and Future Tasks

The
aim of thispaper was to show some didacticalimplications
fordesigningthe
teaching situation for conceptual change by focusing on the irrational
numbers.

Through the epistemological that took place three context {curricular

considerations
contents; historicalcontext; teaching experiment), in the previous section, three points
were presented as diclactical implications: Problematicsit"ation regarding the
ofnumbe2T
"concrete"

rqPresentation eliminating the tendency to cli2rg to the ; shij}ing

attitudes toward the mathematical knowlecige.

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This paper is a fundamental work towards the characterization of conceptual

change in mathematics education. With the help of the didactical implications
mentioned above, as both the epistemological and didacticaldemands, further
researches need to design the teaching and learning of irrational numbers for
conceptual change and to characterize learners'conceptual change process in the
designedmathematics classrooms,

is of the paper presented in July2007 at the 31SLAnnual

*This
a
version revised

Meeting the InternationalGroup forthe Psychologyof Mathematics Education held

of
at SeoulNational University,Seoul,Korea,

Notes

1) (nai've) in thispaper is concerning the relationship between

"A

practicalconception""quantity''.
two magnitudes as the approach to Itmeans that two magnitudes are
commensurabie with unit, that is, one can express the measure of the segment b in
terms of thesegment a by saying that the lengthof b is integral multiple of a.
2) Aceording to Tirosh & Tsamir (2004), problematic situations are indicated by
between the initialideas students
"incompatibilities

bring to class from their

previous (daily
mathematical> or experiences and the knowledge they are to
acquire thorough instruction" (pp.537-538). The term
"problematic
situation" in
this paper is used in similar way as long as itisreferring to the representation of
number.

Appendix

The picture shows a student's on the blackboard{71the diagonalof the square;

S:the side of the square; a, b,writing
c, d, e: remainders)

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IVbembers;
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Author
Yusuke SHINNO
Institutional affiliation: Doctoral student in Mathematics Education Department,
GraduateSchoolof Education, HiroshimaUniversity
1-1-1,Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima,Hiroshima,739-8524
Tel:082-424-6810
Fax:082-424-3463
E-mail:shinno@hiroshima-u,ac.jp

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