ON THE TEACHING SITUATION OF CONCEPTUAL CHANGE:

EPISTEMOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS OF IRRATIONAL

NUMBERS
Yusuke Shinno
Graduate School of Education, Hiroshima University

Generally we can point out two different ways in introducing new kinds of numbers as
follows (e.g., Courant & Robbins, 1941/ 1996). The first is to represent a result of
measurement. The second is to solve algebraic equations. However the relation
between the two ways does not still seem to be clear. Although this issue might have
been overlooked in any teaching situations, this can be didactically explicit in the
teaching situation of irrational numbers from the conceptual change perspective. The
purpose of this paper is to derive some didactical implications for a conceptual change
situation by focusing on a knowing of “incommensurability” that can be an essential
aspect of irrationals. For attaining this purpose, the epistemological considerations
take place in three contexts: curricular contents, history and teaching experiment.

CONCEPTUAL CHANGE: A THEORITICAL PERSPECTIVE

Conceptual change theory has been widely used to explain students’ understanding in a
series of developmental studies referring to science education (e.g. Posner et al., 1982;
Carey, 1985; Hashweh, 1986). This theory was developed by drawing on the
philosophy and history of science, in particular Thomas Kuhn’s account of theory
change and Imre Lakatos’s work of the scientific research programme. And it mainly
used to explain knowledge acquisition in specific domain, with characterizing role of
reorganization of existing knowledge in processes of learning. Vosniadou et al. (2001)
argued that scientific explanation of the physical world often run counter to
fundamental principles of intuitive knowledge, which are confirmed by our everyday
experience. Consequently, in the process of learning, new information interferes with
prior knowledge, resulting in the construction of synthetic model (or misconception).
Similarly, when studying mathematics, in the course of accumulating mathematical
knowledge, the students go through successive processes of generalization, while also
experiencing the extension of various mathematical systems (Tirosh & Tsamir, 2006, p.
160); the most typical case of such kind of generalization or extension is the number
concept (see, e.g., Merenluoto & Lehtinen, 2004). But, on the other hand, there is a
general reluctance in philosophy and history of science circles to apply the conceptual
change approach to mathematics (Vosniadou & Verschaffel, 2004). As has been
discussed in mathematics education domain, we need to take the specificity of
mathematical knowledge into account with a deep epistemological analysis of what the
concepts considered consist of as mathematical concepts (Balacheff, 1990, p. 136).

2007. In Woo, J. H., Lew, H. C., Park, K. S. & Seo, D. Y. (Eds.). Proceedings of the 31st Conference of
the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education, Vol. 4, pp. 185-192. Seoul: PME. 4-185
Shinno

Generally speaking, ‘the term “conceptual change” embodies a first approximation of

what constitutes the primary difficulty. … Hence, there is the emphasis on “change”
rather than on simple acquisition. … The “conceptual” part of the conceptual change
label must be treated less literally. Various theories locate the difficulty in such entities
as “beliefs”, “theories” or “ontologies,” in addition to “concepts.” ’(diSessa, 2006, p.
265). Therefore we may need to identify what is special about the learning and
teaching of mathematics in the conceptual change situation, analysing from the
different dimensions of mathematical concepts/ knowledge.
The aim of this paper is to present didactical implications for designing the teaching
situation of conceptual change by focusing on the irrational numbers as content. In fact,
only a few researches on irrational numbers have been reported (Fischbein et al., 1994;
Zazkis & Sirotic, 2004). On such background we argue the relation between two
different ways in introducing new kinds of numbers: the first is to represent a result of
measurement; the second is to solve algebraic equations. As will see later, a knowing
of the incommensurability (no common unit between two magnitudes) can be crucial
to bridge the two different ways. This issue will be considered or interpreted from the
epistemological points of view, discussing three contexts: the curricular contents,
history and teaching experiment. Then, in the final place, three items are derived as
didactical implications with the help of such considerations.

EPISTEMOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Issues in the mathematics curricular contents relating to irrational numbers
The significance of irrational numbers as a subject matter can be described as follows:
the existence of incommensurable quantity; its admittance and symbolism; curiosity
about that the computational rules with infinite non-repeating decimals are available
same as with rational numbers; and the rationale of the new number system, so on.
Irrational numbers are introduced in the forms of “square root numbers” at lower
secondary level (15-year-old students in the case of Japan). In the teaching situation of
the square root, it is usually introduced in light of the practical need to express the
concrete quantity (magnitude) as well as the teaching situations at the primary school
level. For examples, it has been often taken the instructional way for finding out the
length of the diagonal of the square, or the side of square having the double area of a
given square. Indeed “quantity” is an object of measurement. However a naïve
practical conception cannot reach to the essential understanding of the square root
because here we deal with “incommensurable quantity” in question. In addition, the
teaching situation of irrational numbers can distinguish the situation dealing with the
concrete quantity and the situation dealing with the computational rules following
introduction of the symbol√. In doing so, it is not just the transition between situations
but it is required to prepare mediated activities shifting from concrete/ practical
conception to more theoretical/ formal one.
Students come to learn new kinds of numbers as school year advances. The
introduction of new numbers must be a purposeful activity to respond to some

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necessities or overcome some limitations. For example, it is explained “the

generalization from the natural to the rational numbers satisfies both the theoretical
need for removing the restrictions on subtraction and division, and the practical need
for numbers to express the results of measurement. It is the fact that the rational
numbers fill this two-fold need that gives them their true significance” (my own
emphasis) (Courant & Robbins, 1941/ 1996, p. 56). Since primary school year, new
numbers emerge from some actions on quantities, that is, the practical need for
numbers to represent the results of measurement. Although the need for introducing
irrationals can also emerge from some actions on quantities, the object of the actions is
“the length of a segment incommensurable with the unit” and its approach comes from
responding to the situation that it cannot represent by sub-dividing the original unit.
Here we can see the limitation on the measuring approach. Since the awareness of such
kind of limitation can lead to the conception of incommensurability, it is necessary as
its didactical orientation to prepare some effective activities.
Issues in a historical section
One of the most important dimension of epistemological considerations is to examine
why the question of incommensurability arise in the course of history. In this paper the
historical examination is to see “the history of mathematics as a kind of
epistemological laboratory in which to explore the development of mathematical
knowledge”(Radford, 1997, p. 26). This requires us to investigate status of human
cognition in confronting with the question in a historical section.
The number theory in ancient Greek is concerning with the mathematics for handling
discrete numbers world, such as “figural numbers”. In such a primitive status it is no
doubt to see that two segments are commensurable each other. The following
statements are described in the modern manner about that (See, more details in Courant
& Robbins (1941/1996, pp. 58-59)): In comparing the magnitudes of two line
segments a and b, it may that while no integral multiple of a equals b, we can divide a
into, say, n equal segments each of length a/n, such that some integral multiple m of the
segment a/n is equal to b:
m
(1) b= a
n
When an equation of the form (1) holds we say that the two segments a and b are
commensurable, since they have as a common measure the segment a/n which goes n
times into a and m times into b. The totality of all segments commensurable with a will
be those length can be expressed in the form (1) for some choice of integers m and n (n
≠0).

The situation is, however, by no means so simple. It was getting to be doubtful to the
existence of a kind of the segment, according to Boyer (1968), the Pythagorean's
successors raised the question of incommensurability in earlier than B.C.410. The
Euclid's Elements Book X Def. 1 states that “Those magnitude are said to be
commensurable which are measured by the same measure, and those
incommensurable which cannot have any common measure”(Heath, 1956, p.10). The

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discovery of the incommensurability is one of the most remarkable problems of history

of mathematics regarding the disintegration of parallel between the (figural) number
and quantity (magnitude) theories (cf. Eudoxus’s theory). We human beings became
aware of the world where we can reach only by thought purely (Szabó, 1969/ 1978),
but it may be said that this was a product of the Greek intrinsic viewpoint of the
academism towards mathematics. Thus it is pointed out that the concept of
incommensurability did originate not from the practical source but from the theoretical
one (Szabó, 1969/ 1978).
The following statement quoted from Euclid’s Elements Book X Prop. 2 forms a
criterion of incommensurable relation: “If, when the less of two unequal magnitudes is
continually subtracted in turn from the greater, that which is left never measures the
one before it, the magnitudes will be incommensurable” (Heath, 1956, p. 17). It has to
take into consideration that since the infinite continuable algorithm (so-called
Euclidean algorithm) has a purely theoretical characteristic, it cannot be applied to two
magnitudes as a practical criterion. Therefore the criterion had never used in any
ancient literatures (Szabó, 1969/ 1978). In this context human cognition confronts the
discontinuity that, in the case of two incommensurable magnitudes, the magnitudes
must exist in theoretical, but they are never realized in practical because of the events
only for thought. And it is also pointed out that the internal inspiration looking for a
more rigorous mode of thinking arises (Wilder, 1968/ 1987). The new proof technique,
namely reductio ad absurdum, was established in this context. Árpad Szabó refers to
the proof of the incommensurability between a side of a square and the diagonal, and
he emphasizes the connection between the establishment of the new proof technique
and the shift to “anti-empirical and anti-intuitive tendency that underlying ancient
Greek mathematics” (Szabó, 1969/ 1978).
Issues in teaching-experiment designed for the awareness of incommensurability
The teaching experiment was performed with 9 ninth grade students (15-year-old) in a
classroom of a lower secondary school attached to national university in Japan in
October 2005. The main question of this teaching experiment is to identify how
students can become aware of incommensurability. In relation to such aim the teaching
experiment consists of three phases: (i) introducing Euclidean algorithm; (ii) dealing
with existence of common measure; (iii) justifying recursive or infinite process of
operations. In this report we focus on the phase (iii) because it is the most crucial
situation in terms of becoming aware of incommensurability.
The following tasks used in this experiment are relied on the earlier developmental
research (Iwasaki, 2004).
Task1: There is a rectangle board 30cm by 42cm. You want to cover it with square tiles,
the size of which must be same and lager as possible as you can. Find the size of
square tiles.
Task2: There is a sheet of the A3 standard here. Consider whether you can find the
squares that tessellate the sheet.

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In the phase (i) and (ii), students worked on the task 1 and some extra tasks. They came
to know a conception of Euclidean algorithm under a concrete situation of finding the
GCD (greatest common divisor) of given two positive integers by folding a sheet and
by showing algebraic expressions. In the phase (ii), students recognized the fact that if
one finds a remainder then measure the previous measure by the remainder as a new
measure, and if one finds no remainder then the algorithm terminates; common
measure is found.
In the phase (iii), students worked on the task 2 by applying Euclidean algorithm to a
side of square and the diagonal (i.e. in the A3 standard sheet, the larger side is equal to
the diagonal of the square with the smaller side). Students developed gradually their
activities with the help of some geometrical relationship, which can be illustrated as
follows (Fig.1). In doing so, such operative activities could undergo a kind of thought
experiment.
C
J
r2 r2
D C
I
r1 r2 G
G
E
H
E
r1 r1
1
F r1
r1

A 1 B F

Fig 1: Measuring the diagonal of the square with the side

Consequently, we only need to remark the first three steps of the operative activity.
Because, as we can see Fig.1, you start measuring the diagonal of the square (=AC)
with its side (=AB), and repeat twice the procedure of subtracting small one from large
one, then another smaller square and its diagonal (=IC) will appear. Under the thought
experiment, it implies that the procedural can be recursive or infinite process.
1 T (teacher): How much is size of your finding square next?
2 S1 (a student): …[pointed the small square (right isosceles triangle)]
3 T: A side of the square may be ‘c’ following S4’ expressions [See the Appendix]. So,
now we found a small square, its side is ‘c’. We don’t prepare smaller sheet for
folding anymore, but what does it imply?
4 SS (students): it continues endlessly.
5 T: Endlessly?
6 S2: …Surprising.
7 T: OK, let us reflect why you say it is endless. Explain in your own word.
8 S3: Because the remainders are always made in the constant proportion.
9 T: Anything else?

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10 S4: The square…because if squares are found, then we can always find the right
isosceles triangle.

All participating students became aware of the constancy of the procedure though
above conversations. At the end, teacher suggested that the continued fraction might be
useful for formalizing the operative processes. As a result, we obtained the
development of the diagonal (=x) in the general form: (r: remainder)
1 1 1
x = 1+ r1 = 1+ = 1+ = … = 1+
1 r2 1
2+ 2+
r1 r1 2 +.
..
rn +1
O 2+
rn

It is well known that we can obtain an approximate value of the square root of 2
successively using the form above.

DIDACTICAL IMPLICATIONS
Let me summarize the main points that have made. Firstly the curricular contents show
that new numbers have been introducing from the practical need in the course of
learning, while irrationals tend to be introduced from theoretical need. But there are no
didactical opportunities to relate two different ways. Secondly the historical context
shows that the discovery of the incommensurability can lead to the theoretical nature of
mathematics by establishing the reductio ad absurdum. Thirdly the teaching
experiment shows that students can be minimally understood the conception of the
incommensurability under the thought experiment. As a result of such consideration, it
can be pointed out that as implications for designing the teaching in the conceptual
change situation, at least the following three items have to be taken into account.
(1) Questioning, say, is it possible to represent a result of measurement of
incommensurable magnitudes?
The numbers that students have already learned can be represented as a ratio of
integers, but students may not always be aware of this explicitly. Paradoxically say, the
“incommensurable” situation only enables them to be aware of “commensurability”.
There is no situation for appreciating the idea of dividing of unit, except for the
situation of introducing square root.
(2) Eliminating the tendency to cling to the “concrete”.
A conception of numbers clinging to the concrete has been well acting on the old
numbers (rationals) in taking into consideration of its existence, and these numbers can
become intuitive on the number line. However we should not overlook the following
remarks: ‘Nothing in our “intuition” can help us to “see” the irrational points as distinct
from the rational ones’ (Courant & Robbins, 1941/1996, p. 60). A practical conception
of quantities (magnitudes) involving the concrete cannot be a position to make the
incommensurability sense. It will be important to eliminate such a tendency
ontologically (it is also discussed in the case of negative numbers in

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Hefendehl-Hebeker (1991)). It does not only suggest the instruction of square root
numbers by approaching to the existence of solution of x 2 = 2 . As a didactical
implication, the tasks used in the teaching experiment can be effective settings for
becoming aware of incommensurability. In short, context of justification in the history
could be recontextualized into the context of discovery in the classroom.
(3) Shifting on value judgments toward the mathematical knowledge
More important point to note is, belonging to ‘meta-mathematical layer’ in Sierpinska
& Lerman (1996)’ sense, what we aim at by developing Euclidean algorithm as a
learning activity. The interactive activities of operating with folding a sheet and
expressing its process have to lead to the activities by the thought-experiment. In doing
so, Euclidean algorithm is primitively regarded as a practical method, for applying it to
the material (real) objects, measuring the diagonal of square with its side. The view on
the method can undergo changes though students’ applying the method and then
deriving the theoretical conclusion from its infinite process. This implies students’
seeing as the ideal object. Under the thought-experiment it is expected or required for
students to shift their value judgments toward the mathematical knowledge underlying
item (1) and (2).
Appendix
The picture shows a student’s writing on the blackboard (T: the diagonal of the square; S: the
side of the square; a, b, c, d, e: remainders)

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