General Biology 1

ANIMALS: Form and Function

Slideshare from: Ian Kendrich C.
Fontanilla, Ph.D. Pav. IV, Room
4113

Main References:
(1) Biology by Campbell and Reece
(2) Integrated Principles of Zoology
by Hickman et al.
ANIMALS : Form and Function
A. Animal Cell Types and Tissues
B. Animal Systems and Processes
1. Support and Protection
2. Movement
3. Digestion and Nutrition
4. Gas Exchange
5. Transport/Circulation
6. Excretion and Osmoregulation
7. Regulatory Mechanisms
What is their difference?
 ANIMALS : Form and Function

• Anatomy - the study of the biological form of an

organism

• Physiology - the study of the biological functions an

organism performs

• The comparative study of animals reveals that form

and function are closely correlated
• Life is
characterized by
hierarchical
levels of
organization,
each with
emergent
properties.
•
 Structural Organization in Higher Forms

Structural Types/Kinds/Examples Field of

Unit Study
Tissue A.Somatic B. Reproductive Histology
- epithelial - sperm
- connective - egg/oocyte
- muscular
- nervous
Cell same as in tissue Cytology/Cel
l Biology
Can you enumerate
the different organ
systems in the
human body?
 Structural Organization in Higher Forms

Structural Types/Kinds/Examples Field of

Unit Study
Organ Integumentary Respiratory Anatomy
System Muscular Reproductive
Skeletal Digestive
Nervous Endocrine
Circulatory Immune
Excretory
Organ oral cavity brain Anatomy
pharynx eye
esophagus liver
stomach kidney
pancreas lung
intestines anus
Where do the Animal Cells originate?
Where do the Animal Cells originate?
Where do the Animal Cells originate?
What branch of natural science deals
with the study of tissues?
Four main categories of animal tissues

1. Epithelial Tissue

2. Connective Tissue

3. Muscular Tissue

4. Nervous Tissue
What do you
know about
epithelial
tissues?
1. Epithelial Tissue

• covers the outside of the body and lines organs

and cavities within the body
• compact; occurs in sheets of tightly packed cells
• little intercellular substance
• Polarized – Neutrally
charge
1. Epithelial Tissue

• the free surface of the epithelium is exposed to air or

fluid
• structures on free surfaces: microvilli, cilia, flagella
• Basement membrane
• where the cells at the
base of the barrier are
attached
• also called basal
lamina
1. Epithelial Tissue (Intercellular links)

– cells are closely joined together by

intercellular links.

– animals have 3 main types of intercellular links:

1. tight junctions
2. desmosomes
3. gap junctions
1. Tight Junction

Cell

• membranes of adjacent cells are fused, forming

continuous belts around cells
• act as cell barriers by restricting the passage of water,
electrolytes, and other small molecules across the
epithelium.
2. Desmosomes
•
Cells’ anchoring junction.
They are cell-cell,
intercellular junctions
that connect adjacent
cells in tissues that
experience stress.
• provide strong adhesion
between adjacent cells,
acting like rivets • attach muscle cells to each
(permanent mechanical other in a muscle, found in
fastener) holding the cardiac, bladder and
tissues together. gastrointestinal
3. Gap Junction

• Gap junctions allow direct communication between

neighboring cells. It allows them to exchange various
substances, including ions, metabolites, and signaling
molecules.
Try and different the different intercellular links
 1. Epithelial Tissue

Types according to layering:

1. Simple epithelium
-Made up of a single
layer of cells
2. Stratified epithelium
-Made up of many
layers of cells
3. Pseudostratified epithelium
-Made up of a single
layer of cells but
appears stratified
 1. Epithelial Tissue

Types of epithelial cells according to shape:

1. Squamous – flat like tiles

2. Cuboidal – like dice

3. Columnar – like bricks on end

Try to identify the Epithelial Tissues
Try to identify the Epithelial Tissues
 Glandular epithelia is a specialized type of epithelial
cell, that produce and secrete (release) substances.
Types based on how products are released:
a. exocrine (unicellular or multicellular)
b. endocrine
c. mixed (e.g., pancreas)
 Glandular epithelia: one example are the sweat
glands of humans. There are two types of sweat glands.
Special terms of some epithelial tissues:
a. Mesothelium – squamous cells lining serous
cavities such as peritoneal and pleural cavities and
lining of visceral organs
b. Endothelium – lining of blood and lymph
vessels
What do you
know about
connective
tissues?
2. Connective Tissue

• supporting organs and cells

• bind structures to preserve integrity of organization
•
transporting nutrients and wastes
• storage of energy reserve in adipose tissues
•
protection against infection
•
repairing damage tissues
2. Connective Tissue

• Fewer number of cells; more intercellular spaces

( mostly fibers and ground substance)
• the extracellular matrix generally consists of a
web of fibers embedded in a uniform foundation
that may be liquid, jellylike, or solid
2. Connective Tissue
Types of cells:
A. Fixed (resident cells) They are relatively stationary and
are present in the tissue throughout its lifespan.
- Fibroblast/fibrocyte- produces collagen/elastin fibers.
Helps in tissue repair and healing
- Adipose- (Fat cells) responsible for storing and
releasing energy as needed
- Osteocytes- maintain bone tissue by monitoring and
regulating mineral content and repair damaged bone.
- Chondrocytes- produce and maintain the extracellular
matrix of cartilage, which provides cushioning and
support to joints
 2. Connective Tissue
B. Wandering/Free (mobile cells). Known as Immune cells.
They migrate to areas of infection or injury.
Macrophages - engulf and digest cellular debris, foreign
particles, and pathogens.
Neutrophils- a type of white blood cell that are among
the first responders to infections. (releases antimicrobial
substance)
Lymphocytes- (T cells and B cells) They help recognize
and target specific pathogens and play a crucial role in
the development of immunity.
Eosinophils- are involved in allergic responses and the
defense against parasites. Release toxins to kill parasites.
 2. Connective Tissue
B. Wandering/Free (mobile cells). Known as Immune cells.
They migrate to areas of infection or injury.
There are 3 kinds of connective tissue fibers:
Collagenous fibers
Elastic fibers
Reticular fibers (branching)
7
Diagram of Fibrous Connective Tissue
7
Diagram of Fibrous Connective Tissue
Let’s try to identify!
7
Diagram of Fibrous Connective Tissue
Let’s try to identify!
Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates
Major types of connective tissues in
vertebrates

A. Fibrous connective tissue

– dense due to its large
number of collagenous
fibers
– the fibers are organized into
parallel bundles
– forms tendons and
ligaments
 Major types of connective tissues in
vertebrates
B. Loose connective tissue
– binds epithelia to underlying tissues
– functions as packing materials, holding organs in
place
– has all three fiber types
• two cell types
predominate in its
fibrous mesh
- fibroblasts
- macrophages
Major types of connective tissues in
vertebrates
C. Adipose tissue
– specialized form of loose
connective tissues that store fat
in adipose cells
– pads and insulates the body
and stores fuel as fat molecules
– each adipose cell contains a
large fat droplet that swells
when fat is stored and shrinks
when the body uses fat as fuel
Major types of connective tissues in
vertebrates
D. Cartilage
–
It is a strong and flexible tissue that provides
structural support, reduces friction between joints,
and helps maintain the shape of certain body
structures. Composed of cells called chondrocytes.

Types:
1. Hyaline cartilage
2. Elastic cartilage
3. Fibrocartilage
1. Hyaline cartilage
– bluish white, translucent, and homogenous. This
is the most common type of cartilage and is
found in several locations, including the ends of
long bones (articular cartilage), the nose, the
trachea, and the costal cartilages (connecting
ribs to the sternum). Hyaline cartilage provides
a smooth surface for joint movement, absorbs
shock, and supports respiratory structures.
2. Elastic cartilage
–
Elastic cartilage contains a higher proportion of
elastic fibers in its matrix, making it more flexible
than hyaline cartilage. It is found in structures
that require both support and flexibility, such as
the external ear (pinna), the epiglottis (a flap-like
structure in the throat), and the auditory tubes.
3. Fibrocartilage
– Fibrocartilage has a dense network of collagen
fibers in its matrix, making it the strongest type of
cartilage. It is found in areas that require both
support and resistance to compression, such as the
intervertebral discs of the spine, the menisci in the
knee joints, and certain ligaments and tendon
Try and
differentiate the
three types of
cartilage.
Major types of connective tissues in
vertebrates
E. Bone
–
Bone is a dense and hard connective tissue that
makes up the skeletal system in vertebrate animals,
including humans. It serves as the structural
framework of the body, providing support,
protection for vital organs, and enabling movement
through its articulation with muscles. Bone is a
dynamic tissue that undergoes constant remodeling
throughout a person's life.
Major types of connective tissues in
vertebrates
E. Bone (How it is made)
– Osteoblasts are cells that deposit a matrix of
collagen
– then, calcium, magnesium, and phosphate ions
combine and harden within the matrix into the
mineral hydroxyapatite
– the combination of hard mineral and flexible
collagen makes bone harder than cartilage without
being brittle

Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Major types of connective tissues in
vertebrates

F. Blood
– Vital bodily fluid that circulates throughout the
human body, delivering essential substances and
performing critical functions necessary for life.
Composed of:
1. Plasma (55%)
matrix consisting of water, salts, and a variety
–

of dissolved proteins
2. Formed elements (45%)
erythrocytes, leukocytes and cell fragments
called platelets (Thrombocytes)
 Blood
Plasma (55 %)
1. water (90% of plasma) 3. gases (O2, CO2, N)
2. dissolved solids
a. proteins
–. fibrinogen (synthesized by the liver)
–. albumin (synthesized by the liver)
–. globulin
b.supplies for cells (glucose, fats and fat-like
substances, amino acids, salts)
c. cell products (enzyme, hormones, antibodies)
 Blood

Formed elements (45 %) – produced by bone marrow

3. Muscle Tissue

-composed of long cells called muscle fibers

that are capable of contracting when
stimulated by nerve impulses
-most abundant tissue in most
animals
-muscle contraction accounts for most of the
energy-consuming cellular work in active animals

-specialized tissues in the human body that are

responsible for generating force and enabling
movement.
Types of muscles tissue
Types of muscles tissue

1. skeletal muscle
• has cylindrical and striated cells (alternating light

and dark bands or stripes) with multiple nuclei

•
(syncitial)
•
occurs in muscles attached to skeleton
functions in voluntary movement of body
Types of muscles tissue
2. Smooth muscle

• Spindle-shaped cells, each with a single nucleus

• Cells have no striations
• Involuntary
• Blood vessel walls and walls of the digestive tract
and internal organs
Functions in movement of substances in lumens
of body
Types of muscles tissue

3. cardiac muscle
• has cylindrical but branching striated cells, each with a
single nucleus
• Involuntary
Occurs only in the wall of the heart
•
functions in the pumping of blood
4. Nervous Tissue

• Nervous tissue is specialized for the transmission

of electrical impulses and the rapid
communication of information within the body.
4. Nervous Tissue

• Can you label the parts of a nerve cell

4. Nervous Tissue

• Can you label the parts of a nerve cell

4. Nervous Tissue

Neurons consists of a cell

•

body (Soma), dendrites

(Branch like) and axons
(Long slender projection)
•Dendrite – transmits nerve
impulses from their tips
toward the rest of the
neuron
Axon – transmits impulses
•

toward another neuron or

toward an effector, such as
a muscle cell
4. Nervous Tissue
Remember that: Animal tissue refers to the diverse
collection of specialized cells and extracellular
materials that make up the bodies of animals.
These tissues work together to form organs and
organ systems, enabling various functions
necessary for life.