Social behavioural Science Note from Okeke Godwin

Definition of SOCIOLOGY

Sociology is the scientific study of society, patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and culture
of everyday life. It is a social science that uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical
analysis to develop a body of knowledge about social order, acceptance, and change or social evolution.
While some sociologists conduct research that may be applied directly to social policy and welfare,
others focus primarily on refining the theoretical understanding of social processes. Subject matter
ranges from the micro-sociology level of individual agency and interaction to the macro level of systems
and the social structure.

The different traditional focuses of sociology include social stratification, social class, social mobility,
religion, secularization, law, sexuality, gender, and deviance. As all spheres of human activity are
affected by the interplay between social structure and individual agency, sociology has gradually
expanded its focus to other subjects, such as health, medical, economy, military and penal institutions,
the Internet, education, social capital, and the role of social activity in the development of scientific
knowledge.

The range of social scientific methods has also expanded. Social researchers draw upon a variety of
qualitative and quantitative techniques. The linguistic and cultural turns of the mid-20th century led to
increasingly interpretative, hermeneutic, and philosophic approaches towards the analysis of society.
Conversely, the end of the 1990s and the beginning of the 2000s have seen the rise of new analytically,
mathematically, and computationally rigorous techniques, such as agent-based modelling and social
network analysis.

Social research informs politicians and policy makers, educators, planners, legislators, administrators,
developers, business magnates, managers, social workers, non-governmental organizations, non-profit
organizations, and people interested in resolving social issues in general. There is often a great deal of
crossover between social research, market research, and other statistical fields.

According to Okeke Chinemelu (2019) Sociology is the study of how social relations, behavior, and
human character which has been influenced by evolution and other biological processes.

Sociology (from Latin: Scius companion and the suffix-logy meaning the study of from Greek logouts
knowledge is the scientific or systematic study of society, including patterns of social relations, social
stratifications, social interactions and culture.
Sociology is the study of social facts, which are ways of acting, feelings and thinking, common to a
society, which coerce individual in that society to confirm.

Sociology can range from the analysis of brief contacts between anonymous individuals on the street to
the study of global social interaction. Numerous fields within the discipline concentrate on how and why
people are organized in society, either as individuals or as members of associations, groups, and
institutions. Sociology is considered a branch of social science.

According to (Okeke 2008) Sociology can be defined as a scientific study of human behaviour, life style
and relationship within a given Soico-cultural setting or group. Sociology dwells on man social
relationship example how people relate in a group. Branches of sociology include: rural sociology,
medical sociology, industrial sociology, demography etc.

HISTORY CONCEPTUAL ORIGINS/NATURE OF SOCIOLOGY

Sociology, including economic, political, and cultural systems, has origins in the common stock of human
knowledge and philosophy. Social analysis has been carried out by scholars and philosophers, at least as
early as the time of Plato.

Sociology later emerged as a scientific discipline in the early 19th century as an academic response to
the challenge of modernity and modernization, such as industrialization and urbanization. Sociologists
hope not only to understand what holds social groups together, but also to develop response to social
disintegration and exploitation.

Origins

Sociological reasoning predates the foundation of the discipline. Social analysis has origins in the
common stock of Western knowledge and philosophy, and has been carried out from as far back as the
time of ancient Greek philosopher Plato, if not before. The origin of the survey, i.e., the collection of
information from a sample of individuals, can be traced back to at least the Domesday Book in 1086,
while ancient philosophers such as Confucius wrote about the importance of social roles. There is
evidence of early sociology in medieval Arab writings. Some sources consider Ibn Khaldun, a 14th-
century Arab Islamic scholar from North Africa (Tunisia), to have been the first sociologist and father of
sociology (see Branches of the early Islamic philosophy); his Muqaddimah was perhaps the first work to
advance social-scientific reasoning on social cohesion and social conflict. There are evidence of early
Greek e.g. enophances, enophim, polybios, and Muslim, sociological contributions, especially by IBN
khaddar, whose mugadelimah is viewed by some, as the earliest work dedicated to sociology as a social
science. Several other forerunners of sociology, from gaimbattista vicop to karlmary are nowadays
considered classical sociologists.

The word sociology (or "sociologie") is derived from both Latin and Greek origins. The Latin word: socius,
"companion"; the suffix -logy, "the study of" from Greek -λογία from λόγος, lógos, "word", "knowledge".
It was first coined in 1780 by the French essayist Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès (17481836) in an unpublished
manuscript. Sociology was later defined independently by the French philosopher of science, Auguste
Comte (17981857) in 1838 as a new way of looking at society. Comte had earlier used the term social
physics, but that had subsequently been appropriated by others, most notably the Belgian statistician
Adolphe Quetelet. Comte endeavoured to unify history, psychology, and economics through the
scientific understanding of the social realm. Writing shortly after the malaise of the French Revolution,
he proposed that social ills could be remedied through sociological positivism, an epistemological
approach outlined in The Course in Positive Philosophy (18301842) and A General View of Positivism
(1848). Comte believed a positivist stage would mark the final era, after conjectural theological and
metaphysical phases, in the progression of human understanding. In observing the circular dependence
of theory and observation in science, and having classified the sciences, Comte may be regarded as the
first philosopher of science in the modern sense of the term.

Auguste Comte (17981857)

Comte gave a powerful impetus to the development of sociology, an impetus which bore fruit in the
later decades of the nineteenth century. To say this is certainly not to claim that French sociologists such
as Durkheim were devoted disciples of the high priest of positivism. But by insisting on the irreducibility
of each of his basic sciences to the particular science of sciences which it presupposed in the hierarchy
and by emphasizing the nature of sociology as the scientific study of social phenomena Comte put
sociology on the map. To be sure, [its] beginnings can be traced back well beyond Montesquieu, for
example, and to Condorcet, not to speak of Saint-Simon, Comte's immediate predecessor. But Comte's
clear recognition of sociology as a particular science, with a character of its own, justified Durkheim in
regarding him as the father or founder of this science, in spite of the fact that Durkheim did not accept
the idea of the three states and criticized Comte's approach to sociology.

Karl Marx (18181883)

Both Auguste Comte and Karl Marx (18181883) set out to develop scientifically justified systems in the
wake of European industrialization and secularization, informed by various key movements in the
philosophies of history and science. Marx rejected Comtean positivism but in attempting to develop a
science of society nevertheless came to be recognized as a founder of sociology as the word gained
wider meaning. For Isaiah Berlin, Marx may be regarded as the "true father" of modern sociology, "in so
far as anyone can claim the title."

To have given clear and unified answers in familiar empirical terms to those theoretical questions which
most occupied men's minds at the time, and to have deduced from them clear practical directives
without creating obviously artificial links between the two, was the principal achievement of Marx's
theory. The sociological treatment of historical and moral problems, which Comte and after him,
Spencer and Taine, had discussed and mapped, became a precise and concrete study only when the
attack of militant Marxism made its conclusions a burning issue, and so made the search for evidence
more zealous and the attention to method more intense.

Herbert Spencer (18201903)

Herbert Spencer (27 April 1820 8 December 1903) was one of the most popular and influential 19th-
century sociologists. It is estimated that he sold one million books in his lifetime, far more than any
other sociologist at the time. So strong was his influence that many other 19th-century thinkers,
including Émile Durkheim, defined their ideas in relation to his. Durkheim's Division of Labour in Society
is to a large extent an extended debate with Spencer from whose sociology, many commentators now
agree, Durkheim borrowed extensively. Also a notable biologist, Spencer coined the term survival of the
fittest. While Marxian ideas defined one strand of sociology, Spencer was a critic of socialism as well as
strong advocate for a laissez-faire style of government. His ideas were closely observed by conservative
political circles, especially in the United States and England.

ANTHROPOLOGY: This is the branch of science that deals with the customs, beliefs and knowledge of a
people. It is the study of people culture as they affect the human behaviour and people's life pattern,
branches include:

-Criminal aspects

- Physical aspects

-Cultural aspects

RELEVANCE OF SOCIOLOGY IN NURSING:

-Sociology is a source of useful information which helps nurses to understand our social environment
and to give a critical view of what happens around their health system.

- It helps nurses to change the belief and attitude of the patient from superstition, bias, and
ethnocentrism, and to discover the underlying aspects of every social life.

- It enables the nurse to understand the socio-cultural background of a patient before applying
treatment. -Sociological knowledge helps nurses to analyze and classify different types of social
relationship among the health team members in our society.

Sociology explains the relationship between the different aspects of social life and the effect that one
has on the other e.g. the effect of an employment on the mental health of the member of a society.
Sociological knowledge is very useful in the formulation of theories or laws about human social life
which is universally applicable. Sociology brings together, the findings of other specializations within
little social field, such as history, economics politics and anthropology, in order to relate them to each
other, and to examine how their findings attract the society.

The relationship between nursing and sociology has been extensively debated for more than two
decades. Nursing and Sociology share the development of a symbolic relationship. Two other
sociologists, both of whom are nurses: Chapman (1976) and Cox, (1979) have clearly demonstrated the
ways in which the disciplines of Nursing and Sociology complement each other. They have illustrated
how knowledge and theories from them can help to illustrate and contribute to the other.

As nursing and sociology are both concerned with people and their interactions, Chapman (1976)
suggests that it is like that the theories developed in either the discipline of nursing or in sociology will
provide insight, to the other. For example, she views the theory of social exchange in the light of the
patient and nurse seeking to meet their own needs and goals. She also considers organizational theories
and the effects of compliance and power in achievement of goals. And some ten tactical explanations
are offered for the behaviour of patient nurses who might be considered deviant.

However, although Chapman (1976) attempts to show the relevance of a number of sociological
theories to nursing as to decide their usefulness. She also points out that theories relating to human
activity only predict with a variable degree of accuracy because although humans as a group may
behave similarly, allowance has always to be made for the idiosyncratic. As nursing falls into the
category of human activity, developing nursing theories is therefore freight with the same problems as
sociology and other social called nursing is a mixture of both the behavioral and social science, it may be
permissible, Chapman (1976) suggests borrowing concepts from these disciplines in the development of
nursing theory. However, their place of origin must not be forgotten; and that last comment is of
profound importance to nurses teaching sociology. Cox (1979) suggests that there is even more than a
complementary relationship between nursing and sociology, and that a symbolic relationship exists
between the two disciplines. She believes that sociology can help nurses achieve their primary objective
of good patient care. Sociology, she argues, is particularly relevant to nursing in relation to society's
changing patterns of disease, dependency and death; the social and cultural variations in perception of,
and responses to diseases, analysis of organization, and interpersonal relationships.

Nursing as the major caring profession is permeated by sociologists. But she gives a warning which other
sociologists would endorse that nursing should not make itself vulnerable to ideology in the guise of
sociology. There is an even greater need to recognize that humility is appropriate and dogmatism is
dangerous. If the introduction of sociology to nursing is to be beneficial, one would suggest that care
must be taken to ensure that it is academically sound. Rash ideology and intellectually cheap dignities
would do more harm than good. (Cox1979).

Social Stratification: This is a process of ranking of personalities in our society. Some individuals and
groups identify and claim as seniority and superiority and whole others as junior [some one powerful
and while some others are powerless, some are useful and, while, some are useless. Some are Doctors
and while some are staff and nurses, some are teachers while some are students. This can be said to be
social stratification.

Stratification comes from the Greek word "strata" or stratum" meaning layers which can be defined as
grouping of people.

According to Ward, [Cox 1940] classified social stratification into three personality types in our society.
They are upper, middle and working class. This involves the class people belong or identified themselves
into which goes a long way to determine their life style pattern. Social stratification is a process of
recognizing and ranking people in our society according to achievement, power, positions and values.
Individuals can be recognized or viewed from this perspective. Gender difference, Age, social group, and
family position, and on the ground of acquiring wealth, occupation, education, and social value etc.

To explain the several degree of the status and its effect mean that.

(i) In our families the gender differences am regarded and recognized. The first male child received more
preferential treatment during declaration or sharing of assets from the parent than two others of his
former brother.

(II) In the family, the father is regarded as the head of the family and while women are less valued
during decision making, and they are given a status.

(III) Working class mothers pay less attention to the home activities and to solve the problem of their
children. This is as a result of the mother's commitment to work e.g. a mother, who works in the bank,
has less time to stay at home.
The middle and upper classes parents pay more attention to offspring than working class parents as
regards providing educational facilities and solving social needs. ,

Social stratification reduces equality in our society. It also promotes and adopts the process of
evaluating those differences and creating superiority and inferiority among the people.

There are so many explanations and interpretations and understandings of social stratification by
different authors. Class is an institutionalize system because an individual

who is more intelligent, brilliant and wise, can compose him or herself to achieve greater position and
acquire the best education depending on his or her economic status or financial capacity to understand
the societal demands. The upper class people may be referred to the President, Federal Republic of
Nigeria, the ministers of the Federation, the Governors and Commissioners etc.

The middle class personalities are teachers, principals, managers, civil servants and top business men.
The lower class personalities are regarded as traders, students and village leaders. Poor individuals can
also belong to such classes, it mostly depend on the person's abilities and achievement in the society.

This is to say that birds of the same feather flock together. The people in upper, middle and lower
classes do not think, flock, dress, speak, and behave the same way; there must be. a difference in action,
interaction and reaction in the level of -communication pattern among themselves. [Okeke 2008].

Social stratification is among the social groups in our society. These groups differentiate themselves in
high race level of identification, with the socio commercial well being of the people in it.

SOCIAL MOBILITY:

Social mobility is the movement of individual from one social strategy to another, and it aids in social
stratification of any society. This is obtainable from the most developed societies.

It is more noticeable in open societies where people are, what they are, and what work they do. The
opposite is the case in closed societies, where one is ranked on the basis of accident of birth and feudal
inclinations. The society is however completely closed or open, they are all relative terms, but however
the more open a society, the more the spirit of competition will prevail. This will propel individuals to
excel in their chosen careers.

TYPES OF SOCIAL MOBILITY:

1) Vertical Social Mobility: This is the upward movement of an individual from one social class to
another. After PTS in the school of nursing, the student nurse has achieved upward vertical social
mobility; this is because the person has now been mobilized to next class and stratum. Again, if one
comes from a family that is predominantly uneducated, and succeeds in becoming a university graduate
or a registered nurse, the individual is said to have achieved upward vertical social mobility.

This is because he or she has improved on the parent's socio-economic and educational class. An
individual is said to achieve forward social mobility when he or she does not improve from a social class
or status of one's parent e.g. son of university graduate becoming a conductor.

2) Horizontal Social Mobility. This is being in the same social stratum e.g. a student nurse who has failed
his or her exam transferring to another school of nursing to repeat the same class. The son of a peasant
farmer getting married to a daughter of a peasant farmer. An individual who remains in a social class
which the parents has achieved.

IMPLICATIONS OF SOCIAL MOBILITYTO SERVICES

Social mobility has a lot of implications to health. Attainment of social mobility is accompanied by a lot
of stress on the individual; such stresses can lead to some psychosomatic disorder like migraine,
hypertension, and hepatic ulcer. An unguided fellow may become a deviant in the course of attaining
social mobility. People who are upwardly mobile are said to be more aggressive and hostile to their less
fortunate counter-part. Because of restlessness often associated with their duties they tend to suffer
from executive stress syndrome. On the other hand non mobile people tend to be very docile,
complacent and gossip a lot.

STATUS:
This can be defined as a person's position in the society. This position adds more values and gives the
child more sense of belonging in the social group; it also signified the personality profile and identity of
an individual in a given society Okeke (2008).

TYPE OF STATUS

The status of an individual can be in two different dimensions.

1. Inherited

2. Un-inherited

1. UNHERITED STATUS:

This is a kind of parental blessing, and it is also a status of individual born to inherit his or her father's
wealth, throne and value in the society e.g. it is said that the first son of a king will inherit his father's
position, as a king, after the death of his father.

The factors that affect inherited status are Age, sex, race and cultural influence. The age of a person
matters a lot during selection, appointing, decision making and positioning. A child in the junior class can
not be a teacher in the senior secondary school and elderly [adult person who have knowledge and
experience is expected to handle top offices like principal, vice chancellor or president in any
organization but not an adolescent.

a. Race. An individual's race is mostly considered in terms of becoming a citizen, of country,

state, town and village. Before he or she can be given a sense of belonging in the society.

b. Cultural influence: An individual who is born in a particular place or town or also been

trained, brought up in a given society, is entitled to the culture into which he or she was born.

This will help the person understand the values, norms, and behaviours patterns and mores relating to
the person.
c. Sex: a male child is more respected and regarded in some traditions or society than female during
selection and decision making. People always perceive the male to be more superior and female
inferior.

AN UN-INHERITED STATUS: This is an acquire status. It is also a process of get to top positions in the
society through one's own effort and diligence to work towards achieving greatness in life e.g. a student
who was so committed to his or her education can acquire 1st position in the class.

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION:

In every society, some people are identified as superior and others inferior, some are masters while
some are servants, some are identified as heads and kings and-subjects, manager and messengers.
Some are rich while others are

poor and some are powerful, while some are powerless. This is the basis of social stratification.

The word stratification comes from the word "stratum" meaning 'layer', thus if something is stratified it
is arranged into layers, some higher and some lower. Social stratification is also the process of ranking
people in a society according to wealth, prestige and power. People are categorized according to
ascribed status (age, sex, and family position etc.).

Let us examine some of the issues raised above. Numerous societal1 distinctions are according to
gender, and women are usually given a lower status than men. In the family, the husband is often
regarded as the head, and even the bible testifies that the husband is the head of his wife. In a
traditional African family, Yoruba (Nigeria) and the Zulu (South African.) tradition, the wife is expected to
kneel down when serving food to her husband, although western culture has modified this humiliating
subordinate role of women. The culture may predescribe that the elders are to be respected by every
body in an extended family. In such a family, every traditional social event is chaired by him and he is the
mediator between those who have misunderstanding. As the father of all, he protects all the members
of the extended family who are regarded as his 'children'

Many societies try to create equality for their members, but such attempts have never managed to
eradicate stratification altogether. The family pattern according to Doberman and Hearte (1976) shows
that this is the case in America, and the same applies to some extent to all societies.
Although Thomas Jefferson wrote in the Constitution of the United State that "all men are created
equal", he did not mean that all of us have an equal share of wealth, prestige or power resources of a
Society. He did not mean that all of us are endowed at birth with equal biological traits and talents, nor
did he mean that we ail have the same opportunities to achieve to the best of our abilities. If Jefferson
had meant these thing and if it were possible to implement them, then no American will be richer or
have more prestige or power than the other American. If we look around us we know that such equality
does not exist. Clearly, then, Jefferson's son's dream was not of social equality, but of equality under the
law [Doberman and Hearte, 1976].

Stratification includes not only noting differences between people but also evaluating those differences
and ranking people accordingly. Thus authors have focused on different aspects of the topic for a clear
understanding of social class, status and power. They are power. They are all closely related.

CLASS:

We can categories the members of a society into groups that we all refer to as Classes. Class1 is used in
more than one way; some writers use it to mean status where others talk sense, to distinguish it from
status1, which is discussed below, i.e. ranked into upper, middle or lower classes. For example, medical
doctor, a company director, a vice-chancellor, a prime minister or president of a country can all be
ranked into the group called the upper class. A principal of a college, a lecturer, a staff nurse or a school
teacher can all be put into the group of the middle class. A peasant farmer, labourer, a messenger, a
factory worker or a roadside mechanic can be labeled as a member of the lower class.

A class system is an open one, because one can move from one school class to another depending on
one1 s ability to improve one's economic position in the society.

The son of a poor farmer or labourer who manages to receive an education and to become a company
director of high executive rank may be able to marry the daughter of a rich family. He has also
automatically become a member of the upper or middle social class depending on the level of
achievement.

Marriages and friendships usually occur between people of the same even though there is no law or
regulation as regards the practice. It occurs because people who belong to the same class, think of
themselves and also sharing similar interests and cultural patterns such as dress, speech, property,
behaviours, occupation and comparable income, in other words, they have similar socialization pattern.
A nurse should understand and also study social class were the patient belongs, this enable him or her
to predict the cause of the patient's problem,

The class system is often associated with inferiority or superiority complexes, pride and discrimination.
People who belong to the lower class may not want to mix with the lower socio-economic groups. This
may result in jealousy, hatred and inter-class conflicts.

Class and stratification:

The relationship between social class and stratification is that the higher the social class, the higher one
is in the system or stratification. People, who belong to the higher social class, are higher than those in
the middle class, while those in the middle social class are higher than the lower social class. The nurse
should provide. Conducive atmosphere and treat people of higher social class with respect, and care.

STATUS AND RULE:

One's status is one's position in the society. The nursing profession are governed by some
administrators, the hierarchy of individuals to maintain and co-ordinate the activities of nursing school.
These persons are placed on top positions to rule.

SOCIAL STRUCTURE:

A social structure is the organization of members of the society into various roles and status. Kinship
structure is a social structure that is based on relationship which exists between a man and his wife,
father, son, uncle, aunt, nephews, nieces etc.

Positioning of individuals and groups in the society according to their roles and status e.g. master and
servant, teacher and student, employer and employee. A person is a unit in a social structure and
everyone knows where he or she fits into the structure, his or her position is usually determined by the
type of job he or she performs and the attendant remuneration.

Social roles:

Throughout our lives, we acquire what sociologists call social role. A social role is a set of expectations
for people who occupy a given social position or status. It is expected that a taxi driver in a given city will
know the nooks and crannies of that city, that a trained nurse will be efficient in rendering quality care
for her patient. That the student nurse will be always available in class when the lesson is going on, and
also in the hospital during her clinical posting. With each particular social status whether ascribed or
achieved, comes particular role expectations. However, actual performance varies from individual to
individual.

Role conflict:

This occurs when incompatible expectation arises from two or more social positions, held by a person.
Fulfillment of the social role associated with ones status may directly violate

The role link to a second status. Here the nurse apart from being a nurse play the role of house wife,
mother, cook, and church chorister, these roles may create internal conflict for her as regard, satisfying
her husband.

Role reciprocity:

Roles are not independent of each other, they are linked. A person cannot engage in selling or one
engages in the role of buying. Similarly a nurse cannot engage in the role of rendering care without
somebody being sick. A teacher cannot teach without student and vice versa, there is thus
interdependence of roles and this relationship is called role reciprocity.

Sub-types of status:

There are two types of status ascribed [or prescribed] and achieved [or acquired]. An ascribed status is
one into which a person is born and over which the individual has no control, e.g. a person born by a
member of a royal family is given sex, age and race and also in ascribed status there are some
occupations, which only men do and some are also meant for women. As regards age, elderly people are
given more respect than younger ones, certain positions are only occupation oriented and reserved for
people of certain age.

In some industries countries, race and colour may be important factors in ascribing status. For example,
in the United State of America and Britain, even though this is not constitutionally permitted. So
whatever one's status would otherwise haven been, if one is back people look at one as a member of a
low social group. This racial discrimination often leads to inter-racial conflict between the whites and the
blacks.
An achieved or acquired status is one that is chosen or earned by one's efforts. One can become a
father, a carpenter, a soldier, or a nurse, and can walk towards that; one can become a lawyer, doctor or
nurse by studying hard to enter into appropriate institutions and by passing the. Necessary-
examinations. People therefore have, control over achieved status unlike ascribed status. Role are not
independent of each other but are linked. A person cannot engage in s selling if no one fills the role of
buyer. A nurse cannot perform without some body, as patient.

SOCIAL CHANGE:

The alteration of mechanisms within the social structure, characterized by changes in cultural symbols,
rules of behaviour, social organizations, or value systems.

Throughout the historical development of their discipline, sociologists have borrowed models of social
change from other academic fields. In the late 19th century, when evolution became the predominant
model for understanding biological change, ideas of social change took on an evolutionary cast, and,
though other models have refined modern notions of social change, evolution persists as an underlying
principle.

Other sociological models created analogies between social change and the Wests technological
progress. In the mid-20th century, anthropologists borrowed from the linguistic theory of structuralism
to elaborate an approach to social change called structural functionalism. This theory postulated the
existence of certain basic institutions (including kinship relations and division of labour) that determine
social behaviour. Because of their interrelated nature, a change in one institution will affect other
institutions.

When change in social structure, social order, social values, certain customs and traditions, socio-
cultural norms, code of conduct, way of conducting oneself in the society, standards, attitudes, customs
and traditions of the society and related factors take place, it is said that there is social change.

When there is social change, the process of socialization also changes accordingly. The individual who is
an active member of the society becomes an agent and target of social change. He brings social changes
and also is influenced by such changes.

In a particular period or after a gap of several years each and every member of the universe is subjected
to face social change. A particular social order does not continue for several decades, say hundred years
or more. There is bound to be some change.
Various theoretical schools emphasize different aspects of change. Marxist theory suggests that changes
in modes of production can lead to changes in class systems, which can prompt other new forms of
change or incite class conflict. A different view is conflict theory, which operates on a broad base that
includes all institutions. The focus is not only on the purely divisive aspects of conflict, because conflict,
while inevitable, also brings about changes that promote social integration. Taking yet another
approach, structural-functional theory emphasizes the integrating forces in society that ultimately
minimize instability.

Social change can evolve from a number of different sources, including contact with other societies
(diffusion), changes in the ecosystem (which can cause the loss of natural resources or widespread
disease), technological change (epitomized by the Industrial Revolution, which created a new social
group, the urban proletariat), and population growth and other demographic variables. Social change is
also spurred by ideological, economic, and political movements. The changing social order

In a particular period people of the society are guided by certain rules and regulations, customs,
traditions values and beliefs, the way every one has to manage and guide himself, people have to
manage their style of living, their work, business, profession and conduct. Individuals of the society,
young and old are guided by these rules and belief.

Socialization of children is also influenced by these frame of reference. The DOS and Donts of the
society, as we know influence the process of socialization. But after a certain period, due to evolution or
revolution we find slight or remarkable change in the above aspects of social life.

In some cases, these changes may be slow or fast, may be a matter of degree or kind. In some cases it
may be substantial and drastic while in other cases it may gradual and of low order.

Type of Social Change:

From the ensuing discussion it appears that social change can be categorised to two types:

(1) Evolutionary Social Change

(2) Revolutionary Social Change.

(1) Evolutionary Social Changes:

Evolutionary changes occur in course of a long period slowly and gradually and through evolutionary
process. Such changes are not very drastic or remarkable. They proceed gradually like the process of
conditioning and people learn to adjust with such changes gradually.
During our school and college days we were wearing saree and nobody then could dream of a married
any a women wearing even Salwar and Kameez. We also used to put veil on our head, after marriage. I
remember after my marriage in 1960,I used to put veil on my head for 35 years while in job and at home
as well.

But this system has changed gradually. Now what about girls, married women is Orissa also wear Salwar
Kameez, various other western dress and normally do not put veil on their head. This practice has been
gradual and it has also been accepted by parents, relations in laws and other members of the society.

So much so that when today a girl attends, college wearing a saree others around look at her with raised
eyebrows. Even some of her friends start joking at her calling her Chudaa. means, old fashioned.

Using lipstick and going to beauty parlours were considered as taboos so for women in Orissa some
decades back. But now even college going girls including many women teachers go to school and
colleges using various kinds of make-up. This is not considered a taboo now.

Gradually people have adjusted to such evolutionary changes may be due to urbanization and western
influence. Some years back while I was in Government job and went to Delhi to attend a meeting, one of
my lady colleagues who was also attending the same meeting wanted to go to a beauty parlour on our
wayback to hotel.

She also asked me to join her. But she was astonished when I told her that I have never visited a beauty
parlour even when I was young and I would not like to do it now.

Though I as a member of the society have accommodated to certain social changes which I consider
beneficial or may be not harmful, I do not accommodate to those changes which are harmful for our
society for our social values, culture and finally our conduct in the society. Still many people are there is
the society who follows him.

People are able to adjust better with evolutionary social changes as the process is slow and gradual and
hence easy to adjust. We also find today many male members wearing pants and shirts while sitting in
Nigeria which was not acceptable several years back.

Use of Jeans and T. shirts in place of half pants and shirts have become common sights in schools and
colleges, in public life and members of the society have gradually coped with this.

Even old and aged people of India are now found wearing such westernised dresses without any conflict
or guilt feeling, since society has gradually accepted it. Similarly women going for higher education,
studying in coeducational institutions, do join army, navy and airforce, for becoming pilots, going to
space to join politics, doing various jobs which were earlier meant for men only.

Doing various jobs outside the domestic front, which were not acceptable several decades back for
women is now accepted. Husbands in Indian society doing domestic chores which were not acceptable
hundred years back have become common practices to-day in Indian societies. This has been possible
due to gradual, evolutionary social change. This change has not occurred instantly, suddenly, abruptly.

Earlier many people did not pay tax, but now people have developed the mind set to pay tax considering
it as legal and are paying tax voluntarily. These are simple examples of important evolutionary changes
which occur gradually within sufficient time perspective.

(2) Revolutionary Changes:

It is the opposite of evolutionary change. When the changes in various sectors of our social system occur
suddenly, drastically and sufficiently so as to differentiate it from gradual, slow change, it is called
revolutionary social change.

The change in other words is great in degree, remarkable. The changes are such that they change the
whole social order and the course or style of living, conduct and concept of dos and donts. They are a
matter of kind which occur due to some movement, revolution war, rapid technological changes, due to
sudden change in social events.

They occur very quickly and within a short period or short duration. Let us take some examples. The
changes in social structure and social system which occurred after various famous revolutions like the
French, the Russian, the Chinese and the American Revolution and more recently the revolutionary
changes that occurred or are still occurring in various Afro-Asian countries occur due to revolutions and
movements Indias freedom movement or revolution for independence from British Raj is a case of
revolutionary movement.

Besides Indias small or big movements to eradicate the evils of colonialism, caste and class system
economic disparity, tribal life style, superstition, to fight against suppression and oppression, are valid
examples. Introduction of widow marriage, abolition of child marriage, and Satidaha Pratha, acceptance
of intercaste and inter religion marriage are to some extent examples of revolutionary change.

In short, those remarkable and drastic changes which occur in the social system of a country or society
in a very short span of time are possible due to revolution and movements big or small. Such drastic
changes not only change the life style of people in a society, they also transform the relationship
between individual across countries including within the countries.

Various cross cultural studies lead to support this observation. Attitude change is an important example
of the effect of social change which may happen either due to evolutionary or revolutionary change.

Because of various social changes attitude of people also change towards the social system. It is
therefore rightly viewed that man is not only an agent, but also a target of social change. In short, man is
indispensable in bringing social changes as well as is influenced by the same social changes.
He makes or changes the society where he lives and is again influenced by such a changed society. Social
activities who fight against dowry system and are able to pass a law in that regard are also influenced by
the abolition of dowry system. When their sons and daughters get married they cannot claim or give
dowry.

Characteristics of Social Change:

When either evolutionary or revolutionary changes take place in the social system one lives,, observable
changes take place in the following areas;

Social values

Customs

Traditions

Cultural Heritage

Age old beliefs

Style of Living dress

Attitude

Superstition

Stereotype

Way of conducting oneself in the society,

Process of Socialization

Overall behaviour of its members.

Thus the chief characteristics of social change are the change in various areas of the social system where
man is born, grown and dies. Such changes influence his attitude towards various stimuli, values, faiths
and beliefs, his emotions and sentiments, his moral and religious standard, his conscience and super
ago.

The characteristics and nature of social change influence a mans Id, ego and super ego, his entire psycho
physical system, his mental and physical characteristics, and his overall nature, conduct, response and
behaviour in the environment in which he moves, such as his family, neighbourghood, his response to
social members, and how he reacts to them.
When remarkable difference is observed in ones attitude towards widow marriage, towards dishonesty,
towards various cultural conditions, towards unwed motherhood, single parenting, divorce, infanticitis,
family planning, girl child, legalized abortion and population control, we say that social change has
occurred.

Further such changes in the attitude and values of a person should be more or less durable, relatively
permanent and whole heartedly acceptable and practiced by a majority of the society. A social change
must continue for a considerable period. When certain social orders are out and in their place new or
alternative social orders arc in, when such changes are perceivable we say that there has been social
change.

However such acceptances of the change by a few members would not be called social change. If a few
accept the changes and majority oppose it, it gradually disappears and people will again go for the old
values and customs. Sometimes it is found than when majority people experience that the changed
social system does more harm than good, they again go back to the old social order.

Ayurvedic medicine and yoga which were used and practiced by most people during the ancient time
and were given up in between have now again become very popular and people are again taking their
help to get cured and keep oneself sound and fit.

Man being the prime motivator of social change, social change cannot be given shape without the
human being. Majority of the people ultimately have to conform the social change for its continuity and
durability.

PSYCHOLOGY: This is the scientific study of human and animal behaviours. (James.B.Waltson 1890).
Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. (Rathus,2000). According to (Okeke
2019) Psychology is the scientific study of human mind, behavourial pattern, brain and internal and
external reactions in the sensory organs.

Psychology is the study of human actions, mind, and behaviour with his or her mental stabilities and its
functions (Okeke G.C 2019).

Psychology is a scientific study of human mind and animal behaviours. Psychology is that body of
information that deals with human behaviour and experience (Coon, 2000). It deals with the study of
human behaviours both the inner reactions and the outward signs as they affect relationship with
others. It is also a branch of science that deals with the mind and mental processes

BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY Include:

Clinical Psychology
Industrial Psychology

Experimental psychology

Educational psychology

Counselling psychology

Developmental psychology

Learning psychology

Social psychology

Child psychology

Forensic psychology.

11 Military psychologies etc

CULTURE

Sir Taylor (1871) defined culture as "complex whole, which include knowledge, art, beliefs, morals and
values, customs and any capabilities or habit acquired by an individual as a member of a society.

Cox Mead [1975] refers to culture as 'a body of learned values, beliefs and behaviours expectations
which individuals derive from those with whom they interact. According to Okeke 2008, culture is the
way through which an individual or groups interact to learn and understand their behaviourial patterns,
language, values, beliefs, moral development, and rules and regulations in a given society.

Similarly, Kuckhohn [1962] stated that, culture is learned by people as a result of belonging to some
particular group, and is that part of learned behaviour which we shared with others.

Dictionary of Social Sciences defined culture as "Totality of learned behaviours transmitted from one
generation to the 'next generation by social learning".

Tos and Mead 1975 refer to culture as a body of learned values, beliefs and behaviour expectations
which individuals derive from those whom they interact with. Block horn (1962) stated that culture is
learnt by people as a result of belonging to that particular group, and is part of learned behaviour which
is shared with others. Various professions have their own culture. In nursing profession we have culture
of dedication to duty, culture of keeping the pieces of information about your patient confidentiality and
the culture of always emphasizing with your patient etc.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE:

Culture is a learned behaviour i.e. person has to learn on mastery of the ways others speak their
language, others express greetings; eating habits, how they dance, whom they want to have knowledge
of those, someone how to observe all these.

1. It includes everything that the members of society teach one another rules, values

religion, language, arts, music etc.

2. It is a continuous process.

3. It is transmitted for generation to another.

4. It is adaptive and maladaptive" means that culture assists an individual to

adjust in his or her environments.

5. It is a universal phenomenon.

6. It is a pattern of life of a people.

7. It is a learned behaviour

8. It is transmitted from one generation to another.

9. It includes everything that the members of the society teach one another e.g. rules,

values, religion, languages, arts, music etc.

The importance of language should be stressed in any culture, because it is the medium of
communication.

TYPES OF CULTURE:

There are 2 types of culture viz.

1. Material/Tangible culture

2. Non Materials/non tangible culture

Material culture: This refers to aspect of culture that can be seen, touched, smelt e. g. food, items,
books, deep stand, syringes, making tosh, bed etc.

Non material culture: This means the aspects of culture that cannot be touched or smelt e. g. sickness,
death, religion, Government etc.

RELEVANCE OF CULTURE TO NURSING AND MIDWIFERY:

The knowledge of culture in nursing and midwifery helps the nurses towards achieving effective nursing
care in numerous ways viz,

1. It helps to eliminate discriminatory tendencies in care of patients.

2. An understanding of cultural hearing in the society, provide the nurses and midwives the bases
for knowing the institution they exist or belong in family. Religion, organization, group etc. This among
things forms the starting point for providing link for the care of patients.

3. This is one of the points relevant in nursing, understanding cultural

diversity makes the nurses and midwives to respond appropriately to behavioural pattern and
perceptions of patients as are manifested in the Hospitals e.g. in some culture, patients cry while in
labour pain, where others will stand the pains by lying quietly on bed.

4. Knowledge of culture assists the nurses and midwives to know what is and not

Acceptable in a given culture. This is in terms of treatments and care been offered to patients.
Example, pork meat and alcohol are prohibited in Muslim and -Jewish community. Meat and blood
transfusion are not acceptable in some Hindus and Jehovah community.

5. Through association in nursing and midwifery, the knowledge acquired Provides the

basis for understanding interdependent relationship that exists in them hospitals which form the
bedrock for interdependent nursing care.

6. The ideas learnt from the course goes along way in encouraging the accommodation of advice
that may be offered by colleagues in relation to nursing care management of patients.
COMPONENTS OF CULTURE

Culture consists of various components which include:

1) Ideas: Ideas include our values, superstitions, myths, beliefs and even sciences.

Norms: Norms are standards of behaviour that are socially accepted or which people are expected by
others to follow. They are based on the ways of behaving that are common to practically ail members of
the society.

3) Folk ways: These are the custom that the members of a group must not necessarily attract strong
functions or reactions.

4) Morals: These are the social norms that provide the moral standards of any given society. Rules
governing morals are taken very serious and any person that violates them are seriously sanctioned.

5) Laws: Before Africa was influenced by Western civilization her societies had methods of
enforcing morals and fork ways. Kings, chiefs and elders had power to enforce them without necessarily
inviting the police to do so. Nowadays, laws are usually referred to as established rules of conduct that
are enforced by a specialized agency for law enforcement agent.

SOCIETY:

Sharing a similar culture helps to define the group or society one belong to; fairly large nos. of people
are said to make up a society where they live in the same territory and are relatively independent and
share a similar culture. A society therefore is the largest form of human group. It consists of people who
share a common heritage and culture. Members of the society cherish their culture they learn it and it is
transmitted from one generation to another. Distant culture is preserved through use, literature, video
recording etc.

The society has four main characteristics which distinguish it from other organization:

1) It is self sufficient because it does not depend on other m societies for a survival.

2) Almost all social relationships of the society members occur within the boundary of the society.

3) A society possesses authority over all decision made byJudicial system.

4) A society possesses a distinctive and unique culture which is shared by her members.

INFLUENCE OF CULTURE ON HEALTH

Influence of culture on health definitely the culture of an individual influences, his or her health. World
Health Organization (WHO) 1965 defined health as a complete state of physical, social, physiological,
mental and spiritual well being and not merely the absence disease or infirmity. Pricales over 500 years
ago defined health as a state of moral, mental and physical well being which enable a person to face
any crisis in life with out most faith and facilities. There is no definite measurement of the state of
health. Health is a relative term because individual perception of health is variable. Social class,
education, professional disposition and culture influences ones perception of health, often as
health care providers we come across people who have no insight on the degree of the illness and
individual who do not appreciate the need improve on their health status.

There are certain cultural practices that are closely related and affect our behaviour pattern. This
cultural habit contributes to human well being or illness in our society, we preserve such as occupation,
food, accommodation, hygiene, mode of dress and so on.

Food as a cultural practice:

This is merely on lack of money or any financial background but is ail about the attitude we give to the
process of preparing our food. What type of environment is it dirty or neat place, what type of plate we
use in preserving our food neat or dirty. What type of food do we eat? Is it sound food or the type that
do not go to body system? This may be applying due to poor management. This habit can be found in
African societies.
In Nigeria individuals find it difficult to eat balanced diet. A person will eat and drink garri with sugar in
the morning, after noon and night thinking because he like the best of it, that is why he or she eats
without knowing that he or she is consuming excess of carbohydrates.

This kind of food practice will lead to mal-nutrition, diabetes, and illness when getting older. While some
prefer to eat meat, milk, tea, egg, without balancing their food dirt, it will arise to having excess of
protein which will have side effect towards the psychological development of the person.

Poverty can contribute to such food habits where individuals can not feed themselves for 3 three square
meal a day. The individual keeps on managing what he or she sees to eat. Some countries that have
economic instability and low producing agriculture will create more room for such practice because the
cost of living will be very high and there will be a lot of food market completely, and poor people can not
afford to buy these food items.

While some individuals have the money but due to lack of proper guideline and lack of information on
how to manage the food habit, they keep on consuming an unbalance diet that will result to one disease
or another as he or she being a nurse within family and cultural background practices in society the
person belongs.

Some cultural norms have abandoned, neglected and rejected some vital food items which contribute to
the balanced diet and also to the growth and development of their people.

Hygiene as a cultural practice.

This is a process of maintaining good and neat environment to create a comfortable atmosphere for
human adaptation which will promote good health both physically, psychologically, mentally and
socially. (Okeke. 2008).

In the Nigerian context, there are so many cultural practices that affect our well being negatively which
may result to so many diseases and uncleanness among the children of African environment, and
cultural practice that may create injury to their health, such as uneducated parents are training their
children to eat without brushing their mouth in the morning and to go to bed without bothering about
their body, this kind of home training will occur due to lack of money to buy toothbrush and lack of
proper disposal in the environment.
But good parents will train their children to know the negative effect of not doing what is right.
Traditional based cultural practices may cause individuals not to behave or maintain cleanliness of him
or her self. Community health -based awareness training has been used to educate the people on the
need for change to moderation, of some negative culture that affects their health in general.

These enlightment training programmes are important to Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba culture, to reduce
Destiny and inherited environment or culture. This is to avoid children not to contaminate virus and
increase child immunization system in the environment-Dirty environment constitutes air pollution and
physical dangers to health.

Occupation:

Individuals in our society today change to different job service to earn their living. This may increase the
high level of resistance to injury and sickness. [Okeke. 2008] for example in Nigeria individuals that do
jobs like carpentry, house building and refuses evacuating are damaging their lives and health which will
affect the individuals psychologically and create physical disability.

House builders mostly develop physical problems and other related problem such as hyenia, wait pain
and body pain due to the nature of their job.

Road side marketers are at the risk of encountering motor accident as a result of carelessness of some
motor drivers.

Mode of dressing:

There are so many societies that have different types of dress models, Hausa dressed differently, Igbo's
dresses differently and also Yoruba dresses differently. This difference in culture some times contributes
to individual's sickness.

An individual who is suffering from asthmatics disorder but he or she wears dresses that covers with
hard cloth and finds into stuffy place may develop into the same problem of asthmatic disorder.

In the Western world, or societies, people expose the body as a fashion or mode of dressing, researchers
have proved that body exposure can be affected by cool air which will result pneumonia, and other
related illnesses.
PATHWAYS TO HEALTH:

Are all available channels that an individual can embrace for supporting his or her health? Pathway to
health is available sources of treatment in a given society. A patient has the right to choose any pathway
to health. One of the features of democracy remains the freedom of choice. As nurses we should be
non-judgmental in any pathway to health which a patient may choose.

Various pathways to health:

1) Government Health Institutions: They include the three levels of Nigerian health system which
include tertiary, secondary and primary health care. The above include government health centers,
health post, dispensaries, maternity homes, village health posts, cottage hospitals, federal medical
centres, and teaching hospitals. Note that the above can be owned by individuals, State and
Federal Governments and missions.

2) Private Medical Health Institutions: These are privately owned. They include private, clinics,
hospital, maternity homes.

3) Mission Hospitals: These are hospitals owned by the missions. Such hospitals

compliment government health services.

4) Pharmacy Shops; These are pharmacist that manufacture and distribute drugs for
public consumption.

5) Traditional Medical Practitioners; These are the Traditionalist that produces herbal mixture in
curing the patient. It is locally used.

6) Patent Medicine Vendors: These are medical news marketers that convey information

concerning health system such new drugs.

7) Secretive Churches: These are churches involves into the healing through supernatural drugs
and other ways of treatment secretly.

8) Homeopathic Health Institutions; They specialize in training health practitioners to learn

different new technology in health system.

THE INFLUENCE OF CULTURE ON ILLNESS:

This is the many ways in which culture can be perceived as people's ideologies towards cultural factors
on illness. In African context there are different kinds of belief systems in our society that influence
disease condition and behaviour patterns towards the treatment of our health problems.

There are so many traditions that perceive disease such as [leprosy] as chronic disorder. A supernatural
cause to an individual disease which has no treatment and the person can be abandoned or chased out
of the society.

A person's mental disorder and physical disorder or illness may be seen as an individual who disobeys
rules and regulations of the gods and may develop natural negative consequences.

It is said that people of a particular society that encounter illness may view it as their cultural beliefs and
socio-economic change and developments, or evil or devilish consequences that arise as an event of
circumstance to the person.

Note that some disease can be cured with socio-cultural patterns. These are malaria and poison by the
application of some traditional herbal mixtures, while some health problems cannot be treated by the
herbal drug which could be referred to clinicians to treat the individuals through the application of
modern drugs.

In Africa, people worship different gods and also offer it flesh meat as sacrifices which they believe that
there is hidden spirit in it and also believe that their health problems or diseases can be solved by such
gods by appeasing them.

Igbo, Hausa and Yoruba's believe in occultism belief and other related cultural factors that influence
illnesses.

EFFECT OF CULTURE ON ILLINESS

1) Perception of illness: The culture of any given society definitely influences how an illness is
interpreted according to the cultural pattern of the society. According to cultural beliefs, chronic
conditions like mental illness, epilepsy, hypertension etc. are better treated and managed by traditional
medical practitioners. Such conditions are often thought to be caused by evil spirits, treating them in
secretive churches are also thought to be better alternative than using western medicine! Again, acute
conditions are believed to be better managed by western practitioners.
2) Illness behaviour: As earlier stated illness is a way an individual evaluates his state of

health and decides appropriate action to take. Most people when afflicted with minor clinical conditions
seek western medical attention where as traditional medicine is sought when the clinical condition is
chronic Yoruba people of Nigeria believe that the god of small pox must be appeased if the condition is
to be averted. According to the profound influence of culture on illness, western medicine should not be
embraced all the time since it has not found cure to all the clinical.

RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND PRACTICES:

Most of us find it difficult to accept the stressful events of life. The death of a loved one, serious injury,
bankruptcy, divorce, and so forth. This is especially true when something "senseless" happens. How can
family and friends come to perceive and understand the death of a talented college student, not even
20 years old, from a terminal disease.

In some faiths, adherents can offer sacrifices or pray to a deity in the belief that such acts will change
their earthly conditions.

At a more basic level, religion encourages us to view our personal misfortunes as relatively important in
the broader perspective of human history-or even as part of an undisclosed divine purpose. Friends'
relatives of the deceased college student will ultimately benefit in a way we cannot understand now.
This perspective of us can die senselessly at any moment- and that there is no divine "answer" as lo why
one person lives a long and full life, while another dies tragically at a relatively early age.

Faith-based community organizations have taken on more and more responsibilities in the area of social
assistance. In fact, as part of an effort to cut back on government-funded welfare programmes,
government leaders have advocated shifting the socio "safety net1 to private organization in general
and to churches and religious chanties in particular. Williams Julius Wilson (1999b) has singled out faith-
based organizations in 40 communities from California to Massachusetts, as models of social reform.
These organizations identify experienced leaders, community development (K. Starr 1999). In
conclusion, religions belief in Nigeria Nursing and midwifery can be practiced looking at the Nigerian
context of its multi-cultural and multi-ethnic nature. Therefore, the practicing nurses and midwifery staff
need to bear in mind that when attending to any patient they need to take into consideration religious
belief of the patient with regard to his or her illness in order to know how to address it.
DEFINITION OF HEALTH

This is a state of human condition being psychologically, physically, mentally and economically fit. This
will enable the individual to regain and maintain his or her psychological well being. [Okeke, 2008].
Socio- psychological well -being of an individual mostly depends on his or her social values, perception
and ability to acquire self actualization. Individuals may be mentally disorganized and physically healthy.
This may be as a result of stress and psychological disorders that prevent the individual not to act as a
healthy person.

According to World Health Organization. Health has been defined as the state of complete physical,
psychological well being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Health can also be said to
be absence of sickness, disease, illness, psychological and physiological abnormality which make the
person not to discharge his or her duties effectively well.

In Filed and Peay [1980], Quote Pericles, who as far back as 500BC defined health as follows, "health is
that state of normal, mental and physical well being which enables a person to face any challenge.

DEFINITION OF ILLNESS

This is a state of an individual developing sickness, disease, physical, physiological and psychological
abnormalities which prevent him or her from working in accordance with the normal ways. [Okeke.
2008]. Illness can also be defined as disorder, emotional, abnormality, and psychological symptoms,
which reduce the immune system and affect the individual, both internally or externally not to perform
better, these symptoms require medical treatment and clinical diagnoses or traditical habits application
or counselling to readjust the person's to the environment.

Nurses should understand individual's socio-cultural background, beliefs, values and culture, when
administering treatment on health problems on the patients.

Illness Behaviours. This is the process by which an individual possesses a particular behaviour which
signifies that he or she is sick. Many people also believe that health care centre have no active
treatment drugs for curing of local diseases. Hence, at this point, in different countries of Africa,
especially, primitive people living in rural areas consult oracles and carry out some sacrifices, and rituals
to prevent and cure diseases that affect human Life. Research has shown that some Doctors, Nurses and
Psychologists, Clinicians, Psychotherapists and Social Psychologists and Counseling Psychologists, after
been, trained about Scientific methods of treatment and germ, theory of disease conditions, still believe
that the devil, witchcraft and or supernatural causes are behind our illness. Some parents who cannot
afford to buy scientific drugs or go to the hospitals to receive treatment, consult oracles to treat their
children with natural herbal mixtures that lead to other related diseases that affect an individual's
internal heath system. Different societies believe on the application of traditional medicine, associated
with the practices in treating their family members.

The dress behaviour common in our culture has developed several negative health conditions, example,
illness constitutes the major cause of reason for people to seek medical attention. It affects all ages, and
male and females are equally affected too. It has no racial boundaries and it also affects both the poor
and the rich. It is a state of physical, social, spiritual and psychological indisposition. "Parson" 1993
defines illness as a disturbance to the normal functioning of the total human individual including both
the organism, as biological system and his personal and social adjustment. Illness causes deviation from
the normal functions of an individual. As nurses, our task is to restore him or her to his optimum level of
functioning.

illness is a relative term and it is very difficult to define some individuals may claim to be sick while they
are well and vice versa. What is regarded as an illness by an individual may not be regarded as such by
another person. Diversities of culture do not help out in the definition of illness, what is seen as illness in
one culture, may not be seen as such in another culture.

CAUSES OF ILLNESS

The causation of illness is in most cases are multi-factorial in nature. In discussing this, nurse must be
familiar with the total environment of the patient and the factors that are responsible for illness
includes the following:

1 Cultural factors.

2 Physiological factors.

3 Psychological factors.

4 Economic factors,

5 Political factors.

6 Social factors.

APPROACHES IN THE DEFINITION OF ILLNESS: There are mainly two approaches in the definition of
illness and they are:
The germ theory approach: It is also called the medical or pathological approach. It views illness as being
caused by the invasion of micro-organism into the body and subsequent disturbances that follow. Germ
theory approach, seeks western scientific interpretation in the causation of illness. The search for an
etiology of illness is on going. This accounts for why the causation of certain conditions has not been
determined and as such,

normally use the word idiopathic.

Socio-cultural approach: In this model, illness is said to be caused by socio-cultural factors in the
patient's environment. This model is very popular in developing or primitive societies, thus giving rise to
the much acclaimed poison syndromes or juju in Igbo land.

ILLNESS BEHAVIOUR

Kapla and Sudlock 1991 defined illness behaviour as a person's reaction to his experience of being sick.
The individual then decides to seek for help using any of the accruable path ways to health. Edarood
Suchman describes the stages of illness behaviour as follows:

1) The system experience stage: This is a stage in which the patient or. Patient notices that his health
condition is bad and that something is wrong with him.

2) The assumption of sick role stage. This is the stage in which a decision is made that

professional care is needed.

3) The medical care contact stage: The patient is now receiving professional care,

4) Dependant patient role stage: This is a continuation of the medical care contact stage and the
patient has transferred his control to the nurse and other members of the health team and is therefore
bound to follow the clinical instruction given to him/her.

5) The recovery or rehabilitation stage: here the patient condition has improved at this stage and is
therefore discharged from the hospital to go home, and live independently.
TYPES OF ILLNESS BEHAVIOUR:

There are mainly two types of illness behaviours. When an individual evaluates his or her state of health
as being abnormal and takes prompt action to handle it, the individual is said to have positive illness
behaviour.

Playing down of system leads to indecision. Such a person is said to have negative illness behaviours.
Women and children have more positive illness behaviour than men. Women and children are therefore
the major consumers of health care services.

Factors influencing illness behaviours and various factor that influence illness behaviours include:

1 Gender

2 Age

3 Culture

4 Whether the illness is active or chronic

5 Socio economic Status

6 Educational background

7 Prevailing cost of health services

8 Availability of health services

9 Person meaning attributed to the experience of being sick

10 Psychological factors

11 Role of kinsmen

Role of kinsmen in illness:

Kinsmen are relations, and significant individuals around a patient they play major role in determining
the pathway to health which sick kinsmen will follow. Kinsmen also assist in defraying the cost of
medical bills, and also play vital role in the rehabilitation of the patient when discharged

SOCIAL PROCESS:

Social Process are those activities, actions between people. This framework element serves as a broad
placeholder for all social processes all sub categories currently emphasize the driving forces that directly
act upon an endowment.

According to Okeke Chinemelu (2019) explain that social process are those illegal and legal activities in
the society which criminals were raised in an environment that forms them to make unlawful decision
and take illegal actions, people are influenced by what they are taught and their surroundings such as
where they were raised, by their guardians and people they associated like peer group fluencies.

Social processes refer to forms of social interaction that occur repeatedly, by social processes we mean
those ways in which individuals and groups interact and establish social relationship. These are various
of forms of social interaction such as cooperation, conflict, competition and accommodation etc
according to (Madver), social process is the manner in which the relations of the members of a group
once brought together, acquire a distinctive character.

As (Ginsberg) social processes mean the various modes of interaction between individuals or group,
including cooperation and conflict. Social differentiation and integration development arrest and decay.

According to (Horton and Hunt). The term social process refers to the repetitive form of behaviors which
are commonly found in social life.

Social processes are the ways in ways in which individuals and groups interacts re-adjust and establish
relationships and pattern of behavior which are again modified through social interactions. The concept
of social process refers to some of the general and recurrent forms that social interaction may take the
interaction or mutual activity is the essence of social life individuals and groups occurs in the form of
social process. Social process refers to forms of social interaction that occur again and again.

TYPES OF SOCIAL PROCESSES

There are hundreds of social processes but we find some fundamental social processes that are found to
appear repeatedly in society these fundamental processes are:

(1) Socializations
(2) Cooperation

(3) Conflict

(4) Competition

(5) Accommodations

(6) Acculturation

(7) Assimilation etc

Loomis classified social processes into two categories;

A. The elemental

B. The comprehensive or master processes.

POPULATION DYNAMICS:

These are important key words needed to be known and elaborated. They are the population dynamics,
sociology and nursing.

The word population, according to Hornby (2000) refers to number of people who live in a particular
area, city or country. Dynamics is the study of fluctuations that occur in a number of individuals, in
animals and in plants populations, and the controlling factors maintained between those factors that are
dependent on population density and have a stabilizing effect (e.g. food supply) and those that are
independent of population density (e.g. catastrophes such as flooding).

Population dynamics is the branch of life sciences that studies the size and age composition of
populations as dynamic systems, and the biological and environmental processes driving them (such as
birth and death rates, and by immigration and emigration). Example scenarios are ageing populations,
population growth, or population decline.

Population dynamics has traditionally been the dominant branch of mathematical biology, which has a
history of more than 210 years, although more recently the scope of mathematical biology has greatly
expanded. The first principle of population dynamics is widely regarded as the exponential law of
Malthus, as modeled by the Malthusian growth model. The early period was dominated by demographic
studies such as the work of Benjamin Gompertz and Pierre François Verhulst in the early 19th century,
who refined and adjusted the Malthusian demographic model.
A more general model formulation was proposed by F.J. Richards in 1959, further expanded by Simon
Hopkins, in which the models of Gompertz, Verhulst and also Ludwig von Bertalanffy are covered as
special cases of the general formulation. The LotkaVolterra predator-prey equations are another famous
example, as well as the alternative Arditi-Ginzburg equations. The computer game SimCity and the
MMORPG Ultima Online, among others, tried to simulate some of these population dynamics.

In the past 30 years, population dynamics has been complemented by evolutionary game theory,
developed first by John Maynard Smith. Under these dynamics, evolutionary biology concepts may take
a deterministic mathematical form. Population dynamics overlap with another active area of research in
mathematical biology: mathematical epidemiology, the study of infectious disease affecting populations.
Various models of viral spread have been proposed and analyzed, and provide important results that
may be applied to health policy decisions.

Population dynamics is the branch of life sciences that studies the size and age composition of
populations as dynamical systems, and the biological and environmental processes driving them (such as
birth and death rates, and by immigration and emigration). Example scenarios are ageing populations,
population growth, or population decline.

RELEVANCE OF POPULATION DYNAMICS:

Apart from war, rapid population growth has been perhaps the dominant international social problem of
the past 30 years, often this issue is referred to in emotional terms as" the population bomb". Such
striking language is not surprising, given the staggering increase in worlds population during the last
two centuries. (Haub and Cornelius 2000)

By the middle of 1970s, demographers had observed a slight decline in the growth rate of many
developing nations. These countries were still experiencing population increase, yet their rate of
increase had declined as death rates could not go much lower and birth rate began to fall. It appears
that family planning efforts have been instrumental in this demographic change. Beginning in 1960s,
Government in certain developing nations sponsored or supported campaigns to encourage family
planning. For example, the government sponsored birth control campaigns have the effect of making
the land's total fertility rates to fall from 6.1 births per woman in 1970, to only 2.0 in 1988.