AL-AMEEN COLLEGE OF LAW

MODEL ANSWERS
INVITATION TO SOCIOLOGY
Ist SEM 5 YEARS B.A.LL.B COURSE

DURATION:- 3 hours MAX

MARKS: 80

Q. No. (a) Define and discuss the emiergence of Sociology. Marks 10

SYNOPSIS

Introduction

Definition

Emergence of Sociology

Conclusion

Introdution

Sociology is relatively a new science. As a discipline of academic

interest, it is of recent origin. Though the roots of sociological writings
go back to the Greek and the Roman philosophy; it emerged as a new
discipline only in the first half of the 19th century, as a response to the
crisis caused by the French and the industrial revolutions. Earlier,
History, Economics, Political Science, and Philosophy attempted a study
of various problems related to society. Later, when man was
confronted with complexities of social life, it became necessary to
establish a separate discipline for the study of society

Definitions of Sociology
1. Auguste Comte, “sociology is the science of social phenomena
subject to natural and invariable laws, the discovery of which is the
object of investigation”.

2. Alex inkles, “Sociology is the study of systems of social action and

their interrelations”.

1. Emile Durkheim “Sociology is the science of social institutions”.

2. Max-Weber, “sociology is the science which attempts an

interpretative understanding of social action”.

3. Morris Ginsberg, “sociology is the study of human interactions and

inter-relations their conditions and consequences”.

4. Morris Ginsberg, “sociology is the science that deals with social

groups, their internal forms or modes of organization, the processes
that tend to maintain or change these forms of organization and
relations between groups”.

5. H.P. Fairchild, “sociology is the study of the relationships between

man and his human environment”.

6. J.F. Culler, “sociology may be defined as the body of scientific

knowledge about human relationships.

Emergence of Sociology

In order to comprehend any subject, it is pertinent to look into the

socio-cultural coordinates of its genesis and growth. It is a truism that
that the history of social life and its problems is as old as human being
itself. The origin of sociology is associated with the evolution of man.
However the roots of sociological understanding go back to the ancient
Greek and Roman literature. But the systematic study of society
emerged in the West. Besides, we do find references of law, the state
and the society in Plato’s Republic (427-347 B.C) and in Aristotle’s
Ethics and politics (348- 322 B.C.). Similarly, Roman philosopher
Cicero’s book De Officiis (on justice) was a treasure of insights in
philosophy, law, polities and sociology. St.Augustine’s De civitate Dei
(345-430 A.D) deals with social concepts and questions. Later on
significant works of subsequent ages like the summa theological and de
regimineprnicipum of Thomas Aquinas (1227-1274) De Monarchia of
Dante (1265-1321) deals with social concepts and questions of their
time. In the modern periods, there appeared some writers who treated
problems of life and society on a more realistic level. No clear cut
distinction was made between state and society until the 16th century.
Machiavelli in his famous work “The prince” made an objective
discussion on state and statecraft. Another notable author of this
period was Sir Thomas Moore (1477-1535) who, in his book “Utopia”
published in 1515, dealt with day to day social problems. Scholars like
Thomas Campanella (1568-1639) in his “City of the Sun” Sir Francis
Bacon in his “New Atlantis” (1561-1628) and James Harrington in his
“The common wealth of Nations” made discussion on what real life
ought to be. Similarly, famous Italian writer Vico and French scholar
Montesquieu gives stress on scientific investigation of social
phenomenon. In his book”The New Science” Vico opined that society
was subject to definite laws which could be observed through objective
observation. Montesquieu in his famous work “The Spirit of Laws” had
analysed the role of external factors in life of human societies French
scholar Saint Simon tried to develop a new science which would study
social life like physics studies the physical world. But the origin of
sociology is attributed to the numerous developments in the 18th and
19th century especially the Industrial revolution and the French
revolution. These two epoch-making events changed the entire history
of human society. It resulted in metamorphic changes in the realm of
economy, polity, culture and religiosity of mankind. This altered reality
attracted the attention of the scholars like Saint Simon, Auguste Comte
and others. They attempted to explain this social transition thereby
envisioning their ideas on social reconstruction. Sociology owes its birth
to this intellectual endeavour. Comte is rightly called as the founder of
sociology because he coined the term and also its theme and
methodology. Study of the social institutions was special significance
for him. In his famous work “Positive Philosophy”, Comte pointed out
the need for the creation of a distinct science of society which he first
called “social physics” and later “sociology” that showed concern for
analysis and explanation of social phenomena.

Conclusion

The new science of society called Sociology emerged as an independent

science in an attempt to find convincing answer to such question why
some societies were more advanced that other? Why the rate of social
change was not the same every where? Etc.

OR

(a) Explain the functional perspective and feminist perspective.

Marks 10

SYNOPSIS
Introduction
 Funcitionalist perspective

Feminist perspective

Conclusion

Introduction

Theories in sociology provide us with different perspectives with which

to view our social world. A perspective is simply a way of looking at the
world. A theory is a set of interrelated propositions or principles
designed to answer a question or explain a particular phenomenon; it
provides us with a perspective. Sociological theories help us to explain
and predict the social world in which we live.

Sociology includes three major theoretical perspectives: the

functionalist perspective, the conflict perspective, and the symbolic
interactionist perspective (sometimes called the interactionist
perspective, or simply the micro view). Each perspective offers a variety
of explanations about the social world and human behavior

Funcitionalist perspective

The functionalist perspective is based largely on the works of Herbert

Spencer, Emile Durkheim, Talcott Parsons, and Robert Merton.
According to functionalism, society is a system of interconnected parts
that work together in harmony to maintain a state of balance and social
equilibrium for the whole. For example, each of the social institutions
contributes important functions for society: Family provides a context
for reproducing, nurturing, and socializing children; education offers a
way to transmit a society’s skills, knowledge, and culture to its youth;
politics provides a means of governing members of society; economics
provides for the production, distribution, and consumption of goods
and services; and religion provides moral guidance and an outlet for
worship of a higher power.

The functionalist perspective emphasizes the interconnectedness of

society by focusing on how each part influences and is influenced by
other parts. For example, the increase in singleparent and dual-earner
families has contributed to the number of children who are failing in
school because parents have become less available to supervise their
children’s homework. As a result of changes in technology, colleges are
offering more technical programs, and many adults are returning to
school to learn new skills that are required in the workplace. The
increasing number of women in the workforce has contributed to the
formulation of policies against sexual harassment and job
discrimination

Functionalists use the terms functional and dysfunctional to describe

the effects of social elements on society. Elements of society are
functional if they contribute to social stability and dysfunctional if they
disrupt social stability. Some aspects of society can be both functional
and dysfunctional. For example, crime is dysfunctional in that it is
associated with physical violence, loss of property, and fear. But
according to Durkheim and other functionalists, crime is also functional
for society because it leads to heightened awareness of shared moral
bonds and increased social cohesion.

Sociologists have identified two types of functions: manifest and latent

(Merton 1968). Manifest functions are consequences that are intended
and commonly recognized. Latent functions are consequences that are
unintended and often hidden. For example, the manifest function of
education is to transmit knowledge and skills to society’s youth. But
public elementary schools also serve as babysitters for employed
parents, and colleges offer a place for young adults to meet potential
mates. The baby-sitting and mate-selection functions are not the
intended or commonly recognized functions of education; hence they
are latent functions.

Feminist perspective

Feminist theory is a major branch of theory within sociology that shifts

its assumptions, analytic lens, and topical focus away from the male
viewpoint and experience and toward that of women. In doing so,
feminist theory shines a light on social problems, trends, and issues that
are otherwise overlooked or misidentified by the historically dominant
male perspective within social theory. Key areas of focus within
feminist theory include discrimination and exclusion on the basis of sex
and gender, objectification, structural and economic inequality, power
and oppression, and gender roles and stereotypes, among others.

Many people incorrectly believe that feminist theory focuses

exclusively on girls and women and that it has an inherent goal of
promoting the superiority of women over men. In reality, feminist
theory has always been about viewing the social world in a way that
illuminates the forces that create and support inequality, oppression,
and injustice, and in doing so, promotes the pursuit of equality and
justice.

That said, since the experiences and perspectives of women and girls
were historically excluded from social theory and social science, much
feminist theory has focused on their interactions and experiences
within society in order to ensure that half the world's population is not
left out of how we see and understand social forces, relations, and
problems. While most feminist theorists throughout history have been
women, today people of all genders can be found working in the
discipline.

By shifting the focus of social theory away from the perspectives and
experiences of men, feminist theorists have created social theories that
are more inclusive and creative than those which assume the social
actor to always be a man. Part of what makes feminist theory creative
and inclusive is that it often considers how systems of power and
oppression interact, which is to say it does not just focus on gendered
power and oppression, but on how it might intersect with systemic
racism, a hierarchical class system, sexuality, nationality, and
(dis)ability, among other things.

Conclusion

Sociology includes three major theoretical perspectives: the

functionalist perspective, the conflict perspective, and the symbolic
interactionist perspective (sometimes called the interactionist
perspective, or simply the micro view). Each perspective offers a variety
of explanations about the social world and human behavior.

Q. No. (b) Explain the Scope of Sociology. Marks 06

SYNOPSIS
Introduction

Scope of Sociology

Conclusion

Introduction

There is no one opinion about the scope of Sociology. V. F. Calberton

writes, “Since Sociology is so elastic a science, it is difficult to determine
just where its boundaries begin and end, where sociology becomes
social psychology and where social psychology becomes sociology, or
where economic theory becomes sociological doctrine or biological
theory becomes sociological theory, something, which is impossible to
decide.”

Scope of Sociology

The specialistic or Formalistic School

This school of thought is headed by German sociologist simmel. the

other main figures of this school are Max Weber Small" Vierkandt, Von
Wiese and Tonnies. They regard sociology as pure and independent and
confine its enquiry into certain defined aspects of human relationships.
Sociology should study only the ’forms' of social relationships but not
their contents. Social relationships such as competition, subordination,
division of labour etc. are exemplified in different spheres of social life
such as economic: political, religious, moral or artistic etc. Sociology is
to disentangle these forms of social relationships and to study them in
abstraction. Thus according to Simmel, Sociology is a specific social
science which describes, classifies, analyses and delineates the forms of
social relationships.

According to Max Weber, Sociology aims at interpreting social

behaviour. But social behaviour does not cover the whole field of
human relations. Not all human interactions are social. For example;
the collusion between two scooterists is merely a common
phenomenon but the post-collision effects may constitute social
behaviour. Thus sociology is concerned with the analysis and
classification ‘of types of social relationships.

Vierkandt maintains that sociology is concerned with the ultimate

forms of mental or psychic relationships which links men to another in
society. The actual historical societies are a matter of interest for
sociologists only as examples of particular types of relationships. He
further maintains that in dealing with culture sociology should not
‘concern itself with the actual contents of cultural evolution but it
should confine itself only to the discovery of fundamental forces of
change and persistence. It should abstain from a historical study of
concrete society.

Small Von Wieses and Tonnies together maintain that sociology has a
limited scope and it does not undertake the study of all the activities of
society.
Criticism of formalistic school .

The formalistic school has been criticised on the following grounds:

I) It has narrowed the scope of sociology ' The formalistic school
has unnecessarily restricted the field of sociotogy lo a mere
study of abstract forms. Sociology ahouid not only study the
general forms of social relationships but also their concrete
contents

(2) Sociology alone does not study social relationship Sociology

is not the only science which studies the forms of social
relatlonship. Political science, international Law and Economics
also study social relationships.

(3) Conception of pure sociology is impractical : No sociologist

has been able to construct a pure sociology. In fact no social
science can be studied in isolation from other social sciences.
These days high premium is placed on interdisciplinary
approach.
(4) Abstract forms isolated from concrete relations cannot be
studied : The distinction between the forms of social

relationship and their contents is not feasible. Actually social

forms cannot be abstracted from the contents at all, since
social forms keep on changing as the contents change. Sorokin
mentions, ”we may fill a glass with wine, water or sugar
without changing its form, but I cannot conceive of a social
institution whose form would not change when its members
change.” Thus this school of thought has extremely shrinked
the scope
of sociology.

(2) Synthetic School

organizations and the Problem of population such as its volume
and density, local distribution etc.

social Physiology refers to the branches of sociology such as

sociology of religion, of morals, of law, of economic life and Of
language. These branches deal with a set of social facts, that is
the activities related to the different social groups.

General sociology discovers the general character. of these

social facts. It concerns the philosophical part of sociology. It
fortnulates the general laws.

(2) Sorokin’s view : The subject matter of sociology includes the

study of relationship between the different aspects 0f social
phenomena; the study of relationship between social and non-
social; and the study of general features of social phenomena.

(3) Hobhouse’s view : According to Hobhouse a sociologist

should study the social field; secondly he should try to
interconnect the results discovered by different social sciences
keeping in mind the interconnections of social relations and
thirdly, he should interpret the social life as
a whole. ‘

(4) Ginsberg's view : According to Ginsberg sociology studies ’

Social Morphology, Social Control, Social Processes and Social
Pathology.

Social Morphology deals with the characteristics of population

and studies social structure, social groups and institutions.

Social control refers to the means employed in maintaining

social control such as customs, traditions, religion, conventions,
law, courts, police etc. It deals with the regulatory authorities
and agencies of society.

Social Processes studies different modes of interaction such as

cooperation, competition, conflict, accommodation,
assimilation, isolation, integration, differentiation,
development and decay etc.
 Social pathology studies social problems such as poverty,
beggary, unemployment, over-population, crime and
prostitution etc
The synthetic school endeavours to make sociology a synthesis
of the social sciences or a general science and not a pure
discipline. Durkheim, Hobhouse, Sorokin and Moris Ginsberg
have been major spokesperson of this school. (1) Durkheim’s
view :. According to Durkheim, sociology has three main
divisions, namely, (1) Social Morphology, (2) Social Physiology
and (3) General Sociology.
Social Morphology studies the geographical or territorial basis
of the life of people and its relation to the types of social

Conclusion

Thus the scope of sociology is enormous. It is a general scme but it is

also a special science. The subject matter of all the soual sciences is
society but their perspectives differentiate them. Only sociology studies
social relationship and society itself. Sociology studies all the aspects of
society such as social traditions, social processes, social morphology,
social control, social pathology and effects of extra social elements on
social relationships. Actually it is neither possible nor essential to
delimit the scope of sociology because it would be, as Sprott puts it. ”A
brave attempt to confine an enormous mass of slippery material into a
relatively simple system of pigeonholes.”

OR

(b) Explain the Nature of Sociology. Marks 06

SYNOPSIS
 Introduction

Nature of Sociology

Conclusion

Introduction

Sociology as a branch of knowledge, It has its own unique

characteristics. It is different from other Social Sciences in Certain
respect Characteristics of Sociology as enlisted by “Robert Birestedt” in
his book “The Social order” may be summarised in the following way.

Nature of Sociology

Certain respect Characteristics of Sociology as enlisted by “Robert

Birestedt” in his book “The Social order” may be summarised in the
following way.

1. Sociology an Independent Science: It is not treated and studies as "a

branch of any other Science like philosophy or political philosophy. As
an independent science it has its own subject matter, theories and
method of approach.

Sociology is a Social Science and not a physical Science: Sociology

belongs to the Social Sciences and not to physical sciences.As a Social
Science it concentrates its attention on man, his Social behavior, Social
activities and Social life. It is intimately related to other social Sciences
like anthropology. Political Science, economics and Psychology etc.,

Sociology is a categorical and not a normative Discipline:

Sociology Studies things “as it is”-and not “as it ought to be”. As a
Science, Sociology .is necessarily silent about the questions of value. It
does not make any kind of value-judgments. Its approach is neither
moral nor immoral but amoral. It is ethically neutral. It cannot decide
the directions in which Sociology ought to go.

Sociology is a pure Science and not an Applied Science: Sociology is a

pure Science, because the immediate aim of Sociology is the acquisition
of knowledge. On the contrary an applied science is interested in the
application or utilisation of that knowledge. Sociologists never
determine questions of public policy and do not recommend
legislators.(what laws should be passed or repealed. But the knowledge
acquired by a Sociologist is of great help to the administrator,
legislators, diplomats, teachers, Social workers and citizens

Sociology is relatively an abstract Science and not a concrete Science:

Sociology does not confine itself to the study of particular or concrete
instances of human events. But it Studies the abstract forms of human
events and their patterns.

For example, it does not limit itself to the Study of any particular war or
revolution. On the Contrary it deals With them in a general or abstract
manner, as Social phenomena, That is, as types of Social conflict. In a
Similar manner, it makes such generalized Studies of marriage, religion,
family, group, etc.

Sociology is a Generalising and not a particularising science: Sociology

tries to make generalisations on the basis of the study of some selected
events. For example, a Sociologist makes generalisations like the
following,
(1) Joint families are more stable than the nuclear families.

(ii) Social changes take place with greater rapidity in urban

communities than in tribal or rural communities.

7. Sociology is a General. Social Science and not a Special Social

Science: The area of inquiry of Sociology is general and not specialized.
It is concerned with human activities whether they are political
economic, religious, social, etc, in a general way

8. Finally Sociology is both an Empirical and a Rational Science

Sociology is an empirical science because, it emphasises the facts that

result from observation and experimentation. It rests on trial, or
experiment or experience It is a rational Science because it stresses

that role of reasoning and logical inferences An empiricist collects facts

Where as a rationalist co-ordinates and arranges them. All
modernscience including Sociology avail themselves of both empirical
and rational resources.

UNIT-2

Q.No. 2 Define Sociology? Explain the characteristics of society. Marks

10

SYNOPSIS
Introduction

Meaning and definition of society

Characteristics of society
 Conclusion

Introduction

The term society is the most fundamental Concept in sociology.

Sociology is established as a separate science to study human society
scientifically. Human life and society are two faces of the same coin.
Man cannot live alone. He lives every Where in groups in society.
Society has became an essential condition for all round development of
personality. Hence “Aristotle” recognized that “Man is a social animal.”
man has created his own society because of his intellectual capacity.
Sociology only deals with human society.

Meaning and definition of society

In simple term. society is very loosely used in their daily life. Thus the
expression the agricultural society, women’s society, rural society the
weaver’s society, Cooperative Society, etc, But in sociology the term
society has a specific meaning

The term ‘society’ is derived from the Latin word ‘socius’. Which means
“companionship or friendship. It refers to the social nature of man.
companionship thus means sociability.

1] Maclver and page :“Society is “the web of social relationships

2] G .D.M. Cole :“Society is a complex of organised associations and

institutions within the community.”

3] Prof F. H. Giddings :“Society is the union itself, the Organisation, the

sum of formal relations in which associating individuals are bound
together.”
Characteristics of Society

Society the Group of Groups:

People collect together to form groups. Such groups combine together

to give rise to society. Every society has family, neighbour, village, city,
labour association, religious gathering, Political Parties etc,
H.M.Johnson Has thus remarked that “society is the group of groups”.
But it is not just like a crowd. It is a system. It consists of innumerable
groups Which fulfil the various needs of the people.

Society is a web of Social Relations :

Social relation means ”The reciprocal contact between two or more

persons. Social relationships have a Wide range. For example Teacher
student, parent-children, patient-doctor, husband -wife and so on. One
individual enters in to several social relationships at the same time.
Maclver and page Point out that “society exists only Where social
beings behave towards one another in ways determined by their
recognisation of one another. Thus society is a web of social relations.

Similarity or Likeness: The principle of ‘likeness’ is essential for society.

It exists among the people have similarities with regards to their needs,
works, aims, Ideals, values and so on. These similarities inspire the
people to interact and like each other and live together. Hence mutual
intimacy, Co-operation, love and affection, Sympathy, sacrifice and
feeling of oneness among people develops. Similarly the people of
same nature and behaviour live together in society.

Differences in Society :
Likeness and differences are two faces of the same coin. Therefore we
see natural differences among people in their interest, ability, talent,
attitude, intelligence and so on. Thus we find farmers, labourers.
Teachers, soldiers, businessmen, advocates, doctors, engineers and
others working in different capacities, Maclver and page Said that
“Primary likeness and Secondary differences are the chief features of
human Society

Co-Operation and Division of Labour :

Human Society is essentially based on ‘Co-operation and division of

labour.

Due to the feeling of Co-operation people share their joys and Sorrows.
The mutual Co~operation between male and female. is essential for the
reproduction of human race and lead to the growth of culture and
civilization.

The division of labour depends on peoples interest , ability, sex, and age
etc. Due to division of labour in various fields task are performed more
efficiently. In modern society, skilled and specialised persons have
more importance. Thus co-operation and division of labour are
reciprocal.

Interdependence:

Interdependence is another characteristic of society. An individual

seeks the satisfaction of his wants and the fulfillments of his goals with
the co-operation of others. For example “Family is a primary institution
is based on interdependence of members. With the growth of
civilisation and industrialization the need of interdependence has
increased. Today not only individuals are interdependent but even
communities are also interdependent.

Social Control :

Society has its own ways and means of controlling the behaviour 0f its
members '. society has formal and informal means of social control‘
Simple society has customs folkways more, traditions, and other
informal means of social control. In modern complex society we find
law, legislation, police, Court and other formal means of social control
to regulate the behaviour of its members. Hence it is very much
essential for the stability and integrity of society.

Society is Dynamic :

Society keeps on changing forever. No society can ever remain constant

for a long period. New associations, institutions and groups may come
into being and old ones may die a natural death. Changes may take
place slowly or suddenly at a rapid pace. For example in the rural
society changes may occur at a slower pace; whereas in an urban
society changes will occur at a faster pace.

OR

(a) Define Community? Explain the elements of community. Marks 10

SYNOPSIS
Introduction

Meaning and definition

Elements of community

Conclusion
Introduction

Community is also an important concept in sociology. Community is a

geographic area having common interests and activities. It is
community is essentially an area of social living and marked by some
degree of social coherence. It includes a variety of associations and
institutions Within the range of at their economic, religious, political,
educational and other activities.

Meaning and Definitions :

Generally the term community is very loosely used Thus the

expressions like a caste community, a racial community, a religious
community, a linguistic community are used in a very limited sense. But
its sociological meaning is different and specific. The following

definitions make its sociological meaning some What clear.

1 E. S. Bagardus :“ Community is a Social Group with some degree of

“we feeling” and living in a given area”.

2. Kingsley Devis :“ Community is the smallest territorial group that can

embrace all aspects of social life

3. Lundberg :Community is a human Population living within a limited

geographic area and carry on a common interdependent life Examples
Tribe, Village, Urban, Taluk, District, State, Nation etc.

Elements of community

E.A. Bogardus Identified the following elements by community.,

Geographic area or locality and community sentiments are considered
as the essential elements of community. They are also considered as
Characteristics of community

A) Locality 0r Geographical area :

A Community is a territorial group. It always occupies some geographic

area. Locality is the physical basis of a community. Locality Means “ A
group of people became a community only when it starts to reside
permanently in a definite locality.

In Contrast With Society a community is more or less locally limited.

Living together facilitates people to develop social contacts, gives
protection, safety and security. It helps the members to promote and
fulfill their common interests. In Community physical conditions may
influence peoples social life, family, religion, belief, employment etc.

The physical factors such as fertile soil, minerals, forests, water

resources, vegetation climate etc are included in the locality. These
factors influence the lives of community members in several ways. They
have a close bearing on their economic activities in particular.

Community sentiment : “ a feeling of belongingness towards. or “ a

kind of conscious identification with the local group.”

Community sentiment makes the people share their joys and sorrows
and brings social integrity in them. Common interests, and similar life
styles awakens community sentiments in people

Elements of community sentiment :

According to Maclver and Page Community sentiments contains three

main ingredients viz a) we feeling b) role-feeling, and c) dependency
feeling”
‘We-Feeling’ :It refers of the “ sense of communion” With the group or
community. This feeling leads men to identity themselves With others
so that they are able to develop “ we”=sentiment”. ’

‘Role-Feeling’ :Each person feels that he has a role to play, a function to

fulfil in the community affairs. This feeling involves the Sub-ordination
of the individual to the community as a whole.

Dependency Feeling: Every member of the community feels that he is

dependent upon the community. This involves both the dependence
and psychological dependence.

Hence these three elements are must in community sentiment

Community sentiment essential changes in accordance with community
size. If community is smaller the community sentiment would be
stronger, If community is larger the community sentiment is diluted.

Other Characteristic of community In addition to the above elements

there are also others characteristics Which are essential to community.
They may be briefly examined here.

C) Stability or Relative Permanence;A community is not temporary

group like a crowd or a mob. It includes ‘ a permanent life in a definite
territory. As along as there is life on the earth, People continue to
reside permanently all through their life in the communities. Therefore
it is relatively stable. In exceptional case due to natural calamities like
earthquake or floods or any other reasons communities may be
destroyed.

D) Naturalness :- Communities are normally established in a natural

way. They are not deliberately created. They are not made by planned
efforts. The members of a community are the individuals who are born
in a community, As people live over a period of time in a particular
territory naturally the community feeling develops. Thus communities
are spontaneous in there origin and development. It has a natural
growth of its own.

Size of the Community:Community has no certain size. A community

may be big or small. A village is small community where as a city is a big
one. A city and a village may be included in a wider community called
the district. Hence there are communities within communities. Nation
as a big community, may include communities like,Village, towns, cities,
tribe, etc

Social Control :. Every community has its own rules and regulations to
control the relationship of its members. The nature of this regulation
depends Very much on the nature and type of the community. For
example In the rural and tribal communities informal means of
regulations such as customs, folkways, mores, beliefs, rites, and rituals
etc are enough to exercise social pressure on the behaviour of the
people, where as in the urban communities formal means of control
such as laws, legislations, police, Courts play the role of controlling the
behaviour.

A Specific Name :Every community has some particular name. whether

community is a village or a city or a tribe it has its own name and
identity. on the basis of these one community is distinguished from the
other.

Q. No. (b) Social System. Marks 06

SYNOPSIS
Introduction
 Meaning and definition

Characteristics of social system

Conclusion

Introduction

Social system

The term ‘system’ implies an orderly arrangement, an interrelationship

of parts. In the arrangement, every part has a fixed place and definite
role to play. The parts are bound by interaction. To understand the
functioning of a system, for example the human body, one has to
analyse and identify the sub-systems (e.g. circulatory, nervous,
digestive, excretionary systems etc.) and understand how these various
subsystems enter into specific relations in the fulfillment of the organic
function of the body.

Likewise, society may be viewed as a system of interrelated mutually

dependent parts which cooperate to preserve a recognisable whole and
to satisfy some purposes or goal. Social system may be described as an
arrangement of social interactions based on shared norms and values.
Individuals constitute it and each has place and function to perform
within it.

Meaning of Social System:

It is Talcott Parsons who has given the concept of ‘system’ current in

modern sociology. Social system refers to’ an orderly arrangement, an
inter relationships of parts. In the arrangement, every part has a fixed
place and definite role to play. The parts are bound by interaction.
System signifies, thus, patterned relationship among constituent parts
of a structure which is based on functional relations and which makes
these parts active and binds them into reality.

Definitions

The social system, according to Charles P. Loomis, is composed of the

patterned interaction of visual actors whose’ relation to each other are
mutually oriented through the definition of the mediation of pattern of
structured and shared symbols and expectations.

Characteristics of Social System:

1. System is connected with the plurality of Individual actors:

It means that a system or social system cannot be borne as a result of

the activity of one individual. It is the result of the activities of various
individuals. For system, or social system, interaction of several
individuals has to be there.

2. Aim and Object:

Human interactions or activities of the individual actors should not be

aimless or without object. These activities have to be according to
certain aims and objects. The expression of different social relations
borne as a result of human interaction.

3. Order and Pattern amongst various Constituent Units:

Mere coming together of various constituent units that from social

system does not necessarily create a social system. It has to be
according to a pattern, arrangement and order. The underlined unity
amongst various constituent units brings about ‘social system’.

4. Functional Relationship is the Basis of Unity:

We have already seen different constituent units have a unity in order
to form a system. This unity is based on functional relations. As a result
of functional relationships between different constituent units an
integrated whole is created and this is known as social system.

5. Physical or Environmental Aspect of Social System:

It means that every social system is connected with a definite

geographical area or place, time, society etc. In other words it means
that social system is not the same at different times, at different place
and under different circumstances. This characteristic of the social
system again point out towards its dynamic or changeable nature.

6. Linked with Cultural System:

Social system is also linked with cultural system. It means that cultural
system bring about unity amongst different members of the society on
the basis of cultures, traditions, religions etc.

7. Expressed and implied Aims and Objects:

Social system is also linked with expressed and implied aims. In other
words, it means that social system is the coming together of different
individual actors who are motivated by their aims and objectives and
their needs.

8. Characteristics of Adjustment:

Social system has the characteristic of adjustment. It is a dynamic

phenomenon which is influenced by the changes caused in the social
form. We have also seen that the social system is influenced by the
aims, objects and the needs of the society. It means that the social
system shall be relevant only if it changes itself according to the
changed objects and needs. It has been seen that change takes place in
the social system due to human needs, environment and historical
conditions and phenomena.

9. Order Pattern and Balance:

Social system has the characteristics of pattern, order and balance.

Social system is not an integrated whole but putting together of
different units. This coming together does not take place in a random
and haphazard manner. There is an order am’ balance.

It is so because different units of the society do not work as

independent units but they do not exist in a vacuum but in a socio-
cultural pattern. In the pattern different units have different functions
and roles. It means that there is a pattern and order in the social
system.

OR

(b) Social value. Marks 06

SYNOPSIS
Introduction

Meaning and definition

Functions of social value

Conclusion

Introduction

Meaning of Values:
In sociology, the meaning of value is different from meaning of value in
economics or philosophy. For example, in economics values means
price. Social values form an important part of the culture of the society.
Values account for the stability of social order. They provide the general
guidelines for social conduct. Values such as fundamental rights,
patriotism, respect for human dignity, rationality, sacrifice,
individuality, equality, democracy etc. guide our behaviour in many
ways. Values are the criteria people use in assessing their daily lives;
arrange their priorities and choosing between alternative course of
action.

G.R. Leslie, R.F. Larson, H.L. Gorman say, “Values are group conceptions
of the relative desirability of things”.

According to H.M. Johnson, “Values are general standards and may be

regarded as higher order norms”.

Young and Mack write, “Values are assumption, largely unconscious, of

what is right and important”.

Michael Haralambos says “A value is a belief that something is good

and worthwhile. It defines what is worth having and worth striving”.

According to Peter Worsley, “Values are general conceptions of “the

good”, ideas about the kind of ends that people should pursue
throughout their lives and throughout the many different activities in
which they engage”.

In simple words, values may be defined as measure of goodness or

desirability.
Values are standards of social behaviour derived from social interaction
and accepted as constituent facts of social structure. They are objects
that social conditions desire. These are culturally defined goals and
involve “sentiments and significance.” These consist of “aspirational
reference.”

Values are expected to be followed for judging and evaluating social

interaction, goals, means, ideas, feelings and the expected conduct.
Without such evaluating standard, it would be difficult to judge
individual behaviour or social action. Values aim to integrate expected
individual behaviour and social action. It tends to forestall tension and
as such have tension management role.

Relation between Norms and Values:

Norms and values have salient relation. Norms are specific, values are
not. There may be, in a particular situation, delusion of norms, but
values are commanding. Norms are rules for behaving: they say more
or less specifically what should or should not be done by particular
types of actors in given circumstances. Values are standard of
desirability that are more nearly independent of specific situations.

The same value may be a point of reference for a great many specific
norms; a particular norm may represent the simultaneous application
of several separable values. Thus, the value premise “equality” may
enter into norms for relationships between husband and wife, brother
and brother, teacher and student and so on.

On the other hand, the norm “a teacher must not show favouritism in
grading” may in particular instance involve the value of equality,
honesty, humanitarianism and several others. Values, as standards
(criteria) for establishing what should be regarded as desirable, provide
the grounds for accepting or rejecting particular norm.

Functions of Values:

1. Values provide goals or ends for the members to aim for.

2. Values provide for stabilities and uniformities in group interaction.

They hold the society together because they are shared in common.
Some sociologists argue that shared values form the basis for social
unity. Since they share the same values with others, the members of
society are likely to see others as “people like themselves”. They will
therefore, have a sense of belonging to a social group. They will feel a
part of the wider society.

3. Values bring legitimacy to the rules that govern specific activities.

The rule are accepted as rules and followed mainly because they
embody the values that most people accept. The Americans for
example, believe that the capitalist organization is the best one
because it allows people to seek success in life.

4. Values help to bring about some kind of adjustment between

different sets of rules. The people seek the same kinds of ends or goals
in different field of their life. Hence, it is possible for them to modify
the rules to help the pursuit of this end.

For example, if the Indian people cherish the value of “the principle of
equality”, then they will have to modify the rules governing the
interpersonal relationship of husband and wife; and man and woman.
As and when new activities emerge, people create rules in the light of
their beliefs about what is ‘good’ and ‘right’.
 UNIT-3

Q. No. 3 (a) Define Family? Explain the characteristics and functions.

Marks 10

SYNOPSIS
Introduction

Meaning and Definition

Characteristics of family

Functions of family

Conclusion

Introduction

The basic unit of the social structure in every society is the family The
family has been seen as a universal social institution, as ‘ inevitable part
of human society. It is built around the needs of hum beings to
regularise sexual behaviour and protect and nurture th Young ones. It
associated With such emotive issues as love, ,marriage home and child
bearing. It 1s the family that gives identity status and very name to
every individual.

Meaning and definition:

The word family is derived from a latin word ‘Famulus’, Which means a
servant. In Roman law the word denotes a group of producers and
slaves and other servants as well as members connected by common
descent or marriage “Family is an institution which consist of husband
and Wife With or Without children”. The early and classical definitions
emphasised that the fam11y as a group based on marriage. common
residence, emotional bonds, and stipulation of domestic services,
marital relations, rights and dutles of parenthood, and reciprocal
relations between parents and children Some sociologists feel that the
family is a social group characterised by common residence, economic
co-operation and reproduction.

Burges and Lock: , ‘ Famlly is a group of persons united by the ties of

marriage, blood, adoption; constituting a single Household,interacting
and intercommunicating With each other in their respective social roles
as husband, wife, father, son, daughter, brother and sister,

creating a common culture”.

Elliot and Marril: “regards family as a biological and social unit

composed of parents and children”.

MacIver and Page: “Marriage is a durable association between husband

and wife for procreation and upbringing of children and requires social
approval”.

Ogburn and Nimkoff: “It is a group united by the ties of marriage with
or Without children”.

In recent times the family is viewed in terms of certain criteria

applicable .to all societies. For instance, it is felt that the family is a
primary kinship unit, Which carries out aspects of the sexual,
reproductive, economic and educational functions. Keeping in view
these definitions, we generally picture a family as a durable association
of husband and Wife With or Without children. Thus members in family
live together, pool their resources and work together and produce
offspring. A family is also viewed as an adult male and female living
together with their offspring in a more or less permanent relationship
such as marriage Which is approved by their society.

Characteristics of family

Family is an Universal

As stated earlier, the family is the most permanent and pervasive of all
social institutions. All societies both large and small, primitive and
civilised, ancient and modern, have institutionalised the process Of
procreation of the species and the rearing of the young. It is a
permanent and universal institution and one of the constants of human
life.

Biological Basis of the Family

The institution of the family is to be explained in terms of biological

factor-the existence of two sexes and the sexual character of
intercommunicating With each other in their respective social roles as
husband, wife, father, son, daughter, brother and sister, creating a
common culture”.

Limited size.

Family is identified as a primary group. It may include parents and their

unmarried children or parents and their children. The bonds that tie
together these limited number of members With limited common
interests are the outcome of emotional factors such as love, mutual
affection and solicitude. This emotional basis of the family makes it an
ideally suitable primary social group in every society.

Common Residence and Nomenclature, fulfillment of basic needs

The family is one of the most durable of all social institutions. Each
family has a residence, an address and a name. A family can mean two
quite different things depending upon the vantage from Which we View
it. For instance, the family in which one is a child is the family of
orientation and the family in Which one is a parent is the family of
procreation. Each family thus has common habitation for its living.
Without a dwelling place, the task of child bearing and rearing cannot
be adequately met. However, family has a wider meaning than mere
household since a family can be spread out geographically sometimes
but yet emotionally, socially and legally be known as a family, For
example, a married couple may be living in two different Cities or their
children may be working somewhere else, even living in a different
country/ city, but they think of themselves as one family.

Socialization process take place in family.

Functions of family an agent of socilization

The functions, the family are divided into Primary and Secondary

primary Functions:

Reproduction and phisical protection

In order to survive, every society must replace members who die and
keep the surviors alive. The regulations of reproduction is centred in
the family as are cooking and eating and care of the sick. Once children
are born, they will be nurtured and protected within the family. It is the
family that feeds, clothes and shelters them.

Regulation of sexual behaviour

The family regulates sexual behaviour. Each member’s sexual behaviour
is influenced to some extent by what is learned in the family setting.
The sexual attitudes and patterns of behaviour in the family reflect
societal norms and regulate the sexual behaviour. The norms, on the
other hand, specify under What conditions and With What partners
sexual needs may be satisfied.

Socialisation of child and younger generation

The family carries out the responsibility of socialising each child.

Children are taught largely by their families to conform to socially
approved patterns of behavior. The family as an act of instrument of
transmission of culture, it serves the individual as an instrument of
socialisation. A family prepares its children for participation in the
larger world and acciuaints them with the larger culture. Few
sociologists considered socialization is process of internalization of
social roles.

Status transmission

Individual’s social identity is initially fixed by family membership being

born to parents of a given status. Children take on the socio-economic
class Standing of their parents and the culture of the class into which
they are born, including its value, behaviour patterns. In addition to
internalising family attitudes and beliefs. Children are treated and
defined by others as extensions of the social identity of their parents. In
short, family acts as a vehicle of culture transmission from generation
to generation.

Emotional support
The family as a primary group is an important source of affection ,
entertainment, love and interaction, caring. It is seeminglyt nature of
human beings to establish social interdependency not only to meet
physical needs, but also to gratify emotional and psychological needs
also.

With Fulfillment function

Family is the most important primary institution that gives moral and
emotional support for the members. Provider safety, Security love and
affection. Wormth and comfort It provides defence against Isolation.
Family as an health agency provides most of the help for the young, the
old and the sick. It is by and large responsible for the Healthof its
members.

Secondary Functions

Economic function .

Family an important unit of both production and consumption, but

today, modern families mainly earn incomes. Thus, their principal
function is that of the consumption of goods and services which they
purchase. Because of income the provision of economic support for
family members is a major function of the modern family.

Educational function

In the modern world child learns basic skills at formal school and
colleges. At the same time child learn its mother tongue
and Traditional skills and Talents at Home. Traditional families were
associated with vocational education because families were associated
with a particular Task.
Religious function

Family is the center for the Religious training of the children who learn
various religious virtues from their parents. Rituals, ceremonies and
worship are carried out on which made the outlook of children.

Recreational function.

family provides Recreation to its members. It may be day today

interaction among the members in several occations such ash feasting,
gathering, marriage, festivals enhances happiness.

Thus family is a school of civil virtues. The virtues of love, co-operation,

toleration, sacrifice, obedience and discipline are learnt

in the family. This is why family has been called as the cradle of civil
virtues. Family imparts the knowledge of social customer to the New
generation. It exercises Self-Control and helps in the maintenance of a
well organised society. Family plays the foremost role in the formation
of personality and occupies a key place in social organisation.

Inter-institutional linkage

Each baby is a potential participant in the group life of the society

Family’ s relationship with other institutions like religious, political,
economic, recreational and other kinds of organisations typically gives
individuals an opportunity to participate in these activities. The family,
then, not only prepares the individual to play social roles and occupy a
status in the community, but alsoprovides the Opportunities for such
activity.

OR
(a) Define marriage? Explain functions and types. Marks 10

SYNOPSIS
Introduction

Meaning and Definition

Functions of marriage

Types of marriage

Conclusion

Introduction

‘Marriage is a contract for the production and maintenance of children.’

– Malinowski

‘Marriage is a socially sanctioned union of male and female, or a

secondary institu-tion devised by society to sanction the union and
mating of male and female, for the purposes of:

(a) Establishing a household,

(b) Entering into sex relations,

(c) Procreating, and

(d) Providing care to offspring.’

– Majumdar

‘Marriage is a socially sanctioned sex relationship involving two or more

people of the opposite sex, whose relationship is expected to endure
beyond the time required for gestation and birth of children.’
- Duncan Mitchell

‘Marriage is the approved social pattern whereby two or more people

establish a family’

– Horton and Hunt

‘Marriage is the sanctioning, by society, of a durable bond between one

or more males and one or more females, established to permit sexual
intercourse for the implied purpose of parenthood.’

– Anderson and Parker

‘Marriage is the public joining together, under socially specified

regulation of a man and woman as husband and wife’.

– Alfred McClung Lee

Functions Of Marriage

1. Marriage regulates sexual behavior.

Marriage helps cultural groups to have a measure of control over

population growth by providing proscribed rules about when it is
appropriate to have children. Regulating sexual behavior helps to
reduce sexual competition and negative effects associate with sexual
competition. This does not mean that there are no socially approved
sexual unions that take place outside of marriage. Early anthropological
studies documented that the Toda living in the Nilgiri Mountains of
Southern India allowed married women to have intercourse with male
priests with the husband’s approval. In the Philippines, the Kalinda
institutionalized mistresses. If a man’s wife was unable to have
children, he could take a mistress in order to have children. Usally his
wife would help him choose a mistress.

2. Marriage fulfills the economic needs of marriage partners.

Marriage provides the framework within which people’s needs are met:
shelter, food, clothing, safety, etc. Through the institution of marriage,
people know for whom they are economically and socially responsible.

3. Marriage perpetuates kinship groups.

This is related to the previous function, but instead of simply knowing

who is with whom economically and socially, marriage in a legitimate
sense lets people know about inheritance.

4. Marriage provides institution for the care and enculturation of

children.

Within the umbrella of the marriage, children begin to learn their

gender roles and other cultural norms. Marriage lets everyone know
who is responsible for children. It legitimizes children by socially
establishing their birthrights.

Types of Marriages:

In every society, different types of marriages exist. Marriage as an

institution has evolved from a state of complete promiscuity, where no
known forms of marriage existed to the earliest forms of cohabitation.
It followed by group marriage to the systems of having more than one
spouse or polygamy, and lastly, to the more modern marriage,
monogamy.

Monogamy:
Monogamy is a form of marriage where only one spouse exists—one
husband and one wife. As a form of marriage, monogamy is found in
almost all countries across the world and is also the most accepted
form of marriage. Many sociologists consider it the most enduring (long
lasting) form of marriage, which ensures that children get maximum
attention and care by the parents. Even aged parents are better looked
after under this system of marriage.

Polygamy:

Polygamy refers to a form of marriage, where there are more than one
spouse, i.e., either more than one husband or more than one wife.
Polygamy is divided into two types: polygyny and polyandry.

Polygyny When a man marries more than one woman, it is polygyny.

Polygyny is of two types:

1. Non-Sororal Polygyny:

When a man marries more than one woman, who are not related it is
called nonsororal polygyny.

2. Sororal Polygyny:

Sororal polygyny comes into existence when a man marries more than
one woman, who are sisters.

Polyandry:

Polyandry is a type of marriage in which one woman marries more than

one man. It is a system where there is one wife but many husbands:
This type of marriage exists among some primitive tribes (Todas of
Malabar Hills) and in countries such as Tibet.
Polyandry is further divided into two categories:

1. Non-Fraternal Polyandry:

Non-fraternal polyandry takes place when one woman marries more

than one man, who are in no way related to each other.

2. Fraternal Polyandry:

Fraternal polyandry takes place when one woman mar-ries more than
one man, related by blood, like brothers. A number of causes have
been attributed to the existence of polyandry. One of the main reasons
is the negative female sex ratio and lesser number of females in
compari-son to males.

The prevalence of the custom of bride price, which is present in a

number of primitive tribal communities, also leads to polyandry,
especially when the bride price is high and men are unable to

afford it. This system is also seen where joint families exist and several
brothers marry the same woman.

Q. No.(b) Functions of Religion. Marks 06

SYNOPSIS
Introduction

Functions of property

Conclusion

Introduction

Religion is an individual as well as group phenomenon. It consists of a

body of beliefs, a set of practices, a range of moral prescriptions, covers
the entire spear of human life from birth to death. It helps in Spelling
out the goals of life and for their relisation, exercise powerful influence
on the'processes of socialisation and social control. the sociology of
religion studies the social contexts of religion; and the role of religion in
shaping and reshaping the social order

. Functions of ReIigion

Religion is an almost universal institution in human society. It is a part

of society, interwoven With all other aspects of human life. It is obvious
that religion has an important role in society, it performs a number of
important functions. These functions can be broadly categorised under
three headings: Social solidarity, Social control and Social change.

1. Social Solidarity:

Emile Durkheim, defines religion as “a unified system of beliefs and

practice related to sacred things”, A thing is sacred not because of a
peculiar quality inherent in the thing itself. What makes. a thing sacred
is an attitude filled with emotion and sentiment a feeling that certain
things are above and ,apart from the ordinary matters of everyday life
(the profane).

By defining the values and moral beliefs as sacred, religion provides

them with greater power to direct human action. Social obligations are
transformed into religious duties. In worshipping society men recognise
the importance of the group, their dependence upon it. By
subordinating individual private ends, religion acts as a unifying force. It
creates, reinforces and maintains social solidarity.

Collective worship as a means of reinforcing social solidarity in a social

group. In collective ceremonials, the members of a group express their
faith in common values and-beliefs, a sense of group solidarity is
affirmed and frightened. By uttering the same cry, pronouncing the
same word, or performing the same gesture, we inform one another
that we are united in a shared state of mind. Contributes to binding the
members of a group together.

Malinowski argues that religion promotes social solidarity by dealing

With situations of emotional stress such as birth, puberty, death,
accidents and natural disaster which threaten social cohension. In all
societies such ‘‘crises of life” are surrounded With religious rituals
which are important for the maintenance of the social system.

Religious beliefs provide the ultimate justification for the values of

social system. It provides support for social standards, socially accepted
behaviour. Thus the doctrines of Karma and Dharma in Hinduism. The
Christian soeiety maintains the tradition like Christmas, baptism and
monogamous marriage, and tries to encourage conformity to society’s
norms. The Ten Commandments in Judaism and Christianity are
religious duties-but some of these are also moral.

Religion is the source of rewards for good conduct and punishment for
bad conduct. In these ways religion plays an important part in
Crystallizing, symbolizing, justifying group ends and group values and
norms and promote social solidarity.

Social Control :

(a) It acts as an agent of social control by providing rewards for good

conduct and punishment for bad.

(b) Every religion interprets misfortunes and sufferings in this Worlq as

manifestations of the supernatural order itself; it ‘Sanctifies not only
certain basic elements of the social order, but sometimes the social
order itself. It preaches submission to the existing Social conditions and
to fate

(C) Marx saw religion as an illusion, a myth, a hallucinatory drug

attempting to justify existing arrangement in society and encouraging
people to accept them. '

(d) The pooor are thus encouraged to refrain pursuit of personal

happiness and rewards in this life for some future reward in heaven and
discouraged -to resist oppression, exploitation and injustice. '

III. Social Change :

(a) Religion can also contribute to social change. In a classic study Max
Weber analysed the effect on western Societies of Calvinism a farm of
Protestantism. He linked the Calvinist belief in ‘predestination’ with the
development of the protestant “work ethic” and the growth of
capitalism protestant ethic saw hard work as a virtue and moral duty.
Weber argued that this ethic had a major influence on the growth of
the new social order, capitalism. Calvinist virtue were also capitalist
virtues.

(b) The religious reform movements associated with the National

Awakening in India in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth
centuries were an important impetus to some changes in the age old
social and cultural fabric. In the United States black churches have
made a significant contribution to the civil rights movements of 1950s
and 1960s.

(c ) Religion provides moral prescription.

OR

(b) Nature of property. Marks 06

SYNOPSIS
Introduction

Meaning and Definition of property

Nature of Property

Conclusion

Introduction

Property is fundamental to economic life. It is a very important

institution in the economy of the society. Since the dawn of history this
institution has been accepted and recognised though in varied forms.
Phibrick writes that “the concept of property never has been, is not,
and never can be of definite content”. Yet attempts have been made to
explain the concept of property.

The word property is used in difference senses. According to some

sociologists it includes goods or things owned by individual or group of
individuals. According to Anderson and Parker, “Property consists of
goods and services that society gives an individual or group of
individuals the exclusive right to possess use and dispose of it”. This
right of goods and services is expressed in the value system of the
society. Property is something that is scarce and which one owns. It
involves possession and ownership of things owned. It is regulated by
the norms and customs of the society.
Other sociologists say that, property refers to rights. Davis writes,
“Property consists of rights and duties of one person or group as
against all other persons and groups with respect to some scarce
goods”. Maclver says, “Property is not wealth or possessions, but right
to control, to exploit, to use or to enjoy wealth or possessions which
may be owned by an individual or a number of individuals who belong
to the same social group or kin or clan.

Property, as Hobhouse’s says, “is to be conceived in terms of the

control of man over things”, a control which is recognised by society,
more or less permanent and exclusive. The essential point in the notion
of property, as says Ginsberg, is that there is recognised right of control
over things vested in a particular person-Dr persons – a right which,
within certain limits, is free from the interference of others.

Sociologist like H.M. Johnson says, “The terms property in popular

speech often refers to things themselves as well as to property rights”.
Hence, according to him property refers to both things and rights. He
further states, “Since the assertion of rights always implies the
possibility of denial or abrogation, the objects of property rights are
scarce and valuable as a matter of definition, for there would be no
point in denying or abrogating ‘rights’ in things that are either as free as
air or as worthless as a bad reputation”.

“Scarce valuable things, as we have seen, may be either tangible or

intangible. Among the tangible objects of property rights are land,
mines, houses and other buildings, roads, waterways, furniture, tools,
clothes, conveyances of all kinds, jewels and raw material. Among the
intangible objects of property rights are names, trademarks, good will
(of a company), jobs, access to markets and intellectual and artistic
products such as books, symphonic and technical process”.

Nature of Property Rights:

Property rights have certain characteristics which are not possessed by

other kinds of rights and duties.

1. Property Rights are Transferable:

Property can be transferred by its owner by way of sale, exchange or

gift. It can be transmitted from one generation to the next. “In any
.event the conception of property always implies that except on some
taboo on sale or transmission it could be transferred”, say Davis. In this
sense a person’s right in his wife or his skill are not property rights, for
they are not transferable.

2. Property Rights involves a Distinction between Ownership and

Possession of a Thing:

There is distinction between ownership and possession of thing. A

person a may own a thing but he may not actually use and enjoy it.
Another person may steal it to use and enjoy, borrow with the owner’s
consent. A person may own a building, but it may be in the possession
of another person (tenant) at a cost.

3. Power Aspect:

The third characteristic of property is its power aspect. As a social

institution, property gives power, not only over things, but through
things also over persons. The possession of property implies the
possession of power over others. It has been an instrument whereby
those who own it can control the life and labour of those who do not
own it. In a capitalist society, for example, the owners of capital have
control over the life arid labour of those who do not own it.

4. Property is usually Non-human:

This means that the object of property has no rights of its own but is
simply the passive object of such rights. The land has no right of its
own; it only serves the land owner. It is the owner’s will, his discretion
and advantage that are served by the object. Human beings cannot be
the object of property. For example, a woman cannot be the object of
property of her husband. Property rights apply only to those things
which have no rights of their own.

Conclusion

Property consists of goods and services that society gives an individual

or group of individuals the exclusive right to possess use and dispose of
it”. This right of goods and services is expressed in the value system of
the society. Property is something that is scarce and which one owns. It
involves possession and ownership of things owned. It is regulated by
the norms and customs of the society.

UNIT-4

Q. No. 4 (a) What is Deviance? Explain the factors facilitating

deviance. Marks 10

SYNOPSIS
Introduction

What is Deviance

Factors facilitating Deviance

 Conclusion

Introduction

In sociology, deviance describes an action or behavior that violates

social norms, including a formally enacted rule (e.g., crime), as well as
informal violations of social norms (e.g., rejecting folkways and mores).
Deviance is a behavioural disposition that is not in conformity with an
institutionalized set-up or code of conduct. Although deviance may
have a negative connotation, the violation of social norms is not always
a negative action; positive deviation exists in some situations. Although
a norm is violated, a behavior can still be classified as positive or
acceptable.

What is deviance?

Social deviance refers to the non-conformity to or violating of the

norms of the group. The violation of norms is not evenly spread in a
population. In the same way, all the norms are not violated. What we
normally observe in society is that some particular norm is violated or
some particular persons violate a given norm, or both.

H.M. Johnson had listed a few factors that facilitate deviance among
which the following may be noted:

1. Faulty socialisation:

Socialisation is the process by which the individual learns to conform to

the norms of the group. When he fails to conform to the norms
systematically he becomes a social deviant. Socialising agents often fail
to inculcate in the new born person the strong morals.
Some-times socialising agents themselves may directly or indirectly,
overtly or covertly, consciously or half-consciously encourage such
deviant behaviour of the new members. Parsons has pointed out that
deviance proneness is more potential in the lower classes mainly
because of failure in socialisation.

2. Weak Sanctions:

Sanctions refer to the rewards or punishments used to establish social

control or to enforce norms in a society. If the positive sanctions
(rewards) for conformity and the negative sanctions (punishments) for
deviance are weak, the individual may simply neglect them.

3. Poor Enforcement:

Even though the sanctions are stronger they are often not enforced
effectively due to the too small enforcement staff. Because of this the
validity of the norm is weak-ened. For example, it is not possible for a
handful of traffic police staff to enforce traffic rules on all vehicle riders.
The result is, many ignore and some even openly violate traffic rules.

4. Ease of Rationalisation:

The violators of norms try to soothe or satisfy their conscience by

inventing some plausible rationalisations. Such people have
constructed an intricate system of ‘ego defense’ which they use to
brush aside the reactions and comments of other people.

“They are pick­ing on me; I could not help myself; I did not do it for
myself; They asked for it; It is a deal; It is all a matter of luck”—These
expressions or slogans reflect the attitudes of such violators.

Example:
Police constables may rationalise their regular habit of taking (‘mamul’)
bribes by saying that they are paid very low salary. Jobs are often
secured with bribes under the pretext of inevitability. During the

Second World War some women offered themselves as bedmates to

the soldiers with the belief that the young men going off to war and
possibly to death deserved the comfort of sexual relations.

5. Unjust or Corrupt Enforcement:

People may lose respect for law and norms when they have no faith in
law enforcement agency or authority. It is known that police corruption
and illegal violence damage very much respect for the law in the areas
affected by such practices.

It is also observed that in some instances police maintain ‘informal

relations’ or secret understandings with the violators. As a result, such
relations condone the activities which the police are supposed to
suppress.

6. Ambivalence of the Agents of Social Control:

Ambivalence refers to the co-existence in one person of opposing

emotional attitudes towards the same object. For example, a person
may consider woman not only as an object of respect, but also as an
object of love, particularly of sexual love.

A doctor with such ambivalent attitude may inflict sexual crime on

young and beautiful female patients. Policemen, teachers, parents,
business superiors, all may have such complex personalities with
unconscious deviant tendencies. These tendencies may lead them
unconsciously to encourage certain kinds of deviation rather than to
counteract it.

7. Sub-cultural Support of Deviance:

Different groups have different ideas of permissible behaviour. The

range of acts that would be approved by the working class people
differs from that which would be approved by the middle class people.
What is non-conforming in the outside world becomes conforming in
the group.

For example, the frustrated children of the working class flock together
in little gangs. The subculture of this gang may emphasise malice and
negativism. The gang may even reward delinquent behaviour for it
represents an attack on the values of the respectable middle class.

8. Sentiments of Loyalty to Deviant Groups:

When once a person is involved in a deviant group he is obliged to co-

operate with other members. He will find it difficult to ‘betray’ his co-
members and suffer their disapproval and rejection. He is forced to
approve of the behaviour even if he no longer believes in their
activities. As Parsons has remarked, deviant groups deal harshly with
disloyal members. Because, such members not only pose a threat of
exposure to enforcement agen-cies but also a threat to the stability of
the group. The defection of one member may tempt other members to
go away from the group. Defection destroys the very solidarity that
made the deviant group strong and satisfying in the beginning.

9. Indefinite Range of Norms:

Some norms relating to some values are not probably speci-fied. For
example, the scope of patriotism and freedom (political values) is not
clearly defined. Hence, some even defend their deviant behaviour in
the name of patriotism and freedom. Thus, one may use harsh
language against another in the name of freedom.

10. Secrecy of Violations:

Some susceptible persons are more prone to commit deviant acts if

they are assured that such acts are not going to be made public. For
example, sex crimes and illegal abortions very often take place because
of the confidence on the part of the actors that their behaviour would
remain secret.

Conclusion

Social deviance is the non-conformity to or violating of the norms of

the group. The violation of norms is not evenly spread in a population.
In the same way, all the norms are not violated. What we normally
observe in society is that some particular norm is violated or some
particular persons violate a given norm, or both.

OR

(a) What is social control? Explain the formal agencies of social

control.

Marks 10

SYNOPSIS
Introduction

What is social control

 Formal agencies of social change

Conclusion

Introduction

Generally speaking, social control is nothing but control of the society

over individuals. In order to maintain the organisation and the order of
the society, man has to be kept under some sort of control. This control
is necessary in order to have desired behaviour from the individual and
enable him to develop social qualities.

What is social control

Social control is the term sociologists apply to those mechanisms by

which any society maintains a normative social system. It refers to all
the ways and means by which society enforces conformity to its norms.
The individual internalises social norms and these become part of his
personality. In the process of socialisation the growing child learns the
values of his own groups as well as of the larger society and the ways of
doing and thinking that are deemed to be right and proper.

Formal Means/Agencies of social Control

Among the formal means of social control the important ones are law,
education, police and military

Law:

Law is the most important formal means of social control. Early

societies depended upon informal means of social control but when
societies grew in size and complexity they were compelled to formulate
rules and regulations which define the required types of behaviour and
specify the penalties to be imposed upon those who violate them. Law
is a body of rules enacted by legally authorised bodies and enforced by
authorized agencies.

It defines clearly rights, duties as well as the punishments for their

violation. The modern societies are large in size. Their structure is
complex consisting of a number of groups, organisations, institutions
and vested interests. Informal means of social control are no longer
sufficient to maintain social order and harmony. Perforce modern
societies had to resort to formal means of social control.

In modern society relationships are of a secondary nature. Security of

life and property, as well as the systematic ordering of relationships
make formalization of rules necessary. Law prescribes uniform norms
and penalties throughout a social system. The body of law in every
state is being increased. What was in mores and customs earlier has
now been formalized into a body of law.

The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 has laid down the rules regulating the
marriage among Hindus. It has recognised the right of a Hindu woman
to divorce her husband. A number of laws have been enacted governing
food handling, fire protection, sewage disposal, traffic, sex regulation,
entertainment and education etc. Law prohibits certain actions, for
example, Anti-untouchability Act prohibits untouchability in any form
and a person practising untouchability is liable to punishment.

Prohibition Act forbids drinking at public places. Smoking in cinema

halls is prohibited under law. A uniform civil code if and when enacted
may remove the social barriers in the Indian society. In this way, law
exercises a powerful influence upon the behaviour of people in modern
societies. Today law takes an ever larger part in total social control.
Education:

Along with law, the importance of education as a means of social

control is being growingly realized. Education is a process of
socialization. It prepares the child for social living. It reforms the
attitudes wrongly formed by the children already. Thus, a family may
make the child superstitious education will correct his beliefs and
remove his prejudices.

It teaches him value of discipline, social cooperation, tolerance and

sacrifice. It instills in him the qualities of honesty, fair play and a sense
of right and wrong. The importance of education for creating right
social attitudes among the youth cannot be minimised. It is sad to note
that education in India has miserably failed to create right social
attitudes among the youth of the country and act as an effective means
of social control.

Force:

Physical force or coercion is an important means of social control. It is

ancient as society itself. It is essential for social progress. Even these
days some societies resort to it against the deviants or those who
disobey social norms. Every state has its own armed forces or police
force. It is an effective weapon to prevent people from indulging in
anti-social activities. It also makes people, obey social order. The state
carries out its functions by means of law, which is ultimately backed by
physical force. As an important agency of social, control the state
exercises its force over its people through various means such as the
government law, administration, the armed forces, the police and the
like.
Conclusion

Social control is necessary for an orderly social life. The society has to
regulate and pattern individual behaviour to maintain normative social
order. Without social control the organisation of the society is about to
get disturbed. If the individual is effectively socialised, he confirms to
the accepted ways from force of habit as well as from his desire of
being accepted and approved by other persons.

Q.No (b) Norms. Marks 06

SYNOPSIS
Introduction

Meaning and Defination

Characteristics social norms

Functions of social norms

Conclusion

Introduction

Conflict is’ normal in a group, but order and conformity is essential for
group life. There is, therefore, need to regulate individual and group
behaviour in the interest of social order. The emphasis, therefore, is on
the normal, usual and the accepted course of conduct which is
determined by social mechanism. It, in a way, internalizes social
discipline. Norms and values have an important role in it. These, of the
several elements that constitute the social structure, are significant.

Meaning of Norms:
Social norm refers to group group-shared standards of behaviour. The
norms are based on social values. Norms are social rules which define
correct and acceptable behaviour in a society or a group to which
people are expected to confirm. They prescribe the way the people
should behave in particular situations.

They determine, guide, control and also predict human behaviour.

Norms, in short, are a bundle of do’s and dont’s; they are rules of
behaviour in particular situations. For example, in all societies, there
are norms which define acceptable male and female dress. There are
norms about driving. Norms exist in all areas of social life.

Social are “general precepts, which being internallied or, accepted by

individuals, induce conformity in simple actions or in complex ethical
judgements, thus increasing group unity.” It is used to describe the
common standards or ideas which guide members’ response in all
established groups. When it is said that a particular action is in
accordance with norms, the intention is to say that it conforms to
community expectations of behaviour.

Broom and Selznick describe norms as, “blueprint for behaviour, setting
limit within which individual may seek alternate ways to achieve their
goals”.

According to Young and Mack, ‘norms’ refer to the “group-shared

expectations”.

H.M. Johnson writes, “A norm is an abstract pattern held in the mind

that sets certain limits for behaviour”.

Donald Light Jr. and Suzanne say, Norms refer to “the rules that guide
behviour in everyday situations and are derived from the value”.
As Robert Bierstedt has pointed out, “A norm is a rule or standard that
governs our conduct in the social situations in which we participate.”
He further writes that a norm can be treated as “a cultural specification
that guides our conduct in society”.

Norms are rooted in institutions. They provide the standard of

behaviour and are regulatory in character. The choice of individual for
striving towards the cultural goal is regulated and guided by norms.
These provide the guideline for action. Norms give cohesion to society.
They influence attitude of individuals to understanding and unity.

Conformity to norm is qualified by socially defined situation. Degree of

conformity may vary, but the norms, unlike the ideal, are never far
from actual behaviour. Violator of norm may invite loss of prestige,
social ridicule or even a more severe punishment. Norms are mainly
informally enforced. Certain norms are, however, formalized by
translation into laws. A social norm operative in one social system is not
equally operative in the other.

The characteristics of social norms:

The characteristics of social norms are discussed as under:

1. Social norms are universal:

These are found in all societies. Social norms are the basis of social
order. No society can function smoothly without norms.

2. Norms incorporate value-judgement:

A norm is a standard shared by the group members. These represent

“standardizedgeneralization” concerning expected modes of behaviour.
As standardizedgeneralizations, they are concepts which have been
evaluated by the group and they incorporate value-judgement. In terms
of value we judge whether some action is right or wrong, good or bad,
expected or unexpected.

3. Norms are relative:

Norms vary from society to society. Sometimes, norms vary from group
to group within same society. Some norms do not govern the behaviour
of all the people. Norms applicable to older people are not applicable
to children. Similarly, norms applicable to policemen are different from
those of teachers.

4. All norms are not equally important:

Norms are enforced by sanctions, i.e. reward and punishment. But all
norms are not equally strict and they do not carry the same kind of
punishment because they differ in importance. The most important
norms in society are called ‘mores’ and those who violate them are
severely punished. Other norms, called ‘folkways’ and punishments for
violating them are much less severe.

5. Norms are internalized by the individuals:

Norms become part of personality through the process of socialization.

Individuals internalize the norms of the society. Individuals generally
behave in accordance with the social norms.

Functions / Importance of Norms:

Functions or importance of social norms are discussed below:

1. Norm less Society is Impossibility:

Norms are important part of society. Norms and Society go together.
Man depends upon society for his existence. Norms make living
together in society possible. Without normative order society is not
possible.

2. Norms Regulate and Guide Behaviour:

Norms are controls. It is through them that society regulates behaviour

of its members in such ways that they perform activities fulfilling
societal needs.

3. Norms maintain Social Order:

Norms are part of social order. They are controls. The social order is
maintained by norms. That is why it is said that human social order is a
normative order.

4. Norms Gives Cohesion to Society:

Society achieves coherent structure through the norms. The collective

and cooperative life of people is made possible because of norms. The
normative system gives to society an internal cohesion.

5. Norms Helps to have Self-control:

Norms helps individuals to have self-control. Because of the constraints

imposed by norms individuals conform to the norms and exercise
discipline by themselves over their behaviour.

OR

(b) Folkways and Public opinion. Marks 06

SYNOPSIS
Introduction
 Informal agencies of social change

Folkways

Public opinion

Conclusion

Introduction

Some sociologists have classified the social control into informal means
and Formal means

Sympathy, sociability, resentment, the sense of justice, public opinion,

folkways and mores are some of the informal means of social control.
They are very powerful in primary social groups where interaction is on
a personal basis.

Folkways:

Folkways are the recognized modes of behaviour which arise

automatically within a group. They are the behaviour patterns of
everyday life which arise spontaneously and unconsciously in a group.
They are in general the habits of the individuals and are common to a
group. They are socially approved. They have some degree of
traditional sanction. It is not easy for the members of a group to violate
the folkways.

They are the foundation of group culture. If an individual does not

follow them he may be socially boycotted by his group. A particular
dress must be worn at a particular function. The Brahmins shall not
take meat. The Jains should not take curd. The Hindu women should
not smoke. Since folkways become a matter of habit, therefore, these
are followed unconsciously and exercise powerful influence over man’s
behaviour in society.

Public Opinion:

The influence of public opinion as a means of social control is greater in

simple societies. In a village the people are known to one another
personally. It is difficult for a villager to act contrary to the public
opinion of the village. Public opinion greatly influences our actions. For
fear of public ridicule and criticism we do not indulge in immoral or
anti-social activities.

Every individual wants to win public praise and avoid public ridicule or
criticism. The desire for recognition is a natural desire. We want to
count for something in the eyes of our fellowmen. Human praise is the
sweetest music. The greatest efforts of the human race are made to
win public recognition or at least to avoid public ridicule. Thus, public
opinion is one of the strongest forces influencing the behaviour of
people.

UNIT-5

Q. No. 5 (a) What is social change? Explain the cycilcal theory of social
change.

Marks 10

SYNOPSIS
Introduction

What is social change

Cyclical theory of social change

 Conclusion

Introduction

Change is law of nature, every thing in this universe changes. Change

Cannot be stopped. Change may be slow or fast, but it happens
Continuously. All organic and non organic factors change. Change in
non organic cannot be noticed easily, but it is also changing. We notice
change in organic beings earlier and easily.

What is social change

According to the'Oxford dictionary change means “to make or become

different, or to move from one system or situation to another”.
Similarly we observe change in society also. Such change in society and
its aspects are now discussed as social change. Darwin Explains that in
evolutionary process monkey changed itself as Human. Similarly the
human life has changed, since from long many years. Such changes
have been occurring in man’s life and environment. Change in human
life is understood as social change. All the relationships, nature of
relationships have been put to change. Family system, marriage system,
religion, undergone change, culture and civilisation too changes. August
Comte studied society with reference two main aspects. One is social
statics, which denotes constant aspects of society. Another is social
dynamic, means the change in society.

Cyclical change is a variation on unilinear theory which was developed

by Oswald Spengler (Decline of the West, 1918) and Arnold J. Toynbee
(A Study of History, 1956). They argued that societies and civilisations
change according to cycles of rise, decline and fall just as individual
persons are born, mature, grow old, and die. According to German
thinker Spengler, every society has a predetermined life cycle—birth,
growth, maturity and decline. Society, after passing through all these
stages of life cycle, returns to the original stage and thus the cycle
begins again.

On the basis of his analysis of Egyptian, Greek Roman and many other
civilisations, he concluded that the Western civilisation is now on its
decline. The world renowned British historian Toyanbee has also
upheld this theory. He has studied the history of various civilisations
and has found that every civilisation has its rise, development and fall
such as the civilisation of Egypt. They have all come and gone,
repeating a recurrent cycle of birth, growth, breakdown and decay. He
propounded the theory of “challenge and response” which means that
those who can cope with a changing environment survive and those
who cannot die.

Thus, a society can grow and survive if it can constructively respond to

the challenges. Cyclical theory of change or sometimes called ‘rise and
fair theory presumes that social phenomena of whatever sort recur
again and again, exactly as they were before in a cyclical fashion.
A variant of cyclical process is the theory of a well-known American
sociologist P.A. Sorokin (Social and Cultural Dynamics, 1941), which is
known as ‘pendular theory of social change’. He considers the course of
history to be continuous, though irregular, fluctuating between two
basic kinds of cultures: the ‘sensate’ and the ‘ideational’ through the
‘idealistic’. According to him, culture oscillates like the pendulum of a
clock between two points.

The pendulum of a clock swings with the passage of time, but

ultimately it comes to its original position and re-proceeds to its
previous journey. Thus, it is just like a cyclical process but oscillating in
character. A sensate culture is one that appeals to the senses and
sensual desires.

It is hedonistic in its ethics and stresses science and empiricism. On the

other hand, the ideational culture is one in which expressions of art,
literature, religion and ethics do not appeal to the senses but to the
mind or the spirit. It is more abstract and symbolic than the sensate
culture.

The pendulum of culture swings from sensate pole and leads towards
the ideational pole through the middle pole called ‘idealistic’ culture,
which is a mixed form of sensate and ideational cultures—a somewhat
stable mixture of faith, reason, and senses as the source of truth.
Sorokin places contemporary European and American cultures in the
last stage of disintegration of sensate culture, and argues that only way
out of our ‘crisis’ is a new synthesis of faith and sensation. There is no
other possibility.

In Sorokin’s analysis of cultures, we find the seeds of both the

theories—cyclical and linear change. In his view, culture may proceed in
a given direction for a time and thus appear to conform to a linear
formula. But, eventually, as a result of forces that are inherent in the
culture itself, there will be shift of direction and a new period of
development will be ushered in. This new trend may be linear, perhaps
it is oscillating or it may conform to some particular type of curve.

Vilfredo Pareto’s (1963) theory of ‘Circulation of Elites’ is also

essentially of this variety. According to this theory, major social change
in society occurs when one elite replaces another, a process Pareto
calls it ‘circulation of elites’. All elites tend to become decadent in the
course of time. They ‘decay in quality’ and lose their ‘vigour’. According
to Marx, history ultimately leads to and ends with the communist
Utopia, whereas history to Pareto is a never-ending circulation of elites.
He said that societies pass through the periods of political vigour and
decline which repeat themselves in a cyclical fashion.

OR

(a) How verious Legislation bring social change. Marks 10

SYNOPSIS
Introduction

Lesgislative Factors of Social change

Conclusion

Introduction

Change is law of nature, every thing in this universe changes. Change

Cannot be stopped. Change may be slow or fast, but it happens
Continuously. All organic and non organic factors change. Change in
non organic cannot be noticed easily, but it is also changing. We notice
change in organic beings earlier and easily.

Legislative Factors of social change

State is the most powerful organisation which regulates the social

relationships. It has the power to legislate new laws, repeal old ones to
bring social change in the society. Laws regarding child marriage, widow
remarriage, divorce, inheritance and succession, untouchability are
some of the examples which have brought many changes in the social
structure of Indian society.
The type of political leadership and individuals in power also influences
the rate and direction of social change. In many societies the political
leadership controls the economy also. Scientific-technological and non-
technological change are also dependent on political development
which indirectly affects social change.

There is a direct relationship between the type of political organisation

and social change. In hunting and gathering societies, there were no
political organisation capable of mobilising the community, as such;
there were minimum changes in the societies. In all other types of
society, however, the existence of distinct political agencies, such as
chiefs, lords, kings and governments strongly affects the course of
development of society takes. A ruler may choose to channel resources
into building up his castle, for example, even when this impoverishes
most of the population.

Political development in the last two or three centuries (in India

especially after independence) has certainly influenced economic
change as much as economic change has influenced politics. Govern-
ments now play a major role in stimulating (and sometimes retarding)
rates of economic growth. In all industrial societies there is high level of
state intervention in production.
Q. No. (b) Progress. Marks 06

SYNOPSIS
Introduction

Meaning and Definition

characteristics of Social Progress

Conclusion

Introduction

As a concept, social progress can be analysed comparing with social

change and social evolution. Earlier social progress is understood as
making good from bad. Similarly it was believed that spread of reasons
would lead to progress.The reformation of society, was understood as
progress. Using tools and techniques in changing society by man is also
known as progress. Progress is also interesting phenomenon to
sociologists and philosophers.Thus positive change in society is
understood as progress.

Meaning and Definitions:

The term progress is derived from a Latin word ‘progressuss’ and pro-
grader Which mean.“an advance”. Thus progress refers to a forward
movement towards destination or goal. We may say that progress is a
change towards a desirable end. Every progress has a definite end or
goal. Progress We-mean deVelopment in a particular direction Which
.is regarded as a step forward according to definite criteria of value
judgments. Progress is going forward with certain principles and ideas.
Progress brings change in society or the aims and objectives of social
Change.

Ginsberg: progress as “a development in a direction which‘satisfles

rational criteria of value”. Lumley: “Progress is change, but it is change

in a desired or proved direction, not any direction”. Park and Burgess:
“Any change or adaptation to an existent environment that makes it
easier for a person or a group 'of persons or other organised form of
life to live may be said to represent Progress”

characteristics of Social Progress :

The concept 0f Social Progress contains the following Characteristics:

1) Progress is Change in a desired direction. 2) Progress is collective in

nature progress explain that progress is shared by all members of
community.

3)Progress is volitional (voluntary)

4) Progress cannot be measured.

5) Progress is variable.

OR

(b) Development. Marks 06

SYNOPSIS
Introduction

Develepment

Two important characteristics

 Conclusion

Introduction

Change is law of nature, every thing in this universe changes. Change

Cannot be stopped. Change may be slow or fast, but it happens
Continuously. All organic and non organic factors change. Change in
non organic cannot be noticed easily, but it is also changing. We notice
change in organic beings earlier and easily.

According to the'Oxford dictionary change means “to make or become

different, or to move from one system or situation to another”.
Similarly we observe change in society also. Such change in society and
its aspects are now discussed as social change. Darwin Explains that in
evolutionary process monkey changed itself as Human. Similarly the
human life has changed, since from long many years. Such changes
have been occurring in man’s life and environment. Change in human
life is understood as social change. All the relationships, nature of
relationships have been put to change. Family system, marriage system,
religion, undergone change, culture and civilisation too changes. August
Comte studied society with reference two main aspects. One is social
statics, which denotes constant aspects of society. Another is social
dynamic, means the change in society.

Development

Owing to the weakness of the arialogy between biological and social

evolution. Some sociologists preferred to used the term ‘socia1
development’ to refer to the process of historical change. According to
the OXfOI‘d English Dictionary, Development means a gradual unfolding
a fuller working out of details of anything. It is in this sense that we
often speak of the develdpment of a child or of a disease, but in case of
social development it is difficult to speak in the same way. ‘

In the recent sociological literature the terms ‘development’ is used

firstly to refer to the distinction between two types of societies,
namely, industrial societies and rest of the societies which are rural
agricultural are having low levels of income. Secondly, it is used to
refere to the process by Which rural and agricultural societies are being

induststrialized. The present notion of development has two important

characteristics. They are '

1. It refers to a particular kind of change observable at the presemt

time and. ' '

2. The economic changes which can be identified and measured.

To sum up we may say that the conception bf development as asingle

great transforamtion is closely associated with the advancement of
science and technology