Phy455 2

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
COURSE CODE: PHY 455
COURSE TITLE: LOWER ATMOSPHERIC PHYSICS
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PHY 455 LOWER ATMOSPHERIC PHYSICS
COURSE
GUIDE
PHY 455
LOWER ATMOSPHERIC PHYSICS
Course Team Prof. Obini Ekpe (Course Developer/Writer) -

Ebonyi State University
Prof. U. A. Osisiogu (Course Editor) - Ebonyi
State University
Dr. S. O. Ajibola (Programme Leader/Course
Coordinator) – NOUN
Mr. E. A.Ibanga (Course Coordinator) – NOUN
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
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National Open University of Nigeria
Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island, Lagos
Abuja Office
5 Dar es Salaam Street
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II, Abuja
e-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.ng
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
Published by
National Open University of Nigeria
Printed 2014
ISBN: 978-058-005-0
All Rights Reserved
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CONTENTS PAGE
Introduction……………………………………………….. iv
The Course………………………………………………… iv
Course Aims and Objectives ...…………………… v
Working through the Course……………………………… v
Course Materials………………………………………….. vi
Study Units………………………………………………... vi
Textbooks and References……………………………………… vi
Assessment………………………………………………... vii
Tutor-Marked Assignments………………………………. vii
End of Course Examination………………………………. vii
Summary………………………………………………….. vii
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INTRODUCTION
You have studied the behaviour of gases under controlled conditions.

The knowledge you gained in your study of gas laws shall now be
extended to atmospheric gases. The atmosphere itself is a relatively thin
gaseous envelop that surrounds the earth. It provides the air we breathe
and protects us against some harmful radiations from the sun. You
certainly know the statement of Snell’s law. In this course, we shall use
Snell’s law to explain some of the observed characteristics of radio
waves. At the end of this course, you should be able to answer each of
the following questions: Why does most of our weather occur within the
troposphere? What is the importance of the ionosphere in relation to
radio-wave propagation? How does the temperature at any point in the
atmosphere depend on height? What happens within the saturation
region? How can we relate the internal energy, the enthalpy and the
entropy to the temperature and specific volume of a pure substance?
What are the effects of the troposphere on radio wave propagation? How
does the flow of radiant energy change as one moves through an
atmosphere that emits and absorbs radiation? What are the factors
responsible for the broadening of spectral lines? The answer to each of
these questions is of interest to us because the phenomena involved have
significant effects on our life here on earth.
THE COURSE
PHY 435 Lower Atmospheric Physics comprises a total of 6 units

arranged into 2 modules as follows:
Module 1 is composed of 3 units

Module 2 is composed of 3 units
Module 1 deals with (a) the structure and composition of the atmosphere
of the earth (b) the basic thermodynamic concepts necessary for a good
understanding of the terrestrial atmosphere and (c) the behaviour of
atmospheric air and water vapour. In unit 1 of module1, you shall learn
how the atmosphere is stratified. We shall then proceed to examine the
factors that affect space weather and their impact on human activity.
Unit 2 of module 1 deals with the laws of thermodynamics. You shall be

introduced to different processes involving expansion, compression,
heating and cooling of gases. Enthalpy, entropy and internal energy shall
be studied in this unit. In unit 3 of module 1, you will examine the
behaviour of air and water vapour. In particular, you will find out how
exciting the saturation regions can be. You will see how water can exist
in three pure phases and four equilibrium mixture phases.
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Module 2 is devoted to the physics of a neutral atmosphere. In Unit 1 of

Module 2, you will see how the equation of sate and the equation of
hydrostatic equilibrium may be used to study the pressure profile of the
atmosphere. You will find out that the density and temperature profiles
are also derivable from the expression for the variation of pressure with
height.
In Unit 2 of Module 2, you shall be introduced to the concept of

intensity, flux and luminosity. The equation of radiative transfer shall be
derived in this unit. You will see the local thermodynamic equilibrium
(LTE) approximation simplies the solution of the equation of transfer. In
Unit 3 of Module 2, you will be introduced to the basic transition and
selection rules that are useful in understanding the formation of spectral
lines. The Lorentzian profile and the Gaussian profile shall be discussed
in this unit. You will see the three mechanisms by which a spectral line
may be broadened.
COURSE AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
This course aims at providing you with a good knowledge of the lower
portion of the atmosphere of the earth. You will learn about the structure
and composition of the atmosphere. You will also be introduced to the
portion of the atmosphere that has a significant influence on the
propagation of radio waves; that part of the atmosphere is called the
ionosphere. You will find out how the terrestrial atmosphere provides
protection against some of the harmful radiations from the sun, and how
the atmosphere helps to maintain warm temperatures on the earth.
A sound knowledge of the basic principles of thermodynamics is

necessary for you to understand the dynamics of the terrestrial
atmosphere. This explains why a section of this course is devoted
entirely to the study of elementary principles of thermodynamics. These
thermodynamic principles shall be very useful to you in understanding
the behaviour of the air and the water vapour present in the atmosphere
of the earth.
Many radiative processes are constantly taking place within the

atmosphere. At the end of this course, you should be able to discuss the
concept of intensity, flux and luminosity of a pencil of radiation. You
should also be able to derive and solve the equation of radiative transfer
using the LTE approximation.
WORKING THROUGH THE COURSE
This course is presented in a simple and readable style. The coverage is

comprehensive. You should strive to study the materials contained in
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this course carefully and repeatedly until a full mastery of the subject
matter is gained. The examples provided in the text should be studied
and mastered. In this way, you will be able to do the assignment at the
end of each unit. The equation of transfer is sufficiently straightforward.
However, you are advised to review some of the mathematical tools
needed to solve elementary differential equations. This will provide you
with the instrument necessary to solve, without difficulty, the equation
of radiative transfer. You should also do your best to participate in all
the tutorial sessions. In this way, you shall be able to learn from your
facilitators, your course mates and your study units.
COURSE MATERIALS
You will be provided with adequate course materials including your

course guide and study units. You will also be provided with a list of
recommendable textbooks. All these study materials are extremely
useful. You should therefore strive as much as possible to get all the
needed materials. You must also study the materials diligently.
STUDY UNITS
This course contains 6 study units organised into 2 modules. Module 1

comprises 3 units and Module 2 comprises 3 units also. The 6 study
units are arranged in the following order.
Module 1
Unit 1 Structure and Composition of the Atmosphere

Unit 2 Basic Thermodynamic Concepts
Unit 3 Air and Water Vapour
Module 2
Unit 1 The Neutral Atmosphere

Unit 2 Radiative Transfer
Unit 3 Line Profiles
TEXTBOOKS AND REFERENCES
A.De Vos, A. (1992). Endoreversible Thermodynamics of Solar Energy

Conversion. New York: Oxford University Press, New York.
Emerson, D. (1996). Interpreting Astrophysical Spectra. Chichester,

England: John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, England.
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J.P. Holman, J.P. (1980). Thermodynamics. Tokyo: McGraw-Hill

Kogakusha Ltd, Tokyo.
E.Tandberg-Hanssen, E. & A.G Emslie, A.G. (1988). The Physics of

Solar Flares. Cambridge Astrophysics Series, Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Yeh, K.C & Liu, C.H.(1977). Theory of Ionospheric Waves. New York:
Academic Press Inc.
ASSESSMENT
The National Open University of Nigeria assesses your performance by

means of the following instruments:
(a) Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)

(b) End of Course Examination.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS (TMAs)
Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA) represents the traditional Continuous

Assessment. It accounts for 30% of your total score. In this course, you
are provided with six TMAs. You should try to do all the 6 TMAs.
Please, note that you will not be allowed to sit for the end of course
examination without completing at least 5 out of the 6 TMAs. Your
course facilitator shall provide the TMAs. You are required to complete
each TMA and return same to your course facilitator within the
stipulated period.
END OF COURSE EXAMINATION
The end of course examination carries 70% of your total score. The date,
time and venue of the examination shall be made known to you in
advance. This may or may not coincide with the semester examination
of the National Open University of Nigeria. You must sit for the end of
course examination.
SUMMARY
This course is split into 2 modules. Each of the two modules has 3 units.
Each unit is carefully designed to ensure that you understanding its
message with relative ease. Abstract concepts are systemically translated
into concrete applications following a simple logical sequence.
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Upon satisfactory completion of this course, you should be able to
explain why most of our weather occurs within the troposphere. You
should also be able to discuss the variations of temperature, pressure
and number density with height in the atmosphere of the earth.
Furthermore, you should be able to use the LTE approximation in
solving the equation of radiative transfer (in relation to radio-wave
propagation).
It is advisable for you to study each of the 6 units contained in this

course carefully. It is also highly recommended that you read as many of
the recommended textbooks as possible. In this way, you shall be able to
derive the maximum benefit from this course.
I wish you the success in your effort to acquire knowledge.
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MAIN
COURSE
CONTENTS PAGE
Module 1 ……………………………………………….. 1
Unit 1 Structure and Composition of the Atmosphere 1

Unit 2 Basic Thermodynamic Concepts…………….. 19
Unit 3 Air and Water Vapour………………………... 36
Module 2 ……………………………………………..…. 51
Unit 1 The Neutral Atmosphere……………………... 51

Unit 2 Radiative Transfer……………………………. 69
Unit 3 Line Profiles…………………………………… 86
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MODULE 1
Unit 1 Structure and Composition of the Atmosphere

Unit 2 Basic Thermodynamic Concepts
Unit 3 Air and Water Vapour
UNIT 1 STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF THE

ATMOSPHERE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Earth’s Atmosphere
3.1.1 Layers of the Atmosphere
3.1.2 Troposphere
3.1.3 Stratosphere
3.1.4 Mesosphere
3.1.5 Thermosphere
3.1.6 Exosphere
3.2 Ionosphere
3.2.1 Layers of the Ionosphere
3.2.2 D Layer
3.2.3 E Layer
3.2.4 F Layer
3.3 Aurora
3.4 Solar Wind
3.5 Electromagnetic Coupling
3.6 Geomagnetic Storms and Substorms
3.7 Impact of Space Weather on Human Activity
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/ Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The atmosphere of the earth is a relatively thin spherical envelop that

surrounds the earth. It contains gases, clouds and other air-borne
particles called aerosols. The terrestrial atmosphere provides protection
against the harmful radiations from the sun. It also helps to maintain
warm temperatures on the earth. In this unit, you shall be introduced to
the structure and composition of the terrestrial atmosphere.
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2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 explain why most of our weather occurs within the troposphere

 describe the different layers of the atmosphere
 describe the importance of the ionosphere in relation to radio
wave propagation
 describe the D, E and F layers of the ionosphere.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Earth’s Atmosphere
3.1.1 Layers of the Atmosphere
The atmosphere of the earth is composed of different layers. It starts

from the surface of the earth and thins out with height until it merges
with space. In terms of the variation of temperature with height, the
layers of the atmosphere are:
a) the troposphere
b) the stratosphere
c) the mesosphere, and
d) the thermosphere.
These layers are listed in order of increasing height. Thus, the

troposphere is the lowest layer followed by the stratosphere, the
mesosphere and the thermosphere. The thermosphere is the highest layer
of the earth’s atmosphere (in terms of temperature).
In terms of composition, the atmosphere is classified into two:
a) the homosphere (up to 85km height), and

b) the heterosphere (above 85km height).
In the homosphere, the mean molecular mass is constant due to mixing.

In the heterosphere, the mean molecular mass varies due to diffusive
separation. In terms of the escape properties of neutral particles, the
terrestrial atmosphere is called the exosphere.
3.1.2 Troposphere
The troposphere is the first layer above the surface of the earth. It
stretches from the surface of the earth to an altitude of about 10
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kilometres. The gases in the troposphere are predominantly molecular
nitrogen  N 2  and molecular oxygen  O2  . The troposphere contains
90% of the mass of the earth’s atmosphere. It also contains 99% of all
the water vapour present in the atmosphere.
Within the troposphere, temperature deceases with height at the rate of

about 6.5 oC per kilometer. This rapid decrease in temperature with
height is almost linear. It continues until the temperature reaches a local
minimum value which defines the upper boundary of the troposphere
known as the tropopause. At the tropopause, the temperature remains
constant. The tropopause may lie somewhere between 10km and 15km
above the surface of the earth.
All our day-to-day activities occur within the troposphere: the top of
Mount Everest lies within the troposphere; air planes fly within the
troposphere; and 99% of all atmospheric weather is confined to the
troposphere. It is the decrease in temperature with height that promotes
vertical motion of the atmosphere. This explains why most of our
weather occurs within the troposphere.
3.1.3 Stratosphere
The stratosphere lies above the tropopause. In the stratosphere, the

temperature increases with altitude. The increase in temperature with
height continues until a local maximum is reached at a height of about
50 kilometers. This local maximum defines the stratopause. The
stratopause is the upper boundary region of the stratosphere.
The stratosphere is very stable. For that reason, many jet planes fly
within the stratosphere. However, stratospheric air remains sufficiently
dense to enable hot air balloons to ascend to altitudes of between 15km
and 20km. Helium balloons are capable of rising to a height of about 35
kilometres. The ozone layer exists in the stratosphere.
The stratospheric region is relatively calm. The variation of stratospheric

temperature with height is not as rapid as the variation of tropospheric
temperature with height. The stratosphere is relatively warm because the
sun’s ultraviolet radiation is absorbed by oxygen and ozone.
3.1.4 Mesosphere
The mesosphere lies above the stratopause. In the mesosphere, the

temperature decreases with altitude up to a local minimum. This local
minimum, called the mesopause, defines the upper boundary of the mes
osphere. At the mesopause, the temperature can be as low as -90oC. This
is the lowest temperature anywhere in the entire terrestrial atmosphere.
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The mesopause is located at an altitude of about 80 kilometres. Meteors

are found in the neighbourhood of the mesopause.
3.1.5 Thermosphere
The thermosphere lies above the menopause. It extends to an altitude of

about 500 kilometres. The air in the thermosphere is extremely thin.
Large amounts of nitrogen and oxygen atoms are produced through the
process of photo-dissociation of the dominant N2 and O2 molecules.
Above the mesopause, the temperature increases dramatically to an
overall maximum value that may exceed 1000K. Beyond this point, the
thermospheric temperature remains almost constant with altitude. The
thermosphere includes the ionised portion of the atmosphere called the
ionosphere.
Exosphere
(continues)
above 500km)
exobase
Thermosphere
(80- 500km)
Mesopause
Mesosphere
(50- 80km)
Stratopause
Stratosphere
(10-50km)
Tropopause
Troposphere
(0-10km)
Mean Sea Level
(0km)
Fig. 1 (a): Possible Classification Scheme for the Layers of the

Earth’s Atmosphere (not drawn to scale)
3.1.6 Exosphere
The exosphere continues beyond the thermosphere. The transition region

between the thermosphere and the exosphere is known as the exobase.
The region above the exobase is still called the exosphere. The exobase
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is located at a height of about 600km. In this portion of the exosphere,
the neutral densities are so low that collisions become unimportant. For
this reason, the upper atmosphere can no longer be characterised as
fluid. The space shuttle orbits around the earth within this region of the
exosphere.
600 km Exosphere
Ionosphere
Thermosphere F
500 km
re e
T
80 km E
Mesosphere
50 km
Stratosphere
10 km
Troposphere
300 600 900 1200 1500 104 105 106

Temperature (k) Electron density (cm-3)
Fig. 1 (b): Temperature Profile of the Earth’s Atmosphere
3.2 Ionosphere
3.2.1 Layers of the Ionosphere
The ionosphere is that part of a planetary atmosphere where ions and

electrons are present in quantities sufficient to affect the propagation of
radio waves. The ionosphere extends from an altitude of about 60
kilometres to an altitude of about 2000 kilometres.
The composition of the atmosphere changes with height. As a result, the

ion production rate also changes with height. This leads to the formation
of the following three distinct ionisation peaks:
a) the D layer
b) the E layer, and
c) the F layer.
The ionosphere is a very important region of the atmosphere because of

its influence on radio waves.
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3.2.2 D Layer
The D layer is mainly responsible for the absorption of high frequency
(HF) radio waves. The absorption is strongest for radio frequencies
below 10MHz. The absorption becomes progressively smaller as the
frequency increases. The absorption is higher in the day and lower at
night. The ionisation is due to Lyman series-alpha hydrogen radiation at
a wavelength of 121.5 nanometre (nm) which ionises nitric oxide  NO  .
Thus, the dominant ions are NO and O2  The D layer extends in height
from about 40km to 90km. The electron density of the D layer is about
2.5 109 m3 in the day. The electron density diminishes to a negligible
value at night.
3.2.3 E Layer
The E layer lies above the D layer. It is the region of the ionosphere
between an altitude of about 90km and an altitude of about 160km. In
relation to the solar zenith angle and solar activity, the electron density
in the E layer behaves in a regular manner. In the daytime, the electron
density may reach about 2 1011 m3 . This is high enough to reflect radio
waves with frequencies of several megahertz. At night, the electron
density of the E region may decrease to about 1010 m3 . The E region can
only reflect radio waves that have frequencies lower that 10MHz.
The ionisation is due to soft X-ray (1nm-10nm) and far ultraviolet (UV)
solar radiations which ionise molecular oxygen  O2  . The dominant
ions are O2 and NO . At night, the primary source of ionisation is no
longer there. For that reason, the E layer begins to disappear. An
increase in the height of the E layer increases the range over which radio
communication (through reflection) is possible (figure 2).
H2
H1
Groun Groun
d R1 R2 d
Fig. 1.2: Increasing the Height of the E Layer (from H1 to H 2 )
Increases the Range (from R1 to R2 ).
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The E region peaks at an altitude of about 100km. However, sporadic E
propagation (Es) is also possible. It is characterised by small clouds of
intense ionisation. Such clouds can reflect radio waves ranging in
frequency from about 25MHz to about 225MHz. Sporadic-E events
occur most frequently during the hot season. Occasionally, the sporadic-
E event may also occur during the cold season. As a result of the
sporadic-E events, some propagation channels (which are generally
unreachable) can open up. This may last for just a few minutes. It may
also have an extended period of several hours.
3.2.4 F Layer
The F layer lies above the E layer. Its behaviour is fairly irregular. It is
usually classified into a number of anomalies such as the equatorial
anomaly and the seasonal anomaly. The day-time electron density is
quite different from the night-time electron density. In the day, the
average peak value of the electron density is about 2 1012 m3. At night,
the average peak value of the electron density falls to about 2 1011 m3.
The F region is responsible for reflection of radio waves.
According to the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

(IEEE), the region extends to the magnetospheric shock boundary.
This magnetospheric shock boundary is several earth radii away.
However, some scientists believe that the F region stops at about 800km
above the surface of the earth. When classified according to its
composition, the atmosphere above this point is called the
protonosphere. When classified according to its dynamic property, the
protonosphere is called the magnetosphere.
In the F region, the dominant ion is O  . In terms of high frequency (HF)

communications, the F region is the most important part of the
ionosphere. Ionisation of the atomic oxygen  O  is due to extreme
ultraviolet solar radiation 10  100nm  . The F region is thickest and
most reflective of radio waves on the side of the earth facing the sun.
During the day, the F region splits into two layers. These two layers are
called the F1 and F2 layers. Above the F region, there is a region in
which the density decreases exponentially with height. This region is
known as the topside ionosphere. The topside ionosphere extends to an
altitude of a few thousand kilometres.
The ionosphere is an extremely interesting medium. In going from the

D-region to the upper F region, the electron density varies over four
orders of magnitude. In the D region, the ionosphere manifests a
collision-dominated behaviour. Here, the electron collision frequency is
as high as 8 107 per second. In the upper layer of the F region, the
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ionosphere manifests a collisionless behaviour. As a result, the concept

of frozen-in magnetic field becomes applicable. The ionosphere exhibits
non-linear properties due to the fact that the region is inhomogeneous
and anisotropic. The Luxembourg effect (or cross-modulation) is a good
example of the non-linear properties of the ionosphere. Idealised
ionisation profiles of the ionosphere are presented in figure 3. The
ionisation profiles show how the electron density changes with height at
temperate latitudes near sunspot maximum.
Fig.1. 3: Day-Time and Night-Time Ionisation Profiles of the

Ionosphere
3.3 Aurora
The auroras are found in the thermosphere. Auroras are the light
produced when protons and electrons from the sun travel along the
earth’s magnetic field lines above the North Pole (and above the South
Pole) and excite neutral atoms and molecules. The aurora associated
with the North Pole is sometimes called the northern lights; the aurora
associated with the South Pole is sometimes called the southern lights.
The aurora is a spectacular display of lights requiring tens of thousands
of volts to produce. This fascinating display of energy takes place within
the ionosphere (60-200km above the surface of the earth). In particular,
the aurora borealis over northern Canada occurs at a height of about
100 kilometres.
The aurora is beautiful, spectacular, and splendid. They appear in the

form of majestic, colourful, irregular lights in the night sky. The aurora
has various shapes, colours and structures. They appear almost every
night in the sky of the north and south poles.
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The aurora is a large-scale electrical discharge phenomenon in the high-
altitude atmosphere, resulting from quantum leaps in oxygen and
nitrogen atoms. Above an altitude of about one hundred kilometres,
oxygen and nitrogen atoms (and molecules) are energised and/or ionised
by energetic electrons. In the transition region between the earth’s
atmosphere and the near-earth space, electrons are in abundance. The
electrons are accelerated to high energies by electric fields in the
magnetosphere. As the energetic electrons stream along the magnetic
field lines, they strike and excite atoms and molecules of oxygen and
nitrogen. When these excited particles are de-excited, they emit the
colourful radiation, known as aurora, over the polar sky. The colour,
shape and intensity of aurora depend on the nature of the
electromagnetic forces that shoot the electrons downward into the upper
atmosphere.
3.4 Solar Wind
The surface of the sun is like a pot of boiling water. Bubbles of hot,
electrified gas circulate from the interior to the surface of the sun. This
gas is made of electrons and protons in the fourth state of matter known
as plasma. As the circulation continues, the plasma continuously bursts
out into space. This steady stream of ionised plasma, which escapes
from the solar corona and pervades the whole interplanetary space, is
known as the solar wind.
Solar wind is mainly composed of electrons and protons. However,

about 10% of the solar wind are helium ions. The solar wind induces
geomagnetic activity by variation of its pressure and magnetic field. At
the orbit of the earth, the solar wind has a density of about 10 particles
per cubic centimetres, a temperature of about 10,000,000 K (equivalent
to about 1 keV) and an average speed of about 500 km/sec. In general,
though, the solar wind blows with speeds ranging from 400km/sec to
2,500km/sec. It carries a million tones of matter into space every
second. In particular, the solar wind carries mass away from the sun at
the rate of about 1.8 1027 erg / sec. Yet, the effect of the solar wind
remains negligible in the overall mass-energy balance of the sun.
The magnetic fields from the sun are embedded in the solar wind. These
magnetic fields have strength of only about 10nT at the orbit of the
earth. They are about 3,000 times weaker than the magnetic field of the
earth (at the surface of the earth).
It is neither the mass nor the speed of the solar wind that makes it
potent. It is the energy stored in the plasma and the magnetic fields
associated with the plasma that enables the solar wind to shape the
protective magnetic shield of the earth known as the magnetosphere.
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Less than 1% of the solar wind actually penetrates the magnetosphere.

Yet, it is enough to generate millions of amps of electric current in our
atmosphere. It is also enough to cause occasional storms in the space
around the earth.
Every eleven years, the sun reaches a peak period of activity called the
solar maximum. A few years later, a quiet period called the solar
minimum follows suit. The sun-earth system is driven by this 11-year
solar cycle. During the solar maximum, there are many sunspots,
eruptive prominences, solar flares, and coronal mass ejections (CMEs).
All these events have strong influence on communications and other
technologies here on earth.
3.5 Electromagnetic Coupling
Electromagnetic coupling arises as a result of the interaction of the

magnetised solar wind with the geomagnetic field of the earth. When a
supersonic solar wind first encounters the geomagnetic field, a free-
standing bow shock is formed. As a result, the solar wind is deflected
around the earth in a region known as the magnetosheath (figure 4). The
subsequent interaction of the magnetosheath flow with the geomagnetic
field leads to the formation of the magnetopause.
Fig. 1.4: The Interaction of Plasma with the Magnetosphere

(after Moore, 1987)
The magnetopause is a relatively thin boundary layer that serves to

separate the magnetic field of the solar wind (also known as
interplanetary magnetic field, IMF) from the geomagnetic field. The
separation is accomplished by means of the current system of the
magnetopause. However, the magnetopause current layer does not
provide a perfect shield. This explains why a portion of the magnetic
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field of the solar wind penetrates the magnetopause and connects with
the geomagnetic field (figure 4).
The connection of the IMF and the geomagnetic field occurs in a region
known as the polar cap. The connected field lines are referred to as open
lines. The intermediate region that lies between the polar region (i.e.
open field line region) and the low-latitude region is called the auroral
oval.
3.6 Geomagnetic Storms and Substorms
The magnetosphere is the near-earth region of space where the dynamics

are governed by the internal geomagnetic field. The solar wind is
a highly conducting, collisionless, magnetised plasma. Its behaviour is
governed by the ideal magneto hydrodynamic (MHD) equations. The
solar wind magnetic field (or interplanetary magnetic field IMF)
penetrates the magnetopause and connects with the geomagnetic field.
The aurora oval contains dipolar magnetic field lines. The field lines are
closed. However, as the solar wind blows across the earth, the dipolar
magnetic field lines are distorted (Figure 4). On the dayside, the field
lines are compressed. On the nightside, the field lines are elongated to
form a very long geomagnetic tail. The geomagnetic tail plays a
dominant role in the dynamic processes associated with the
magnetosphere. For instance, the geomagnetic tail acts as an energy
reservoir that powers magnetospheric dynamic processes.
The magnetosphere has several distinct regions. Each of the regions has
its characteristic plasma properties. The tail lobes at high latitudes are
regions of low plasma density and low energy. The plasma sheets are
hot regions of high plasma density and high energy. In the inner
magnetosphere, large populations of high energy particles are trapped.
These trapped particles are electrons and ions. They reside in the ring
current and in the Van Allen radiation belts. For this reason, the inner
magnetosphere is the most hazardous region for technological systems.
The solar wind changes constantly and the magnetosphere respond to

such changes. The dynamic response of the magnetosphere to varying
conditions of the solar wind (and the interplanetary magnetic field) is
called magnetospheric substorm. During the periods of south wind IMF,
the energy input is enhanced. The energy extracted from the solar wind
is stored in the form of magnetic energy in the magnetotail. This defines
the growth phase of the substrom. About an hour later, the magnetotail
becomes unstable, and the energy stored is dissipated in driving some
highly dynamic magnetospheric processes. After about four hours, the
energy dissipation stops. This marks the end of the substorm process.
71
Sometimes, large disturbances in the near-earth space environment are

caused by coherent solar wind and interplanetary magnetic field
structures that originate from violent events (like coranal mass ejections
or solar flares) from the sun. Such large disturbances in the near-earth
environment are called geomagnetic storms. Geomagnetic storms are
generally associated with major disturbances in the geomagnetic field
and strong enhancement of the injection of energetic particles into the
outer part of the Van Allen radiation belt. Typically, the injected flux of
ions has energies of the order of 100keV, while the injected flux of
electrons has energies of the order of 100MeV.
Thus, a geomagnetic storm may be described as an intense disturbance

of the earth’s magnetosphere resulting from a sudden change in the
dynamic pressure of the solar wind at the magnetopause. The
disturbance may propagate toward the lower altitudes, into the
ionosphere, where a traveling ionospheric wave is set up.
3.7 Impact of Space Weather on Human Activity
Space weather is defined in terms of the response of the near-earth space

environment to the violent and stormy events emanating from the sun.
But, why do scientists study space weather? It is an established fact that
modern technological systems are vulnerable to the effects of some
dynamic processes taking place in the sun. For instance, the
geomagnetic storm of March 24, 1940 caused a temporary disruption of
electrical services in New England, New York, Pennsylvania,
Minnesota, Quebec and Ontario. On the 9th and 10th days of February
1958, a geomagnetic storm caused a power transformer failure in the
British Columbia Hydro and Power Authority. On the 2nd day of
August 1972, the following technical problems were reported:
a) A 230,000-volt transformer at the British Columbia Hydro and

Power Authority exploded.
b) In Canada, the Minatoba Hydro recorded power drops from 164
to 44 megawatts (in a matter of minutes) in the power being
supplied to Minnesota.
c) The Bureau of Reclamation Power Station in Water Town (South
Dakota) was subjected to large swings in power line voltages up
to 25,000 volts.
d) Wisconsin Power and Light reported voltage swings up to 25,000
volts.
e) Madison Gas and Electric reported voltage swings up to 25,000
volts.
f) Wisconsin Public Service Corporation also reported voltage
swings up to 25,000 volts.
72
Obviously, these technical problems are traceable to hostile space
weather.
Scientists study space weather in order to help protect both space-based

and ground-based technical and biological systems. The technical
systems are all the bye-products of technology which are vulnerable to
the harsh space environment. The biological systems include humans as
well as other living things that may be adversely affected by space
weather.
Many scientists believe that solar activity affects more than just
satellites and power grids. For instance, the magnetic activity that
accompanies sunspots and active regions can produce dramatic changes
in the level of ultraviolent and soft X-ray emissions. These changes are
capable of altering the dynamics, temperature and chemistry in the
affected layers. This situation may affect the weather conditions of the
earth negatively. As a result, humans may be directly affected. It is
therefore, important that we understand the sun and the dynamic
processes that give rise to space weather. In this way, we can be better
prepared to deal with all the adverse effects which space weather has on
the earth.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have been introduced to the structure and composition
of the atmosphere. You have seen that the ionosphere is very important
because of the fact that it is capable of reflecting radio waves. You have
noted how the different layers of the ionosphere behave in the day and at
night. You have also seen the adverse effects which space weather has
on space-based and ground-based technical and biological systems.
5.0 SUMMARY
Having gone through this unit, you learned that:
 the atmosphere is a thin spherical envelop that surrounds the

earth
 the atmosphere of the earth contains gases, clouds and other
airborne particles called aerosols
 the atmosphere protects the earth against harmful radiations from
the sun
 the atmosphere helps maintain warm temperatures on the earth
 the atmosphere of the earth may be classified (in terms of
temperature) into four layers: the troposphere, the stratosphere,
the mesosphere, and the thermosphere
73
 the atmosphere may be classified (in terms of composition) into

two: the homosphere and the heterosphere
 the mean molecular mass is constant in the homosphere due to
mixing
 the mean molecular mass changes in the heterosphere due to
diffusive separation
 the atmosphere may be classified (in terms of the escape
properties) into only one layer: the exosphere
 the gases in the troposphere are predominantly molecular
nitrogen (N2) and molecular oxygen (O2)
 the temperature decreases with height in the troposphere
 the temperature increases with height in the stratosphere
 the temperature decreases with height in the mesosphere
 the temperature increases dramatically with altitude in the
thermosphere
 the thermosphere includes the ionised portion of the atmosphere
called the ionosphere
 the auroras are the light produced when electrons and protons
from the sun travel along the magnetic field lines of the earth and
excite neutral atoms and molecules above the north pole and
above the south pole
 the ionosphere is that part of the earth’s atmosphere where ions
and electrons are present in quantities sufficient to affect the
propagation of radio waves
 the ionosphere has three distinct ionisation peaks known as the D
layer, the E layer and the F layer
 the ionosphere is capable of reflecting radio waves
 the steady stream of ionised gas (plasma) which escapes from the
solar corona, and pervades the whole interplanetary space, is
called solar wind
 the energy stored in the plasma and the magnetic fields
(associated with the plasma) enable the solar wind to shape the
magnetic shield of the earth known as the magnetosphere
 electromagnetic, coupling arises as a result of the interaction of
the magnetised solar wind with the geomagnetic field of the
earth.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. The thin spherical envelop that surrounds the earth is called

the_____
a) lithosphere
b) biosphere
c) atmosphere
d) hydrosphere
74
2. The atmosphere of the earth contains the following objects
except____
a) gases
b) clouds
c) aerosols
d) sunspots
3. Which of the following protects the earth against harmful
radiations from the sun?
a) biosphere
b) cryosphere
c) hydrosphere
d) atmosphere
4. In terms of temperature, the terrestrial atmosphere may be
classified into____
a) 2
b) 3
c) 4
d) 6
5. In terms of composition, the atmosphere of the earth may be
classified into_________
a) 2
b) 3
c) 4
d) 6
6. In terms of the escape properties, the atmosphere of the earth is
called the___________
a) troposphere
b) exosphere
c) exobase
d) tropospause
7. In terms of composition, the region below an altitude of about
85km is called the_____________
a) heterosphere
b) thermosphere
c) mesosphere
d) homosphere
8. In the homosphere, the mean molecular mass___________
a) remains constant
b) increases with height
c) decreases with height
d) is nearly zero
9. In the troposphere, the gases are predominantly__________
a) atomic oxygen and atomic nitrogen
b) oxygen ions and nitrogen ions
c) molecular nitrogen and molecular oxygen
d) molecular nitrogen and atomic oxygen
75
10. In the troposphere, the temperature____________

a) remains constant
b) decreases with height
c) increases with height
d) is always zero Celsius
11. In the stratosphere, the temperature___________
a) remains constant
d) is always 6.5oC
12. In the mesosphere, the temperature________
a) remains constant
d) is always -90oC
13. The part of the terrestrial atmosphere where ions and electrons
exist in quantities sufficient to affect the propagation of radio
waves is called_____
a) the mesopause
b) the ionosphere
c) the magnetosphere
d) the stratopause
14. The D, E and F layers are distinct ionisation peaks of
_____________
a) the troposphere
b) the tropopause
c) the ionosphere
d) the magnetosphere
15. Which of the following terms best describes the portion of the
earth’s atmosphere that is most reflective of radio wave?
a) Tropopause
b) Stratopause
c) Mesopause
d) Ionosphere
16. The steady stream of ionised gas which escapes from the solar
corona and pervades the whole interplanetary medium is
called________
a) solar flare
b) coronal mass ejection (CME)
c) solar radiation
d) solar wind
17. Electromagnetic coupling arises as a result of the interaction of
the magnetised solar wind with__________________
a) solar radiation
b) geomagnetic field
c) molecular nitrogen
76
d) molecular oxygen
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Anuforom, A.C. et al. (2007). “Inter Annual Variability and Long Term
Trend of UV Absorbing Aerosols during Harmattan Season in
Sub-Sahara, West Africa.” Atmospheric Environment. 41, 1550-
1559.
Buckingham, A.D. et al. (1995). Light Scattering in Physics, Chemistry

and Biology.
Buckley, B., Hopkins, E.J. & Whitaker, R. (2004). Weather: a Visual

Guide. London: Firefly Books.
Chariscon, E. & McMillan, S. (1999). Astronomy Today. Upper Saddle

River: Prentice Hall.
Cutnell, J.D. & Johnson, K.W. (1977). Physics. New York: John Wiley
& Sons, Inc.
De Vos, A. (1992). Endoreversible Thermodynamics of Solar Energy

Conversion. New York: Oxford University Press.
Ekpe, O.E. & Igboke, B. (2009). “The Astrodynamics and Launching of

EBSU Rocket II.” Nigerian Journal of Space Research 6: 103-
108.
Emerson, D. (1996). Interpreting Astronomical Spectra. England: John

Wiley and Sons, Chichester.
Giancol, D.C. (2002). Physics-Principles and Applications. Upper

Saddle River: Prentice Hall.
Holman, J.P. (1980). Thermodynamics. Tokyo: McGraw-Hill

Kogakusha Ltd.
Karttunen, H. et al. (Eds). (1996). Fundamental Astronomy. (Berlin).

SPRINGER.
Lovell, M.C., Avery, A.J. & Vernon, M.W. (1981). Physical Properties
of Materials. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company Ltd. England:
Berkshire.
Markhavilas, P.K. (2004). The Space Environment and its Impact on

Human Activity, CSEG Recorder, December.
77
Moore, P. (Ed). (1987). The Astronomy Encydopaedia. London:

Mitchell Beazley Publishers.
NASA, (Astrophysics Division). The Great Observatories for Space

Astrophysics.
Pain, H.J. (1976). The Physics of Vibrations and Waves. London: John
Wiley and Sons, Ltd.
Roy, A.E. (1965). The Foundations of Astrodynamics. New York: The

Macmillan Company.
Serway, R. & Jewett, J.N. Jr. (2004.). Physics for Scientists and
Engineers. Belmont: Thomson Brooks/Cole.
Tandberg-Hanssen, E. & Emslie, A.G. (1988). The Physics of Solar

Flares, Cambridge: Cambridge Astrophysics Series, Cambridge
University Press.
Tilley, D.R. (1974). Waves. London: The Macmillan Press Ltd.
Yeh, K.C. & Liu, C.H. (1972). Theory of Ionospheric Waves. New
York: Academic Press Inc.
Yilmaz, A. (2006). “Atmosphere Physics.” Lecture Notes. Canakkale

Onsekiz Mart University (Publication No.1), Istanbul.
78
UNIT 2 BASIC THERMODYNAMIC CONCEPTS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 First Law of Thermodynamics
3.2 Isothermal Process
3.3 Adiabatic Process
3.3.1 Equation of Reversible Adiabatic Change
3.3.2 Temperature Change in an Adiabatic Process
3.3.3 Work Done in an Adiabatic Process
3.5 Enthalpy and Internal Energy
3.6 Specific Heats for Ideal Gases
3.7 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The terrestrial atmosphere contains gases, clouds and other air-bone

particles called aerosols. A gas may expand (or be compressed) in
different ways. A gas may also be heated (or be cooled) in different
ways. In this unit, you shall be introduced to two different processes
involving expansion, compression, heating and cooling of a gas. You
shall also be introduced to the basic principles of thermodynamics.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 discuss the first law of thermodynamics

 derive an expression for the work done by an ideal gas
undergoing isothermal expansion
 derive the equation of a reversible adiabatic process
 discuss how temperature changes in an adiabatic process
 describe the concept of enthalpy and internal energy of a system.
79
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Basic Concepts: First Law of Thermodynamics
For a closed system that undergoes no changes in kinetic or potential

energy, the differential form of the first law of thermodynamics states
that
 Q  U  W ,
where  Q is the change in the heat content of the system,  U is the
change in the internal energy of the system, and  W is the element of
work done by the system. The internal energy of the system  U is given
by
 U  cv T ,
where cv is the specific heat capacity of the gas at constant volume, and
 T is the change in the temperature of the gas. In general, the specific
heat capacity at constant volume cv is given by
 U 
cv    ,
 T v
where T is the temperature of the gas.
The element of work  W done by the system is given by
 W  p V ,
where p is the pressure of the gas, and V is the change in the volume
of the same gas .
For an ideal gas, the equation of state is
pV  nRT ,
where n is the number of moles, R is the universal gas constant and T
is the absolute temperature of the gas. The parameter R is numerically
equal to 8.314 J mol 1K 1.
In practice, a gas may expand (or be compressed) in different ways. The

gas may also be heated (or be cooled) in different ways. In what follows,
you shall be introduced to two different processes involving expansion,
compression, heating and cooling of a gas. The two processes are the
isothermal process and the adiabatic process.
3.2 Isothermal Process
An isothermal process is one which takes place at constant temperature.

For one mole of an ideal gas, the equation of state may be written as
pV  RT ,
where symbols have their usual meanings. In an isothermal process, the
temperature T is constant. Thus, the equation of state of an ideal gas
undergoing isothermal process is
pV  k ,
80
where k is a constant. Hence, you may write
k
p .
V
This implies that the p  V curve must be a rectangular hyperbola
(figure 1).
p
T3
T2
T1
Fig. 1: The p  V Curve of a Gas Undergoing Isothermals

Process ( T1  T2  T3 )
In an isothermal expansion, work is done by the system on the

surroundings.
The element of work  W done by an ideal gas undergoing isothermal
expansion is
 W  p V .
Therefore, the work done in expanding from V1 to V2 is
W   dW
V2
W   p dV
V1
V2
 RT 
W    dV
V1 
V 
V2
dV
W  RT 
V1
V
W  RT  log e V V2
V
1
W  RT  log e V2  log e V1 
V 
W  RT log e  2  .
 V1 
The work W done by the gas is equal to the quantity of heat Q required
to do the work. Thus, the heat Q required is also given by
V 
Q  RT log e  2  .
 V1 
Now, for an isothermal process,
pV  k ,
81
where k is a constant.
 p1V1  p2V2
V2 p1
 
V1 p2
Hence, the work done, in an isothermal process, may also be written as
p 
W  Q  RT log e  1  .
 p2 
This quantity of heat Q must be supplied to the system that is doing
work on the surroundings in order to keep the temperature constant.
Otherwise, the temperature of the system falls, and the process ceases to
be isothermal.
In the case of an isothermal compression, work is done on the system by

the surroundings. In this case, the heat Q must be removed from the
system in order to keep its temperature constant. Otherwise, the
temperature rises, and the process ceases to be isothermal.
Perfect isothermality is a highly idealised concept. It is impossible to

realise it in practice. For instance, the heat Q cannot flow through the
walls of the vessel unless there is a temperature difference across the
walls. Therefore, the temperature of the gas is bound to fall a little in an
isothermal expansion. Also, the temperature of the gas is bound to rise a
little in an isothermal compression. However, if the process is slow, and
the gas is held in a thin, well-conducting vessel surrounded by a
constant-temperature bath, the process becomes approximately
isothermal.
3.3 Adiabatic Process
3.3.1 Equation of Reversible Adiabatic Change
An adiabatic process is one which takes place at constant heat. In an

adiabatic process, the temperature may change but no heat enters or
leaves the system.
Consider an adiabatic process in which a unit mass of an ideal gas

expands from an initial volume V1 to a final volume V2 . The first law of
thermodynamics implies that the heat dQ supplied to the system is
given by
dQ = dU + dW , (1)
where dU is the increase in the internal energy of the system and dW is
the external work done by the system.
82
You will recall that dU = cvdT and dW = pdV , so that
dQ = cvdT + pdV , (2)
where cv is the specific heat capacity at constant volume, dT is the rise
in temperature, dV is the increase in volume, and p is the pressure of
the gas.
For a reversible adiabatic change dQ = 0.
Thus, Equation (2) reduces to

cvdT + pdV = 0.
- pdV
\ dT = . (3)
cv
Recall that the equation of state for a unit mass of an ideal gas is
pV = RT . (4)
Differentiating Equation (4), you obtain

pdV + V d p = RdT
pdV + V d p
\ dT = (5)
R
Equating the RHS of (5) to the RHS of (3),

pdV + V d p - pdV
=
R cv
Cross-multiplying, you obtain
cv ( pdV + V d p)= - RpdV ,
so that
cv ( pdV + V d p )+ RpdV = 0.
Hence,
cv pdV + cvV d p + RpdV = 0. (6)
But c p and cv are related to the gas constant R in the following way:
R = c p - cv . (7)
Using (7) in (6), you get
c p pdV + cvV d p + (c p - cv ) pdV = 0
cv pdV + cvV d p + c p pdV - cv pdV = 0.
cvV d p + c p pdV = 0.
cp
Vdp + pdV = 0.
cv
If you set g = c p cv , you obtain
V d p + g pdV = 0.
83
Dividing each term by pV , you get

dp dV
+g = 0.
p V
Integrating, you find that
dp dV
ò p
+ gò
V
= constant.
or
loge p + g log e V = a ,
where a is a constant.
Applying the elementary laws of logarithm, you obtain
loge p + loge V g = a
or
log e ( pV g ) = a
That is,
pV g = ea
where a is a constant.
Therefore, you may write:
pV g = constant, (8)
since a is a constant.
Equation (8) is the equation of a reversible adiabatic process.
3.3.2 Temperature Change in an Adiabatic Process

Recall that the general gas equation is
pV = RT (1)
so that
RT
p=
V
and
æRT ö g
pV g = çç ÷
çè V ø÷
÷.V
i.e.
g g
pV = RTV V - 1
or
pV g = RTV g- 1 . (2)
But the equation of an adiabatic process is
g
pV = constant,
g- 1
\ RTV = constant. (3)
84
Equation (3) is the equation for an adiabatic temperature change.
3.3.3 Work Done in an Adiabatic Process
The work W done by a unit mass of gas undergoing adiabatic expansion

is given by
V2
W= ò pdV (1)
V1
Since the process is adiabatic, it follows that
pV g = b (2)
where b is a constant given by b = ea . Thus,
p = bV - g (3)
Hence, the work W becomes
V2
ò bV
- g
W= dV
V1
V2
W = b ò V - g dV
V1
V
éV - g + 1 ù 2
W= bê ú
ê- g + 1ú
ë ûV1
b
W=
1- g
(V21- g - V11- g ) (4)
Now, Equation (4) states that
p = bV - g ,
so that
pV = bV - g ×V
or
pV = bV - g + 1. (5)
Expanding (4), you obtain
1
W=
1- g
(bV21- g - bV11- g ),
so that
1
W= ( p2V2 - p1V1 ) (6)
1- g
since, pV = bV - g + 1.
85
Equation (6) represents the work W done by the system when a unit
mass of an ideal gas expands adiabatically from some initial volume V1
to a final volume V2 .
3.5 Enthalpy and Internal Energy
Recall that the first law of thermodynamics may be stated as follows:

dQ = dU + pdV . (1)
If the pressure p is constant then there is really no difference between
pdV and d ( pV ).
For instance,
d ( pV ) = pdV + Vdp,
and if the pressure p is constant, then dp = o
so that
d ( pV ) = pdV + 0.
Thus, for a constant-pressure process,
d ( pV )= pdV . (2)
In this case, the first law of thermodynamics becomes
dQ = dU + d ( pV ).
dQ = d éëU + ( pV )ùû.
This implies that
dQ = d (U + pV ).
By defining a new thermodynamic property H such that.
H = U + pV , (3)
you find that, at constant pressure,
dQ = dH .
This new thermodynamic property H is called the enthalpy of the
system. It follows, therefore, that
dH = c p dT . (4)
You may wish to compare Equation (4) with the expression for the
change in the internal energy dU of the system, namely,
dU = cv dT . (5)
Equation (5) shows that the specific heat capacity at constant volume cv
may be written as:
æ¶ U ö
cv = çç ÷÷÷ . (6)
çè ¶ T øV
86
Equation (4) shows that the specific heat capacity at constant pressure
c p may be written as
æ¶ H ö
c p = çç ÷
çè ¶ T ÷ (7)
÷ .
øp
These principal specific heat capacities play a significant role in the
treatment of air and water vapour.
3.6 Specific Heats for Ideal Gases
A useful relation exists between the principal specific heats and the
universal gas constant R. This relation may be expressed as follows:
R = c p - cv (1)
You had earlier met this relation in your study of the equation of an
adiabatic process. In what follows, you shall be introduced to a method
of deriving the above relation. You will recall that the change in the
internal energy of a system is given by
dU = cv dT . (2)
Also, the change in the enthalpy of the system is
dH = c p dT . (3)
If Eq. (2) is subtracted from Eq. (3), you obtain
dH - dU = c pdT - cvdT .
or
dH - dU = (c p - cv )dT . (4)
But,
dH = dU + d ( pV ).
i.e.
dH = dU + d (RT ),
since
pV = RT .
\ dH - dU = RdT (5)
Comparing (4) and (5), you find that
RdT = (c p - cv )dT
or
R = c p - cv .
The equation given above shows that the difference of the principal
specific heat capacities is numerically equal to the gas constant.
87
For air at room temperature, the molecular weight

M = 28.97, c p = 1.005 KJ kg. oC , cv = 0.718 KJ kg. oC , R = 287.1 J kg .K and g = 1.4.
For water vapour at room temperature, the molecular weight

M = 18.02, c p = 1867 J kg oC , cv = 1407 J kg. oC , R = 460.6 J kg.K and g = 1.33.
3.7 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics may be stated in any of the

following ways:
a) It is impossible to construct a device which operates in cycle and

whose sole effect is to transfer heat from a cooler body to a hotter
body. (This is the Clausius statement of the second law of
thermodynamics).
b) It is impossible to construct a device which operates in a cycle
and produces no other effect than the production of work and
exchange of heat with a single reservoir. (This is the Kelvin-
Plank statement of the second law of thermodynamics).
Clausius statement of the second law of thermodynamics shows heat

flows from a high-temperature region to a low temperature region in the
absence of other effects. Thus, when a hot body is brought into contact
with a cold body, the hot body becomes less hot and cold body becomes
less cold. It is not possible for the cold body (in contact with a hot body)
to be become more cold unless additional effects are brought to bear
upon the system.
Kelvin-Plank statement shows that it is not possible to construct a

device which will operate continuously while receiving heat from a
single reservoir and producing an equivalent amount of work. Thus, a
perpetual-motion machine cannot be built.
In general, any quantity which may be represented as an exact

differential is a property (or point) function. This means that the quantity
is a function of the state of the system. If the cyclic integral of a
differential vanishes, then the differential is an exact differential.
dQ
It turns out that, for a reversible process, the cyclic integral of is
T
zero. That is,
ædQ ÷
ö
òÑçççè T
÷
÷
øreversible
= 0.
88
dQ
Thus, the quantity is an exact differential which may be denoted by
T
ds. In this case,
dQ
ds = ,
T
where s is another new property of the system called entropy. It is
important to note that entropy is so defined only for reversible
processes. For such a reversible process a change in entropy may be
with written as
a2
ædQ ÷
ö
Vs = s2 - s1 = ò çççè T ÷
÷
ø
,
a1 reversible
where a 1 and a 2 are, respectively, the appropriate lower and upper

limits of the integration. Here, a 1 and a 2 are two state points associated
with the process.
In general,
a2
dQ
s2 - s1 ³ ò T
,
a1
where the equality holds for a reversible process and the inequality holds
for an irreversible process.
A reversible process is an idealised state path. A process is said to be

reversible if the initial state of the system can be restored following
exactly the same state path in reverse direction with no observable
effects on the system and its surroundings. In practice, it is impossible to
find a perfectly reversible process. Since all real life processes are
irreversible, we conclude that the entropy is always greater than zero.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have been introduced to the basic concepts of

thermodynamics. You have seen the difference between an isothermal
process and an adiabatic process. You have found how the enthalpy of a
system relates to its internal energy. You have also noted that the
entropy of any real-life process is always greater than zero.
5.0 SUMMARY
Having gone through this unit, you now know that:
 the first law of thermodynamics implies that

 Q  U  W ,
89
where  Q is the change in the heat content of the system, U is

the internal energy of the system and  W is the element of work
done by (or done on) the system.
 the element of work  W done by a system is given by
W  pV .
where p is the pressure of the gas and V is the change in the
volume of the gas.
 fon n moles of an ideal gas, the equation of state is
pV  nRT
where p is pressure, V is volume, T is temperature and R is
the universal gas constant.
 the difference of the principal specific heat capacities of an ideal
gas is given by
c p  cv  R
where c p is the specific heat at constant pressure, cv is the
specific heat at constant volume and R is the gas constant.
 the ratio of the principal specific heat capacities is denoted by  ,
where
cp
 
cv
 the equation of a reversible adiabatic process is
pV   constant,
where p is pressure and V is volume.
 the equation for an adiabatic temperature change is
 1
RTV  constant,
where T is temperature.
 the work W done in an isothermal process is given by
V 
W  RT log e  2  ,
 V1 
where V1 is the initial volume and V2 is the final volume of the
expanding the gas.
 The work W done in an adiabatic process is given by
1
W  p2V2  p1V1  ,
1 
where  is the ratio of the principal specific heat capacities.
 the change in the internal energy of an ideal gas is given by
U  cv T
where  T is the change in temperature
 the enthalpy H of a system is given by
H  U  pV
where U is the internal energy of the system.
90
 the specific heat capacity at constant volume may be written as
 U 
cv    ,
 T v
where U is the internal energy of the system
 the specific heat capacity at constant pressure may be written as
 H 
cp    ,
 T  p
where H is the enthalpy of the system
 a constant-temperature process is called an isothermal process.
 a constant-heat process is called an adiabatic process.
 a constant-volume process is called an isochoric process.
 a constant-pressure process is called an isobaric process.

1. The expression  Q  U  pV represents a statement of
a) the zeroth law of thermodynamics
b) the first law of thermodynamics
c) the second law of thermodynamics
d) the third law of thermodynamics
2. The element of work  W done by an expanding gas is given by
a) W  FV , where F is force
b) W  V , where  is density
c) W  pV , where p is pressure
d) W  0 always
3. The equation of state of an ideal gas may be written as
pV  nRT , where n is the number of
a) colliding particles
b) non-interacting particles
c) ions
d) moles
4. The difference of the principal specific heat capacities is
numerically equal to
a) Avogadro’s number
b) the volume of a fixed mass of gas
c) the gas constant
d) the number of moles
5. The ratio of the principal specific heat capacities is usually
denoted by
cp
a)   .
V
cv
b)   .
cp
91
cp
c)   .
cv
c
d)   v .
p
6. The expression " pV   constant" represents
a) the general gas law
b) the first law of thermodynamics
c) the equations of reversible adiabatic change
d) the equation of reversible isothermal change
7. For a fixed mass of gas, the expression "TV  1  constant" may be

used to investigate how the temperature changes in
a) an isothermal process
b) an adiabatic process
c) an isochoric process
d) an isobaric process
 V2 
8. The expression W  RT log e   represents the work done in
 V1 
1
9. The expression W   p2V2  p1V1  represents the work done in
1 
10. The change in the internal energy of a gas is given by the

expression
a) U  c p T .
b)  U  cv T .
c) U  c pV .
d)  U  cv p.
11. The enthalpy of a system is given by

a) H  U  pV .
b) H  U  pV .
c) H  U  pV .
d) H  U  pV .
92
12. An expression for the specific heat capacity at constant pressure
is
 H 
a) cp    .
 T V
 H 
b) cp    .
 T p
 H 
c) cp    .
 p T
 H 
d) cp    .
 p V
13. An expression for the specific heat capacity at constant volume is
 U 
a) cv    .
 T V
 U 
b) cv    .
 T  P
 U 
c) cv    .
 V T
 U 
d) cv    .
 V V
14. A constant-temperature process is called

15. A constant-heat process is called

16. A constant-volume process is called

17. A constant-pressure process is called

93
94
1559.

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95

Astrophysics.

Macmillan Company.

Flares. Cambridge: Cambridge Astrophysics Series, Cambridge
University Press.

96
UNIT 3 AIR AND WATER VAPOUR
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Air around Us
3.2 Water and its Vapour
3.3 Macroscopic Properties of Pure Water
3.4 Saturation Regions
3.4.1 Liquid –Vapour Saturation Region
3.4.2 Wet Mixture
3.4.3 Super-Cooled Liquid and Super-Heated Vapour
3.4.4 Properties of a Pure Substance
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The air we breath is a very useful gas. The water we drink is a very
useful liquid. Without air and water, it would be impossible for any
living thing to survive on earth. In this unit, you shall be introduced to
some of the most important properties of air, water and water vapour.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 describe the différent elements that make up the air

 describe the porperties of air and water vapour at room
temperature
 discuss the saturation regions using a p  T diagram
 distinguish between moisture and quality of the liquid-vapour
saturation region
 relate the internal energy, enthalpy and entropy to the
temperature and specific volume of a pure substance.
97
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Air around Us
The air we breathe is readily available near the surface of the earth. It is
made up of nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), argon (0.9%) and other
gases (0.1%). At room temperature, the mean molecular weight of air,
M = 28.97; the specific heat capacity at constant pressure,
c p = 1.005 kJkg - 1K - 1; the specific heat capacity at constant volume;
cv = 0.718 kJkg - 1K - 1; the gas constant, R = 287.1 Jkg - 1K - 1; and the ratio
c
of the principal specific heat capacities, g = p = 1.4.
cv
For water vapour at room temperature, the molecular weight, M = 18.02;

the specific heat capacity at constant pressure c p = 1867 Jkg - 1K - 1; the
specific heat capacity at constant volume, cv = 1407 Jkg - 1K - 1; the gas
constant, R = 460.6 Jkg - 1K - 1; and the ratio of the principal specific heat
cp
capacities, g = = 1.33.
cv
3.2 Water and its Vapour
Ordinary water may exist in seven phases, namely:
(i) a pure solid phase known as ice

(ii) a pure liquid phase commonly known as water
(iii) a pure vapour phase called steam
(iv) an equilibrium mixture of liquid and vapour phases
(v) an equilibrium mixture of liquid and solid phases
(vi) an equilibrium mixture of solid and vapor phases
(vii) an equilibrium mixture of solid, liquid and vapour phases.
Fusion takes place when a solid changes to a liquid; vaporisation takes

place when a liquid changes to a vapour; sublimation takes place when a
solid changes directly to a vapour. (At atmospheric pressure, the
sublimation temperature for CO2 is about -780C).
3.3 Macroscopic Properties of Pure Water
Consider a piece of ice at state point S. If the piece of ice is heated at

constant pressure the temperature rises until the fusion line is reached.
As soon as the fusion line is encountered, melting starts. The melting
process continues at constant temperature until all the solid ice is
98
changed to liquid. Further heating produces an increase in the
temperature. The temperature of the liquid water continues to rise until
the vaporisation line is encountered. As soon as the vaporisation line is
reached, the liquid water begins to change to vapour.
Figure 2 demonstrates how water behaves when its temperature and

pressure change. The pressure p0 is atmospheric. The horisontal
line, passing through the solid phase (S), the liquid phase (L) and the
vapour phase (V), is a constant-pressure line. It shows that water at
atmospheric pressure may be made to exist in solid, liquid and vapour
phases.
Fusion line GAS
Critical point
p0 L V
S
Pressure
LIQUID line B
A
Vaporization
SOLID
Sublimation line Triple point
VAPOUR
T
Temperature
Fig. 3.1: Pressure-Temperature Diagram for Water (after

Holman, 1980)
The vaporisation process continues at constant temperature until all the

liquid water is changed to water vapour. Additional heating produces a
rise in the temperature of the vapour. At atmospheric pressure, the
fusion temperature for water is 0 oC and the vaporisation temperature is
100 oC.
Figure 2 also shows that the freezing point is altered by a change in

pressure. An increase in pressure lowers the freezing point. Figure 2 also
shows that a change in pressure alters the vaporisation point. In
particular, an increase in pressure raises the vaporisation temperature of
water.
The p - T diagram shown in figure 2 is not drawn to scale. In practice,

the fusion line is almost vertical and a large increase in pressure is
99
needed to lower the melting temperature substantially. The solid-liquid

mixture is represented by the fusion line; the liquid-vapour mixture is
represented by the vapour line; and the solid-vapour mixture is
represented by the sublimation line. The triple point is the state point
where it is possible to maintain an equilibrium mixture of the solid
phase, the liquid phase and the vapour phase. At the triple point, all the
three phases of water co-exist in equilibrium.
At the critical point, the pure vapour phase has identical properties with
a pure liquid phase at the same temperature and pressure. The surface
meniscus separating the liquid phase from the vapour phase vanishes at
the critical point. At super-critical temperatures and pressure, it is no
longer possible to observe a distinction between the liquid phase and the
vapour phase.
3.4 Saturation Regions
3.4.1 Liquid-Vapour Saturation Region
The fusion line, the vaporisation line and the sublimation line represent
saturation regions. The fusion line represents the saturation region
between the solid phase and the liquid phase; the vaporisation line
designates the saturation region between the liquid phase and the vapour
phase; the sublimation line represents the saturation region between the
solid phase and the vapour phase. The vapour present in such a mixture
is called a saturated vapour. In the saturation regions, the temperature
and the pressure remain constant. However, there is a significant change
in the specific volume (i.e. volume per unit mass) in the saturation
regions.
To quantify the properties of the liquid-vapour saturation region, we

define the quality x of the saturation region as the fraction of mass
present in the vapour phase. We also define the moisture y as the
fraction of mass present in the liquid phase. Obviously, the sum of the
two fractions must be equal to unity. Therefore, we may write.
x+ y = 1
or
y = 1- x (1)
or
Moisture = 1- x,
where
mass in the vapour phase
x=
total mass m
100
3.4.2 Wet Mixture
A wet mixture is a liquid-vapour mixture that has a quality x which is

less than 100%. The subscripts s, l and v shall be used to represent
solid phase, liquid phase and vapour phase, respectively. The lower-case
“v” shall also be used to designate specific volume (i.e. v = V m). This
means that the specific volume of a saturated liquid becomes vl while
the specific volume of a saturated vapour becomes vv . Of course, the
total volume V is given by
V = ml vl + mvvv , (2)
and the total mass m is given by
m = ml + mv ,
so that the specific volume v of an equilibrium liquid-vapour mixture
would be given by
V
v= , (3)
m
where ml is mass of the liquid phase and mv is mass of the vapour
phase. Thus,
ml vl + mv vv
v=
m
m m
v = l vl + v vv
m m
or
v = yvl + xvv .
v = (1- x)vl + xvv ,
where x = mv m and y = ml m .
Hence,
v = vl - xvl + xvv ,
or
v = vl + (vv - vl )x.
Thus,
v = vl + xvlv , (4)
where,
vlv = vv - vl . (5)
Equation (4) relates the specific volume (v) to the specific volume in the
liquid phase (vl ), the specific volume in the vapour phase (vv ) and the
quality (x ) of the saturation region.
101
3.4.3 Super-Cooled Liquid and Super-Heated Vapour
A compressed liquid is one which exists at a temperature that is lower

than the saturation temperature corresponding to its pressure. A
compressed liquid is also called a sub-cooled liquid. A Superheated
vapour is one that exists at a temperature greater than the saturation
temperature corresponding to its pressure.
3.4.4 Energy Properties of a Pure Substance
How many independent properties are necessary to define the state of a

simple, pure substance? Only two independent properties are necessary
to define the state of a simple, pure substance. The two independent
properties are temperature and specific volume. Why not pressure? In
the saturation regions, temperature and pressure are not independent
properties. Infact, a line of constant temperature is also a line of constant
pressure in all the saturation regions.
Temperature, pressure and specific volume are not the only properties of
interest when considering pure substances. Other important properties
include the specific internal energy u and the specific enthalpy h. These
energy properties may be expressed as functions of temperature T and
specific volume v in the following why:
u = u (T , v),
and
h = h (T , v).
Equation (4) relates the specific volume v to vl , vv and x since
v = vl + xvlv
in the wet mixture region. By a similar argument, you may write
u = vl + xvlv (6)
and
h = hl + xhlv (7)
in the wet mixture region.
Here,
ulv = uv - ul (8)
and
hlv = hv - hl , (9)
where ulv is the internal energy of vaporisation and hlv is the enthalpy of
vaporisation.
102
Table 3.1: Properties of Water-Saturation-Pressure Table (SI
Units)*
v in cm g = m3 kg : h and u in k J kg.k ; p in bars,1 bar = 105 pa
3
Specific volume Internal energy Enthalpy Entropy

Press Tem. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat. Sat.
bar o liquid vapor liquid vapor liquid Evap. vapor liquid vapor
p C
ul uv ul uv hl hlv hv sl sv
T
0.80 93.50 1.0380 2087. 391.58 2498.8 391.66 2274.1 2665.8 1.2329 7.4346
0.90 96.71 1.0410 1869. 405.06 2502.6 405.15 2265.7 2670.9 1.2695 7.3949
1.00 99.63 1.0432 1694. 417.36 2506.1 417.46 2258.0 2675.5 1.3026 7.3594
1.50 111.4 1.0528 1159. 466.94 2519.7 467.11 2226.5 2693.6 1.4336 7.2233
2.00 120.2 1.0605 885.7 504.49 2529.5 504.70 2201.9 2706.7 1.5301 7.1271
*Abridged from Holman (1980), Thermodynamics, McGraw-

Hill Kogakusha Ltd, Tokyo
Finally, the entropy s is another property that is extremely useful in

solving practical problems. Like the specific internal energy u and the
specific enthalpy h, the entropy s may be written in the characteristic
form
s = sl + xslv , (10)
where
slv = sv - sl , (11)
and slv is the entropy of vaporisation.
All these properties of a pure-substance are usually tabulated. In order to

solve a practical problem, it is often necessary to consult appropriate
tables. Typical values may be found in Table 1.
Exercise
Given that the pressure is 150kPa and that the quality is 1%, determine.
(i) the specific volume v ,

(ii) the enthalpy h , and
(iii) the entropy s of water.
Solution
(a) The saturation region has 1% quality at 150kPa. We therefore
consult Table 1 to obtain the following values:
vl = 1.0528´ 10- 3 m3kg - 1
vv = 1.159m3kg - 1
hl = 467.11kJkg - 1
103
hlv = 2226.5kJkg - 1
sl = 1.4336kJkg - 1K - 1
sv = 7.2233kJkg - 1K - 1
The quality x = 1% = 0.01.
(i) The specific volume v is

v = vl + xvlv ,
where
vw = vv - vl .
Thus,
\ v = (1.0528´ 10- 3 )+ (0.01)(1.159 - 1.0528´ 10- 3 )
v = (1.0528´ 10- 3 )+ (0.01)(1.1579472)
v = 0.012632272
\ v » 0.0126.
(ii) The specific enthalpy h is

h = hl + xhlv
h = 467.11 + (0.01)(2226.5)
h = 467.11 + 22.265
\ h = 489.375
(iii) The entropy s is

s = sl + xslv
s = 1.4336 + (0.01)(7.2233 - 1.4336)
s = 1.4336 + (0.01)(5.7897)
s = 1.4336 + 0.057897
s = 1.491497
\ s » 1.4915
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have been introduced to the properties of air and
ordinary water. You have seen that air is made up of nitrogen, oxygen
and other gases. You have also seen that water can exist in threes pure
phases and four equilibrium mixture phases. You have quantified the
saturation regions and calculated the specific volume, the specific
enthalpy and the entropy of a pure substance.
104
5.0 SUMMARY
 the air is made up of nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), argon

(0.9%), carbon dioxide and other gases (0.1%).
 the mean molecular weight of air at room temperature is
M = 28×97.
 the specific heat capacity of air at constant pressure
c p = 1×005 kJkg - 1K - 1.
 the specific heat capacity of air at constant volume
cv = 0×718 kJkg K . - 1 - 1
 the gas constant for air R = 287 ×1 Jkg - 1K - 1.

 the ratio of the principal specific heat capacities for air
cp
g= = 1×4.
cv
 ordinary water may exist in three pure phases:
a) solid phase
b) liquid phase, and
c) vapour phase.
 ordinary water may also exist in four equilibrium mixture phases:

a) an equilibrium mixture of liquid and vapour phases,
b) an equilibrium mixture of liquid and solid phases,
c) an equilibrium mixture of solid and vapour phases, and
d) an equilibrium mixture of solid, liquid and vapour phases.
 the mean molecular weight of water vapour at room temperature
is 18.02.
 fusion takes place when a solid changes to a liquid.
 vaporisation takes place when a liquid changes to a vapour.
 sublimation takes place when a solid changes directly to a vapour
(without passing through the liquid phase).
 a p - T diagram highlights the relative positions of the different
phases of a pure substance.
 water at atmospheric pressure may be made to exist in all the
three pure phases.
 at atmospheric pressure, the fusion temperature of water is 0oC.
 at atmospheric pressure, the vaporisation temperature of water is
100oC.
 an increase in pressure lowers, the freezing point of water.
 an increase in pressure raises the vaporisation temperature of
water.
105
 the triple point is the state point where it is possible to maintain

an equilibrium mixture of the solid phase, the liquid phase and
the vapour phase.
 at the triple point of water, all the three phases co-exist in
equilibrium.
 at the critical point, the pure vapour phase has identical properties
with the pure liquid phase at the same temperature and pressure.
 the surface meniscus seperating the liquid phase from the vapour
phase vanishes at the critical point.
 at super-critical temperatures and pressures, it is no longer
possible to observe a distinction between the liquid phase and the
vapour pahse.
 the fusion line represents the saturation region between the solid
phase and the liquid phase.
 the vaporisation line represents the saturation region between the
liquid phase and the vapour phase.
 the sublimation line represents the saturation region between the
solid phase and the vapour phase.
 in the saturation regions, the temperature and the pressure remain
constant.
 in the saturation regions, the specific volume (i.e. volume per unit
mass) changes significantly.
 the quality x of a liquid-vapour saturation region, is defined as
the fraction of mass present in the vapour phase.
 the moisture y of a liquid-vapour phase is defined as the fraction
of mass present in the liquid phase.
 the sum of the quality x and the moisture y is always unity (i.e.
x + y = 1).
 a wet mixture is a liquid-vapour mixture that has a quality x
which is less than 100%.
 a compressed liquid is one which exists at a temperature that is
lower than the saturation temperature corresponding to its
pressure (a compressed liquid is also called a super-cooled
liquid).
 a super-heated vapour is one which exists at a temperature higher
than the saturation temperature corresponding to its pressure.
 the state of a simple, pure substance may be defined using only
two independent properties (i.e. temperature and specific
volume).
 energy properties (like specific internal energy, specific enthalpy
and entropy) may be expressed in terms of temperature and
specific volume i.e.
u = u(T , v),
h = h(T , v),
and
106
s = s(T , v).
1. The dominant element in the earth’s atmosphere is

a) argon
b) carbon dioxide
c) nitrogen
d) oxygen
2. The mean molecular weight M of air is
a) M = 28×97
b) M = 18×02
c) M = 16 ×00
d) M = 14 ×00
3. The specific heat capacity of air at constant pressure is c p , where
a) c p = 0 ×718 kJkg - 1K - 1
b) c p = 1×005 kJkg - 1K - 1
c) c p = 1×400 kJkg - 1K - 1
d) c p = 287 ×100 Jkg - 1K - 1
4. For air, the gas constant is R, where
a) R = 0 ×718 kJkg - 1K - 1.
b) R = 1×005 kJkg - 1K - 1.
c) R = 1×400 kJkg - 1K - 1.
d) R = 287 ×100 kJkg - 1K - 1.
cp
5. For air, the ratio of the principal specific heat capacities = g,
cv
where
a) g = 0 ×718.
b) g = 1×005.
c) g = 1×400.
d) g = 287 ×100.
6. Ordinary water may exist in
a) solid phase only
b) liquid phase only
c) vapour phase only
d) all of the above phases
7. Ordinary water may exist in an equilibrium mixture of
a) solid and liquid phases only
b) liquid and vapour pahses only
c) solid and vapour phases only
d) all of the above equilibrium mixture phases
107
8. The mean molecular weight of water vapour at room temperature

is M , where
a) M = 28×97.
b) M = 18×02.
c) M = 16×00.
d) M = 14×00.
9. Fusion takes place when
a) a liquid changes to a vapour.
b) a solid changes to a liquid.
c) a solid changes directly to a vapour.
d) none of the above processes take place.
10. Vaporisation takes place when
a) a liquid changes to a vapour
b) a solid changes to a liquid
c) a solid changes directly to a vapour
d) none of the above processes take place
11. Sublimation takes place when
a) a liquid changes to a vapour
b) a solid changes to a liquid
c) a solid changes directly to a vapour
d) none of the above processes take place
12. At atmosphere pressure, the fusion temperature is
a) 100o C.
b) 50o C.
c) 0o C.
d) none of the above
13. At atmospheric pressure, the vaporisation temperature is
a) 100o C
b) 50o C
c) 0o C
14. At the triple point of water
a) only the solid and liquid phases coexist in equilibrium
b) only the solid and vapour phases coexist in equilibrium
c) only the liquid and vapour phases coexist in equilibrium
d) all the solid, liquid and vapour phases coexist in
equilibrium
15. At the critical point, the pure vapour phase has identical
properties with
a) the pure solid phase
b) the pure liquid phase
c) the pure gaseous phase
d) none of the above phases
16. The critical point of water is marked by the total disappearance of
the surface meniscus seperating
a) the liquid phase and the vapour phase
108
b) the solid phase and the liquid phase
c) the solid phase and the vapour phase.
d) all the three phases of the water.
17. In the saturation region, both temperature and pressure
a) are decreasing
b) are increasing
c) are fluctuating
d) remain constant
18. The saturation region may be quantified using
a) quantity and quality
b) quantity and moisture
c) quality and mixture
d) quality and moisture
19. In the equilibrium mixture of the liquid and vapour phases, the
fraction of mass present in the liquid phase is called the
a) moisture
b) mixture
c) quality
d) quantity
20. In the equilibrium mixture of the liquid and vapour phases, the
fraction of mass present in the vapour phase is called the
a) moisture
b) mixture
c) quality
d) quantity
1559.

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& Sons, Inc.

109

108.



Kogakusha Ltd.

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Astrophysics.

Macmillan Company.

University Press.
110
MODULE 2
Unit 1 The Neutral Atmosphere

Unit 2 Radioactive Transfer
Unit 3 Line Profiles
UNIT 1 THE NEUTRAL ATMOSPHERE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Layers of the Atmosphere
3.2 The Governing Equations
3.2.1 Equation of State
3.2.2 Equation of Hydrostatic Equilibrium
3.2.3 Snell’s Law
3.2.4 Water Vapour
3.2.5 Mixing Ratio
3.3 Saturation Region
3.3.1 Partial Pressure of Saturated Air
3.3.2 Propagation Delay
3.3.3 Refractivity
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Technically, the terrestrial atmosphere may be divided into two regions:

The lower atmosphere and the upper atmosphere. The lower atmosphere
starts from the ground and stops at a height of about 100 kilometres. The
upper atmosphere starts from a height of about 100 kilometres to the
near-earth spaces. However, each region may be sub-divided into
different layers. In this unit, you shall be introduced to the dynamics of
the neutral atmosphere.
111
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 classify the atmosphere into various distinct layers

 derive an expression for the vertical diminution of pressure with
height
 discuss the density profile in the lower atmosphere
 relate the partial pressure of a saturated water vapour to
temperature, latent heat and specific gas constant of the water
vapour
 discuss the effects of the troposphere on radio wave propagation.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Layers of the Atmosphere
The atmosphere of the earth may be classified in terms of:
(i) temperature
(ii) ionisation
(iii) magnetic field, and
(iv) radio wave propagation.
In terms of temperature, the atmosphere may be classified into four

distinct layers, namely:
(i) the troposphere

(ii) the stratosphere
(iii) the mesosphere, and
(iv) the thermosphere.
In terms of magnetic field the atmosphere may be classified into two

layers, namely:
(i) the dynamosphere, and

(ii) the magnetosphere.
In terms of radio wave propagation, the terrestrial atmosphere may be

classified into two:
112
(i) the troposphere, and
(ii) the ionosphere.
The ionosphere is a dispersive medium in which propagation is

frequency dependents. The troposphere is a non-dispersive medium that
is largely neutral.
Table 1 shows one possible classification scheme for the terrestrial

atmosphere.
113
Table 1. 1: A Possible Classification Scheme for the Terrestrial Atmosphere
Altitude Temperature Ionisation Magnetic Propagation Technical Escape
[km] field Properties
Thermosphere Ionosphere
10000
Protonosphere Upper
Atmosphere
Magnetosphere
1000
Ionosphere Exosphere
100
Mesosphere
Stratosphere Lower
Dynamosphere
Atmosphere
10 Neutrosphere
Troposphere Troposphere
Abridged from Yilmaz (2006). Atmosphere Physics. Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Istanbul
51
3.2 The Governing Equations
3.2.1 Equation of State
In order to discuss the neutral atmosphere effectively, you need to have

a good understanding of:
(i) the equation of state (gas equation)

(ii) the equation of hydrostatic equilibrium, and
(iii) Snell’s law.
Charles’ law states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly
proportional to its temperature, provided that the pressure remains
constant. Thus, at constant-pressure, all gases expand by a constant
1
amount (equal to 273 of the volume at 0oC) for every 1oC rise in
temperature. This is known as Charles’ constant-pressure law.
Conversely, if the volume is kept constant, all gases undergo an increase
 1 

in pressure  equal to of their pressure at 0 oC  for every 1 oC rise in
273 
temperature. This is known as Charles’ constant-volume law. Thus,
Charles’ law states that the ratio of volume to temperature of a fixed
mass of gas is constant i.e.
V
 constant,
T
provided that the pressure remains constant.
Boyles’ law states that the volume of a fixed mass gas is inversely
proportional to its pressure, provided that the temperature remains
constant. Thus, at constant temperature the product of pressure and
volume remains constant. This implies that
pV  constant.
In the light of these laws, the equation of state for an ideal gas may be
formulated as follows:
pV  nkT  1
where p is pressure V is volume, n is number of molecules, T  is

absolute temperature and k is Boltzmann constant. You may, however,
choose to define the temperature T (in energy units) such that T  kT .
In this case, the equation of state reduces to
51
pV  nT ,
Or
n
p   T .  2
V 
By defining the number density N as the number of molecules per unit

volume, you obtain
n
N .  3
V
Hence, Eq. (2) may be written, in the light of Eq. (3), as
p  NT ,  4
where N is the number density.
3.2.2 Equation of Hydrostatic Equilibrium
The equation of hydrostatic equilibrium expresses the balance between

the gravitational force at any point and the pressure gradient at that
point. Thus, the hydrostatic equation may be expressed as
dp
  g ,  5
dz
where p is the pressure,  is the mass density, g is the acceleration

due to gravity and z is the height.
Equation (5) implies that the change in pressure dp may be expressed as
dp    gdz.  6
Equations(4) and (6) imply that

dp  gdz

p NT
or
dp dz
 7
p H
where the scale height H is given by
52
NT
H . 8
g
The scale height H may be defined in terms of the mean molecular

mass m at any given height. Noting that the total mass M of the
molecules is given by
M  V ,
you find that
nm  V , 9
Since
M  nm.
Equation (9) indicates that the mean molecular mass m is given by
V 
m   10
n
Equation (3) and (10) show that the mean molecular mass m is given by

m . 11
N
Equation (8) may now be rewritten as
 N  T 
H    
   g 
or
 1  T 
H     .
 m  g 
Therefore, the scale height H may be written as
T
H , 12
mg
where m is the mean molecular mass at a given height.
By integrating Eq.(7) from some reference height z  zo
 at a pressure p  po  to an arbitrary height z  at a pressure p  , you obtain
the following:
p z
dp dz
p p   z H
o o
z
dz
ln p  p  
p
o
zo
H
z
dz
ln p  In po   
zo
H
 p z
dz
ln     
 po  zo
H
53
p  z dz 
 exp    
po  z H
 o 
 z dz 
 p  po exp     .
 z H
 o 
Equation (13) shows how the pressure p varies with height z . It shows
that the pressure decreases exponentially with height. Clearly, a large
scale height is associated with the low-pressure regions of the
atmosphere.
Equation (13) may also be used to find the distribution of the number
density with height. You will recall that
p  NT  4
so that , at some reference point where p  po and T  To , the number
density No is given by the expression
po  NoTo .
Hence, you can take appropriate ratios to obtain
p NT
 ,
po N oTo
so that
 NT 
p  po  . 14
 N oTo 
But, Eq (13) shows that the pressure p is given by

 z dz 
p  po exp     ,
 z H
13
 o 
so that Eq.(13) assumes the form
 NT   z dz 
po    po exp    
 N oTo   zo H 
Or
 NoTo   dz 
z
N   exp     15
 T   zo H 
Equation (15) shows that the number density N diminishes

exponentially with height too. It indicates that a large scale height is
associated with a light gas.
In an isothermal atmosphere the temperature remains constant and the

scale height becomes constant too. In consequence, Eq. (13) reduces to
54
 z  z 
p  p0 exp  0  , 16
 H 
where p0 is the pressure at some reference height z0 .
Also, in an isothermal atmosphere, the temperature remains constant so
that T  To . In this case, Eq.(15) reduces to
  z  z0  
N  No exp   , 17 
 H 
where N is the number density at some reference height z0 .
3.2.3 Snell’s Law
Snell’s law states that the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to
the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant. That constant is a
measure of the refractive index. When a radio signal passes through the
atmosphere its direction changes due to refraction.
Consider a neutral atmosphere that is horizontally stratified into m

layers. If the ionospheric refraction is neglected then the total change in
the direction of a radio signal passing through the atmosphere can be
found by repeatedly applying Snell’s law to each layer of the
atmosphere (figure 2). In this case, Snell’s law is given by
n1 sin 1  sin m .
Zi1 ni 1
Zi  i
ni
Fig. 1.2: Snell’s Law in Cartesian Coordinates for Horizontally

Stratified Atmosphere ( Zi is Zenith Angle of Layer i ;
ni is Refractive Index of Layer
i;  m is the angle of incidence at the near  Earth space).
Abridged from Yilmaz (2006). Atmosphere Physic., Canakkale Onsekiz

Mart University, Istanbul
55
3.2.4 Water Vapour
The troposphere contains both water vapour and dry air. The amount of
water vapour varies with time and location. On the other hand, the
composition of dry air does not vary significantly with height. To
understand water vapour one needs to have a good knowledge of some
vapour-related quantities like:
(i) mixing ratio

(ii) partial pressure of vapour, and
(iii) relative humidity.
3.2.5 Mixing Ratio
A mixture of dry air and water vapour is called moist air. The mixing
ratio gives a measure of the amount of moisture in the air. The mixing
ratio w is defined as the ratio of the mass of water vapour to the mass of
dry air. Thus,
mv  m  V   m   m  
w   v     v    d   v , 1
md  V   md   V   V  d
where v is density of water vapour and  d is density of dry air.
The equation of state holds for a fixed mass of gas. It also holds for a
mixture of gases. Now, the equation of state
pV  RT  2
can be written in terms of the specific volume and the specific gas
constant for the ith gas as follows:
pV  mi RTi  3
where Ri is the specific gas constant and mi is the mean molecular mass
R
of the ith gas. Of course, the specific gas constant Ri  , where R is
mi
the universal gas constant.
Equation (2) can also be re-written in terms of the specific volume as

follows:
pV  mi RT
i ,
or
56
m 
p   i  RT
i ,
V 
Or
p  i RTi ,  4
mi
where i is the density of the ith gas defined by i  . Thus, the
V
pressure p may be written as
p  i RT
i .
(Note that the specific volume vi is mass per unit volume i.e.
V 1
vi   ).
mi i
If this new version of the equation of state is applied to water vapour,

you obtain
e  v RvT  5
where e is the partial pressure of water vapour. If the same version of
the equation of state is applied to dry air, you get
pd  p  e  d RdT  6
where p is the total pressure of the moist air and Rd is the specific gas
constant of dry air.
The mixing ratio may therefore be defined in the light of equations (5)
and (6). From Eq.(5), you see that
e
v  . 7
RvT
From Eq. (6), you find that
pe
d  . 8
RdT
But, the mixing ratio

w v 9
d
or
e pe
w  ,
RvT RdT
or
e RT
w  d ,
RvT p  e
or
eRd
w ,
Rv  p  e 
57
Or
e
w , 10
pe
where  is the ratio of the specific gas constant for dry air to the specific
 Rd 
gas constant for vapour  i.e.   .
 Rv 
Experiments show that the specific gas constants Rd and Rv are given by
Rd  237  06  0  01 Jkg 1K 1 ,
and
Rv  461 525  0  003 Jkg 1K 1 ,
so that
R
  d  0  622. 11
Rv
The partial pressure of water vapour is typically about 1% of the total

pressure of the moist air. It can be shows that mixing ratio w is roughly
equal to the specific humidity q  i.e. w  q  .
3.3 Saturation Region
3.3.1 Partial Pressure of Saturated Air
In a closed system, equilibrium will be established when the number of

water molecules passing from the liquid phase to the vapour phase is
equal to the number of water molecules passing from the vapour to the
liquid phase. Any vapour that meets this requirement is called a
saturated vapour. A mixture of vapour and air under equilibrium
conditions is called a saturated air. When a saturated air comes in
contact with an unsaturated air, diffusion begins to take place.
Molecules of water move from areas of higher concentration of water
vapour to areas of lower concentration of water vapour.
The partial pressure of a saturated water vapour depends on the

temperature. A warm air can contain large amounts of water vapour.
When the warm air is cooled, the surplus of the water vapour (over and
above the saturation value) at the new temperature condenses to form
water. The condensation process leads to energy release. The energy
released per unit mass is equal to the latent heat of vaporisation. Two
more latent heats exist: the latent heat of fusion and the latent heat of
sublimation. The latent heat of fusion is the energy required to change a
58
unit mass of ice to liquid water at the same temperature. The latent heat
of sublimation is the sum of the latent heat of fusion and the latent heat
of vaporisation.
By extension of Eq. (10), the saturation mixing ratio wsat may be defined
as
esat
wsat   13
p  esat
If the total pressure p is significantly higher than the saturated partial
pressure e of the water vapour then the saturation mixing ratio becomes
e
wsat   . 14 
p
The relative humidity rh is the ratio of the mixing ratio to the saturation
mixing ratio. Thus, provided that p is large compared with both e and
esat , the relative humidity rh is given by
 e  e 
rh        sat 
 p  p 
e p
 
p  esat
e
 .
esat
hence,
w e
rh    15
wsat esat
It is often necessary to express the relative humidity in percentage. In

this case the two expressions for relative humidity become:
100w 100e
rh  %  %, 16
wsat esat
where rh is the relative humidity and p is large compared with both
e and esat .
3.3.2 Propagation Delay
The condition of the troposphere has a profound effect on radio wave

propagation. A radio signal suffers delay by a neutral atmosphere. The
total delay depends on the refractivity along the path of the radio signal.
The refractivity itself depends on primary parameters like temperature
and pressure.
Fermat’s principle is the basic physical law governing radio wave

propagation. Fermat’s principle shows that light and other
59
electromagnetic waves will follow a path between two points which

involves the least travel time.
To understand this, let us define the optical (or electromagnetic) distance

S between the source and the receiver as:
S   cdt , 19
where c is the speed of light and t is time.
Let us also define the electromagnetic path s as:
s   vdt ,  20
where v is the propagation speed given by
ds
v .  21
dt
Now, the refractive index n of a medium is the ratio of the speed of light
in free space to the speed of light in the medium i.e.
c
n ,  22a 
v
Or
c
v ,  22b 
n
where c is the speed of light in vacuum and v is the speed of light in the
medium.
Equations (21) and (22) indicate that

ds c
 ,
dt n
so that
nds  cdt ,
and, therefore,
c
 n  s  ds   v ds   cdt.  23
Equations (19), (22) and (23) show that the electromagnetic distance
c
S   cdt   n  s  ds   ds.  24
v
The excess path length D caused by the troposphere is given by
 
D    n  s  ds  ds     ds   dl  .  25
 
s l 
60
The excess path length D is also called the delay. It is measured in the
slant direction caused by the troposphere.
The right-hand side of Eq.(25) is the sum of two excess path lengths: the
first term represents the excess length caused by the propagation delay;
the second term represents the excess path length caused by the bending
of the radio signal.
3.3.3 Refractivity N
The refractive index n is always a small number (in the neighbourhood

of 1). It is often more convenient to work with a parameter with large
spread. For that reason, the refractivity N is often used. In relation to
the refractive index n , the refractivity N is defined by the expression
N   n  1 106.  27 
Evidently, the range of values of the refractivity can be much more

manageable than the corresponding range of values of the refractive
index. For instance, in the ionosphere the values of refractivity N
ranges from zero to about 300, whereas the values of the refractive index
n remains clustered in the neighbourhood of unity.
The neutral atmosphere contains both dry air and water vapour. For this
reason, the refractivity N can be split into a dry air component and a
water vapour component. Thus, we may write
N  Nd  Nv ,  28
where Nd the refractivity of is dry air and N v is the refractivity of water
vapour. This is a wise decision since the dry air content remains nearly
constant in time whereas the water vapour content varies widely in time
and space.
For frequencies up to 20GHz, the refractivity may be written, as a

function of temperature and partial pressure, in the following manner:
 p
Nd   k1 d  Zd1,  29
 T
and
 e e
Nv   k 2  k3 2  Zv1, 30
 T T 
where Z  is the compressibility factor of dry air, Z v is the

compressibility factor for water vapour and ki  i  1,2,3 are dimensional
61
constants. The unit of k1 and k2 is Kelvin per millibar;  K mbar 1  . The

unit of k3 is Kelvin squared per millibar  K 2 mbar 1  . For an ideal gas,
the compressibility factor is equal to 1. Any departure of Z from unity
accounts for the non-ideal behaviour of the affected gas. Fortunately, the
compressibility factor for both dry air and water vapour is roughly equal
to 1, so that
Z d  Zv  1.
Thus, dry air and water vapour may be treated as ideal gases. In this
case, Eqs (29) and (30) reduce to
pd
N d  k1 , 31
T
and
e e
N v  k2  k3 2 ,  32 
T T
respectively.
Above the troposphere, there is practically no more water vapour. Thus,
at high altitudes the contribution of the wet refractivity to the total
refractivity becomes small. This is so because, the wet refractivity drops
much faster than the dry refractivity as the height increases.
The propagation delay depends on both the refractivity and the path of
the radio signal. In turn, the refractivity depends on both temperature
and pressure. We therefore require adequate information on the
temperature and the pressure in order to determine the propagation
delay.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have been introduced to different ways of classifying

the atmosphere into distinct layers. You have seen how the equation of
state and the equation of hydrostatic equilibrium may be used to derive
expressions that give the pressure and the density profiles. You found
that the partial pressure of water vapour is about 1% of the total pressure
of a moist air. You also found that the mixing ratio is roughly equal to
the specific humidity. Finally, you have seen that the refractivity
depends on both temperature and pressure. In turn, the propagation
delay depends on both the refractivity and the path of the radio signal.
5.0 SUMMARY
62
 the lower atmosphere starts from the mean sea level and stops at
a height of about 100km
 the upper atmosphere starts from a height of about 100km and
stops at the near-earth space
 the atmosphere may be classified (in terms of temperature,
ionisation, magnetic field, escape properties, and radio wave
propagation) into distinct layers
 the equation of state, pV  nkT ', may be written as pV  nT
provided that the temperature T ' is defined in energy units such
that T  kT '.
 by defining the number density N as the number of molecules
per unit volume, the equation of state becomes
n
p  NT , where N  
V
 the equation of hydrostatic equilibrium may be expressed as
dp
  g,
dz
where p is pressure,  is mass density, g is acceleration due to
gravity, and z is height.
 the scale height H may be defined in terms of the mean
molecular mass m, at any given height, such that
T
H 
mg
 a large scale height is associated with the low-pressure regions
of the atmosphere
 the pressure p is distributed according to the expression
 z dz 
p  p0 exp     .
 z H
 0 
 the number density N is distributed according to the relation
 z dz 
N  N 0 exp     .
 z H
 0 
 Snell’s law implies that the ratio of the sine of the angle of
incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant n
known as refractive index
 when a radio signal passes through the atmosphere, its direction
changes due to refraction
 the troposphere contains both dry air and water vapour
 some of the vapour-related quantities needed to investigate the
properties of water vapour are mixing ratio, relative humidity and
partial pressure of the vapour
 a mixture of dry air and water vapour is called a moist air
63
 the mixing ratio of a moist air is the ratio of the mass of water
vapour to the mass of dry air present in the moist air
 the partial pressure of water vapour is typically about 1% of the
total pressure of the moist air
 the mixing ratio w is approximately equal to the specific
humidity q.
 a saturated vapour is one in which the number of molecules
passing from the liquid phase to the vapour phase is equal to the
number of molecules returning from the vapour phase to the
liquid phase
 diffusion begins to take place when an unsaturated vapour comes
in contact with a sutured vapour (molecules from the areas of
higher concentration of water vapour move to areas of lower
concentration of water vapour)
 the saturation mixing ratio wsat may be expressed as
esat
wsat   ,
p  esat
where esat is the partial pressure of the saturated water vapour,
and  is the ratio of the specific gas constant for dry air to the
specific gas constant for water vapour
 the partial pressure of a saturated water vapour depends on the
temperature
 the relative humidity rh is the ratio of the mixing ratio to the
saturation mixing ratio i.e.
w e
rh   ,
wsat esat
where e is partial pressure and w is mixing ratio
 the neutral atmosphere contains both dry air and water vapour.
 in relation to the refractive index n, the refractivity N is defined
by the expression N   n  1 106.
 the refractivity of the atmosphere N is the sum of the
refractivity of dry air  N d  and the refractivity of water vapour
 Nv  i.e.
N  Nd  Nv .
 the condition of the troposphere affects radio wave propagation
significantly
 the propagation delay depends on both the refractivity and
the path of the radio signal.
64
1. The lower atmosphere starts form the ground and stops at height
of about
a) 10km
b) 20km
c) 50km
d) 100km
2.
The upper limit of the upper atmosphere is the near-earth space
while the lower limit of the upper atmosphere is about
a) 10km above the ground

b) 20km above the ground
c) 50km above the ground
d) 100km above the ground
3. The atmosphere may be classified in terms of
a) temperature only
b) ionisation only
c) magnetic field only
d) all of the above parameters
4. The equation of state may be written as p  NT , where N is the

number density, provided that the temperature T is measured in
a) Kelvin
b) Celsius degree
c) Energy unit
d) Newton
dp
5. The equation    g is known as the equation of
dz
a) state
b) motion
c) continuity
d) hydrostatic equilibrium
6. The equation pV  nkT ' is known as the equation of
a) state
b) motion
c) continuity
d) hydrostatic equilibrium
65
T
7. In the equation H  , the quantity H represents
mg
a) height
b) scale height
c) humidity
8. A small scale height is associated with those regions of an

isothermal atmosphere in which
a) the pressure is low

b) the pressure is high
c) the temperature is increasing
d) the temperature is decreasing
9. The pressure p is distributed according to the relation

 z  z0 
p  p0 exp   ,
 H 
provided that the atmosphere is
a) adiabatic
b) isothermal
c) isochoric
d) isobaric
10. The number density N is distributed according to the relation

 z  z0 
N  N 0 exp   , provided that the atmosphere is
 H 
a) adiabatic
b) isothermal
c) isochoric
d) isobaric
11. When a radio signal passes through the atmosphere it is
a) amplified
b) terminated
c) refracted
d) elliptically polarised
12. The troposphere contains
a) only dry air

b) only water vapour
66
c) dry air and water vapour
d) liquid hydrogen only
13. In order to investigate the behaviour of water vapour, one needs

to know something about
a) mixing ratio only

b) Humidity only
c) partial pressure of the water vapour only
d) all of the above quantities
14. The ratio of the mass of water vapour to the mass of dry air in a
moist air is called
a) mixing ratio
b) humidity
c) partial pressure of the water vapour
d) all of the above names
15. Typically, the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapour to the
total pressure of a moist air is
a) 0.01
b) 0.10
c) 1.00
d) none of the above values
16. A vapour in which the number of molecules passing from the

liquid phase to the vapour phase is equal to the number of
molecules returning from the vapour phase to the liquid phase
is called
a) an unsaturated vapour
b) a saturated vapour
c) a concentrated vapour
d) a diffusive vapour
17. The ratio of the mixing ratio to the saturation mixing ratio is
called
a) relative humidity
b) absolute humidity
c) refractive index
d) refractivity
67
18. If Nd is the refractivity of dry air and N v is the refractivity of

water vapour then the refractivity N of the atmosphere is given
by
Nd
a) N .
Nv
b) N  Nd Nv .
c) N  Nd  Nv .
d) N  Nd  Nv .
19. In relation to the refractive index n, the refractivity N is defined

by the expression
a) N  n 1.
b) N  n  1.
c) N  106  n  1 .
d) N  106  n  1 .
20. The propagation delay depends on
a) the refractive index alone

b) the refractivity alone
c) the path of the radio signal alone
d) the refractivity and the path of the radio signal
1559.

and Biology.


Cutnell, J.D. & K.W. Johnson, (1977). Physics. New York: John Wiley
& Sons, Inc.
68

108.



Kogakusha Ltd.

SPRINGER.
Berkshire.



Astrophysics.

Macmillan Company.

University Press.
69

70
UNIT 2 RADIATIVE TRANSFER
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Meaning of Radiative Transfer
3.2 Intensity and Flux
3.3 Luminosity
3.4 Radiative Transfer Equation
3.5 Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium (LTE)
3.6 Application to Radio Waves
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
A wealth of information is available on the electromagnetic spectrum of

gas clouds and stellar atmospheres. The electromagnetic spectrum of
interest ranges from metre radio waves (i.e. photons with energies less
than 10- 6 eV ) to hard X-rays and g - rays (i.e. photons with energies
greater than 106 eV ). As radiation travels through a gas cloud or stellar
atmosphere, its intensity changes. The change in intensity of the
radiation depends on a number of factors. In this unit, you shall be
introduced to the basic spectroscopic concepts and radiation transfer
mechanisms.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 distinguish between intensity and flux, and relate luminosity to

flux
 derive the equation of radioactive transfer
 discuss the concept of local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE)
 apply the LTE approximation of the equation of radiative transfer
to radio waves.
71
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Meaning of Radiative Transfer
How does the flow of radioactive energy change as one moves through a
gas that emits and absorbs radiation? How can one predict the spectrum
that emerges from a given gas cloud or stellar atmosphere as a function
of direction and frequency? How can one produce a model of the cloud
or stellar atmosphere, for a given energy input, in order to be able to
predict how the temperature runs through the cloud or stellar
atmosphere? These are some the questions which scientists workings on
radioactive transfer seek to answer.
3.2 Intensity, and Flux
Intensity and flux are the two fundamental measures of energy flow.
Intensity is the energy flow in a particular direction through a unit area
per unit time per unit solid angle, where the unit area is perpendicular
to the chosen direction defined by the solid angle. Flux is the net energy
flow through a unit area per unit time, summed over all directions,
where the unit area is fixed as being perpendicular to the direction in
which the net flow of radiation is proceeding. Thus, the flux is obtained
by summing the intensity over all directions.
For an isotropic intensity, the positive and negative contributions will

cancel out reducing the flux to zero. Quantitatively, the flux F and the
intensity I are related by the expression
F= ò I cos qdW (1)
where dW is an element of the solid angle, and q is the angle between
the fixed direction defined by flux and the variable direction defined by
the intensity.
The intensity is measured per unit area perpendicular to the line of sight.
The flux is measured per unit area perpendicular to the fixed direction of
the net flow of energy (Figure 1). This explains why a projection factor
(cosq) appears in Eq. (1).
72
Flux
Intensity
d
Unit area
Fig.2. 1: Flux and Intensity
Scientists are usually interested in monochromatic intensities and fluxes

e.g. intensity per unit frequency interval at the frequency v . Here, such
specific intensities and fluxes are denoted by I n and Fn respectively.
The quantities I and I n are related by the following integral:
I= ò I d n.
n (2)
By solving for intensity as a function of direction and integrating, you
obtain the net flow of radiation (i.e. flux) proceeding from a stellar
atmosphere or gas cloud.
3.3 Luminosity L
The luminosity L of a star is closely related to the flux F . Consider a

spherical star of radius R. If the flux evaluated at the surface is F , then
the luminosity L is given by
L = 4p R 2 F
Thus, for a point object at a distance d , the luminosity is given by
L = 4p d 2 F ,
so that the flux becomes
L
F= .
4p d 2
In the case of an extended object, resolved in angle by the telescope, the
intensity received from various parts of the body is called the surface
73
brightness of the object. If the object has uniform surface brightness,

then the intensity is independent of distance.
3.4 Radioactive Transfer Equation
Consider a pencil of radiation of frequency n travelling in the

atmosphere. As the radiation travels a distance ds, its specific intensity
changes according to the expression.
dIn = en ds - k n ds, (3)
where  v is the emission coefficient,  v is the absorption coefficient and
I v is the specific intensity.
The optical depth t n along a direction r is defined by the equation

d t n = - k n dr, (4)
where r makes an angle q with ds.
Now, you can write
dt n
- kn =
dr
on account of Eq (4).
Using Eq (5) in Eq (3), you get
æd t ö
dIn = en ds + çç n ÷÷÷In ds (6)
çè dr ø
The presence of the projection factor cosq implies that

dr = cos qds (7)
Using Eq (7) in Eq (6), you find that
æ dt n ÷ ö
dI n = en ds + çç ÷
÷I n ds
çècos qds ø
or
æ 1 ö ÷
dI n = en ds + çç ÷
÷I n d t n
çècos q ø
Dividing each term by d t n , you obtain
dI n ds æ 1 ÷ ö
= en + çç ÷
÷In . (8)
dt n ç
d t n è cos q ø
Eq (7) implies that

æ 1 ö ÷
ds = çç ÷
÷dr
çècos q ø
Using Eq (9) in Eq (8), you get
74
dI n æ 1 ö dr æ ö
= en çç ÷
÷ + çç 1 ÷ ÷
dt n ÷d t
çè cos q ø ÷I n .
èç cos q ø
n
Multiplying across by cos q, you get
dIn dr
cos q = en + In . (10)
dt n dt n
Now, it is easy to see that
dr 1
=- (11)
dt n kn
on account of Eq. (5).

Using Eq. (11) in Eq. (10) you obtain
dI n e
cos q = - n + In
dt n kn
or
dI n e
m = In - n , (12)
dt kn
where the projection factor
m = cos q. (13)
Equation (13) is the basic equation of radiative transfer. It has with the
following sign convention:
(i) I n is positive outwards (towards the observer).

(ii) t n is positive inwards (starting from zero at a surface “nearest”
the observer).
(iii) s is positive inwards (staring from zero at a surface nearest the
observer).
The ratio of the emission coefficient to the absorption coefficient defines

the source function Sn . Thus, the source function Sn is given by
en
Sn = . (14)
kn
where  v and  v are the emission and absorption coefficients
respectively.
3.5 Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium (LTE)
In the stellar atmosphere, it is impossible to achieve complete

thermodynamic equilibrium. If there were complete thermodynamic
equilibrium, the temperature would be the same everywhere with no
75
temperature gradient to drive an outward flow of radiation. Besides, if

the temperature were the same everywhere, then the radiation field
would be isotropic so that the positive contributions and the negative
contributions would cancel out, resulting in zero flux. No doubt, a
complete thermodynamic equilibrium cannot occur in stellar
atmosphere. However, a sufficiently small region of the stellar
atmosphere may attain roughly the same temperature. In this case, the
affected region may be characterised by a single local temperature. Such
a small region is said to be in local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE).
The LTE approximation greatly simplifies the solution of the equation

of radiative transfer. For instance, when LTE reigns, the ratio en k n
depends only on the temperature T , and the source function Sn is simply
the Planck function Bn (T ). Thus, under LTE conditions, the source
function Sn may be written as
- 1
2hn 3 é hn ù
Sn = Bn (T ) = 2 êexp - 1ú , (15)
c êë kT ú û
where n is frequency, h is Planck’s constant, k is Boltzmann’s
constant, and c is the speed of light.
Planck’s law can also be written in terms of the wavelength l . To do

this, we require that
Bn d n = - Bl dl
or
dn B
=- l . (16)
dl Bn
The negative sign indicates that the wavelength decreases with
increasing frequency.
Now, the velocity of light is equal to the product of the frequency and
the wavelength. Thus,
c = nl
or
- 1
n = cl .
Differentiating the above expression, you find that
dn - 2
= - cl (17)
dl
Comparing Eq (16) and Eq (17), you get
Bl - 2
- = - cl
Bn
or
æc ö
Bl = çç 2 ÷
çèl ÷ (18)
÷B.
ø n
76
But, Planck’s function Bv (T ) is given by
- 1
2hn 3 é æhn ö ù
Bn (T ) = 2 êexp çç ÷÷- 1ú
c êë çè kT ÷
ø úû
so that
- 1
æ c ö 2hn 3 é æhn ö÷ ù
Bl (T ) = çç 2 ÷ êexp ç ÷- 1ú .
çèl ÷
.
ø c 2 êë èçç kT ø÷ ú
÷
û
c
Also, the frequency v may be written as v = so that
l
- 1
æ c ö÷ 2h æc ö÷ é æ hc ö÷ ù
3
Bl (T ) = çç 2 ÷ × ×ç ÷ êexp ç ÷- 1ú .
èçl ø÷ c 2 èççl ø÷ êë èççl kT ø÷ úû
Simplifying, you find that Bl (T ) is given by
-1
2hc 2 é æ hc ö÷ ù
Bl (T ) = 5 êexp çç ÷- 1ú . (19)
l êë çèl kT ø÷ úû
3.6 Application to Radio Waves
Radio waves have long wavelengths and low frequencies. For that
hn
reason, the quantity is very small. In particular, hn = kT .
kT
Now, consider the exponential term in Eq (15). Rewrite the exponential

function as
æhn ö x
exp çç ÷ ÷
÷= e ,
çè kT ø
where
hn
x= .
kT
The power series development of e x is
x2
ex = 1+ x + +L (20)
2!
Recall that the following inequality holds:
hn = kT .
This implies that
hn
= 1,
kT
or
x = 1. (21)
Since x = 1, you may retain only the first two terms of the power series
expansion of e x . Thus, you may write
77
e x » 1+ x (22)
Or
æhn ö hn
expçç ÷÷÷» 1+ . (23)
çèkT ø kT
Using Eq. (23) in Eq (15), you find that Bv (T ) reduces to

- 1
2hn 3 éæ hn ö
÷
ù
Bn (T ) » êçç1 + ÷- 1ú ,
c ëèç kT ø ú
2 ê ÷
û
or
- 1
2hn 3 æ ö
ç hn ÷
Bn (T ) » 2 ç ÷
c çè kT ÷ ø
or
2hn 3 æ ö
ç kT ÷
Bn (T ) » 2 ç ÷
÷
ç
c è hn ø
Hence, the Planck’s function Bv (T ) assumes the form

æ2kT ö
Bn (T ) » çç 2 ÷÷÷n 2 . (24)
çè c ø
Equation (24) gives a particularly simple version of Bv (T ) . It applies
only when LTE reigns and the affected frequency is so low that
hv = kT . You have seen that radio waves satisfy the required condition,
hn = kT . For this reason, it is appropriate to use the expression for
source function given by Eq.(24) when dealing with radio signals.
In terms of the wavelength, Eq. (19) may be processed as follows:

- 1
2hc 2 é æ hc ö ù
Bl (T ) = êexp çç ÷
÷- 1ú
l5 êë èçl kT ÷
ø úû
For radio signals,
hc = l kT
so that
æ hc ÷ ö hc
exp çç ÷
÷ » 1+ .
çèl kT ø l kT
Thus, in terms of l , the source function becomes:

- 1
2hc 2 é hc ù
Bl (T ) » ê1 + - 1ú
l êë l kT ú
5
û
or
- 1
2hc 2 æ hc ÷ö
Bl (T ) » ×çç ÷
l 5 çèl kT ÷
ø
or
78
2hc 2 l kT
Bl (T ) » × .
l 5 hc
Again, the Planck’s function Bl (T ) assumes the following simple form:
2ckT
Bl (T ) » 4 . (25)
l
Equations (3), (4), (12), (15), (19) (24) and (25) form the basis for
discussion of transport of continuum radiation. However, the source
function Sn may depart significantly from the Planck’s function Bn (T ) if
strong spectral lines are involved. In that case, Sn resembles the
direction-averaged mean intensity J n defined by
1
Jn =
4p ò I d W,
n
where W is solid angle. For such strong spectral lines, the LTE
approximation breaks down. For that reason, we must replace the LTE
conditions by the assumption of a statistically steady state in each
atomic energy level. We shall return to this case in your study of line
profiles.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have been introduced to the concept of intensity, flux
and luminosity. You have derived the equation of radioactive transfer.
You have seen that LTE approximation can greatly simplify the
expression for the source function in the equation of radiative transfer.
Finally you have applied the LTE approximation of the equation of
radiative transfer to radio waves.
5.0 SUMMARY
 the intensity of a radiation changes as the radiation travels

through a gas cloud or stellar atmosphere.
 intensity is the energy flow in any chosen direction through a unit
area per unit time per unit solid angle, where the unit area is
perpendicular to the chosen direction defined by the solid angle.
 flux is the net flow of energy through a unit area per unit time,
summed over all directions, where the unit area is fixed as being
perpendicular to the direction in which the net flow of radiation is
proceeding.
 for an isotropic intensity, the positive and negative contributions
will cancel out reducing the flux to zero .
 the flux F and the intensity I are related by the expression
79
F   I cos  d 
where d is an element of the solid angle and  is the angle
between the fixed direction (defined by the flux) and the variable
direction (defined by the intensity).
 the intensity is measured per unit area perpendicular to the line of
sight while the flux is measured per unit area perpendicular to the
fixed direction of the net flow of energy.
 the intensity I and the specific intensity I are related by the
expression
I   I d ,
where I the specific intensity (i.e. I is the intensity per unit
frequency interval at the frequency v ).
 the luminosity L of a spherical star is related to the flux
according to the expression.
L  4 R 2 F ,
where R is the radius of the star and F is the flux .
 in the case of an extended object, resolved in angle by the
telescope, the intensity received from various parts of the body is
called the surface brightness of the body.
 if the surface brightness of a body is uniform then the intensity is
independent of distance.
 as radiation travels a distance ds, its specific intensity I will
change according to the expression
dI   ds   ds,
where  is the emission coefficient,  is the absorption
coefficient, and I is the specific intensity.
 the optical depth  along a direction r is defined by the
expression
d   dr ,
where r makes an angle  with the direction in which the
distance ds is traveled by the radiation.
 the basic equation of radiative transfer is
dI 
 v  Iv  v ,
d v v
where the projection factor   cos .
 the equation of transfer goes with the following sign convention:
a) I v is positive outwards (starting from zero at a surface

nearest the source and increasing toward the observer).
80
b)  v is positive inwards (starting from zero at a surface
nearest the observer and increasing further away from
the observer).
c) s is positive inwards (starting from zero at a surface
nearest the observer and increasing further away from
the observer).
 the ratio of the emission coefficient  v to the absorption

coefficient  defines the source function S , such that

Sv  v .
v
 in the stellar atmosphere, it is impossible to achieve complete
thermodynamic equilibrium (otherwise, the temperature would
be the same everywhere with no temperature gradient to drive an
outward flow of energy)
 a sufficiently small region of a stellar atmosphere may attain
roughly the same temperature (characterised by a single local
temperature) thereby achieving local thermodynamic equilibrium
(LTE).
 the LTE approximation can greatly simplify the source function
in the equation of transfer.
 under LTE conditions, the source function S v may be written (in
terms of frequency) as
1
2hv3   hv  
Sv  Bv T   2 exp    1 ,
c   kT  
where Bv T  is the Planck’s function, h is Planck’s constant,
k is Boltzmann’s constant and c is the speed of light.
 under LTE conditions, the source function S v may be written (in
terms of wavelength) as
1
2hc3   hc  
S  B T   5 exp    1 ,
    kT  
where  is the wavelength and T is the temperature.
 radio waves have long wavelengths and low frequencies so that
 hv 
hv  kT  i.e  1 which implies that the source function S
 kT 
is given by
2kT 2
a) Sv  B T   (in terms of frequency), or
c2
2ckT
b) S  B T   (in terms of wavelength).
 4
81
 for strong spectral lines, the LTE approximation breaks down

and the source function S departs significantly from the
Planck’s function B T  .
 we must replace the LTE conditions by the assumption of a
statistically steady state in each atomic energy level if the LTE
approximation breaks down.
1) As radiation travels through a gas cloud or stellar atmosphere, its

intensity
a) remains constant
b) becomes zero
c) becomes infinite
d) changes
2) The energy flow in a particular direction through a unit area
(perpendicular to the chosen direction) per unit time per unit solid
angle (defining the chosen direction) is called
a) luminosity
b) flux
c) intensity
d) specific intensity
3) The net energy flow through a unit area (perpendicular to the
direction of the net flow of radiation) summed over all directions
is called
a) luminosity
b) flux
c) intensity
d) specific intensity
4) If the luminosity L of a spherical star of radius R is given by
 3 
L  F,
 R 
then the quantity  must be the
a) number density of the star
b) the surface area of the star
c) the volume of the star
d) mass density of the star
5) If the surface brightness of a body is uniform then the intensity
a) depends on distance
b) does not depend on distance
c) is always constant
d) is always zero
82
6) If radiation travels a distance ds through a gas cloud with an
absorption coefficient  and an emission coefficient  , the
intensity of the radiation changes by an amount dI given by
a) dI   ds   ds.
b) dI   ds   ds.
c) dI       ds
d) none of the above expressions
7) In the expression d v   v dr , the optical depth is denoted by
a) r.
b)  .
c)  .
d) dr.
8) If the angle between the line-of-sight and the direction of net flow
of radiation is zero, then the equation of radiative transfer
becomes
dI 
a)    I   .
d 
dI 
b)  I   .
d 

c) 0  I   .

dI 
d)  I   .
d 
9) The sign convention for the equation of transfer is/are
a) I is positive outwards only
b)  is positive inwards only
c) s is positive inwards only
d) all of the above statements
(10) The ratio of the emission coefficient to the absorption coefficient
is called the
a) optical depth
b) source function
c) projection factor
d) Planck’s function
(11) Under local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE) conditions, the
source function becomes approximately equal to
a) the optical depth
b) the projection factor
c) the Planck’s function
12) Radio waves have
a) long wavelength
83
b) short wavelength
c) high frequency
d) none of the above descriptions
13) We must replace the LTE conditions by the assumption of a
statistically steady state in each atomic level if
a) LTE approximation holds good
b) LTE approximation breaks down
c) the spectral line is very weak
d) none of the above is the case
14) In terms of frequency, the Planck’s function B T  approximates
to
 2kT 
a) B T    2  2 .
 c 
 2kT 
b) B T    2   2 .
 c 
2ckT
c) B T   3 .

hv
d) B T   .
kT
15) In terms of wavelength, the Planck’s function B T 
approximates to
 2kT 
a) B T    2  3.
 c 
 2kT 
b) B T    2   2 .
 c 
2ckT
c) B T   4 .

hv
d) B T   .
kT
16) Radio waves are photons with energies
a) less than 106 eV .
b) greater than 106 eV but less than 1MeV .
c) greater than 106 eV but less than 10MeV .
d) greater than 10MeV .
17) Hard X-rays and   rays are photons with energies
a) less than 106 eV
a) less than 106 eV .
b) greater than 106 eV but less than 1eV .
c) greater than 1eV but less than 1MeV .
d) greater than 1MeV .
84
18) The intensity I and the relative intensity I are related by the
expression
dI
a) I  .
dv
b) I   Idv.
c) v   I dI .
d) none of the above expressions.
19) If the emission coefficient happens to be zero then the source
function S v becomes
a) 0
b) 1
c) 10
d) undefined
20) In the expression Bv dv   B d  , the negative sign indicates that
the wavelength
a) remains constant
b) is always zero
c) increases with increasing frequency
d) deceases with increasing frequency
1559.

and Biology.


& Sons, Inc.

85

108.



Kogakusha Ltd.

SPRINGER.
Berkshire.



Astrophysics.

Macmillan Company.

University Press.

86

87
UNIT 3 LINE PROFILES
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Transition
3.2 Transition Rules
3.2.1 Transition Rules in the Absence of a Magnetic
Field
3.2.2 Degeneracy of Atomic Levels
3.2.3 Forbidden Transitions
3.3 Line Profile
3.3.1 Absorption Lines
3.3.2 Electron Lifetime and Levels
3.3.3 The Lorentzian Line Profile
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In your study of radioactive transfer, you saw that the source function S v
may depart considerably from the Planck’s function B T  . That is
often the case when strong spectral lines are involved. For such strong
spectral lines, we replace the LTE by the assumption of a statistically
steady state in each atomic energy level. A spectral line is formed
whenever an electron jumps from a higher energy level to a lower
energy level. In this unit, you shall be introduced to the transition rules,
the formation of spectral lines and the profile of such spectral lines.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
 describe transition from one atomic energy level to another

 apply the transition rules to atomic energy levels
 discuss degeneracy of atomic levels
 deduce the shape of a spectral line, given its normalised profile
 discuss line broadening.
88
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Transition
A transition is said to occur when an electron jumps from one energy

level to another. When a transition occurs, a spectral line is formed. In
the case of strong spectral lines, the source function may depart
significantly from the Planck’s function, resembling more the direction-
averaged mean intensity J which is given by
1
4 
J  I d .
For such spectral lines, we replace the conditions of local
thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE) by the assumption of a statistically
steady state in each atomic energy level. Recall that a spectral line is
formed whenever an electron jumps from a higher energy level to a
lower energy level. Conversely, an absorption line is formed when an
electron jumps from a lower energy level to a higher energy level.
Consider a radiating atom. Suppose that a line is formed by transition

between two bound levels i and j , where j  i. Let  denote the
continuum. For an optically thin emission line (i.e. a case where  is
small), the emergent intensity I ji of such an emission line (after passing
through a plasma) is given by
I ji  n j Aij ji dV ,
where n j is the population of the upper atomic level from where the
electrons jump to the lower level i during the emission of the quanta
(photons) h ji , and V is the volume of the plasma radiating the line  ji .
The population n j of the energy level j in an atom (or ion) depends on
nj
a) the ratio , where nion is the total number of atoms (or ions) in
nion
that particular ionisation state;
nion
b) the ionisation equilibrium , where nelem is the elemental
nelem
abundance;
nelem
c) the abundance of the element relative to hydrogen, , where
nH
nH is the number density of hydrogen; and
d) the number density of hydrogen, nH .
89
Each energy level in an atom (or ion) is characterised by four quantum

numbers:
(i) the principal quantum number n ,

(ii) the spin quantum number s ,
(iii) the angular momentum quantum number l , and
(iv) the total angular momentum quantum number j.
A photon is emitted when an electron jumps from a higher energy level

characterised by  n, s, l , j  to a lower energy level characterised by
 n, s, l , j  . Conversely, a photon is absorbed when an electron jumps
from a lower energy level  n, s, l , j  to a higher energy level  n, s, l , j  .
If the atom contains more than one electron, then you use the lower-case
letters s, l and j to denote the angular momenta for a particular electron
and the upper-case letters S , L and J to denote the angular momenta of
the entire atom. In this case, the electrons are arranged in shells.
According to Pauli’s exclusion principle, no two electrons, may have the
same set of quantum numbers. Thus, the energy level of the entire atom
may be symbolised by  n, S , L, J  while the energy level of any single
electron may be denoted by  n, s, l , j  . The principal quantum number is
always denoted by the lower-case letter n .
Suppose that electrons jump from an upper level j denoted by

 n, S , L, J  to a lower level i denoted by  n, S , L, J  . Electrons that
jump from level j to level i will emit a spectral line of frequency  ji
given by
E j  Ei
 ji  ,
h
where E j is the energy of the upper level j and Ei is the energy of the
lower level i . On the other hand, an absorption line is formed when
electrons jump from the lower level i to the upper level j . In the case of
absorption, the photon is absorbed by the electron and the energy of the
photon is used to raise the electron to a higher energy level.
3.2 Transition Rules
3.2.1 Transition Rules in the Absence of a Magnetic Field
A transition occurs when an electron jumps from one energy level to

another. In spectroscopy, it is quite possible to predict the transitions
that will occur under a given condition. In this way, the frequencies of
90
the resulting set of emission (or absorption) lines can also be predicted.
This is possible because the quantum numbers  n, S , L, J  obey certain
transition rules. In particular, an electron can jump, only if the change in
quantum numbers is consistent with the following rules:
(a) S  S
 S  S  0
 S  0.
(b) L  L or L  L  1
 L  L  0  L  L  1
 L  0  L  1
Combining the two results, you obtain
L  0 or  1 .
L  1,0, 1.
(c) J  J or J   J 1
 J  J  0  J   J  1
 J  0  J  1
Combining these two results, you obtain
J  0 or  1
J  1,0, 1.
Note
1. There is no restriction on the principal quantum number n.

2. The transition from J   0 is for bidden.
3. Parity must change by 1 . (Parity is the sum of the l -values of all
the electrons).
4. The fact that s  0 implies that spin is conserved.
3.2.2 Degeneracy of Atomic Levels
The transition rules stated above are sufficient in the absence of

magnetic field. If a magnetic field is applied, however, the total angular
momentum J may be pointed only in certain “quantized” directions
with respect to the direction of the magnetic field. In this case, J may be
pointed in such a way that its projection along the applied magnetic field
can only take one of the following values: J , J  1, J  2, ,  J . This
gives a total of 2 J  1 sub-levels. These 2J+1 sub-levels are often
indistinguishable.
The projection of J along the magnetic field is called the magnetic

quantum number denoted by M J . It is the fifth quantum number. The
magnetic quantum number M J indicates that a level is composed of
2 J  1 sub-levels. Such a level is said to be degenerate. The degree of
the degeneracy is the number 2 J  1 . The degree of degeneracy is also
91
called the statistical weight g of that particular level (i.e. g  2 J  1).

The statistical weight g represents the number of electrons that can
occupy a given level without violating Pauli’s exclusion principle.
When there is a transition between one degenerate state A and another

degenerate state B , there will be transition between certain sub-levels of
state A and certain sub-levels of state B . However, there will be no
transition between some sub-levels of state B and some sub-levels of
state B . The magnetic quantum number M J shall communicate with
each other only when certain rules for M J are obeyed. These rules for
M J are stated below:
M J  M J or M J  M J  1,.
 M J  M J  0  M J  M J  1
 M J  0  M J  1
Combing the two results, you obtain
 M J  0 or  1
 M J  0,  1
 M J  1, 0,  1.
Example
Make a schematic representation of:
a) aspectral line between two degenerate levels  J  2 and J  1 , in

the absence of a magnetic field.
b) the allowed components (of the spectral line) when degeneracy
is lifted due to the application of a magnetic field.
Solution
a) In the absence of a magnetic field, one spectral line is observed

(figure 1a).
J 2
J 1
b) In the presence of a magnetic field, the degeneracy is lifted and
the sub-levels appear separately as shown in figure 1b.
92
M
J2
1
0
J
-
=
1-
2
2
LIN
E 1
0
J
-
=
1
1 INCREASING
MAGNETIC FIELD
3.2.3 Forbidden Transitions
In the classical treatment, a series expansion of the radiation field can be

obtained. The dominant term is the electric dipole contribution. This is a
good first approximation if other terms are neglected. In quantum
theory, the dipole term corresponds to the electron transitions. It is
governed by the quantum number rules of Eqs (4) and (5).
In the classical treatment, there are other less important terms such as
the electric quadrupole term and higher (electric and magnetic) terms. In
the quantum picture, there are “forbidden” transitions which do not obey
the rules set down in Eqs (4) and (5). Such transitions my still give rise
to observable spectral lines. These spectral lines may not be important
under the laboratory (high-density) conditions. However, under low-
density conditions, the spectral lines resulting from the “forbidden”
transitions become quite significant.
The selection rules for magnetic dipole radiation are
S  S, which implies that S  0 


L  L, which implies that L  0 
  6
J   J or J   J  1, which imply that J  0, 1 
nl  nl , which implies that   nl   0 
Thus, the transitions which give rise to magnetic dipole radiation must
take place between levels within one and the same term. (The only
parameter that may differ by 1 is the total angular momentum quantum
number J ).
93
3.3 Line Profile
3.3.1 Absorption Lines
All the information about the physical properties of astronomical objects

comes from the study of the spectra. In particular, by studying the
strengths of the absorption lines, we can deduce stellar masses,
temperatures and compositions. Light from a source can be dispersed
into a spectrum by means of a prism or a diffraction grating. Different
sources have different spectra. For instance, the spectra of a quasar
consist of a continuous spectrum (or continuum) with narrow spectral
lines superimposed. These lines are mostly absorption (Fraunhofer)
lines, but sometimes bright emission lines, are also observed. The
continuous spectrum comes from the hot surface of the source nucleus.
Atoms in the atmosphere absorb certain characteristic wavelengths of
this radiation leaving dark “gaps” at the corresponding points in the
spectrum.
3.3.2 Electron Lifetime and Levels
Let us now take a closer look at the equation

h ji  E j  Ei , E j  Ei .
If the energy levels E j and Ei were sharply defined, an infinitely

narrow spectral line would be emitted when an electron jumps from
energy level j to energy level i. This would correspond to an infinitely
long lifetime of the electron in that energy level. The frequency spread
 and the lifetime  t are related by the expression:
 t  2 ,  7a 
or
Dividing both sides of Eq.(7a) by 2 , you get

  
   t  1.
 2 
But, by definition of angular frequency, you know that:
  2 ,
so that
  2 ,
and

  .
2
94
Hence, Eq (7a) reduces to
  
   t  1.
 2 
or
 2 
  t  1
 2 
so that
 t  1.  7b 
Multiplying both sides of Eq (7b) by the Planck’s constant h , you get
 h  t  h.  8
But,
E  h ,
so that
 E  h . 9
Hence, using Eq (9) in Eq (8), you find that
 E t  h. 10
Here,  E is a measure of the sharpness of the energies;  t is a measure
of the electron lifetime; h is Planck’s constant;  represents the spread
of a spectral line of frequency  . At this stage, you may wish to
compare Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle with the foregoing
discussion. Equation (9) shows that a sharply defined energy  E
corresponds to an infinitely narrow spectral line  v, and Equation (10)
shows that an infinitely narrow spectral line  corresponds to an
infinitely long lifetime  t. The conclusion here is obvious: if a particular
atomic energy level is sharply defined then any electron in that energy
level will have an infinitely long lifetime.
3.3.3 The Lorentzian Line Profile
Evidently, the lifetime of an electron in any energy level is finite.

Therefore, the energy level must also have a finite width. This fact was
expressed quantum mechanically by Weisskopet and Wigner in the
following probability distribution law:
 
Aj dE
P E j dE  , 11
h 1 2 4 2
Aj  2  E  E j 
2
4 h
where E j is the mean energy of the energy level j and Aj is the
probability of transition from level j to all other possible levels E.
95
Thus, the energy of a level with mean energy E j is distributed as shown

in Eq (11).
Equation (11) defines the line profile. Its curve is called a damping
profile or a dispersion curve. Clearly, the probability distribution P  E j 
has a maximum value when E  E j  0  i.e. when E  E j  . This implies
that most of the atoms have energies in the neighbourhood of the mean
energy E j .
When an electron jumps from level j to level i , the intensity of the

resulting spectral line is given by
Aj  Ai
I ji  hv ji Aji
2 4
, 12
 Aj  Ai   h2  E   Ei  E j  
2
1  2

4
where Aji is the probability of transition from level j level i.
Equation (12) can be simplified by setting   Aj  Ai and noting that
E  hv while Ei  E j  E j  Ei  h ji . Equation (12) can then be
processed as follows:

I ji  E ji Aji
    4h  E   Ei  E j  
2 2
1 2
4 2  

I ji  E ji Aji
    4h  h  h 
2
2 2
1
4 2 ij

 E ji Aji
    4h  h v  2h 2v ji v  h 2vij2 
2
1 2 2 2
4 2
E ji Aji 

 2 4 2 2 2
 2  h  v  2v ji v  vij2 
4 h
so that
E ji Aji 
I ji  .
2
 4 2  v  v ji 
2
4
Dividing the numerator and the denominator 4 , you obtain
2
 E ji Aji 
 4 2 
  .
I ji  13
  
 2    v  v ji 
2
2
 16 
96
For a constant decay probability Aji , Eq (13) may be simplified further
by setting
E ji Aji  1 14
and
I ji  v 15
so that
 1
v  . 16
4 2 
2
 v  v0    
2
 4 
2
Here, v is the normalised profile and   T , where To is the average
o
time interval between successive collisions of the radiating particles.

The line shape given by Equation (16) is called Lorentzian profile and
 is called the Lorentzian width. The damping constant
the parameter
  Aj  Ai is the sum of the decay constants of the two energy levels
involved in the electron jump.
3.3.4 Line Broadening
The wings of a spectral line will be weak while the core of the spectral
line remains strong. Line broadening is a measure of the spread of the

frequency of the emitted spectral line on either side of the core. Line
broadening can be divided into three classes:
1) Natural line broadening

2) Doppler line broadening; and
3) Collisional (or pressure) line broadening.
The natural line broadening is always present. The Doppler line

broadening is due to the motion of the observed atoms in different
directions with different velocities. The resulting Doppler shift produces
a spread in the frequency of the observed line. Collisional (or pressure)
line broadening is due to the effects of other particles on the radiating
atom. Doppler broadening is always proportional (in wavelength units),
to the wavelength of the centre line. Natural and collisional broadenings
do not show any systematic trend with the centre wavelength. However,
collisional broadening is always proportional to the number of colliding
particles per unit volume (and, by extension to pressure). Let us consider
the Doppler line broadening and the collisional (or pressure) line
broadening in detail.
97
3.3.5 Doppler Line Broadening
Doppler broadening is due to the motion of individual atoms in a hot

gas. The thermal motions of the atoms (or ions) produce particles which
are moving away from an observer, and particles moving toward the
observer. This situation gives rise to Doppler effect. The frequency v of
a spectral line emitted by an atom moving with velocity vr along the line
of sight is given by
v 
v  v  vo    r  .vo ,
c 
where vo is the rest frequency of the spectral line and c is the speed of
light. Clearly, v is positive when vr is negative. Also, v is negative
when vr is positive. A negative value of v implies that the radiating
atom is moving away from the observer (i.e. vr is positive). This gives
rise to a shift in the wavelength of a visible line towards the ‘red end’ of
the optical spectrum. In this case, a redshift is said to have taken place.
The observed frequency is lower than the rest frequency of the emitted
line (i.e. the observed wavelength is longer than the rest wavelength of
the spectral line).
If the radiating atom is moving toward the observer then vr is negative.

In this case, the shift v in frequency of the spectral line is positive. A
positive value of v gives rise to a shift in the wavelength of a visible
spectral line toward the ‘blue end’ of the electromagnetic spectrum. The
observed frequency is higher than the ‘rest frequency of the spectral line
(i.e. the observed wavelength is shorter than the rest wavelength of the
line).
When the Doppler broadening of a spectral line is entirely due to the

thermal motion of the radiating particles, the width of such a line is
called the Doppler width vD .
In terms of the frequency, the Doppler width vD is given by

1
v  2kT  2
vD  o   ,
c m 
where vo is the frequency of the undisturbed line centre, T is
temperature, m is the mass of the particle and k is Boltzmann’s
constant.
In terms of the wavelength, the Doppler width D is given by

o  2kT 
1
2
D    ,
c m 
98
where o is the wavelength of the undisturbed line centre, D    o ,
and the profile  is now normalised with respect to .
Notice that the expression for the shift in wavelength D (or frequency
shift vD ) is closely related to the expression for the thermal velocity vo
(written in terms of the temperature T ) of the radiating particles.
3.3.6 Gaussian Profile
The thermal motions of individual atoms are not the only motion of
interest here. Sometimes, the radiating atoms may possess a thermal
velocity component as well as a nonthermal (turbulent) velocity
component. In this case, the Doppler width is modified to accommodate
the nonthermal component in the following way:
  2kT
1

2
D  o  2  .
c  m 
The profile v of the Doppler broadened line is then given by v
1   v 2 
v  exp     ,
vD   vD  
where the Doppler width is again defined by
vo 2kT
v D  
c m
In terms of the wavelength, the profile assumes the form

1    2 
  exp     .
D    D  
This is a bell-shaped profile called the Gaussian profile. The Gaussian

profile falls to half its maximum height (or depth) when the exponential
term is equal to half i.e. when
   2  1
exp      .
  D   2
In this case,
2
   1
   log e   ,
 D  2
2
  
   log e 1  log e 2,
 D 
2
  
   log e 2  log e 1,
 D 
99
2
   2
   log e   ,
 D  1
2
  
   log e 2,

 D

 log e 2,
D
and
  D loge 2 
The full width at half height (FWHH) of the line profile is defined as the
wavelength separation between the points when the profile drops to half
its maximum height (or depth) on EITHER side of the line centre.
On one side of the line centre,   D loge 2  On the other side of the
line centre,   D loge 2 also. Thus, the full width at half height is
given by the sum of the two equal values of  i.e.
FWHH  D loge 2  D loge 2
or
FWHH  2D loge 2 
Substituting the value of loge 2, you obtain
FWHH  1.667D .
This result is applicable to both the absorption and emission line

profiles. However, the actual line will suffer radiative transfer effects
(like saturation) which may reduce the dip in an absorption line and
hence increase the observed FWHH .
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you were introduced to the basic transition and selection
rules that are useful in understanding the formation of spectral lines.
You studied the Lorentzian profile and the Gaussian profile. You were
able to use the normalised profile to deduce the shape of a spectral line.
You have seen the three mechanisms by which a spectral line may be
broadened.
5.0 SUMMARY
100
(i) a spectral line is formed whenever an electron jumps from a
higher energy level to a lower energy level.
(ii) the emergent intensity I of an optically thin emission line is
given by
I  n j Aij h ji dV ,
where n j is the population of the upper atomic level j (from
where the electrons jump to the lower level i during the
emission of the photons), hv ji is the energy of the emitted
photons, and V is the volume of the plasma radiating the
line of frequency v ji .
(iii) the energy level in an atom is characterised by
(a) the principal quantum number n;
(b) the spin quantum number s;
(c) the angular momentum quantum number l ; and
(d) the total angular momentum quantum number j.
(iv) a photon is emitted whenever an electron jumps from a higher
energy level defined by the set of quantum numbers  n, s, l , j  to a
lower energy level defined by a new set of quantum numbers
 n, s, l, j  .
(v) a photon is absorbed whenever an electron jumps from a lower
energy level  n, s, l, j  to a higher energy level  n, s, l , j  .
(vi) if the atom contains more than one electron, then, the lower-case
letters s, l , j are used to denote the angular momenta of a
particular electron and the upper-case letters S , L, J are used to
denote the angular momenta of the entire atom. (In all cases, the
principal quantum number is denoted by the lower-case letter, n ).
(vii) the energy level of a particular electron is symbolised by
 n, s, l , j  while the energy level of the entire atom is symbolised
by  n, S , L, J  .
(viii) according to Pauli’s exclusion principle, no two electrons can
have the same set of quantum numbers.
(ix) an electron that jumps from an upper level j to a lower level i
will emit a spectral line of frequency v ji given by
E j  Ei
v ji  ,
h
where E j is the energy of the upper level j and Ei is the energy
of the lower level i . (In this case, an emission line is produced)
(x) an electron that jumps from the lower level i to the upper level j
will absorb a photon of frequency vij given by
101
E j  Ei
vij  v ji  ,
h
where h is Planck’s constant. (In this case, an absorption line is
produced).
(xi) a transition is said to occur when an electron jumps from one
energy level to another.
(xii) an electron cannot jump from one energy level to another unless
the following conditions are met:
a) S  S , which implies that S  0
b) L  L or L  L  1, which imply that L  0, 1
c) J  J or J   J  1, which imply that J  0, 1
(xiii) the transition from J   0 to J  0 is forbidden since parity

must change by 1.
(xiv) there is no restriction on the principal quantum number, n .
(xiv) if a magnetic field is applied, the total angular momentum J
must be pointed in such a way that its projection along the
magnetic field can only take one of the following values:
J , J  1, J  2, ,  J,
giving a total of  2 J  1 sub-levels that are often
indistinguishable.
(xv) the projection of J along the magnetic field is called the
magnetic quantum number denoted by M J 
(xvi) the magnetic quantum number M J indicates that a degenerate
level is composed of  2 J  1 sub-levels.
(xvii) the degree of degeneracy (or statistical weight) g of a degenerate
level is given by g  2 J  1.
(xviii) the degree of degeneracy (i.e. statistical weight) g represents the
number of electrons than can occupy a particular level without
violating Pauli’s exclusion principle.
(xix) when there is a transition between one degenerate state A and
another degenerate state B , there will be transition between only
certain sub-levels of state A and certain sub-levels of state B
which obey the selection rule for the magnetic quantum number.
(xx) the selection rule for the magnetic quantum number is
M J  M J or M J  M J  1. This implies that M J  0, 1
(xxi) light from a source can be dispersed into a spectrum by means of
a prism or diffraction grating.
(xxii) no spectral line is infinitely narrow (as that would imply that the
life-time of the electron emitting the line is infinitely long).
102
(xxiii) according to Weisskopf and Wigner, the fact that the life-time of
an electron is finite implies that the following probability
distribution law holds:
P  E j  dE 
Aj dE
,
1 2 4 2
Aj  2  E  E j 
h 2
4 h
where E j is the mean energy of the energy level j and Aj is the
probability of transition from level j to all other possible levels
E.
(xxiv) the normalised profile v of the spectral line produced when an
electron jumps from level j to level i is given by
 1
v  ,
4 2   
2
 v  v0  
2

 2 
where  is the Lorentzian width.
(xxv) line broadening can be divided into three classes:
1) natural line broadening,
2) doppler line broadening, and
3) collisional (or pressure) line broadening.
(xxvi) Doppler broadening is due to the thermal motions of indiving

atoms (or ions) toward (and away from) the observer.
(xxvii) in terms the frequency v , the Doppler width vD is given by
1
v  2kT  2
vD  0   ,
c m 
where v0 is the frequency of the undisturbed line, T is
temperature, m is mass and k is Boltzmann’s constant.
(xxviii) the natural broadening is always present.
(xxix) collisional (or pressure) broadening is due to the effects of other
particles on the radiating atom.
1. When an electron jumps from a higher energy level to a lower

energy level,
(a) dispersion occurs
(b) emission of a spectral line occurs
(c) absorption of a spectral line occurs
(d) diffraction occurs
2. When an electron jumps from a lower energy level to a higher
energy level,
a) dispersion occurs
103
b) emission of a spectral line occurs

c) absorption of a spectral line occurs
d) diffraction occurs
3. The energy level in an atom is characterised by
a) the principal and the spin quantum numbers only
b) the angular momentum quantum number only
c) the total angular momentum quantum number only
d) all of the above quantum numbers
4. The energy level of a particular electron in an atom is
symbolised by
(a)  n, s, l , j  .
(b)  n, S , L, J  .
(c)  n, S , L, J .
(d) all of the above
5. The energy level of the entire atom is symbolised by
(a)  n, s, l , j  .
(b)  n, s, l, j  .
(c)  n, S , L, J  .
(d) all of the above
6. The transition from J   0 to J  0 is
(a) frequent
(b) allowed
(c) forbidden
(d) quantized
7. The projection of the total angular momentum relative to an
applied magnetic field is called the
(a) principal quantum number
(b) spin quantum number
(c) angular momentum quantum number
(d) magnetic quantum number
8. The number of electrons that can occupy a particular energy level
without violating Pauli’s exclusion principle is represented by
(a) the strength of the magnetic field
(b) the magnitude of the angular momentum
(c) the degree of degeneracy
(d) the strength of the emission line
9. The degree of degeneracy (or statistical weight) g is given by
(a) g  J  1.
(b) g  L  1.
(c) g  2 J  1.
(d) g  2 J  1.
104
10. In the expression for the normalised profile
 1
v  , the parameter  is known as
4 2   
2
 v  v0  
2

 4 
(a) the Gaussian width
(b) the Lorentzian width
(c) the probability of transition
(d) the line profile
11. A diffraction grating may be used to
(a) reflect light from a spectrum
(b) polarise light in a spectrum
(c) disperse light into a spectrum
(d) modulate light from a spectrum
12. An infinitely narrow spectral line would demand that the life-time
of the emitting electrons on the particular energy level be
(a) infinitely long
(b) infinitely short
(c) finite (but short)
(d) zero
13. The line broadening which is always present is known as
(a) natural broadening
(b) Doppler broadening
(c) collisional (or pressure) broadening
(d) Gaussian profile
14. The line broadening which is due to the individual thermal
motions of atoms (or ions) is known as
15. The line broadening which is due to the effects of other particles
on the radiating atom is known as
16. In terms of the frequency the Doppler width vD is given by
1
v  2kT  2
vD  0   ,
c m 
where v0 is the frequency of
(a) a weak emission line
(b) a strong emission line
(c) a strong absorption line
(d) the undisturbed line centre
105
1559.

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NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

COURSE CODE: PHY 455

COURSE TITLE: LOWER ATMOSPHERIC PHYSICS

Course Team Prof. Obini Ekpe (Course Developer/Writer) -

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

All Rights Reserved

You have studied the behaviour of gases under controlled conditions.

PHY 435 Lower Atmospheric Physics comprises a total of 6 units

Module 1 is composed of 3 units

Unit 2 of module 1 deals with the laws of thermodynamics. You shall be

Module 2 is devoted to the physics of a neutral atmosphere. In Unit 1 of

In Unit 2 of Module 2, you shall be introduced to the concept of

COURSE AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

A sound knowledge of the basic principles of thermodynamics is

Many radiative processes are constantly taking place within the

WORKING THROUGH THE COURSE

This course is presented in a simple and readable style. The coverage is

You will be provided with adequate course materials including your

This course contains 6 study units organised into 2 modules. Module 1

Unit 1 Structure and Composition of the Atmosphere

Unit 1 The Neutral Atmosphere

TEXTBOOKS AND REFERENCES

A.De Vos, A. (1992). Endoreversible Thermodynamics of Solar Energy

Emerson, D. (1996). Interpreting Astrophysical Spectra. Chichester,

J.P. Holman, J.P. (1980). Thermodynamics. Tokyo: McGraw-Hill

E.Tandberg-Hanssen, E. & A.G Emslie, A.G. (1988). The Physics of

The National Open University of Nigeria assesses your performance by

(a) Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS (TMAs)

Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA) represents the traditional Continuous

END OF COURSE EXAMINATION

It is advisable for you to study each of the 6 units contained in this

I wish you the success in your effort to acquire knowledge.

Unit 1 Structure and Composition of the Atmosphere 1

Unit 1 The Neutral Atmosphere……………………... 51

Unit 1 Structure and Composition of the Atmosphere

UNIT 1 STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF THE

The atmosphere of the earth is a relatively thin spherical envelop that

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 explain why most of our weather occurs within the troposphere

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Earth’s Atmosphere

3.1.1 Layers of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere of the earth is composed of different layers. It starts

These layers are listed in order of increasing height. Thus, the

In terms of composition, the atmosphere is classified into two:

a) the homosphere (up to 85km height), and

In the homosphere, the mean molecular mass is constant due to mixing.

Within the troposphere, temperature deceases with height at the rate of

The stratosphere lies above the tropopause. In the stratosphere, the

The stratospheric region is relatively calm. The variation of stratospheric

The mesosphere lies above the stratopause. In the mesosphere, the

The mesopause is located at an altitude of about 80 kilometres. Meteors

The thermosphere lies above the menopause. It extends to an altitude of

Fig. 1 (a): Possible Classification Scheme for the Layers of the

The exosphere continues beyond the thermosphere. The transition region

300 600 900 1200 1500 104 105 106

Fig. 1 (b): Temperature Profile of the Earth’s Atmosphere