Oceanography Oceanography: Air-Sea Interaction

OCEANOGRAPHY
AIR–SEA INTERACTION For stable conditions (Tair > Tsea ),
S.A. HSU z 620(Tair − Tsea )

= (2)
Louisiana State University L (Tair + 273.2)Uz2
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
According to Hsu (13,14),
INTRODUCTION B = 0.146(Tsea − Tair )0.49 (3)
Air–sea interaction is, according to Geer (1), the inter- where z is the height normally set to 10 m; Tair and Tsea
change of energy (e.g., heat and kinetic energy) and mass stand for the air and sea temperatures, respectively; Uz is
(e.g., moisture and particles) that takes place across the the wind speed at height z; and B is the Bowen ratio.
active surface interface between the top layer of the For operational and engineering applications, z/L ≤
ocean and the layer of air in contact with it and vice −0.4 is unstable, |z/L| < 0.4 is neutral, and z/L ≥ 0.4
versa. The fluxes of momentum, heat, moisture, gas, and is stable.
particulate matter at the air–water interface play impor-
tant roles, for example, in environmental hydraulics and
water–environment–health interactions, during low wind PARAMETERIZATION OF THE ROUGHNESS LENGTH
speeds before the onset of wave breaking, the exchange of
air bubbles is limited. If this situation persists for a long The roughness parameter Z0 can be computed based on
time, algal blooms may develop, ultimately affecting water the formula provided in Taylor and Yelland (15) that
quality. On the other hand, during typhoon/hurricane con- 4.5
ditions, the storm surge may affect the sewerage outflow Z0 Hs
= 1200 (4)
at a greater depth than normal because of shoaling. In Hs Lp
the area on the right-hand side of the storm track (in
the Northern Hemisphere), runoff may also be blocked and, for deep water waves,
due to the surge, thus increasing the flood potential and
saltwater intrusion. gT 2p
Air–sea interaction encompasses vast scales in both Lp = (5)
2π
spatial and temporal viewpoints, so only a few basic
and applied topics are summarized here, including where g is gravitational acceleration, Hs and Lp are
the parameterization of stability length, determination the significant wave height and peak wavelength for
of friction velocity, wind–wave interaction, and the the combined sea and swell spectrum, and Tp is its
estimation of shoaling depth during storms. For more corresponding wave period. Note that Hs is defined as
detailed laws and mechanisms in air–sea interaction, the average of the highest one-third of all wave heights
see Donelan (2) and recently Csanady (3); for air–sea during the 20-minute sampling period.
exchange of gases and particles, see Liss (4) and most
recently Donelan et al. (5); for the role of air–sea exchange
in geochemical cycling, see Buat-Menard (6) and recently ESTIMATION OF THE FRICTION VELOCITY
Liss (7); for larger scale air–sea interaction by La
Niña and its impacts, see Glantz (8); for more physics, The friction velocity (u∗ ) can be obtained as follows:
chemistry, and dynamics related to air–sea exchange, 1/2
see Geernaert (9); and for wind–wave interaction, see u∗ = U10 Cd (6)
Janssen (10).
where U10 is the wind speed at 10 m and Cd is the drag
coefficient.
PARAMETERIZATION OF THE STABILITY LENGTH According to Amorocho and DeVries (16), the WAMDI
Group (17), and Hsu (18), one may classify the air–sea
In the atmospheric boundary layer, the buoyancy length
interaction into three broad categories based on wave
scale, L, also known as the Obukhov (or Monin–Obukhov)
breaking conditions:
length, is a fundamental parameter that characterizes
In light winds, U10 < 7.5 m/s, prior to the onset of wave
the ‘‘stability’’ of the surface layer (11). L describes
breakers,
the relative importance between the buoyancy effect
u∗ 2
(or thermal turbulence) and wind shear (or mechanical Cd = = 1.2875 ∗ 10−3 (7)
turbulence). According to Hsu and Blanchard (12), L can U10
be parameterized as follows.
Both thermal and mechanical turbulence are important.
For unstable conditions (i.e., when Tsea > Tair ),
In moderate winds, 7.5 ≤ U10 ≤ 20 m/s, the range after
0.07 the onset but before the saturation of wave breakers,
z 1000(Tsea − Tair )(1 + )
=− B (1)
L (Tair + 273.2)Uz2 Cd = (0.8 + 0.065U10 ) ∗ 10−3 (8)
1
2 AIR–SEA INTERACTION
Mechanical turbulence is more important than ther- U.S. National Data Buoy Center (NDBC) buoy #42003,
mal effects. located on the right-hand-side of the storm track near
In strong winds, U10 > 20 m/s, after the saturation of the radius of maximum wind, recorded a minimum sea-
wave breakers, level pressure (P0 ) of 957.1 mb. Therefore, P = (1013 −
Cd = 2.5 ∗ 10−3 (9) 957.1) = 55.9 mb. Substituting this value in Eq. 13, U10 =
47.1 m s−1 which is in excellent agreement with the
Mechanical turbulence dominates. measured U10 = 47.3 m s−1 .
Another verification is provided in Fig. 1. According to
Anthes (20, p. 22 and Fig. 2.8),
ESTIMATING LATENT HEAT FLUX (OR EVAPORATION)
0.5
R
Using the parameter of the Bowen ratio supplied by U10γ = U10 max (14)
Hsu (13,14), as shown in Eq. 3, the latent heat flux (Hlatent ) γ
can be estimated as where U10γ is the sustained wind speed at a distance 10 m
1 1 away from the storm center and U10 max is the maximum
Hlatent (W m−2 ) = Hsensible = ρa Cp CT (Tsea − Tair )U10 sustained wind at 10 m at the radius of maximum wind, R.
B B
(10) According to Hsu et al. (21), for operational applica-
where Hsensible is the sensible heat flux, ρa (=1.2 kg m−3 ) is tions,
the air density, Cp (=1004 J kg−1 K−1 ) is the specific heat R 1013 − P0
= ln (15)
at constant pressure for dry air, CT (=1.1 ∗ 10−3 ) is the γ Pγ − P0
transfer coefficient for heat, (Tsea − Tair ) is in K, and U10
in m s−1 . where Pγ is the pressure at a point located at a distance
A latent heat flux of 1 W m−2 is equivalent to an from the storm center and ln is the natural logarithm.
evaporation rate of 3.56 ∗ 10−3 cm day−1 , so Eq. 10 can Substituting Eq. 15 in Eq. 14,
be used to estimate the evaporation rate. 0.5
1013 − P0
U10γ = U10 max ln (16)
Pγ − P0
ESTIMATING MAXIMUM SUSTAINED WIND SPEED
DURING A HURRICANE During Hurricane Lili in 2002, the NDBC had two
buoys, #42001 located near R, and #42003 located due east
Under hurricane/typhoon conditions, intense air–sea along 26 ◦ N, approximately 280 km from 42001. The wind
interaction occurs. Beach erosion, engineering structures, speed measurement at both buoys was 10 m. From the
storm surge, and sewerage outflow can all be affected, NDBC website (www.ndbc.noaa.gov/), at 20Z 2 October
so this topic should deserve more attention than the 2002 at #42001, P0 = 956.1 mb. Substituting this P0 in
deepwater environment. The very first subject related to Equation 13, U10 max = 47.5 m s−1 , in excellent agreement
a tropical cyclone is to estimate its maximum sustained with the measured value of 47.2 m s−1 (=106 mph).
wind speed at the standard height of 10 m (i.e., U10 ). This Therefore, Eq. 13 is further verified. At the same time,
is accomplished as follows. Pγ = 1011.1 mb was measured at #42003. Substituting
From the cyclostrophic equation (i.e., centrifugal this Pγ in Eq. 16, we obtain U10γ = 8.8 m s−1 . The
force = pressure gradient) (11), measured U10γ at 42003 was 9.2 m s−1 . The difference
is only about 4%, so we conclude that Eqs. 13 and 16 can
Ua2 1 ∂P 1 P 1 Pn − P0 be used for nowcasting using the pressure measurements
= = = (11)
γ ρa ∂γ ρa γ ρa γ − 0 at Pγ and P0 which are normally available via the official
‘‘Advisory’’ during a hurricane.
where Ua is the maximum sustained wind speed above the
surface boundary layer, γ is the radius of the hurricane, ESTIMATING MAXIMUM SIGNIFICANT WAVE HEIGHT
∂P/∂γ is the radial pressure gradient, Pn is the pressure DURING A HURRICANE
outside the hurricane effect (1013 mb, the mean sea level
pressure), and P0 is the hurricane’s minimum central According to the USACE (22, p. 3–85, Eq. 3–64),
pressure. Because ρa = 1.2 kg m−3 , P = (1013 − P0 ) mb,
and 1 mb = 100 N m−2 = 100 kg m−1 s−2 , Eq. 11 becomes Tp = 12.1
Hs
(17)
g
1/2
100 kg m−1 s−2 √ √ Hs
Ua = −3
P = 9 P (12) ∴ = 0.0068 (18)
1.2 kg m gT 2p
According to Powell (19), U10 = 0.7Ua ; therefore More verification of Eq. 18 is provided in Hsu (23).
√ According to Hsu et al. (21), based on the evaluation of
U10 = 6.3 P = 6.3(1013 − P0 )1/2 (13) nine fetch-limited wind–wave interaction formulas, that
provided by Donelan et al. (24) ranked best as follows:
where U10 is in m s−1 and P in mb.
Equation 13 has been verified by Hsu (18). In 1985, gH s gT p 1.65
2
= 0.00958 (19)
during Hurricane Kate over the Gulf of Mexico, the U10 U10
AIR–SEA INTERACTION 3
Figure 1. Satellite data (visible channel from NOAA-16) received and processed at the Earth
Scan Lab, Louisiana State University, during Hurricane Lili (2002) in the Gulf of Mexico. The
solid line represents the storm track. Data from NDBC buoys 42001 and 42003 are employed in
this study. Note that the anemometers for both bouys were located at the standard 10 m height.
From Eqs. 18 and 19, ESTIMATING STORM SURGE AND SHOALING DEPTH
Hs = 0.00492 U10
2
(20) To estimate a typhoon/hurricane—generated storm surge
(S), and shoaling depth (Dshoaling ), the following formulas
Substituting Eq. 13 in Eq. 20, are useful operationally, provided that the storm’s
minimum (or central) pressure near the sea surface (P0 )
Hs max = 0.20 P (21) is known.
According to Hsu (23), for the storm surge in deep water
where Hs max is in meters and P is in mb. Equation 21 is before shoaling (i.e., when the waves feel the sea floor),
verified in Fig. 1. Buoy 42001, located near the radius
of maximum wind, measured P0 = 956.1 mb at 20Z 2 SI = 0.070(1010 − P0 ) (22)
October 2002, so that P = (1013 − 956.1) = 56.9 mb.
Substituting this value in Eq. 21, Hs max = 11.38 m, which where SI is the initial peak storm surge before shoaling.
is in excellent agreement with that of 11.22 m measured For the peak surge at the coast,
at 21Z 2 October 2002 (within 1 hour after the measured
minimal P0 ). SP = 0.070 (1010 − P0 ) ∗ FS ∗ FM (23)
4 NOAA’S ATLANTIC OCEANOGRAPHIC AND METEOROLOGICAL LABORATORY
where FS is a shoaling factor dependent on shelf 12. Hsu, S.A. and Blanchard, B.W. (2004). On the estimation
topography and width and FM is a correction factor of overwater buoyancy length from routine measurements.
for storm motion. Both FS and FM for certain areas Environ. Fluid Mech., in press.
are included in Hsu (23). A verification of Eq. 23 during 13. Hsu, S.A. (1998). A relationship between the Bowen ratio and
Hurricane Georges in 1998 is also available in Hsu (23). sea-air temperature difference under unstable conditions at
The shoaling depth is computed as follows: sea. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 28: 2222–2226.
From Taylor and Yelland (15), Dshoaling = 0.2 Lp , and 14. Hsu, S.A. (1999). On the estimation of overwater Bowen ratio
from Eq. 5, from sea-air temperature difference. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 29:
1372–1373.
15. Taylor, P.K. and Yelland, M.J. (2001). The dependence of sea
gT 2p 0.2 Hs
Dshoaling = 0.2 = surface roughness on the height and steepness of the waves.
2π Hs J. Phys. Oceanogr. 31: 572–590.
2π 16. Amorocho, J. and DeVries, J.J. (1980). A new evaluation of
gT 2p
the wind stress coefficient over water surfaces. J. Geophys.
Res. 85(C1): 433–442.
where Hs /gT p 2 is called wave steepness, a useful 17. The WAMDI Group. (1988). The WAM model—a third
parameter in coastal engineering. generation ocean wave prediction model. J. Phys. Oceanogr.
From Hsu et al. (21) and under hurricane conditions 18: 1775–1810.
from Eq. 18, Hs /gT p 2 = 0.0068. Thus, from Eq. 21, 18. Hsu, S.A. (2003). Estimating overwater friction velocity and
exponent of the power-law wind profile from gust factor
Dshoaling = 4.7 Hs = 4.7 ∗ 0.2(1013 − P0 ) during storms. J. Waterways Port Coastal Ocean Eng. 129(4):
174–177.
∴ shoaling depth (meters) ≈ (1013 − P0 ) (24) 19. Powell, M.D. (1982). The transition of the Hurricane Frederic
boundary-layer wind field from the open Gulf of Mexico to
landfall. Mon. Weather Rev. 110: 1912–1932.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
20. Anthes, R.A. (1982). Tropical Cyclones, Their Evolution,
Structure, and Effects. Meteorological Monographs Number
Although all formulas presented in this article are 41, American Meteorological Society, Boston, MA.
based on the open literature, they may need some 21. Hsu, S.A., Martin, M.F., Jr., and Blanchard, B.W. (2000).
verification before being applied to site-specific conditions. An evaluation of the USACE’s deepwater wave prediction
For example, Eq. 22 for the storm surge is for an open coast techniques under hurricane conditions during Georges in
before shoaling. It needs to be adjusted for flooding at the 1998. J. Coastal Res. 16(3): 823–829.
coast due to different storm speeds and local bathymetry, 22. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. (1984). Shore Protection
as needed in Eq. 23. Manual. Vicksburg, MS.
23. Hsu, S.A. (2004). A wind-wave interaction explanation for
Jelesnianski’s open-ocean storm surge estimation using
BIBLIOGRAPHY Hurricane Georges (1998) measurements. Natl. Weather Dig.,
in press.
1. Geer, I.W. (Ed.). (1996). Glossary of Weather and Climate 24. Donelan, M.A., Hamilton, J., and Hui, W.H. (1985). Direc-
With Related Oceanic and Hydrologic Terms. American tional spectra of wind-generated waves. Philoso. Transa. Roy.
Meteorological Society, Boston, MA. Soc. London, Ser. A 315: 509–562.
2. Donelan, M.A. (1990). Air-sea interaction. In: The Sea. Wiley,
Vol. 9. Hoboken, NJ.
3. Csanady, G.T. (2001). Air-Sea Interaction: Laws and Mecha- NOAA’S ATLANTIC OCEANOGRAPHIC AND
nisms. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. METEOROLOGICAL LABORATORY
4. Liss, P.S. (1983). Air-Sea Exchange of Gases and Particles.
Kluwer Academic, Springer, New York.
5. Donelan, M.A., Drennan, W.M., Saltman, E.S., and Wan- National Oceanographic and
ninkhof, R. (Eds.). (2002). Gas Transfer at Water Surfaces. Atmospheric Administration
Geophysical Monograph #127, American Geophysical Society, (NOAA)
Washington, DC.
6. Buat-Menard, P. (1986). Role of Air-Sea Exchange in June 18, 1999—The Atlantic Oceanographic and Mete-
Geochemical Cycling. Kluwer Academic, Springer, New York. orological Laboratory (AOML) in Miami, Florida, is one
7. Liss, P.S. (1997). Sea Surface and Global Change. Cambridge of 12 environmental research laboratories that work on
University Press, Cambridge, UK. environmental issues for NOAA’s Office of Oceanic and
8. Glantz, M.H. (2002). La Niña and Its Impacts: Facts and Atmospheric Research (OAR). OAR research advances
Speculation. Brookings Inst. Press, Washington, DC. NOAA’s ability to predict weather, helps monitor and
9. Geernaert, G.L. (1999). Air-Sea Exchange: Physics, Chemistry provides understanding of climate and global change, as
& Dynamics. Kluwer Academic, Springer, New York. well as improve coastal ocean health.
10. Janssen, P. (2004). The Interaction of Ocean Waves and Wind.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
11. Hsu, S.A. (1988). Coastal Meteorology. Academic Press, San This article is a US Government work and, as such, is in the
Diego, CA. public domain in the United States of America.
NOAA’S ATLANTIC OCEANOGRAPHIC AND METEOROLOGICAL LABORATORY 5
AOML’s mission is to conduct a basic and applied

research program in oceanography, tropical meteorology,
atmospheric and oceanic chemistry, and acoustics. The
programs seek to understand the physical characteristics
and processes of the ocean and the atmosphere, both
individually and as a coupled system.
The principal focus of these investigations is to provide
knowledge that may ultimately lead to improved predic-
tion and forecasting of severe storms, better use and man-
agement of marine resources, better understanding of the
factors affecting both climate and environmental quality,
and improved ocean and weather services for the nation.
Originally under the jurisdiction of the Environmental

Science Services Administration (ESSA), the forerunner
of NOAA, AOML was founded in Miami, Florida, in 1967. est priority is improving the understanding and pre-
Several months after NOAA was established in 1970, diction of hurricane motion and intensity change. A
groundbreaking began on a new 12-acre federally funded key aspect of this work is the annual hurricane field
research facility on Virginia Key. AOML dedicated its new program, supported by the NOAA Aircraft Operation’s
location on Feb. 9, 1973. It celebrated its 25th anniversary Center research/reconnaissance aircraft. Research teams
in 1998. analyze data from field programs, develop numerical
AOML has four main research divisions: Hurricane hurricane models, conduct theoretical studies of hurri-
Research, Ocean Acoustics, Ocean Chemistry, and Physi- canes, prepare storm surge atlases, and study the tropi-
cal Oceanography. cal climate.
To learn more about AOML visit: http://www.aoml. HRD works with the National Hurricane Cen-
noaa.gov/ ter/Tropical Prediction Center in all phases of its research,
the National Meteorological Center and the Geophysical
HURRICANE RESEARCH DIVISION Fluid Dynamics Laboratory—another of OAR’s research
labs—in research related to numerical modeling of hurri-
The Hurricane Research Division (HRD) is NOAA’s pri- canes, and the National Severe Storms Laboratory—yet
mary component for research on hurricanes. Its high- another OAR lab—in the study of landfalling hurricanes,
6 LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS ON BIVALVE EXCRETION RATES OF NUTRIENTS
as well as other NOAA groups, federal agencies, and uni- OCEAN CHEMISTRY DIVISION
versities in a variety of basic and applied research.
With a diverse scientific staff of marine, atmospheric, and
geological chemists, as well as chemical, biological, and
OCEAN ACOUSTICS DIVISION geological oceanographers, the Ocean Chemistry Division
(OCD) is able to use multidisciplinary approaches to solve
The Ocean Acoustics Division (OAD) gathers, analyzes and scientific research questions. The Division’s work includes
reports coastal ocean data on human-related discharges projects that are important in assessing the current and
and their potential environmental impacts. Additionally, future effects of human activities on our coastal to deep
OAD has an ongoing research program on the use of ocean and atmospheric environments.
acoustics to measure coastal and deep ocean rainfall, an
important element in calculating the global energy balance
for climate monitoring and prediction. The Division PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY DIVISION
works in cooperation with other federal, state, and local
authorities to maximize research knowledge for use in The Physical Oceanography Division (PhOD) provides
economically and environmentally important projects in and interprets oceanographic data and conducts research
the coastal ocean. relevant to decadal climate change and coastal ecosystems.
This research includes the dynamics of the ocean, its
interaction with the atmosphere, and its role in climate
and climate change. Data is collected from scientific
expeditions, both in the deep ocean and in coastal
regions. Satellite data is processed and incorporated
into the analyses. PhOD manages the Global Ocean
Observing (GOOS) Center, which manages the global
collection, processing, and distribution of drifting buoy
data and the information collected from ocean temperature
profilers. This information is crucial to understanding and
predicting shifts in weather patterns and the relationship
of the ocean and the atmosphere as a coupled system.
LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS ON BIVALVE

EXCRETION RATES OF NUTRIENTS
PAOLO MAGNI
IMC—International Marine
Centre
Torregrande-Oristano, Italy
SHIGERU MONTANI
Hokkaido University
Hakodate, Japan
BACKGROUND
Benthic nutrient regeneration may be referred to as a new

availability to the water column of significant amounts
of nitrogen, phosphorus, and other nutrients, as a con-
sequence of the metabolism of organic matter by the
benthos (1). The processes of benthic nutrient regenera-
tion in coastal marine systems are strongly influenced by
the presence of abundant macrofauna (2–5). Correct eval-
uation of the biogenic flux of nutrients due to the excretory
activity of infaunal species is therefore an important back-
ground of information to investigate the cycling of biophilic
elements (nitrogen, phosphorus, and silicon).
In field studies, major drawbacks include the difficulty
to discern between nutrient upward flux due to animal
excretion and a number of local effects, such as microbial
mineralization (4,6–8) and uptake (9–14), animal biotur-
bation and irrigation currents (15–19), tidal currents and
LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS ON BIVALVE EXCRETION RATES OF NUTRIENTS 7
wind-generated waves (20–22). Laboratory experiments where the bivalve excretion rates of ammonium and
on the animal excretion rates of nutrients under more phosphate have been presented and discussed (35). We
controlled conditions represent a useful tool for quanti- will extend this study to silicate, a nutrient species
fying the actual biogenic contribution by macrofauna to whose regeneration through animal excretory activity
the total upward flux of nutrients from sediments. Nev- has been less investigated, either in situ (38,39) or in the
ertheless, these experiments have often restricted their laboratory (5,40). Table 1 includes some characteristics of
investigations to ammonium (23–28) or, in a few cases, to the experimental animals, as well as the field-relevant (33)
ammonium and phosphate (29). amount of algal food (Thalassiosira sp.) offered in four
spikes during each experiment (35). In all treatments,
CASE STUDY there was a marked increase in all three nutrient
concentrations, in the control (no animals), the increase
This study was conducted within a multidisciplinary was much more limited (i.e., silicate) or not observed (i.e.,
project on the cycling of nutrients and organic matter in a ammonium) (Fig. 1).
tidal estuary in the Seto Inland Sea (30–37). Laboratory Based on the differences in nutrient concentrations
experiments were carried out on the excretion rates between treatments and controls, relevant linear regres-
of ammonium, phosphate, and silicate by different size sion lines of five to six measurements were used to
classes of the bivalves, Ruditapes philippinarum and calculate the nutrient excretion rates for each size class
Musculista senhousia. These species were selected as of R. philippinarum and M. senhousia (Table 2). This
they were dominant on a sandflat of the estuary under approach may be a more reliable way to quantify the
investigation. An extrapolation of these results to a field daily bivalve excretion, whereas previous similar exper-
community is presented in TEMPORAL SCALING OF BENTHIC iments have been based on shorter incubations and/or
NUTRIENT REGENERATION IN BIVALVE-DOMINATED TIDAL FLAT. the sole difference between initial and final values of
Both studies will be the basis of a third companion nutrient concentrations (4,7,22,28,29). The data sets were
paper on the relationship between the temporal scaling subjected to ANOVA in a two-factor randomized complete
of bivalve nutrient excretion and the seasonal change block design, using the day/night variable as factor A,
of nutrient concentrations in the porewater (SEASONAL the time (hour) variable as factor B, and the size classes
COUPLING BETWEEN INTERTIDAL MACROFAUNA AND SEDIMENT of each bivalve species as replicates (35). As found for
COLUMN POREWATER NUTRIENT CONCENTRATIONS). ammonium in R. philippinarum, but not in M. senhousia,
In these experiments, 2.5 L aquaria with and without silicate excretion was significantly higher (57%, p < 0.001,
(control) animals were employed and run on two different n = 36) during the day than during the night, suggest-
occasions for 24 hours. Each experiment consisted of a 10 h ing a possible effect of light on the excretory activity
day (light) and a 10 h night (dark) treatment in which the of this bivalve species. A comparison of nutrient excre-
changes in nutrient concentrations were measured every tion rates (µmol g−1 DW h−1 ) of bivalve species obtained
2 h. Between the two (light and dark) treatments, a low through in situ or laboratory experiments is given in
tide lasting 2 h (like that approximately on the flat where Table 3.
animals were collected) was created, during which the According to the excretion rates of silicate found in
experimental animals were not removed from sediments our laboratory experiments, this study points to the
to keep the experiment continuous. The experimental importance of the excretory activity of these bivalve
setup and procedure are detailed in our associated paper species to the biogenic regeneration of silicate. This aspect
Table 1. Animals Employed in the Laboratory Experiments and Experimental Conditions. Ind.: Number of Individualsa,b
Size, Ind., TOT, DW, Temp, Chla, Expt,
◦
Species mm n mg mg C (µg L− 1) date
Ruditapes philippinarum
Size class I AVG 9.4 12 197 9.9 19.6 26.3 May 1996
SD ±1.4 – ±79 ±4.0 ±1.5 ±8.7 –
Size class II AVG 15.5 15 830 37.0 19.6 24.6 May 1996
SD ±1.0 – ±174 ±9.2 ±1.5 ±8.8 –
Size class III AVG 18.9 9 1520 63.6 21.6 38.9 Sep 1996
SD ±0.8 – ±149 ±10.4 ±0.3 ±12.8 –
Musculista senhousia
Size class I AVG 16.7 14 431 27.6 19.6 24.5 May 1996
SD ±1.3 – ±117 ±7.7 ±1.5 ±9.1 –
Size class II AVG 23.5 8 1264 52.4 21.6 47.4 Sep 1996
SD ±1.7 – ±172 ±8.0 ±0.3 ±22.8 –
a
Reproduced from Reference 35.
b
TOT: mean (live) weight for each size class of the experimental animals; DW: mean dry soft-body weight for each size class of the experimental animals;
Temp: experimental temperature; Chl a (Chlorophyll a) is the mean (AVG) ± standard deviation (SD) of four spikes of cultures of Thalassiosira sp.
(Chl a = 0.01 × Thalassiosirasp. cell + 3.6, r2 = 0.908; p < 0.001, n = 40) for each day/night treatment
May 9–10, 1996 September 6–7, 1996

Control Control
R. philippinarum I
R. philippinarum III
R. philippinarum II
M. senhousia I M. senhousia II
30 50
Light Dark Light Dark
40
NH4+, µM
NH4+, µM
20
30
20
10
10
0 0
3 6
PO43−, µM
PO43−, µM
2 4
1 2
Figure 1. Laboratory experiments:
changes of nutrient concentrations 0 0
[ammonium, NH4 + –N); phosphate,
30 40
Si(OH)4, µM
Si(OH)4, µM
PO4 3− –P; and silicate Si(OH)4 –Si] dur-

ing the day (light) and night (dark) 30
treatments. Vertical dashed lines: left 20
line (time 20:00) indicates the end of 20
the day (light) treatment; right line 10
10
(time 22:00) indicates the start of the
0 0
night (dark) treatment; between lines:
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
2
4
6
8
low tide between treatments (based on

Ref. 35). Time, hour Time, hour
Table 2. Nutrient Excretion Rate for Each Size class of In in situ experiments, Prins & Small (4) found no
Ruditapes philippinarum and Musculista senhousia significant excretion of silicate by Mytilus edulis beds on
During day/night Treatments (Experimental an intertidal zone of the Westerschelde (The Netherlands).
Temperature as in Table 1)a The occurrence of silicate fluxes was attributed to the
Nutrient Excretion Rate, µmol g−1 DW h−1 possible increased rate of dissolution of silicate at higher
temperature. Asmus et al. (38) in the eastern Wadden Sea
NH4 + PO4 3− Si(OH)4 (Germany) and Dame et al. (39) in the Easterschelde and
Species Light Dark Light Dark Light Dark the western Wadden Sea (The Netherlands) found high
fluxes of silicate from mussel beds of M. edulis. Although,
Ruditapes philippinarum in both studies, the actual excretion rate of silicate
Size class I 10.6 7.9 3.4 3.9 15.8 10.9
by M. edulis was not estimated per biomass unit (e.g.,
Size class II 9.6 5.8 1.0 1.1 4.1 3.3
Size class III 5.0 3.8 0.9 0.7 4.0 1.1
µmol g−1 DW h−1 ), Dame et al. (39) suggested that silicate
Light/dark mean 8.4b 5.8 1.8 1.9 8.0b 5.1 release from mussel beds results from phytoplankton cells
Total mean 7.1 1.9 6.6 breaking down as they are metabolized by the mussels.
Dame et al. (39) argued that the longer turnover time for
Size class I 9.3 11.4 1.2 1.5 14.5 4.8 silicate, compared to phosphate and ammonium, implies
Size class II 16.9 9.7 1.6 1.3 4.2 5.5 a lesser role for the mussel beds in recycling this nutrient
Light/dark mean 13.1 10.6 1.4 1.4 9.4 5.2 species in the two estuaries under investigation.
Total mean 11.8 1.4 7.3 In contrast, Asmus et al. (38) found rapid silicate
a
release in the Sylt-flume study and suggested that
Based on Reference 35.
b
Mean day (light) excretion significantly higher (ANOVA p < 0.001) than the mussels are an accelerator in recycling biogenic
night (dark) excretion (based on Reference 35). silica. Similarly, a study on the nutrient excretion of
R. philippinarum in core incubation experiments found
that silicate regeneration was, on average, 9.2 times
has been more controversial than the contribution of faster in the site farmed with clams (5). In mesocosm
bivalves to the regeneration of ammonium and phosphate. experiments using large tanks, Doering et al. (40) also
The extent of silicate excretion also varies considerably, found that the level of flux was elevated in the presence of
depending on the bivalve species investigated and the another clam, Mercenaria mercenaria, by 86% and 57% for
environmental/experimental conditions employed. silicate and ammonium, respectively. Our results indicate
LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS ON BIVALVE EXCRETION RATES OF NUTRIENTS 9
Table 3. Comparison of Nutrient Excretion Rates (µmol g−1 DW hour−1 ) for Different Species of Mussels (m), Clams (c)
and Oysters (o)a
Species and Study Area Methodb NH4 + PO4 3− Si(OH)4 T, ◦ C Reference
Mytilus edulis (m)

Narragansett Bay, USA Lab 3.1 ndc ndc 15 41
Linher River, U.K. Lab 4.9–34.6 nd nd 11–21 23
Sound, DK In situ 0.14–3.1 0.10–0.53 nd 0.7–18 42
Western Scheldt, NL In situ 1.1 nd nd 12 43
Musculista senhousia (m)
Seto Inland Sea, JPN Lab 9.3–16.9 1.2–1.6 – 18–22 35
Seto Inland Sea, JPN Lab 9.3–16.9 1.2–1.6 4.2–14.5 18–22 This study
Modiolus demissus (m)
Narragansett Bay, USA Lab 3.58 ± 1.73 nd nd 21 41
Great Sippewissett, USA Lab 2.5 nd nd annual 2
Donax serra (m)
Maitland River, S. Africa In situ 0.35–8.1 nd nd 44
Sundays River, S. Africa Lab/In situ 2.2 nd nd 15–25 26
Donax sordidus (m)
Sundays River, S. Africa Lab/In situ 2.9 nd nd 15–25 26
Aspatharia wahlbergi (m)
Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe Lab 6.1 0.48 nd 25.2 29
Corbicula africana (c)
Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe Lab 12.9 nd nd 25.2 29
Corbicula japonica (c)
Lake Shinji, JPN Lab 14.3 nd nd 27 28
Mercenaria mercenaria (c)
Delaware Bay, USA Lab 0.9–1.5 nd nd 20 45
Macoma balthica (c)
Wadden Sea, DK Lab 0.1d nd nd 13–15 16
Ruditapes philippinarum (c)
Virgin Islands, USA Lab 1.9–4.9 nd nd 20.1 24
Moss Landing, USA Lab 1–2.3 nd nd 27.1 46
Moss Landing, USA Lab 0.6–0.9 nd nd 12, 15, 18 47
Marennes-Oléron, F Lab 0.5–13 nd nd 5–25 25
Hatchery, Ireland Lab 0.16–1 nd nd 18.8 27
Seto Inland Sea, JPN Lab 3.8–10.6 0.7–3.9 — 18–22 35
Seto Inland Sea, JPN Lab 3.8–10.6 0.7–3.9 1.1–15.8 18–22 This study
Crassostrea virginica (o)
Delaware Bay, USA Lab 0.5–0.9 nd nd 20.1 24
Crassostrea gigas (o)
North Brittany, F In situ 0.28–6.6 nd nd 27.1 48
a
Based on Reference 35.
b
Lab: laboratory experiments.
c
nd: not determined.
d
Excretion rate calculated as a wet soft-body weight.
well-balanced stoichiometric ratios among the nutrient BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Effect of bioturbation on microbial nitrogen transformations Seto Inland Sea, Japan: seasonal patterns of dissolved and
in the sediment and fluxes of ammonium and nitrate to the particulate compounds. Hydrobiol. 432: 9–23.
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bation by small bivalve, Theora lata (Hinds). Estuar. Coast. spectrophotometric and HPLC methods. La mer 38: 57–63.
Shelf Sci. 24: 539–555. 35. Magni, P., Montani, S., Takada, C., and Tsutsumi, H. (2000).
18. Aller, R.C. (1988). Benthic fauna and biogeochemical pro- Temporal scaling and relevance of bivalve nutrient excretion
cesses: the role of borrow structures. In: Nitrogen Cycling on a tidal flat of the Seto Inland Sea, Japan. Mar. Ecol. Progr.
in Coastal Marine Environments. T.H. Blackburn and Ser. 198: 139–155.
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19. Luther, I.II. et al. (1998). Simultaneous measurements of O2 , dynamics of salinity, nutrients and suspended particulate
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voltammetric microelectrode. Limnol. Oceanogr. 43: 325–333. spring tide cycle. J. Oceanogr. 58: 389–402.
20. Nakamura, Y. (1994). Effect of flow velocity on phosphate 37. Montani, S. et al. (1998). The effect of a tidal cycle on the
release from sediment. Water Sci. Technol. 30: 263–272. dynamics of nutrients in a tidal estuary in the Seto Inland
21. Miller-Way, T. and Twilley, T.T. (1996). Theory and operation Sea, Japan. J. Oceanogr. 54: 65–76.
of continuous flow systems for the study of benthic–pelagic 38. Asmus, H., Asmus, R.M., and Reise, K. (1990). Exchange
coupling. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 140: 257–269. processes in an intertidal mussel bed: A Sylt-flume study
22. Asmus, R.M. et al. (1998). The role of water movement in the Wadden Sea. Berichte Biolog. Anstalt Helgol. 6: 78.
and spatial scaling for measurements of dissolved inorganic 39. Dame, R.F. et al. (1991). The influence of mussel beds on
nitrogen fluxes in intertidal sediments. Estuar. Coast. Shelf nutrients in the western Wadden Sea and Eastern Scheldt
Sci. 46: 221–232. estuaries. Estuaries 14: 130–138.
TEMPORAL SCALING OF BENTHIC NUTRIENT REGENERATION IN BIVALVE-DOMINATED TIDAL FLAT 11
40. Doering, P.H., Kelly, J.R., Oviatt, C.A., and Sowers, T. (1987). dense assemblages of bivalves, it has been shown, play a
Effect of the hard clam Mercenaria mercenaria on benthic major role in these processes (14–16).
fluxes of inorganic nutrients and gases. Mar. Biol. 94:
377–383.
41. Nixon, S.W., Oviatt, C.A., Garber, J., and Lee, V. (1976). BACKGROUND
Diel metabolism and nutrient dynamics in a salt marsh
embayment. Ecology 57: 740–750. The contribution of benthic macrofauna to the total
42. Schlüter, L. and Josefsen, S.B. (1994). Annual variation in upward flux of nutrients has been investigated (mostly
condition, respiration and remineralisation of Mytilus edulis for ammonium and, to a lesser extent, for phosphate)
L. in the Sound, Denmark. Helgol. Meeres. 48: 419–430. in many coastal and estuarine areas using several
43. Smaal, A.C., Vonck, A.P.M.A., and Bakker, M. (1997). Sea- approaches. They include laboratory and mesocosm exper-
sonal variation in physiological energetics of Mytilus edulis iments (17–19). In situ benthic chambers and sediment
and Cerastoderma edule of different size classes. J. Mar. Biol. core incubations (20–22), and open flow/tunnel sys-
Ass. U.K. 77: 817–838. tems (16,23–26). Measurements of macrofauna-influenced
44. Prosh, R.M. and McLachlan, A. (1984). The regeneration of nutrient flux, however, often have temporal limitations as
surf-zone nutrients by the sand mussel, Donax Serra Röding. they are based on one or relatively few sampling occasions,
J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 80: 221–233. and thus seasonal patterns are in most cases not known.
45. Snra, R.F. and Baggaley, A. (1976). Rate of excretion of In this article, we evaluate the magnitude and tempo-
ammonia by the hard clam Mercenaria mercenaria and ral scaling of biogenic flux of nutrients from intertidal
the American oyster Crassostrea virginica. Mar. Biol. 36:
sediments densely populated by bivalves, based on extrap-
251–258.
olating nutrient excretion rates of dominant bivalves to a
46. Mann, R. and Glomb, S.J. (1978). The effect of temperature
field community. In particular, we show that the seasonal
on growth and ammonia excretion of the Manila clam Tapes
japonica. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 6: 335–339.
pattern of nutrient fluxes can be strongly influenced by
the animal standing stock and its temporal distribution.
47. Mann, R. (1979). The effect of temperature on growth,
physiology, and gametogenesis in the Manila clam Tapes
This is beside the effect and importance of variation in
philippinarum (Adams & Reeve, 1850). J. Exp. Mar. Biol. excretion rate due to animal physiological factors, such
Ecol. 38: 121–133. as seasonal cycles of gametogenesis, storage and use of
48. Boucher, G. and Boucher-Rodoni, R. (1988). In situ measure- body reserves, and water temperature (27,28). The nutri-
ments of respiratory metabolism and nitrogen fluxes at the ent species considered in this study include ammonium,
interface of oyster beds. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 44: 229–238. phosphate, and silicate, for which we quantified in asso-
ciated laboratory experiments LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS ON
BIVALVE EXCRETION RATES OF NUTRIENTS the excretion rates
TEMPORAL SCALING OF BENTHIC NUTRIENT of different size classes of two dominant bivalve species.
REGENERATION IN BIVALVE-DOMINATED The relevance of macrofaunal excretion in regenerating
the inorganic forms of three major bioelements such as N,
TIDAL FLAT
P, and Si is discussed.
PAOLO MAGNI
IMC—International Marine MACROFAUNAL COMMUNITIES
Centre
Torregrande-Oristano, Italy We present here the macrofaunal composition and distri-
bution at an individual station (Stn B5) of a transect
SHIGERU MONTANI line selected in a sandflat of the Seto Inland Sea of
Hokkaido University Japan (29). At this station, the porewater nutrient con-
Hakodate, Japan centrations (ammonium, phosphate, and silicate) in the
uppermost 10 cm of sediments were also investigated
in parallel from January 1995 to April 1996. They will
Beside light and temperature (1–5), nutrients such as be the subject of a subsequent associated paper focus-
ammonium (NH4 + -N), phosphate (PO4 3− -P), and silicate ing on the relationship between the seasonal pattern
[Si(OH)4 -Si] are a key factor in controlling the growth, of bivalve nutrient excretion, described here, and the
abundance, and structure of primary producers in seasonal variation of porewater nutrient concentrations
the ocean (6,7). Hence, it is important to investigate SEASONAL COUPLING BETWEEN INTERTIDAL MACROFAUNA AND
the availability, sources, and distribution of these SEDIMENT COLUMN POREWATER NUTRIENT CONCENTRATIONS. The
nutrient species, as well as their spatial and temporal total density and biomass of macrofauna varied from
scaling. Biological processes strongly influence nutrient 7,400 (July 1995) to 22,050 ind.m−2 (October 1995), and
regeneration in different marine systems. In the open from 70.9 (July 1995) to 244 g DW m−2 (September 7,
ocean, an important portion of reduced N-forms (e.g., 1995), respectively (Fig. 1). The bivalves Ruditapes philip-
NH4 + -N), for instance, is made available in situ from waste pinarum and Musculista senhousia and the polychaetes
products of plankton metabolism (8,9) and supports the so- Ceratonereis erithraeensis and Cirriformia tentaculata
called ‘‘regenerated’’ primary production (10). In coastal were dominant; they accounted for 60.5% and 94.7% of
marine ecosystems, benthic nutrient regeneration is a the total density and biomass, respectively. Remarkably,
major driving force in cycling biophilic elements (e.g., N, R. philippinarum and M. senhousia alone accounted for
P, and Si) (11–13) and abundant macrofauna, for example, up to 83.3 ± 6.7% of the total biomass when this exceeded
12 TEMPORAL SCALING OF BENTHIC NUTRIENT REGENERATION IN BIVALVE-DOMINATED TIDAL FLAT
(a) 25000 estimate the magnitude and temporal scaling of biogenic

nutrient excretion, we used an indirect approach. The
20000 mean excretion rates of ammonium, phosphate, and sili-
Density, ind m−2
cate for the two dominant bivalves R. philippinarum and

15000
M. senhousia, which were obtained in laboratory experi-
10000 ments LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS ON BIVALVE EXCRETION RATES
OF NUTRIENTS, were applied to the relevant monthly biomass
5000 values found in the field. The ammonium and phosphate
0 excretion rates of each bivalve species and their scaling to
20 Jan
17 Feb
17 Mar
15 Apr
16 May
30 May
14 Jun
12 Jul
10 Aug
7 Sep
29 Sep
30 Oct
27 Nov
26 Dec
24 Jan
22 Feb
21 Mar
17 Apr
a field community have been extensively reported in Magni
et al. (29). In this article, we applied these excretion rates
to the bivalve biomass found at Stn B5 and extended this
(b) 250 scaling to silicate, whose size-class dependent excretion
Others rates are presented in LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS ON BIVALVE
Cirriformia tentaculata
Biomass, g DW m−2
200 C.nereis erithraeensis EXCRETION RATES OF NUTRIENTS. For silicate, we adopted

Ruditapes philippinarum the same temperature-dependent excretion rate factors
150 Musculista senhousia as those used for ammonium and phosphate (Table 1).
100
BIVALVE NUTRIENT EXCRETION
50
0 The highest excretion rates of nutrients were estimated

in September 7, 1995, up to a total of 50.2, 7.5,
20 Jan
17 Feb
17 Mar
15 Apr
16 May
30 May
14 Jun
12 Jul
10 Aug
7 Sep
29 Sep
30 Oct
27 Nov
26 Dec
24 Jan
22 Feb
21 Mar
17 Apr
and 34.1 mmol m−2 d−1 for ammonium, phosphate, and

silicate, respectively (Fig. 2). This corresponded to the
1995 1996 period of highest biomass of both R. philippinarum and M.
Time, month senhousia, which also accounted for the highest bivalve
Figure 1. Seasonal variation of density (a) and biomass (b) of percentage (91.8%) of the total macrofaunal biomass.
dominant macrozoobenthic species at Stn B5 (29). Note that The lowest excretion rates occurred in April 1995 for R.
in May 1995 and September 1995, sampling was carried out philippinarum (lowest biomass on the same occasion), in
fortnightly. March 1995 for M. senhousia (lowest biomass on May
16, 1995), and in February 1995 as the sum of the
two bivalve species excretion rates. These latter rates
120 g DW m−2 , from August 1995 till the end of the were 4.1, 0.64, and 2.9 mmol m−2 d−1 for ammonium,
investigations. The high values of total macrofaunal and phosphate, and silicate, respectively. The upward flux
bivalve biomass may be regarded as a typical feature of rates of nutrients obtained through this extrapolation
many estuarine and intertidal areas, which are amongst of laboratory experiments on bivalve nutrient excretion
the most productive systems in the ocean (30). In addition, to a field community are comparable to the highest
biomass was markedly lower during the first half of the biogenic releases reported for dense assemblages of
year (January 1995 to July 1995) than between late sum- bivalves such as oyster reefs (34) and mussel beds (16,35).
mer and winter; yet values progressively increased from This study also points to the importance of bivalve
early spring (March 1995) to early summer (June 1995). excretion to the biogenic regeneration of silicate, as
These marked temporal changes of macrofaunal commu- previously suggested by field measurements indicating
nities reflect the high variability of these ecosystems. To evidence of increased levels of silicate flux in the
Table 1. Adopted Temperature-Dependent Excretion Rates of Ammonium (NH4 + -N), Phosphate (PO4 3− -P), and Silicate
[Si(OH)4 -Si] for Ruditapes philippinarum and Musculista senhousia
Period Temperature, ◦ C Excretion Rate, µmol g−1 DW h−1
Month Station R. philippinarum M. senhousia

+
B5-B1 H1 Y3 f a
NH4 PO4 3−
Si(OH)4 f a
NH4 + PO4 3− Si(OH)4
Dec, Jan, AVG 4.7 5.9 10.4 0.6 4.3 1.1 4.0 0.5 5.9 0.7 3.7
Feb SD ±1.8 ±1.8 ±2.1 – – – – – – – –
Nov, Mar AVG 11.7 11.9 15.2 0.9 6.4 1.7 5.9 0.7 8.3 1.0 5.1
– SD ±0.9 ±0.2 ±3.0 – – – – – – – –
Apr, May, AVG 19.6 19.9 21.7 1 7.1 1.9 6.6 1 11.8 1.4 7.3
Jun, Oct SD ±2.8 ±4.0 ±3.6 – – – – – – – –
Jul, Aug, AVG 27.7 28.0 26.9 0.9 6.4 1.7 5.9 1.2 14.2 1.7 8.8
Sep SD ±2.3 ±3.1 ±1.1 – – – – – – – –
a
A factor (f ) of 1 is used for the mean of the excretion rates obtained in laboratory experiments (see LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS ON BIVALVE EXCRETION RATES OF
NUTRIENTS and based on Ref. 29).
TEMPORAL SCALING OF BENTHIC NUTRIENT REGENERATION IN BIVALVE-DOMINATED TIDAL FLAT 13
60 by a comparison with the extent of benthic nutrient

NH4+-N, mmol m−2 day−1
Ruditapes philippinarum regeneration through diffusive flux. In particular, nutrient

50 Musculista senhousia
flux measured from nutrient concentrations in the
40 porewater in adjacent intertidal and coastal areas was
more than one order of magnitude lower; it varied from
30
0.2 to 1.5 mmol NH4 + -N m−2 d−1 and from 0.01 to
−2
20 0.05 mmol PO3− 4 -P m d−1 . It can be inferred that a
10 marked increase in biogenic nutrient regeneration is
importantly controlled by the animal biomass increase
0 (36) and has a major impact, acting as a positive feedback,
20 Jan
17 Feb
17 Mar
15 Apr
16 May
30 May
14 Jun
12 Jul
10 Aug
7 Sep
29 Sep
30 Oct
27 Nov
26 Dec
24 Jan
22 Feb
21 Mar
17 Apr
on primary producers (41). These results indicate that
abundant macrofauna and its excretory products play a
20 primary role in benthic nutrient regeneration, are well
PO43−-P, mmol m−2 day−1
Ruditapes philippinarum balanced in their stoichiometric ratios, and thus act as

15 a major factor to support primary production within the
intertidal zone.
10
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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15 Apr
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10 Aug
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30 Oct
27 Nov
26 Dec
24 Jan
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30 3. Verhagen, J.H.G. and Nienhuis, P.H. (1983). A simulation
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7. Valiela, I. et al. (1997). Macroalgal blooms in shallow
Figure 2. Magnitude and temporal scaling of ammonium estuaries: controls and ecophysiological and ecosystem
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8. Park, Y.C. and Carpenter, E.J. (1987). Ammonium regener-
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9. Wen, Y.H. and Peters, R.H. (1994). Empirical models of
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pattern of large variations of nutrient flux, up to ca.
10. Harrison, W.G. et al. (1992). Nitrogen dynamics at the
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between March–April 1995 and September 7, 1995, and a
11. Rowe, G.T., Clifford, C.H., Smith, K.L., and Hamilton, P.L.
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the effect of differences between the bivalve performance
12. Nixon, S.W. (1981). Remineralization and nutrient cycling
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the magnitude and temporal scaling of biogenic nutrient E.J. Carpenter and D.G. Capone (Eds.). Academic Press, New
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in cycling biophilic elements can also be highlighted ribbed mussel, Geukensia demissa, and its significance in
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16. Prins, T.C. and Smaal, A.C. (1994). The role of the blue mussel variability in the lower intertidal zone of an estuary in the
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estuary (the Netherlands). Hydrobiol. 282/283: 413–429. particulate compounds. Hydrobiol. 432: 9–23.
17. Doering, P.H., Kelly, J.R., Oviatt, C.A., and Sowers, T. (1987). 34. Dame, R.F., Wolaver, T.G., and Libes, S.M. (1985). The
Effect of the hard clam Mercenaria mercenaria on benthic summer uptake and release of nitrogen by an intertidal oyster
fluxes of inorganic nutrients and gases. Mar. Biol. 94: reef. Neth. J. Sea Res. 19: 265–268.
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18. Nakamura, M., Yamamuro, M., Ishikawa, M., and Nishi- nutrients in the western Wadden Sea and Eastern Scheldt
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the nitrogen cycle in a mesohaline lagoon. Mar. Biol. 99: 36. Bartoli, M. et al. (2001). Impact of Tapes philippinarum on
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19. Kiibus, M. and Kautsky, N. (1996). Respiration, nutrient Goro. Hydrobiol. 455: 203–212.
excretion and filtration rate of tropical freshwater mussels 37. Kuwae, T., Hosokawa, Y., and Eguchi, N. (1998). Dissolved
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20. Yamada, H. and Kayama, M. (1987). Liberation of nitroge- 38. Matsukawa, Y., Sato, Y., and Sasaki, K. (1987). Benthic
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Shelf Sci. 24: 539–555. 39. Takayanagi, K. and Yamada, H. (1999). Effects of benthic flux
21. Gómez-Parra, A. and Forja, J.M. (1993). Benthic fluxes in on short term variations of nutrients in Aburatsubo Bay. J.
Cadiz Bay (SW Spain). Hydrobiol. 252: 23–34. Oceanogr. 55: 463–469.
22. Yamamuro, M. and Koike, I. (1993). Nitrogen metabolism 40. Yamamoto, T., Matsuda, O., Hashimoto, T., Imose, H., and
of the filter-feeding bivalve Corbicula japonica and its Kitamura, T. (1998). Estimation of benthic fluxes of dissolved
significance in primary production of a brackish lake in Japan. inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus from sediments of the
Limnol. Oceanogr. 35: 997–1007. Seto Inland Sea. Umi to Kenkyu (Oceanogr. Soc. Japan) 7:
151–158 (in Japanese).
23. Dame, R.F., Zingmark, R.G., and Haskin, E. (1984). Oyster
reefs as processors of estuarine materials. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. 41. Peterson, B.J. and Heck, K.L. Jr. (2001). Positive interaction
Ecol. 83: 239–247. between suspension-feeding bivalves and seagrass—a facul-
tative mutualism. Mar. Ecol. Progr. Ser. 213: 143–155.
24. Asmus, H., Asmus, R.M., and Reise, K. (1990). Exchange
processes in an intertidal mussel bed: a Sylt-flume study
in the Wadden Sea. Berichte Biolog. Anstalt Helgol. 6: 78.
25. Prins, T.C. and Smaal, A.C. (1990). Benthic-pelagic coupling: BREAKWATERS
the release of inorganic nutrients by an intertidal bed
of Mytilus edulis. In: Trophic relationships in the marine STEFANO PAGLIARA
environment. Proc. 24th Europ. Mar. Biol. Symp., Aberdeen PIETRO CHIAVACCINI
Univ. Press, pp. 89–103. Università di Pisa
26. Asmus, R.M., Asmus, H., Wille, A., Zubillaga, G.F., and Pisa, Italy
Reise, K. (1994). Complementary oxygen and nutrient fluxes
in seagrass beds and mussels banks? In: Changes in Fluxes
in Estuaries: Implications from Science to Management. Breakwaters are coastal structures used to protect harbor
K.R. Dyer and R.J. Orth (Eds.). Olsen & Olsen, Fredensborg, and shore areas by dissipating and reflecting wave energy.
pp. 227–238.
They are built to
27. Bayne, B.L. and Scullard, C. (1977). Rates of nitrogen
excretion by species of Mytilus (Bivalvia: Mollusca). J. Mar. — reduce wave disturbance in coastal and harbor
Biol. Ass. U.K. 57: 355–369. areas and preserve related activities;
28. Schlüter, L. and Josefsen, S.B. (1994). Annual variation in
— protect ships and boats from wave forces;
condition, respiration and remineralisation of Mytilus edulis
L. in the Sound, Denmark. Helgol. Meeres. 48: 419–430. — when located near shore, in the same direction
29. Magni, P., Montani, S., Takada, C., and Tsutsumi, H. (2000).
as the coastline, they can stabilize the coast-
Temporal scaling and relevance of bivalve nutrient excretion line, modifying cross-shore and long-shore sedi-
on a tidal flat of the Seto Inland Sea, Japan. Mar. Ecol. Progr. ment transport.
Ser. 198: 139–155.
30. Heip, C.H.R. et al. (1995). Production and consumption of The choice of the type of structure depends on the
biological particles in temperate tidal estuaries. Oceanogr. availability of materials used, the characteristics of the
Mar. Biol. Ann. Rev. 33: 1–149. incident wave, the bottom morphology, the geotechnical
31. Magni, P. and Montani, S. (1997). Development of benthic parameters of the soil, and the necessity of obtaining a
microalgal assemblages on a tidal flat in the Seto Inland flexible or rigid structure. Breakwaters can be classified
Sea, Japan: effects of environmental variability. La mer 35: as rubble-mound structures, vertical breakwaters, and
109–120. floating breakwaters.
BREAKWATERS 15
RUBBLE-MOUND STRUCTURES Armor Stability. The stability formulas are based on

experiments carried out on hydraulic models. One of the
The typical cross section of a rubble-mound breakwater most used stability formulas is Hudson’s (3) determined
is sketched in Fig. 1. It consists of different layers of for a nonovertopping structure:
stones. The center core is made up of quarry run. The
external layer (armor) consists of large armor units, that H
= (K cot α)1/3 (3)
can be either rock or specially designed concrete units D2n50
(cubes, tetrapods, dolos). The breakwater crest is generally
1–2 m over the still water level (SWL). The crest width where H = characteristic height of the wave
should be large enough to allow transport and installation (Hs to H1/10 );
of material during construction and when a repair is Dn50 = equivalent cube length of median rock;
made (1). α = slope angle;
Because of the relative dimensions of the units of the = (ρs /ρw − 1) where ρs and ρw are rock density
armor and those of the core, in some cases, it is necessary and water density, respectively;
to build the breakwater as a filter of three or four layers K = stability coefficient (Tables 1 and 2).
(underlayers), so that the finer material of the core cannot
be removed by the waves through the voids of the armor The damage D represents the measure of the modifi-
layer. To prevent removal of finer material, the filter must cation of the structure’s profile under wave action. The
satisfy the following relations: damage can be defined by counting the number of rocks
moved or by measuring the variation of the armor layer
D15 (upper layer) < 4 ÷ 5D85 (lower layer) (1)
D15 (upper layer) < 20 ÷ 25D15 (lower layer) (2) Table 1. Values of the Stability Coefficient K for H = Hs a
Damage D
where D15 = nominal size that is exceeded by the 85% 0–5%
of the sample
D85 = nominal size that is exceeded by the 15% Breaking Nonbreaking
of the sample Stone Shape Placement Waves Waves
Smooth, rounded Random 2.1 2.4

A toe filter is necessary if the breakwater is built on Rough, angular Random 3.5 4.0
erodible material. The toe filter prevents breaking waves Rough, angular Special 4.8 5.5
from removing material from the base of the structure. If a
Slope 1.5 ≤ cot α ≤ 3.0.
the breakwater is located in shallow water, the filter toe
is exposed to extreme wave action. To avoid, or just limit,
wave overtopping, it is possible to use a concrete structure Table 2. Values of the Stability Coefficient K for H = H1/10
(crown wall) located over the crest (Fig. 1).
Damage D
When the breakwater is small and not high, it is
0–5%
possible to avoid using a center core. This kind of structure,
of single sized stones, is called a ‘‘reef breakwater,’’ and it Breaking Waves Non Breaking Waves
is normally used for small submerged breakwaters (2). Stone shape Placement Trunk Head Trunk Head
Stability Smooth, Random 1.2 1.1 2.4 1.9

rounded
The rubble-mound breakwater causes the dissipation of Rough, Random 2.0 1.3a –1.9b 4.0 2.3a –3.2b
wave energy by generating eddies due to the breaking. angular
The voids and the roughness of the structural material, Rough, Special 5.8 5.3 7.0 6.4
as well as the permeability of the structure, are very angular
important in the dissipation process. The wave energy Tetrapods Random 7.0 3.5a –5b 8.0 4.0a –6.0b
entering through the structure creates shear stresses that a
cot α = 3.
can move the masses causing loss of stability. b
cot α = 1.5.
Crest width
Breakwater crest
Seaward Crown wall Landward
SWL
r
mo
Berm Ar Underlayer
TOE filter
core
Figure 1. Typical section of a rubble-mound

breakwater.
16 BREAKWATERS
area (eroded area A of the damaged section). For this sec- Run Up and Overtopping
ond case, Broderick (4) introduced a parameter (relative Run up is a phenomenon in which the incident crest wave
eroded area) defined as runs up along a sloping structure to a level higher then the
original wave crest. Together with overtopping, it plays,
A
S= (4) a very important role in the design of a rubble-mound
D2n50 structure because it depends on the characteristics of the
structure (slope roughness, berm length, permeability).
where Dn50 is the nominal diameter, corresponding to 50%
Run up is expressed by Ru,x% that represents the level
of the weight of the sample. The damage can be considered
reached by the wave exceeded in x% of the cases by the
the number of masses of dimension equal to Dn50 eroded in
incident wave. The run up level is referred to the SWL.
a strip of section of the same length. Zero damage means
For rubble-mound structures, Van der Meer’s (6) formula
that there is nominally no removal of the armor units from
is used:
the breakwater face.
The K value of Hudson’s formula is different for the Ru,x%
= aξm , ξm < 1.5 (9)
trunk and the head of the structure. The stones will be Hs
less stable on the head than on the trunk. In this case, K Ru,x%
must be decreased by about 20%. = bξm
c
, ξm > 1.5 (10)
Hs
Van der Meer (5) derives expressions that include some
additional parameters for an incident wave: These formulas are valid for breakwaters that have an
impermeable or almost impermeable core (P < 0.1). If
Hs the breakwaters have a permeable core (0.1 < P < 0.4)
= 6.2S0.2 P0.18 Nz−0.1 ξm
−0.5
Dn50 Equations 9 and 10 become
plunging waves ξm < ξcm (5)
Ru,x%
Hs =d (11)
= 1.0S0.2 P−0.13 Nz−0.1 (cot α)0.5 ξm
P
Hs
Dn50
surging waves ξm > ξcm (6) It is usual in breakwater design to consider that x% = 2;
−0.5 this means that Ru,2% is the run up exceeded by 2% of
ξm = sm tan α
the waves. In this case, the values of the parameters of
ξmc = [6.2P0.31 (tan α)0.5 ]1/(P+0.5) Equations (9,10), and 11 are a = 0.96, b = 1.17, c = 0.46,
and d = 1.97.
where S = relative eroded area (normally equal to 2); ξm is the breaker parameter for deep water, correspond-
P = notional permeability; ing to the mean period (ξm = sm −0.5
tan α where the symbols
Nz = number of waves; are explained in Equations 5 and 6).
sm = wave steepness sm = Hs /Lom ; In a low crest elevation, overtopping is allowed.
Lom = deepwater wavelength corresponding Overtopping is the quantity of water passing over the
to the mean period. crest of a structure per unit time, and it has the same
dimensions of a discharge Q(m3 /s), often expressed for
For a homogeneous structure (no core, no filter, and stones unit length q[m3 /(sm)].
of the same size), P = 0.6; a rock armor layer with a A knowledge of overtopping is important in defining the
permeable core gives P = 0.5; an armor layer with filter necessary protection of the splash area and in assessing
on a permeable core gives P = 0.4. For a breakwater with the risk to people or installations behind the breakwater.
an impermeable core, P = 0.1. The amount of overtopping varies considerably from wave
For overtopped and low crested structures, Van der to wave; the overtopping discharge changes in time and
Meer suggests multiplying Dn50 by a reduction factor fi space, and the greatest quantity is due to a small number of
defined by the incident waves. Wave overtopping for an impermeable
Rc sop rock armored slope structure with a crown wall can be
fi = 1.25 − 4.8 (7)
Hs 2π expressed by the equation of Bradbury and Allsop (7),
using the parameters of Aminti and Franco (8):
Rc is the freeboard, and sop = Hs /Lop (Lop is the deep water
wavelength referred to the peak period). −b
Expression (7) q Rc 2 som
Rc sop =a (12)
can be used in the range 0 < < 0.052. gHs Tom Hs 2π
Hs 2π
For submerged breakwaters, the following expression
can be used (6): where Som = deepwater wave steepness, based
hc on mean period;
= (2.1 + 0.1S) exp(0.14Ns∗ ) (8) Hs = significant wave height;
h
Rc = crest freeboard relative to SWL in m;
where h = water depth; Tom = deepwater wave mean period;
hc = height of the structure from the base; a, b = parameters as specified in Table 3.
S = relative eroded area;
Hs −1/3 G is the width (seaward) of the armor crest till the crown
Ns∗ = sp = spectral stability number. wall, and α is the slope of the armor layer.
Dn50
BREAKWATERS 17
Table 3. Coefficients for Equation 15 from Experimental transmitted to incident characteristic wave height or the
Results ratio of the square of transmitted mean energy to incident
Armor Units Cotα G/Hs a b mean wave energy:
Rock 2 1.10 17 × 10 −8
2.41 0.5
Hst Est
2 1.85 19 × 10−8 2.30 Kt = = (15)
2 2.60 2.3 × 10−8 2.68
Hs Es
1.33 1.10 5.0 × 10−8 3.10
1.33 1.85 6.8 × 10−8 2.65 For rock armored, low crested, submerged and reef
1.33 2.60 3.1 × 10−8 2.69 breakwaters, we can use the Van der Meer and
Tetrapods 2 1.10 1.9 × 10−8 3.08 d’Angremond formula (11):
2 1.65 1.3 × 10−8 3.80
2 2.6 1.1 × 10−8 2.86 Hs Rc
1.33 1.10 5.6 × 10−8 2.81 Kt = 0.031 − 0.24 +b (16)
Dn50 Dn50
1.33 1.85 1.7 × 10−8 3.02
1.33 2.60 0.92 × 10−8 2.98
Hs B 1.84
where b = −5.42sop + 0.0323 − 0.0017
Dn50 Dn50
+ 0.51 for a conventional structure,
For rock armored permeable slopes, that have a Hs
theoretical permeability P = 0.4 and a berm in front b = −2.6sop − 0.05 + 0.85 for a reef type
Dn50
of a crown wall, we can use the Pedersen and
structure,
Burcharth formula (9):
Hs = significant wave height;
3 som = deepwater wave steepness, based on
qTom Hs Hs2
= 3.2 × 10−5 (13) peak period;
L2om Rc Ac B cot α
Rc = crest freeboard relative to SWL, negative for
submerged breakwaters;
where Ac = level of the berm from SWL;
B = width of crest;
B = the width of the berm;
Dn50 = median of nominal diameter of rock for
Rc = the level of the crest of the crown wall
design conditions.
from SWL;
α = slope of armor.
For conventional structures, Kt has a maximum of 0.75
and a minimum of 0.075, and for reef type structures, Kt
Wave Reflection
varies between 0.15 and 0.6.
Each coastal structure causes a wave reflection. Reflection This formula can be used in the following range:
plays a very important role because of the interaction
between reflected and incident waves that can create a Hs Rc
1< < 6, 0.01 < sop < 0.05, −2 < <6
very confused sea, increasing the wave steepness. It is a Dn50 Dn50
problem especially at the entrance of an harbor because the
steepness makes ship and boat maneuver very difficult. VERTICAL BREAKWATERS
Besides, strong reflection increases the erosive force in
front of the structure. Vertical breakwaters are rigid and not as flexible as rock
Rubble-mound breakwaters, which are permeable, armored ones. It is necessary to know very well the wave
rough, and sloping structures and structure of limited climate (direction, intensity, frequency, and duration of
crest level, absorb a significant portion of the wave energy. waves) to obtain a good design. A typical cross section of a
For these structures, the reflection coefficient is small. vertical breakwater is sketched in Fig. 2a.
For nonovertopped structures, that have a theoretical
permeability P, we can use the following equation (10): Forces on Vertical Structures
−0.082 −0.62 −0.46
Kr = 0.071P (cot α) Sop (14) Nonbreaking Wave. A nonbreaking wave is perfectly
reflected (coefficient of reflection = 1.0) and can be
where Kr is the ratio of the reflected wave height and the considered static because the period is longer than
incident wave height. the natural period of oscillation of the structure. This
stationary and static wave is called ‘‘clapotis.’’ Assuming
Wave Transmission perfect reflection, the seaward wave has a height double
the incident wave.
When energy passes over and through a breakwater, there If the vertical breakwater is overtopped, a reduction
is a wave transmission. The wave action in the landward of wave pressure occurs because it is truncated at the
side of the structure is smaller than in the seaward side. crest level. According to Sainflou (12), the pressures are
A wave is transmitted when a considerable amount of (Fig. 2a)
water overtops the structure and when the breakwater

is very permeable and the wave period is relatively long. H + δ0
p1 = p2 + ρw ghs (17)
We define the coefficient of transmission as the ratio of hs + H + δ0
18 BREAKWATERS
(a) (b)
Seaward P1 P3 Landward Seaward Landward
Pd
SWL H +d0 SWL SWL SWL
H +d0
hs
hs
h
h
P2 P2
Pressure according to sainflou Pressure according to minikin
(c) Pressure according to goda
Seaward P2
Landward
m∗
Rc
SWL SWL
P1
h′
d
h
P3
P4
Figure 2. Pressure on vertical breakwaters.
ρw gH where H = wave height;

p2 = (18)
cosh(2π hs /L0 ) pd = dynamic pressure at the still water level,
p3 = ρw g(H − δ0 ) (19) corresponding to the wave crest;
ρw = water density;
π H2 hs = water depth at the foot of the structure;
δ0 = coth(2π hs /L0 ) (20)
L0 ht = height of the caisson between the SWL and
the berm;
where H = wave height; L0 = wavelength in deep water.
p1 = pressure at the still water level (SWL),
corresponding to wave crest;
Another expression that can be used to determine the
p2 = pressure at the base of a vertical wall;
total pressure for breaking waves is (14)
p3 = pressure at the still water level,
corresponding to a wave trough;
δ0 = vertical shift in the wave crest and trough p1 = 0.5(1 + cos β)(α1 + α2 cos2 β)γ H (22)
at the wall; ∗
η − hc
ρw = water density; p2 = p1 (23)
η∗
hs = water depth at the foot of the structure;
p3 = α3 p1 (24)
L0 = wavelength in deep water.
p4 = 0.5(1 + cos β)α1 α3 γ H (25)
Breaking Waves. The worst condition for a vertical η∗ = 0.75(1 + cos β)H (26)
breakwater occurs when the water depth in front of the 2
structure causes the wave to break. In this case, the 2kh
α1 = 0.6 + 0.5 (27)
dynamic component of the pressure must be considered, sinh2kh
especially if the breaking is sudden, as happens for
plunging waves. The forces generated by breaking are very hb − d H 2 2d
α2 = min , (28)
high and a very short duration. According to Minikin (13), 3hb d H
the dynamic pressure (Fig. 2b) is
h 1
α3 = 1 − 1− (29)
h cosh kh
ht
pd = 100 (hs + ht )ρw gH (21) H = min(1.8Hs , Hf ) (30)
hs L0
BREAKWATERS 19

gT 2 3π 2 hb Concrete Caissons
Hf = 0.18 1 − exp [1 + 15(tan ϑ)]4/3 (31)
2π gT 2 The main component of a vertical breakwater is a cellular
concrete caisson, a hollow box that is floated and in situis
where hb = water depth at a distance of 5Hs from the filled with granular material to be sunk and placed on a
vertical breakwater (seaward); berm prepared with sand or rock to form a stable structure
β = angle of incidence of the wave; (Fig. 3b).
ϑ = bottom angle within the horizontal. Sometimes, the berm is a partial rubble-mound
structure forming a composite breakwater. In some
The other symbols are explained in Fig. 2c. locations, the seaward face of the caisson is protected
by sloping armor to avoid the breaking of incident waves
Ice Force. Ice exerts a force on both the landward and in the front of the structure. The types of failure of a
seaward sides. Ice force acts at the water level, and it can vertical caisson are shown in Fig. 3c. Normally, the loss of
be as high as the crushing strength of the ice (1.5 Mpa) stability occurs from
multiplied by the ice thickness. Even if ice is present in
both sides of the structure, the worst case (ice acting only — sliding of the caisson over the base;
on one side) represents the design condition. Ice and waves — overturning of the caisson around its land-
do not occur simultaneously. ward corner;
— loss of geotechnical stability of the base.
Wave Transmission
Wave transmission for a vertical breakwater is mainly the The forces acting are total wave pressure seaward
result of overtopping. Goda (15) has investigated the wave (different for breaking or nonbreaking waves), hydrostatic
transmission of a vertical wall breakwater placed over a force landward due to the still water depth, the buoyancy
rock berm. He related Kt = Ht /Hi to the relative freeboard and the uplift force under the caisson, and the weight of the
Rc /H(−1 < Rc /H < 1) and found this equation: caisson. In some locations, ice force must be considered.
Sliding is verified if the total normal force multiplied
2 by the coefficient of friction between the caisson and the
hv hv Rc
Kt = 0.2 − 0.4 + 0.58 − 0.32 (32) berm is greater then 1.3 times the horizontal sliding force.
hs hs H
Overturning is verified if the total stabilizing moment is
greater then 1.5 times the overturning total moment. The
where hs = water depth at the foot of the structure;
point of overturning is the landward corner of the caisson.
hv = height of the wall from the berm;
The last verification is to see if the resistance of the base
Rc = freeboard crest;
(its critical value) is greater than the pressure due to the
H = design wave height.
resultant of the acting forces. Stress is transmitted from
the bottom of the caisson to the soil at an angle of 45◦ ;
Wave Overtopping this is ensured if the berm is large enough with respect to
The overtopping of a vertical breakwater can be deter- the caisson.
mined by using Franco’s formula (16):
Sheet Piling Breakwater

q Rc Sheet piling structures are a particular type of vertical
= a exp −b (33)
gHs3 γg γbσ Hs breakwater that consist of a series of piles engaged to
form a continuous structure. The material most used is
where q =unit discharge (m3 /s per m); steel, but it possible to use reinforced concrete and timber.
a, b =coefficient depending on structure shape and The choice depends on economic considerations and the
on the water behavior at the seaward face; availability of material. A vertical breakwater can be made
for a vertical plain wall, a = 0.082, b = 3; of a single line of sheet piling, a double wall of sheet piles,
γbσ =depends on the direction of wave attack. or a cellular unit that has its the cavity filled with sand
For long crested waves, or rock. The head of a sheet piling is generally of rock,
concrete slab, or paving. If steel piling is used, protection
γbσ = cos(β) for 0 ≤ β≤37◦ ,
against corrosion should be provided.
γbσ = 0.79 for 37◦ ≤ β.
The forces acting on sheet piling are the same as on
For short crested waves, caissons. Generally the worst conditions happen when the
trough of the waves passes. In this case, the saturated
γbσ = 0.83 for 0 ≤ β≤20◦
backfill soil could cause the wall to fail seaward. The
γbσ = 0.83 cos(20 − β) for 20◦ ≤ β.
penetration of the sheet pile in to the soil has to develop
γg =depends on the type of the wall: for a plain the necessary resistance to cantilever action. The double
wall γg = 1; for a plain wall with round hole wall ensures more resistance; the walls are as far apart as
perforations, γg = 0.792; for a plain wall the depth of the water, and can be connected by cross-walls
with rectangular hole perforations, to form boxes. These boxes can be filled with sand or rocks
γg = 0.722; for a plain wall with rectangular to increase stability. A cellular sheet piling is necessary in
hole perforations and open deck, γg = 0.577. deep water to stiffen the structure. Timber sheet pilings
20 BREAKWATERS
(a) Crest wall

Seaward Landward
SWL SWL
Vertical breakwater
Berm
Typical vertical breakwater
(b) Crest wall Cellular concrete caisson

Seaward Landward
SWL SWL
Concrete caisson
Box to fill with
Berm gravel or sand
Concrete caisson vertical breakwater
(c) Sliding Overturning
Seaward Landward Seaward Landward
SWL SWL SWL SWL
Point of overturning
O
Settlement
Seaward Landward
SWL SWL
Types of failure
Figure 3. Vertical breakwater sections and types of failure.
are used in shallow water locations where wave conditions breakwaters. Generally, they consist of a box, pontoons,
are moderate. tethered floats, and floating docks affixed to piles. The
floating breakwater reduces wave energy by reflection,
dissipation interference, and conversion of the energy
FLOATING BREAKWATERS into a mono-oscillatory motion. The dimensions of floating
breakwaters (the penetration depth, in particular) depend
Floating breakwaters consist of composite structures that on the amount of energy that is necessary to dissipate
float on water (17). They can be used where waves are and the mooring force on the anchor of the structure.
moderate and have a very short period. These structures The more the structure extends to the bottom the greater
are low in cost, insensitive to water depth and are easily the reflection and the dissipation, but the mooring force
portable, even if they provide less protection than fixed also increases.
THE OCEAN IN CLIMATE 21
BIBLIOGRAPHY from the sea surface, the hydrological cycle would be

different; without ocean heat transport and uptake, the
1. CERC U.S. Corps of Eng. (1984). Shore Protection Manual. temperature distribution of the globe would be different;
Vicksburg, MS. and without the biota in the ocean, the total amount
2. U.S. Corps of Eng. (1992). EM110-2-2904 Coastal Groins and of carbon in the atmosphere would be many time its
Nearshore Breakwaters. Washington, DC. current value. Yet, while we may appreciate the role of
3. Hudson, R.Y. (1959). Laboratory investigation of rubble the ocean in climate, the difficulty and expense of making
mound breakwaters. J. of the Waterways and Harbors measurements below the ocean’s surface has rendered
Division 85: 93–121. the vast volume of the ocean a sort of mare incognita.
4. Broderick, L.L. (1983). Riprap stability: A progress report. Why is the ocean so important in Earth’s climate,
Proceedings of costal Structures ASCE 83: 320–330.
and which of its properties are of special significance
5. Van der Meer, J.W. (1987). Stability of Breakwaters Armor for climate? How have we learned about the ocean
Layer, Co. Eng. 11.
and its role in climate, and what more do we need
6. Van der Meer, J.W. (1993). Conceptual design of rubble to know?
mound breakwaters, Rep. 483. Delft University, the Nether-
lands.
7. Bradbury, A.P. and Allsop, N.W. (1988). Hydraulic effects of PROPERTIES OF THE OCEAN AND PROCESSES IN THE
breakwater crown ways. In: Proceedings of the Breakwater OCEAN
’88 Conference, Institution of Civil Eng. Thomas Telford
Publishing, London, UK, pp. 385–396.
8. Aminti, P. and Franco, L. (1988). Wave overtopping on rubble The ocean covers 70% of Earth’s surface to an average
mound breakwaters. Proceedings of the 21st International depth of about 4 km. The mass of the ocean is 30 times
Costal Engineering Conference ASCE 1: 770–781. and its heat capacity 120 times that of the atmosphere,
9. Pedersen, J. and Burchart, H.F. (1992). wave forces on crown and the ocean contains 80 times the carbon dioxide stored
walls. In: Proceedings of the 23rd International Coastal Eng. in the atmosphere.
Conference ASCE. 2: 1489–1502. The density of the ocean is controlled both by its
10. Postma, G.M. (1989). Wave Reflection from Rock Scopes temperature and by its salt content. Ocean density
Under Random Wave Attack. M.S Thesis Delft University increases with salinity and decreases with temperature.
of Technology, the Netherlands. Unlike fresh water, which has a maximum density at
11. D’Angremond, K. and Van Roode, F.C. (2001). Breakwaters 4 ◦ C (so that colder water and ice float on 4 ◦ C water
and Closure Dams. Delft University Press, the Netherlands, and the temperature at the bottom of a nonfrozen lake is
pp. 139–149. 4 ◦ C), water saltier than 26 parts per thousand of water
12. Sainflou, M. (1928). Treatise on Vertial Breakwaters. Annal is continuously denser as the temperature is lowered,
Des Ponts Et Chaussee, Paris, France. and the temperature at the bottom of the ocean is closer
13. Minikin, R.R. (1950). Winds, Waves and Maritime Structures. to 1 ◦ C.
Griffin, London, pp. 38–39. Since heat always diffuses from warm to cool temper-
14. Goda, Y. (2000). Random Seas and Design of Maritime atures, why does not the temperature of the deep ocean
Structure. World Scientific, Singapore, pp. 134–139. eventually adjust and become the same as its surface tem-
15. Goda, Y. (1969). Reanalysis of Laboratory Data on Wave perature? Cold water constantly sinks at high latitudes
Transmission Over Breakwaters. Report of the port and (both in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres) and
harbor research institute Vol. 8, no.3. fills the deeper parts of the oceans with cold water so that
16. Franco, C. and Franco, L. (1999). Overtopping formulas for the water at depth is always cold, even when the surface
caisson breakwaters with nonbreaking 3D waves. J. of temperature is very warm. This circulation is called the
Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Eng. 125: 98–108.
thermohaline circulation.
17. U.S. Corps of Eng. (1996). EM110-2-2904 Design of Breakwa- About 7% of the ocean surface is covered by sea ice.
ter and Jetties. Washington, DC.
Growth of sea ice radically changes the nature of the
ocean surface: Sea ice reflects solar radiation, thereby
preventing it from being absorbed by the surface and
THE OCEAN IN CLIMATE blocks the transfer of heat and moisture from the surface
EDWARD S. SARACHIK of the ocean to the atmosphere.
The average salinity in the global oceans is 34.7 parts
(from The Handbook of Weather,
Climate, and Water: Dynamics, per thousand salt to water by weight. As the total amount
Climate, Physical Meteorology, of salt in the ocean is constant, changes in salinity only
Weather Systems, and occur because of additions and subtractions of fresh water.
Measurements, Wiley 2003) Salinity decreases as rain falls on the ocean or river water
enters the ocean, and it increases as water evaporates from
the surface of the ocean. As sea ice grows, it rejects salt
INTRODUCTION into the ocean thereby increasing its salinity. Similarly, as
ice melts, it dilutes the surrounding ocean and lowers its
Earth’s present climate is intrinsically affected by the salinity. A specific parcel of water can either increase
ocean—the climate without the ocean would be different or decrease its salinity by mixing with parcels with
in many essential ways: Without the evaporation of water different salinities.
22 THE OCEAN IN CLIMATE
HOW THE OCEAN INTERACTS WITH THE ATMOSPHERE the ocean is severely limited basically by the inability
TO AFFECT THE CLIMATE of radiation to penetrate very far into the ocean—this
requires direct in situ measurements of the interior of the
The ocean interacts with the atmosphere at (or very near) ocean. The world’s oceanographic research fleet is small
the sea surface where the two media meet. Visible light and incapable of monitoring the breadth and depth of the
can penetrate into the ocean several tens of meters, but world’s ocean, although valuable research measurements
heat, moisture, and momentum, carbon dioxide, and other are constantly being taken at selected places. As a result of
gases exchange directly at the surface. Sea ice forms at the ocean observations, we know the basic pathways of water
surface and helps to determine the local exchanges. The in the ocean, we have a good idea of the transports by
basic problem of the ocean in climate is to explain these the ocean, we have some idea of the basic mechanisms for
interchanges and to determine those characteristics of the much of the major ocean currents, and we have a good idea
ocean that affect these exchanges. of how the exchanges at the surface are accomplished. Yet
The ocean may be considered to interact with the we cannot measure vertical velocity (it is far too small),
atmosphere in two distinct ways: passively and actively. It and so we remain completely ignorant of the processes
interacts passively when the ocean affects the atmosphere by which the interior of the ocean affects the surface.
but does not change the essential manner in which Similarly, we are ignorant of the basic processes of mixing
the atmosphere is operating. An example of a passive and friction in the ocean, both basic to being able to model
interaction is the oceanic response to adding CO2 to the the ocean for climate purposes.
atmosphere where the ocean simply delays the greenhouse Major oceanographic programs have been conducted in
warming of the atmosphere as heat and CO2 enters the last decade (the World Ocean Circulation Experiment,
the ocean. WOCE) and (the Tropical Ocean–Global Atmosphere,
Active interaction with the atmosphere produces TOGA), and while they have taught us much about the
results that would not otherwise be there—an example ocean circulation and El Niño, respectively, the basic
is where the warming of the atmosphere reduces the lesson is that, unless we can make continuous long-term
thermohaline circulation and produces a climate reaction measurements beneath the surface of the ocean, it will
that could not have been obtained without the essential forever remain unknown territory.
interaction of the ocean. In particular, since the northern
branch, say, of the thermohaline circulation brings cold
MODELING THE OCEAN
water from high latitudes toward the equator, and since
the water must be replaced by warm water that is cooled
Because the ocean is poorly measured, and because much
as it moves northward, the net effect of the thermohaline
of what we need to know about the past and predict
circulation is to transport heat northward and thereby
about the future cannot be directly known, only inferred,
warm the higher latitudes. As the atmosphere warms, the
models have played a particularly important role in the
water becomes less dense both by the effect of temperature
development of oceanography and, in particular, the role
and by increased rainfall, a necessary concomitant of
of the ocean in climate.
global warming. Since the atmosphere sees a reduced
The basic tool of climate studies is the coupled
north–south temperature gradient at the sea surface, it
model, where the various components of the climate
reacts fundamentally differently than if the thermohaline
system—the atmosphere, ocean, cryosphere, biosphere,
circulation were at full strength.
and chemosphere—are simultaneously and consistently
Our present models of greenhouse warming have the
coupled. The ocean component of such a coupled model
ocean acting in both the active and passive modes—active
exchanges its heat, fresh water, and momentum with the
when warming leads to a slowed thermohaline circulation
atmosphere at the sea surface. The test of the successful
and passive when heat and CO2 simply enter the ocean
coupling of the atmosphere and ocean is the correct
surface and is therefore lost to the atmosphere. Another
simulation of the time-varying sea surface temperature
example of active interaction is El Niño, a phenomenon
and surface winds, both of which are relatively easy to
that would not exist were it not for the active interaction
measure: Directly by ship or mooring, remotely by satellite,
of the atmosphere and the ocean (see the chapter
or by a combination of the two.
by Trenberth). The ocean also has been inferred (by
The development of off-line ocean-only models requires
examining the composition of ancient ice stored in the
the heat, momentum, and freshwater forcing from
Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets) to have, and probably
the atmosphere to be known. Since precipitation and
actively take part in causing, climatic variability on time
evaporation, in particular, are so poorly measured over the
scales anywhere from decades to a few thousand years, a
ocean, it is a continual struggle to know whether errors
type of variability not seen on Earth since it emerged from
in the ocean model are due to errors in the model itself or
the last glacial maximum some 18,000 years ago.
errors in the forcing of the ocean by the atmosphere.
Ocean models themselves are relatively simple in
MEASURING THE OCEAN concept: The known equations of water and salt are
discretized and time stepped into the future. The
The ocean is remarkably poorly measured. While the discretization process requires a trade-off between fine
global atmosphere is constantly probed and analyzed for resolution for accuracy and the need to simulate over
the purposes of weather prediction, until recently no such long periods of time, which, because of limited computer
imperative existed for the ocean. Our ability to measure resources, requires coarser resolution. While the equation
COASTAL WATERS 23
of state of seawater relating density to salt, temperature, Models can also be compared with other models. While
and pressure cannot be written down simply, it has, over this might seem sterile, fine-resolution models can be used
the course of time, become known to high accuracy. to develop parameterizations of large-scale mixing for use
What makes ocean modeling difficult is the specification in coarse-resolution ocean models that can be run the long
of those mixing processes that unavoidably cannot be times needed to participate in coupled model simulations
resolved by whatever resolution is chosen. We are of climate. Advances in computer power will ultimately
beginning to understand that enhanced small-scale mixing allow successive refinements in resolution so that finer
occurs near bottom topography and near boundaries: scale resolution models can be run directly.
Purposeful release experiments, where a dye is released We close by reemphasizing the crucial role that the
and then followed in time to see how the dye cloud evolves, ocean plays in climate and climate variability and the
has revealed this to us. Larger scale mixing, where parcels necessity to know more about the ocean for all aspects of
are interchanged because of the large-scale circulation the climate problem.
(but still unresolved by the ocean models) itself is more
problematic, but recent advances in parameterizing these
unresolved mixing effects have shown promise. COASTAL WATERS
SUSAN-MARIE STEDMAN
THE FUTURE OF THE OCEAN IN CLIMATE Silver Spring, Maryland
It is clear that the ocean is a crucial component of the

climate system. Since so much of what is not known about Coastal waters are usually defined as those waters in
the past and future of the climate system depends on a zone whose landward boundary is the limit of tidal
active interactions with the ocean, it is clear that we have influence and whose seaward boundary is the edge of
to learn more about its essential processes. How to go the continental shelf (or a depth of 200 m if there is no
about learning about the ocean is the difficult question. continental shelf). Salinity, temperature, turbidity, and
Direct measurements are very expensive, and satellites, other characteristics of coastal waters vary considerably
while giving a global look at the entire ocean, see in this transitional and very dynamic zone.
only its surface. Designs are currently underway for a The effects of waves, wind, and other processes create
Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS), but the cost of two distinct layers in coastal waters: an upper surface
implementing such a system in toto is prohibitive, even if layer known as the ‘‘mixed layer,’’ which varies in
shared among the wealthier countries of the world. thickness from tens to hundreds of meters thick, and
It is likely that a combination of studies, perhaps a lower ‘‘deep layer.’’ The mixed layer is warmer and
conducted for entirely different purposes, will advance less saline than the deep layer. The deep layer generally
the field most rapidly. In particular, the advent of the contains more nutrients due to the decomposition of
El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) prediction, which organic matter that has fallen to the ocean bottom. The
requires subsurface ocean data as initial conditions, transition between the two layers, called the pycnocline,
has made almost permanent the Tropical Atmosphere- is usually very abrupt, occurring over a space of a meter
Ocean (TAO) array in the tropical Pacific, giving an or less (1).
unprecedented and continuous view of a significant part The majority of coastal waters occur in three types
of the tropical ocean. We may extend the reasoning to say of environments: the relatively low energy environments
that, where predictability is indicated and shows societal of estuaries and bays, the high-energy environments of
or economic value, the measurement systems to produce waters along rocky shores and beaches, and the deeper
the initial data will almost certainly be implemented. The waters of the continental shelf. All coastal waters are
promise of predicting climate from seasons to a few years subject to the effects of tides, waves, and currents, to
will expand the ocean-observing system considerably. varying degrees. Coastal waters are also often affected by
Additional expansions will come from resource monitoring, activities in coastal terrestrial areas, especially in parts
pollution monitoring, and various types of monitoring for of the world where urban and suburban development in
national security purposes. While monitoring for security coastal areas is intense.
has traditionally meant the data is classified, once taken,
data can eventually reach the research arena—the vast PHYSICAL PROCESSES IN COASTAL WATERS
amount of Soviet and U.S. data that was declassified after
the end of the cold war has shown this.
Waves
Observations can be also combined with models to give
‘‘value-added’’ observations. Data at individual points in Waves in coastal waters are produced by the wind and
the ocean exist without reference to neighboring points modified by their interaction with the coastline itself.
unless models are used to dynamically interpolate the There are two general types of waves: chop, which are the
data to neighboring points using the equation of motion of short steep waves seen on windy days; and swell, which are
a fluid. This so-called four-dimensional data assimilation the long gentle waves that are present even on calm days.
is in the process of development and shows promise as a Chop is produced by local wind conditions, whereas swell is
powerful way of optimally using the ocean data that can produced by storms very distant from the coastline. Waves
be taken. are often described by their period (the time between two
24 COASTAL WATERS
successive crests passing the same point), length (the tides in the Bay of Fundy. However, at any given location
distance from one crest to another), height (the distance along the coast, the tidal cycle is fairly constant, allowing
from the trough to the crest of the wave), and their speed, prediction of tidal periodicity and height based on data
which is determined using the equation from past years. As physical oceanographers become more
adept at modeling tidal dynamics, predictions also can be
C(speed) = (length)/T(period) made for areas without such records.
As waves move from the deep ocean to shallow coastal Currents

waters their speed is affected by the depth of the water
Both waves and tides, as well as the wind, generate
as defined by the equation c = gH, where g is the
currents in the ocean that circulate water between
acceleration due to gravity and H is the water depth.
numerous and sometimes disparate oceanic and coastal
As waves approach the shore, the speed of the wave crests
environments. Where these currents are close to shore,
becomes greater than the speed of the wave troughs,
they strongly influence not only the coastal waters but the
creating the characteristic ‘‘breakers’’ that crash onto
shape of the coastline itself. Of most importance, however,
the shore.
is the way currents transport nutrients, sediments, and
If waves approach a shoreline at an angle they will be
marine life along the coasts. Currents generally fall into
refracted: that is, they will bend so that they become more
three categories: tidal currents, drift currents, and a
parallel to the shore. Wave refraction affects where wave
phenomenon known as upwelling.
energy is concentrated; for example, a protrusion of the
shoreline will cause waves to bend toward it, concentrating
Tidal Currents. Among the strongest forces affecting
wave energy in that area. Areas of wave convergence are
coastal waters are tides. Tidal currents are strongest
usually subject to intense erosion, whereas areas of wave
where a constriction (such as a narrow tidal inlet) or
divergence tend to be depositional; thus the overall effect
other topographic feature (a valley in the continental
of waves is to straighten the coastline.
shelf) concentrates the tidal flow. Tidal current velocities
range between zero at slack tide (exact high or low tide)
Tides
to midtide maximums that are generally in the range
Tides are created by complex interactions between of 1–5 km/h. Under the Golden Gate Bridge in San
astronomical forces and the earth’s geomorphology. One Francisco, tidal currents sometimes reach 9 km/h, and
can begin to understand tides by imagining that the earth at Seymour Narrows, British Columbia, they can reach
is covered with a layer of water with uniform depth. 24 km/h (3). Tidal currents have long been considered
Gravitational and centrifugal forces associated with the a source of renewable energy and are being used to
moon and, to a lesser extent, the sun produce a bulge generate power in Canada, Russia, and France. These
in the water at points both closest to the moon and on projects involve damming a portion of an estuary and
the opposite side of the earth. As the earth completes using the force of the tide leaving the estuary to turn
one rotation, a hypothetical point on the earth’s surface turbines. More recently, proposals have been made to place
will pass through a bulge twice, generating two high tides undersea ‘‘windmills’’ in areas of strong tidal currents to
(and two low tides), which is known as a semidiurnal tide. generate power without incurring the environmental cost
Because the moon is rotating around the earth, each high of damming an estuary.
tide theoretically occurs a bit later (approximately 30 min)
than 12 h after the previous one. The sun’s effect on tides Drift Currents. Drift currents are caused by winds
produces the difference in tidal range seen during the moving the surface layer of water. The strength of a
lunar cycle. When the earth, moon, and sun are aligned, drift current depends on wind speed, duration (how long
the tidal bulge is largest and the coast sees the highest the wind has been blowing), and fetch (how wide the
high tides and the lowest low tides (both are known as body of water is). The velocity of drift currents rarely
‘‘spring’’ tides). When the sun and moon are aligned at exceeds 1–2% of wind speed (1). Drift currents tend to
right angles with respect to each other and the earth, the move in the direction the wind is blowing but are also
tidal bulge is decreased, resulting in reduced tides (know affected by the rotation of the earth, which creates a
as ‘‘neap’’ tides). phenomenon known as the Coriolis effect. The Coriolis
The actual dynamics of tides is much more complex than effect is best known for describing the direction in which
this simple theory alone can explain. Tides are affected a whirlpool or hurricane will rotate (clockwise in the
not only by astronomical factors but also by the sizes, northern hemisphere, counterclockwise in the southern
shapes, and depths of water bodies, by winds, by the earth’s hemisphere), but it also affects currents the same way.
rotation, and by changes in barometric pressure. A wide Thus, drift currents in the northern hemisphere will tend
range of tidal cycles and tidal ranges occurs around the to curve to the right (and in the southern hemisphere to
world. Although most parts of the world have semidiurnal the left), giving rise to what is known as ‘‘Ekman drift.’’
tides, some have only one high tide and one low tide per day Finally, when a drift current encounters a coastline, it
(diurnal tides), and some experience a phenomenon known will tend to parallel the coastline in what is known as
as ‘‘double low water,’’ where two extreme low tides occur ‘‘littoral drift.’’
between high tides occurring 24 h apart (2). Tidal ranges
vary not only with the lunar cycle but geographically, from Upwelling. Upwelling refers to the vertical movement of
a few centimeters in the Gulf of Mexico to the famous 12-m water that occurs when the surface layer is pushed offshore
COASTAL WATERS 25
oiled beaches are some of the most visible effects of

humans on coastal waters, but more recent concern has
Wind parallel to shore
centered on ‘‘dead zones,’’ areas where excess nutrients
have led to overproduction of plant material, which
Current moving away from shore in turn leads to oxygen depletion in a process known
due to Ekman drift
as ‘‘eutrophication’’ (7). Nutrient enrichment of coastal
waters is a global problem that continues to grow as more
countries increase their use of fossil fuels and inorganic
Deep water moving up fertilizers, the two principal sources of anthropogenic
to surface phosphorus and nitrogen (8).
Figure 1. Upwelling along a coast. TYPES OF COASTAL WATERS
Estuaries and Bays

by wind and Ekman drift, causing deeper waters to rise up
and take its place (Fig. 1). While upwelling can be localized An estuary is ‘‘a semi-enclosed coastal body of water
and transitory, prevailing winds create major upwelling which has a free connection with the open sea and
areas along the coasts of Oregon in the United States, Peru within which sea water is measurably diluted with fresh
in South America, northwest Africa, southwest Africa, and water derived from land drainage’’ (9). Although the ‘‘land
the western Indian Ocean. Where winds are steady, the drainage’’ is not specified in Pritchard’s classic definition,
upwelling is likewise fairly constant, for example, the it is generally assumed that the freshwater source is a
Peruvian upwelling system; but where winds fluctuate river, as is mentioned in many other definitions of an
(northwest Africa) or are only seasonal (the monsoon winds estuary (10). The tidal portion of streams that drain into
of the eastern Indian Ocean), upwelling is also periodic estuaries is also considered to be part of the estuary.
or seasonal. Upwelling introduces deep waters rich in Bays are also semienclosed bodies of water, normally
nutrients into the coastal ecosystems, creating areas of open to the ocean, but they differ from estuaries in not
high productivity and high concentration of marine life (4). being associated with a river. Estuaries are much more
common along the world’s coasts than bays, although
the term ‘‘bay’’ is often used in the name of an estuary,
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF COASTAL WATERS for example, Chesapeake Bay. Both estuaries and bays
provide protected aquatic environments for marine life,
Although fresh water is an important component of but estuaries are more diverse and often more productive
estuaries, ocean water is the primary component of most due to the range of habitats created by the salinity
coastal waters. The primary dissolved constituents of gradient and input of nutrients from streams. Dyer (11)
ocean water (in greatest to lowest concentration) are described four physiographic types of estuaries: coastal
calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, bicarbonate, plain estuaries (such as the drowned river valleys along
sulfide, chloride, and bromide. These molecules combine the southeast coast of the United States), fjords (such
in various ways to create salts, of which sodium chloride as the submerged glacial valleys of Canada and New
(table salt) is the most common. Salt content, or salinity, is Zealand), lagoons (estuaries created by spits or bars), and
measured in parts per thousand (ppt). The average salinity tectonic estuaries (such as San Francisco Bay).
of ocean water is 35 ppt (5), but in coastal waters salinity Rivers bring fresh water into an estuary, and tides bring
can be reduced by the addition of fresh water from rivers, saline water into the estuary. Where mixing is minimal,
overland runoff, and/or groundwater discharge. a layered water body is created with the less dense fresh
Ocean water also contains nutrients in the form of water on top and the more dense saline water on the
nitrogen and phosphate salts. The concentration of these bottom (Fig. 2).
nutrients is very low in the surface layer of the open ocean, Turbulence in the water causes mixing of the two layers,
only 0.001–0.08 mg/L N and 0.002–0.003 mg/L P, but can which increases the thickness of the fresher upper layer
be 10–100 times higher in the deep layer. Oxygen, a very as it moves from the landward part of the estuary toward
important constituent for biological activity, is dissolved in
ocean water at concentrations from about 8 cm3 /L (for cold
waters near the poles) to 4.5 cm3 /L (for warm waters at River Ocean
the equator). Other dissolved gases in ocean water include
nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide. The pH of Fresh water
ocean water varies between 7.9 and 8.3 (1).
With 44% of the world’s population living within
150 km of the coast (6), human activities have a significant
influence on the chemistry of coastal waters. Garbage, Saline water
sewage, effluent from manufacturing plants, runoff from
industrial and agricultural areas, as well as many
other sources contribute nutrients, sediment, metals,
pesticides, hydrocarbons, and other pollutants to coastal Figure 2. Layers of fresh water and saline water in a stratified
waters. Clumps of floating garbage, dead fish, and estuary.
26 COASTAL WATERS
the ocean (4). The degree of mixing between the layers driven by the interaction of waves with the shoreface and
depends on the amount of freshwater input, the strength with other waves. In some places the water draining off the
of tidal flow, and the effects of wind. Estuaries are often shoreface creates very strong seaward-moving currents
described as being one of three types: salt-wedge, partially known as ‘‘rip currents.’’ Offshore from the surf zone,
mixed, or vertically homogeneous. When an estuary has currents are dominated by wind and tide energy but still
a large freshwater input relative to tidal flow, the saline tend to parallel the coastline.
water tends to remain at the bottom with minimal mixing Plants and animals must have special adaptations
and the tip of this ‘‘salt wedge’’ changes location with to thrive in these environments. Kelp and seaweed
the seasonal variation of freshwater flow. In partially have strong attachment systems to keep them in place,
mixed estuaries, the effects of tides and/or wind create and the dominant invertebrates have protective shells.
a transition zone between the saline and fresh water Furthermore, the vigorous movement of water along rocky
layers. The mixing of the layers results in resuspension of shores and beaches is essential to the survival of these
sediments and nutrients brought into the estuary by the organisms because they feed by filtering the water or
river and tide. In a vertically homogeneous estuary, there snatching debris as it floats by. Sandy areas are the most
are no longer two water layers, but rather a single mixed dynamic because not only is the water constantly moving,
body of water with a salinity gradient from low at the but the substrate itself tends to move as well. Although
river mouth to high at the estuary’s outlet to the ocean. In many beaches seem devoid of plant or animal life, that
fjords, a sill at the mouth of the estuary traps saline water appearance occurs only because most beach inhabitants
behind it, and mixing of fresh and saline water only occurs are buried in the sand.
at the surface in water lying above the sill. The deeper
waters behind the sill are replaced only when storm events Shelf Waters
disrupt this balance.
River discharge and tidal exchange both bring sediment Seaward of estuaries and the coastline are the waters
and nutrients into an estuary. Estuaries tend to act as overlying the continental shelf. Tides continue to influence
sediment traps due to two changes that occur when river these waters, creating turbulence that results in a mixed
discharge meets seawater. First, when clay particles in water layer that can extend for tens of kilometers outward
fresh water encounter saline water, the particles tend to from the coast (2). Beyond this mixed layer, coastal
flocculate (creating what is called a ‘‘turbidity maximum’’) waters become stratified into the surface and deep layers
and ultimately sink to the bottom of the estuary. Second, described earlier. Areas of high productivity tend to occur
as rivers discharge fresh water at the surface of the at the transition between mixed and stratified waters.
estuary and tides bring saline water into the bottom Coastal shelf waters are an important component
of the estuary, current velocities decrease, causing sand of ocean circulation. Prevailing winds and the earth’s
particles to settle out. Complex hydrodynamics determine rotation create a system of major currents that circle
how much sediment stays in the estuary and how much is the ocean basins and in some cases move water from
transported through the estuary to the ocean. Ultimately, one basin to another. The strongest currents occur on
sediments in estuaries undergo many cycles of transport the western sides of ocean basins, where they carry water
by tides, currents, and waves before they find a permanent toward the poles, and weaker currents occur on the eastern
resting place (12). sides of ocean basins, where they carry water toward the
Nutrients can be brought into estuaries in particular equator. These major currents, which transport volumes
form, as dissolved constituents, or even via the atmo- ranging from 10 to 100 m3 /s (2), serve many important
sphere. Phosphorus, one important nutrient, has natural biological functions related to migration, dispersal of
sources in soils and rocks. Weathering creates small par- juvenile organisms, and transportation of nutrients. One
ticles with phosphorus bound to them that are carried of the best-known oceanic currents is the Gulf Stream,
into estuaries. Nitrogen, another important nutrient, is which occurs off the east coast of North America. Coastal
also found naturally in soils, but it is much more solu- waters also contain coastal boundary currents that trend
ble than phosphorus and so tends to enter an estuary parallel to the coastline, their overall direction determined
predominantly in dissolved form. Natural sources of nitro- by the shape of the coastline and the way winds tend to
gen and phosphorus are generally small when compared reorient perpendicular to the coast as they approach the
to human-related sources such as agriculture (inorganic coastline. For example, landward of the Gulf Stream in
fertilizers), wastewater, and fossil fuel. Atmospheric depo- the western north Atlantic Ocean, a coastal boundary
sition of nitrogen derived from fossil fuel combustion or current flows south—opposite to the direction of Gulf
animal waste is thought to be an important source of Stream flow. Coastal boundary currents transport lesser
excess nutrients to estuaries in the United States (8). volumes of water than oceanic currents—about 10 m3 /s
on the average (2).
Rocky Shores and Beaches
Rocky shores and beaches are high energy environments. IMPORTANCE OF COASTAL WATERS
Waves and currents keep the water almost constantly in
motion and well aerated. The shoreface is a transition zone Coastal waters are extremely important for fisheries. With
where waves become influenced by the bottom and change the exception of a few deep-water migratory species such
shape, increase in height, and realign to become more as tuna, most other commercial and recreational marine
parallel to the shoreline. In the surf zone, currents are fish (and shellfish) feed, reproduce, and are harvested
MARINE COLLOIDS 27
in coastal waters. In the United States, coastal waters 10. Perillo, G.M.E. (1995). Geomorphology and sedimentology of
support a commercial fishing industry that in 2002 landed estuaries: definitions and geomorphologic classifications of
4.3 million metric tons of fish and shellfish valued at estuaries. Dev. Sedimentol. 53.
$3.1 billion. The commercial fishing industry as a whole 11. Dyer, K. (1973). Estuaries: A Physical Introduction. Wiley-
contributed $28.4 billion to the U.S. gross national product Interscience, Hoboken, NJ.
(GNP) in 2002 (13). Recreational fishing also produces 12. Nichols, M.M. and Biggs, R.B. (1985). Estuaries. In: Coastal
billions of dollars of economic benefits per year (14). Sedimentary Environments. 2nd Edn. R.A. Davis (Ed.).
Coastal waters are also a very important habitat for Springer Verlag, New York, pp. 77–186.
marine mammals such as seals, manatees, and sea lions, 13. U.S. Department of Commerce (DOC). (2003). Fisheries of the
some of which are listed as threatened or endangered United States, 2002. DOC, Silver Spring, MD.
under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. 14. American Sportfishing Association (ASA). (2002). Sportfish-
Coastal waters are also very important to interstate and ing in America: Values of Our Traditional Pastime. Alexan-
dria, VA.
international commerce. Transport by water is generally
the most economical and efficient means to move goods. 15. U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT). (1999). An
Assessment of the U.S. Marine Transportation System—A
U.S. ports and waterways transport more than 2 billion
Report to Congress. DOT, Washington, DC.
tons of domestic and foreign goods each year. The marine
transportation industry contributes $742 billion to the
U.S. GNP and provides approximately 13 million jobs (15).
Given the importance of coastal waters to fisheries,
MARINE COLLOIDS
marine transportation, and numerous other uses that PETER H. SANTSCHI
are significant from either an economic or ecological Texas A&M University
perspective, conflicts over coastal waters are common. Galveston, Texas
Laws and regulations governing environmental protection
and management of natural resources in the United
States and other countries often require a cost–benefit Aquatic colloids, as nanoparticles and macromolecules in
analysis of proposed activities in coastal waters, or a the 1 nm to 1 µm size range (1), differ fundamentally
determination that a proposal is in the best interests from solutions. In a solution, all the relevant interactions
of the public. However, uncertainties about quantifying are comparable to the thermal energy, kT. Thus,
ecological values and predicting the response of coastal even if water ‘prefers’ water, the tendency toward
systems to change make it difficult to conduct these kinds disorder—entropy—is dominant. In contrast, the colloidal
of evaluations. The future health of coastal waters depends state is unstable because of large interfacial energies
on a better understanding of their processes and their and because particle–particle interactions are stronger
response to human activities. than kT. In aquatic systems, physical techniques such
as diffusion, permeation, light scattering, and viscosity
BIBLIOGRAPHY can be used to characterize colloidal systems, chemical
techniques can help to unravel their compositional
1. Barnabé, G. and Barnabé-Quet, R. (2000). Ecology and complexities, and biological techniques can give insights
Management of Coastal Waters: The Aquatic Environment. into degradability, bioavailability, and stability. New
Springer-Verlag, New York. insights into colloids in marine systems require application
2. Beer, T. (1997). Environmental Oceanography. 2nd Edn. CRC of state-of-the-art techniques and also paradigm shifts.
Press, Boca Raton, FL. Most of the organic matter in the ocean is in the dis-
3. National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA). (1995). Tides solved state, and 20–30% of the marine DOC is colloidal
and tidal currents. In: The American Practical Navigator, and subject to rapid turnover (2). Marine colloidal matter
Publ. No. 9. NIMA, Bethesda, MD, pp. 143–164.
(COM) contains biologically resistant heteropolyconden-
4. Mann, K.H. (2000). Ecology of Coastal Waters with Implica- sations, such as humic-type molecules (geopolymers) that
tions for Management. 2nd Edn. Blackwell Science, Malden,
act as soaps, and products of carbon fixation and con-
MA.
sumption, such as exopolymeric substances (EPS) that
5. Dittmar, W. (1884). Report on the researches into the
self-assemble (3,4) and thus act as glues (5,6, and refer-
composition of ocean water collected by H.M.S. Challenger
during the years 1873–1876. In: Report on the Scientific
ences therein). Both geopolymers and biopolymers also
results of the Voyage of the H.M.S. Challenger: Physics and contain strong metal-binding ligand groups, rendering
Chemistry. J. Murray (Ed.). Vol. 1. HMSO, London. them as metal-sequestering agents. Therefore, colloids
6. Cohen, J.E. et al. (1998). Estimates of coastal populations. in the ocean can act as vectors of metal removal and of
Science 278(5341): 1211–1212. solubilization, depending on the biomolecule, as well as
7. Nixon, S.W. (1995). Coastal marine eutrophication: a defini- modifiers of metal bioavailability. In addition to questions
tion, social causes, and future concerns. Ophelia 41: 199–219. of metal bioavailability in the delicately balanced marine
8. National Research Council (NRC). (2000). Clean Coastal ecosystem, EPS in the marine colloidal pool are also impor-
Waters: Understanding and Reducing the Effects of Nutrient tant in their response to global change, as they provide
Pollution. National Academy Press, Washington, DC. some of the sinking material, that is, one of the conveyor
9. Pritchard, D.W. (1967). What is an estuary: physical belts of global carbon cycling. Last but not least, man-
viewpoint. In: Estuaries. G.H. Lauf (Ed.). AAAS Publ. No. made nanoparticles, such as buckeyballs, carbon fibers,
83, Washington, DC, pp. 3–5. and nanotubes, which are potentially toxic to man, will
28 MARINE COLLOIDS
make their way into the environment, and ultimately into other colloids, such as terrestrially derived (pedogenic)
the ocean, where they have unknown behavior and fate. nanometer-sized humic acids, are more globular and
Colloids in seawater can be small and globular or long are called ‘‘flexible’’ polymers (8–11). Both types of
and fibrillar, as shown in Figure 1. Aquagenic fibrillar colloids are stabilized by metal ions such as Ca2+ ,
gel-forming microbial exudates are classified as ‘‘rigid’’, which holds individual humic acid molecules together as
(a) (b)
10.0
7.5
5.0
2.5
0
0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0
mM
(c) (d)
10.0
4.00
7.5
3.00
5.0
2.00
2.5
1.00
0 0
0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 0 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00
mM mM
Figure 1. Fibrillar network of colloidal particles and fibrils (7) arranged in a pearl-on-necklace
fashion. (a). Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) of stained fibrillar network, embedded
in a hydrophilic resin, which is part of colloidal organic matter, COM (ultrafilter size range
of 2–400 nm), sampled from Middle Atlantic Bight surface waters (courtesy of K. Wilkinson);
(b). Atomic force microscopy (AFM) of sample from Middle Atlantic Bight surface water COM;
Fibrils were also identified by AFM, albeit at lower abundance, in nepheloid layers at 2500 m
but not in midwaters; (c). AFM of COM from Galveston Bay waters, TX. (d). AFM image of
COM from surface waters of the Gulf of Mexico, which shows the potential for gel formation
of fibrillar macromolecules at the edge of the mica support plate, where the gel-like aggregates
likely formed as a consequence of drying.
MARINE COLLOIDS 29
aggregates (12) and gives rigidity to alpha-helical regions strongly chelating binding sites for trace metals when
within exopolymeric fibrils (13). These exopolymeric fibrils acting in concert (34,35). In addition, in the ‘‘egg-box’’
are up to several 1000 nm in length, but only 1–3 nm chelating environment (13,36), where Ca2+ stabilizes
wide, and can exist abundantly attached to cell surfaces the alpha helix of acid polysaccharides (APS) such as
or as free colloids (7,14–16). The degree of rigidity alginic acid, Ca2+ can be replaced by other cations with
of fibrillar biopolymers can be studied using atomic similar radii.
force microscopy (AFM) or SANS (small angle neutron EPS are usually rich in APS, and because much more
scattering). These fibrils can also be characterized by is known about biopolymers such as APS that are studied
persistence length (defines a kind of stiff-chain-segment in food science or biomedical science, where they are used
length for a linear polymer chain), end-to-end distance, as emulsifiers, stabilizers, coagulants (or anticoagulants)
and contour length (11). These measures allow predicting through their amphiphilic properties (37), the concepts
their physicochemical behavior in solution. and approaches in these scientific disciplines are very use-
Marine colloids are commonly sampled for characteriza- ful here. APS include alginates, carrageenans, xanthans,
tion using cross-flow ultrafiltration (17,18, and references and hyaluronic acids, which contain building blocks that
therein) or field-flow fractionation techniques (19). Recent are also found in EPS and transparent exopolymeric parti-
applications of ultrafiltration methods to the sampling cles (TEP) (14,38,39). One may therefore apply knowledge
of aquatic colloids have advanced our understanding of from these scientific disciplines to the biomolecular com-
the abundance, distribution, physical conformation, chem- plexants in the marine colloidal pool, which are not as well
ical composition, and environmental behavior of colloids studied. The physicochemical properties of EPS molecules
in aquatic systems, including freshwater, seawater, and are important because they can provide ‘‘hideouts’’ for
groundwater. Applications of ultrafiltration to marine sys- micronutrients such as trace metals. EPS molecules con-
tems date back to the 1970s and 1980s, when mostly tain APS and also proteins or lipids, which makes these
stirred cell ultrafiltration units with membrane disks were molecules amphiphilic (1). The amphipilicity is caused by
used. Applications of large volume cross-flow ultrafiltra- the generally hydrophilic properties of their acid polysac-
tion systems to sampling marine colloids started in the charidic regions and the more hydrophobic properties of
early 1990s, and they are now commonly used in marine
their protein or lipid-rich regions (37). Many of these EPS
science (20,21).
biopolymers also form gels (3,6) and thus, have properties
In estuarine waters, many metals such as Cu, Ag,
of hydrocolloids.
Fe, Hg, and Zn, have been found largely in colloidal
Colloidal ligands that have surface-active properties
form (5,18,22,23, and references therein). In marine
and are found in the filter-passing fraction can be the
environments, studies indicated that high molecular
cause of particle concentration effects on particle–water
weight (HMW) COM has relatively high biological and
partition coefficients (Kd , the concentration ratio in
chemical reactivity and short residence times in the
particles and in solution) and kinetic constants (ki ) of trace
water column (2,24). Therefore, colloids are also important
metals or radionuclides, which have been documented in
intermediaries in organic carbon cycling in aquatic
the literature for many years. Colloidal ligands can often
environments. Recent advances in sampling techniques
now enable the isolation of large quantities (e.g., 100s be removed by coagulation (40,41) and flocculation (5).
of mg) of environmental colloids from large volumes of Such particle-concentration effects disappear, however,
natural waters for elemental, isotopic, and molecular when one corrects for the presence of colloidal ligands (29).
characterization (2,7,20,25–27), although there is still a Values of the partition coefficients of the A-metal 234 Th(IV)
debate about optimal sampling procedures (21,28, and to colloids (Kc ) are generally similar to Kd values for
references therein). particles (42), but this is not necessarily the case for B-
Due to their amphiphilic (or amphipathic) nature, metals such as Cu (43,44) where generally Kc is larger
aquatic colloids are not only charged, thus providing than Kd .
potentially strong chelating binding sites for trace metals Aggregation rates of colloidally complexed metals show
and radionuclides, but also contain hydrophobic moieties two distinctive reaction rates; a larger rate constant
for binding more hydrophobic organic trace compounds is consistent with Brownian ‘‘colloidal pumping’’ that
(5,29,30, and references therein). There are many potential occurs at a uniform rate and is faster at higher particle
metal binding sites in aquatic biomacromolecules, but concentrations and a smaller rate constant that is different
most of them are occupied by major seawater cations, for different metals (22,45).
234
and much fewer with the much rarer trace metal ions. Th, which is generated in situ from the radioactive
Binding sites include carboxyl, hydroxyl, phosphate, decay of 238 U and has a half-life of 24 days, can be used to
sulfate, amino, and sulfhydryl groups; A (or hard) metals derive residence times of Th(IV)-binding colloids. Average
prefer O over N and S binding sites, and B (or soft) colloidal residence times (with respect to coagulation)
metals prefer S (or N) over O binding sites (31). One range from fractions of days in estuaries to a few weeks
would also expect to find that metal enrichments follow in the surface ocean (2,20). Similar results are obtained
the Irving–Williams series, which has been documented in controlled laboratory coagulation experiments using
for marine colloids by Guo et al. (32), and for bacterial radioactive metals bound to estuarine COM (23,45). These
EPS by Rudd et al. (33). Many of these sites are not laboratory results also confirmed particle concentration
exceptionally strong when acting alone, but the particular effects on removal rate constants, previously demonstrated
steric environment of the macromolecule can provide for Th(IV) (34,40,41).
30 MARINE COLLOIDS
Residence times that reflect colloidal organic carbon freshwater colloids (19), that is, the smaller organic carbon
ages are longer, as much of the carbon is recycled. rich (enriched in Cu) and larger Fe-rich (enriched in Pb)
For example, Santschi et al. (2,7) and Guo et al. (42,46) colloids, both of which are also found in coastal waters (23).
obtained mostly ‘‘modern’’ (i.e., younger than 1950) appar- In agreement with the pKa values, measured elec-
ent radiocarbon ages for high molecular weight colloids trophoretic mobilities of aquatic colloids are negative.
≥10 kDa, but mostly older ages, for example, 400 to 4500 Electrophoretic mobilities, uE , determined by dynamic
years, for low molecular weight COM ≥1 kDa in surface light scattering in a ZetaSizer instrument at pH 8, were
waters containing mostly biopolymers (2). In contrast, if measured at about −2.5 × 10−8 m2 V−1 s−1 , ranging from
the COM ≥1 kDa is enriched to 100% polysaccharides about (−2 to −3.4) ×10−8 m2 V−1 s−1 (55–57). Their values
through repeated alcohol precipitation, modern radiocar- were weakly related to the colloidal fraction of metal-
bon ages are obtained for this material (7). In contrast specific ligands (colloidal CL /total CL ); Cu and Pb again
to colloids from the euphotic zone, colloids from benthic related in opposite ways.
nepheloid layers of estuaries and continental shelf or slope In accordance with the relative high concentration of
areas of the Gulf of Mexico and the Middle Atlantic Bight, moderately strong acidic sites, for example, pKa1 values
which contain mostly geopolymers generated by hydrody- of ∼3 (55,56) or below for marine colloids (9), isoelectric
namic and physicochemical fractionation processes near points of about 2 to 4 for marine colloids have been deter-
the sediment–water interface during sediment resuspen- mined by Quigley et al. (34) and Alvarado-Quiroz (35), sug-
sion (46,47), this age distribution is reversed. For example, gesting that the surface charge is dominated by relatively
apparent radiocarbon ages are up to 10 ky for ≥10 kDa strong acidic groups. Conversely, positively charged ligand
colloids, and younger for ≥1 kDa colloids, indicating funda- groups such as amino groups are considerably rarer.
mental differences between biopolymers and geopolymers. Marine colloids are negatively charged, suggesting
It thus appears that whenever colloids are generated hydrocolloid-like behavior, but that does not preclude
by microorganisms in surface and bottom waters, their coexistence with more hydrophobic sites, as has been
importance in trace metal binding and removal might be said before. EPS and APS have been described as
disproportionately higher than would be expected from the amphiphilic (1,37,58). Furthermore, it is likely that more
observed colloidal fractions of trace metals. hydrophobic ligands would be more particle-reactive and
TEP-like biopolymers control the scavenging of metals thus, have a shorter residence time in water. However, this
and radionuclides and the coagulation/flocculation of has not yet been demonstrated in the field. Laboratory
particles in marine systems (5, and references therein) and studies of bacterial attachment, however, show a clear
also the early development of biofilms (15), which is largely relationship between attachment probability and relative
due to their surface-active nature. These biopolymers hydrophobicity of bacterial surfaces (58,59), which are
can also initiate or modify precipitation of MnO2 and composed of EPS.
FeOOH (48,49), SiO2 (50), and CaCO3 (51). Moreover, APS There are many things we do not know yet about
rich polymers in the extracellular milieu form flocs (52,53) marine colloids. For example, more than 50% of the organic
and also bind extracellular enzymes in their active forms. matter in this pool remains uncharacterized at the molec-
This enzymatic activity allows trace metal binding (24,34) ular level (26,27,60), our knowledge about their tendency
and modifies the solubility of associated molecules (14). toward gel formation is still in its infancy (6), and we
What do we know about the physicochemical parame- still do not have a quantitative assessment of the rel-
ters of colloidal organic matter in the ocean, for example, ative role of biodegradation (61) versus self-assembly (3)
proton reactive sites, their pKa values, electrophoretic or aggregation contributing to the observed size distri-
mobilities, and relative hydrophobicities? Santschi et al. bution of marine colloids and particles (2,6,24). Even the
(2) reported a total concentration of 1.4 meq/g of proton molecular weight distribution of DOC is not as certain
reactive sites in marine colloids from the Gulf of Mexico, as one would conclude from the application of just one
which is intermediate between that of humic and fulvic single method. For example, results from the application
acids (10–16 meq/g) and polysaccharides (0.3–0.8 meq/g) of state-of-the-art electrospray mass spectrometry tech-
(1). These proton-reactive sites are often assumed to have niques (62,63) indicate average molecular weights of DOC,
pKa values of 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 (54). Actual values of pKa1 ≤ normalized to charge, of less than 1 kDa, possibly due to
3 have been determined for aquatic colloids (7,34,54–56), fragmentation of carboxylic acid-rich compounds during
which could suggest sulfate or polyphosphate as possible electrospray ionization. On the other hand, much higher
ligands. Values for pKa2 are more variable and increase average molecular weights of 105 to 106 Da can be obtained
from about 4 to 9 across the salinity gradient in the Firth from images of freshwater (9) or marine colloids (7) when
of Clyde estuary (55,56), suggesting that the nature of col- using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) of stained
loids changes dramatically across an estuarine salinity specimens consisting of abundant fibrillar macromolecules
gradient. Interestingly, log K values, as well as fractions 100s to 1000s of nm long, when embedded in hydrophilic
of metal-specific ligands (CL ) in the colloidal fraction (col- resins, or AFM techniques of the same specimens mounted
loidal CL /total CL ) of selected metals in coastal waters by adsorption or centrifugation onto mica surfaces that are
were significantly related to the pKa2 of the colloids; Cu flat on the atomic scale (Fig. 1). Thus, scientists interested
showed a positive relationship for both log K and % col- in the properties of marine colloidal matter still have a
loidal CL with pKa2 , whereas for Pb, a negative relationship long way to go until the role of this abundant material in
was found (55). This is possibly due to the different affini- seawater and self-assembles on the nanoscale (3) become
ties of these two metals to the two predominant forms of better understood.
MARINE COLLOIDS 31
19. Lyven, B. et al. (2003). Competition between iron- and carbon-

Acknowledgments
based colloidal carriers for trace metals in a freshwater
This review was supported, in parts, also by grants to the author
assessed using flow field- flow fractionation coupled to ICPMS,
from the U.S. National Science Foundation (NIRT-0210865 and
Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 67(20): 3791–3802.
OCE-0351559) and the Texas Institute of Oceanography.
20. Guo, L. and Santschi, P.H. (1997). Composition and cycling
of colloids in marine environments. Rev. Geophys. 35: 17–40.
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DEEP WATER CORALS 33
up deep-water coral communities: hard (stony) corals of

the Order Scleractinia, which form hard, ahermatypic
reefs; black and horny corals of the Order Antipatharia;
and soft corals of the order Alcyonacea, which includes
the gorgonians (sea fans) (1). Deep-water corals are
similar in some ways to the more familiar corals of
shallow, tropical seas. Like their tropical equivalents,
the hard corals develop sizeable reef structures that host
rich and varied invertebrate and fish fauna. However,
unlike their tropical cousins, which are typically found in
waters above 70 m depth and at temperatures between
23◦ and 29 ◦ C, deep-water corals live at depths just
beneath the surface to the abyss (2000 m), where
water temperatures may be as cold as 4 ◦ C and utter
darkness prevails.
At these depths, corals lack zooxanthellae. These
symbiotic algae provide food for many shallow-water corals
through photosynthesis. They also assist in the formation
of the calcareous skeleton, and give most tropical corals
their coloration. By contrast, the polyps of deep-water
corals appear to be suspension feeders. They capture
This healthy branch of Lophelia coral was sampled from deep and consume organic detritus and plankton that are
ocean reefs off the coast of South Carolina. Unlike tropical species transported by strong, deep-sea currents. These corals
of coral, Lophelia possesses no symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae). are commonly found along bathymetric highs such as
seamounts, ridges, pinnacles and mounds (2).
Deep-water corals range in size from small solitary
myriad colorful hard and soft corals provide habitat colonies to huge, massive reef structures, which appear
‘‘infrastructure’’ for numerous invertebrates and fishes. as oases of teeming life surrounded by more barren
The corals provide protection and cover, sources of bathymetry. The gorgonians (sea fans) also range from
nutrition, and sites for reproduction. Corals, however, also small individuals to those with tree-like dimensions. The
grow in the deep, cold sea. Although the existence of some gorgonian, Paragorgia arborea, may grow in excess of
of these deep-sea coral thickets has been known for several three meters in length (3). Growth rates of branching deep-
centuries, initially from pieces of broken corals brought water coral species, such as Lophelia and Oculina, range
up with fishing gear, scientists know little about their
distribution, biology, behavior, and function as essential
habitats for fishes and invertebrates.
Some deep-water corals (also called cold-water corals)
do not form reefs exactly like those in tropical waters.
Often, they form colonial aggregations called patches,
mounds, banks, bioherms, massifs, thickets or groves.
These aggregations are often still referred to as ‘‘reefs.’’
Deep-water corals also provide crucial habitat and
reproductive grounds for commercially important fisheries
including sea bass, snapper, porgy, rock shrimp and calico
shrimp, thus drawing the commercial fishing industry to
these fragile areas.
Human activities constitute the most serious threat to
these fragile corals. Destructive bottom fishing, as well as
oil and gas exploration and exploitation have the potential
to destroy large areas of coral habitat in a relatively short
time. These activities create coral rubble, which is not
a suitable habitat for fishes and invertebrates. In recent
years, scientists have begun to study deep-water corals
more closely, and some countries with deep-water corals
in their territorial waters have begun to implement fishing
restrictions in sensitive coral areas.
WHAT ARE DEEP-WATER CORALS?
Far fewer species of corals exist in cold, deep water This thicket of Paragorgia corals was viewed by the deep-sea
than in the tropics. Three main groups of corals make submersible Alvin at 1,043 m depth. Photo: Barbara Hecker.
from ∼1.0–2.5 cm/yr, whereas branching shallow-water LOPHELIA PERTUSA DISTRIBUTION

corals, such as Acropora, may exceed 10–20 cm/yr. Using
coral age-dating methods, scientists have estimated that Lophelia pertusa is the most common aggregate-forming
some living deep-water corals date back at least 10,000 deep-water coral. Typically, it is found at depths
years (4). However, little is known of their basic biology, between 200 and 1,000 m in the northeast Atlantic, the
including how they feed or their methods and timing of Mediterranean Sea, along the mid-Atlantic Ridge, the
reproduction. West African and Brazilian coasts, and along the eastern
shores of North America (e.g., Nova Scotia, Blake Plateau,
Florida Straits, Gulf of Mexico) as well as in parts of
GENERAL DISTRIBUTION OF COLD-WATER CORALS the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Like tropical coral reefs,
Lophelia communities support diverse marine life, such as
Deep-water corals are found globally, from coastal Antarc- sponges, polychaete worms, mollusks, crustaceans, brittle
tica to the Arctic Circle. In northern Atlantic waters, the stars, starfish, sea urchins, bryozoans, sea spiders, fishes,
principal coral species that contribute to reef formation and many other vertebrate and invertebrate species.
are Lophelia pertusa, Oculina varicosa, Madrepora ocu- Lophelia has been found most frequently on the
lata, Desmophyllum cristagalli, Enallopsammia rostrata, northern European continental shelves between 200 and
Solenosmilia variabilis, and Goniocorella dumosa. Four of 1000 m, where temperatures range from 4◦ to 12 ◦ C, but
those genera (Lophelia, Desmophyllum, Solenosmilia, and it has also been found at depths greater than 2,000 m.
Goniocorella) constitute the majority of known deep-water Once a colonial patch is established, it can spread over
coral banks at depths of 400 to 700 m (5). a broad area by growing on dead and broken pieces of
Madrepora oculata occurs as deep as 2,020 m and coral (coral rubble). Lophelia has a linear extension of the
is one of a dozen species that occur globally and in polyps of about 10 mm per year. The reef structure has
all oceans, including the Subantarctic (6). Colonies of been estimated to grow about 1 mm per year (8). Scientists
Enallopsammia contribute to the framework of deep-water have also found Lophelia colonies on oil installations in
coral banks found at depths of 600 to 800 m in the Straits the North Sea (9).
of Florida (5). Lophelia pertusa can occur in a variety of structures
and forms. DNA-based sequencing tests conducted at the
University of Southampton Oceanography Centre, UK,
TWO IMPORTANT DEEP-WATER CORALS have indicated that different morphological varieties of
Lophelia all belong to the same species (10).
Two of the more significant deep-sea coral species are

Lophelia pertusa and Oculina varicosa. These species form NOTED LOPHELIA AREAS
extensive deep-water communities that attract commer-
cially important species of fishes, making them susceptible The world’s largest known deep-water Lophelia coral
to destructive bottom trawling practices (7). Increased sed- complex is the Røst Reef. It lies in depths between 300
imentation places additional stress on corals. and 400 m west of Røst Island in the Lofoten archipelago,
Oil and gas exploration structures and activities, Norway. Discovered during a routine survey in May
particularly in the North Sea and adjacent areas, 2002, the reef is still largely intact. It covers an area
also damage Lophelia communities. Subsequent oil and approximately 40 km long by 3 km wide.
gas production activities may also introduce noxious Relatively close by is the Sula Reef, located on the Sula
substances into these areas. Ridge, west of Trondheim on the mid-Norwegian Shelf,
Global distribution of Lophelia per-

tusa. Image: Southampton Oceanog-
raphy Centre, UK.
of approximately 100 km2 and consist of two main

fields—the Darwin Mounds East, with about 75 mounds,
and the Darwin Mounds West, with about 150 mounds.
Other mounds are scattered in adjacent areas. Each
mound is about 100 m in diameter and 5 m high.
The tops of the mounds are covered with Lophelia
corals and coral rubble, which attract other marine life.
Side-scan sonar images show that the mounds appear
to be sand volcanoes, each with a unique feature—a
‘‘tail.’’ The tails are up to several hundred m long, all
oriented downstream (13). The tails and the mounds are
uniquely characterized by large congregations of deep-
sea organisms called xenophyophores (Syringammina
fragilissima), which are giant unicellular organisms that
can grow up to 25 cm in diameter (14). Scientists are
uncertain why these interesting organisms congregate
in these areas. In addition, the Lophelia of the Darwin
Mounds are growing on sand rather than hard substrate,
an unusual condition unique to this area. Usually, coral
larvae almost always settle and grow on hard substrates,
such as dead coral skeletons or rock.
Lophelia corals exist in Irish waters as well (15). The
Porcupine Seabight, the southern end of the Rockall Bank,
and the shelf to the northwest of Donegal all exhibit large,
Reefs of Lophelia pertusa have been recorded on raised offshore mound-like Lophelia structures. One of them, the Theresa
seabeds in the north Atlantic off Britain and west Ireland. Image:
Mound, is particularly noted for its Lophelia pertusa and
Dr. Brian Bett, Southampton Oceanography Centre, UK.
Madrepora oculata colonies. Lophelia reefs are also found
along the U.S. East Coast at depths of 500 to 850 m
along the base of the Florida-Hatteras slope. South of
at 200 to 300 m depth. It is estimated to be 13 km long, Cape Lookout, NC, rising from the flat sea bed of the
700 m wide, and up to 35 m high (11), an area one-tenth Blake Plateau, is a band of ridges capped with thickets of
the size of the 100 km2 Røst Reef. Lophelia. These are the northernmost East Coast Lophelia
Discovered and mapped in 2002, Norway’s 1,000-year- pertusa growths. The coral mounds and ridges here rise
old and 2-km-long Tisler Reef lies in the Skagerrak—the as much as 150 m from the plateau plain. These Lophelia
submarine border between Norway and Sweden at a communities lie in unprotected areas of potential oil and
depth of 74 to 155 m. The Tisler Reef contains the gas exploration and cable-laying operations, rendering
world’s only known yellow Lophelia pertusa corals. At them vulnerable to future threats (16).
present, Norway is the only European nation to enact Finally, Lophelia is known to exist around the Bay of
laws protecting its Lophelia reefs from trawling, pollution, Biscay, the Canary Islands, Portugal, Madeira, the Azores,
and oil and gas exploration. However, the European and the western basin of the Mediterranean Sea (13).
Commission has introduced an interim ban on trawling
in the Darwin Mounds area, west of Scotland, in August
2003. A permanent ban on trawling is expected to follow. OCULINA VARICOSA DISTRIBUTION
Elsewhere in the northeastern Atlantic, Lophelia is
found around the Faroe Islands, an island group between Oculina varicosa is a branching ivory coral that forms
the Norwegian Sea and the Northeast Atlantic Ocean. giant but slow-growing, bushy thickets on pinnacles up to
At depths from 200 to 500 m, Lophelia is chiefly on the 30 m in height. The Oculina Banks, so named because they
Rockall Bank and on the shelf break north and west of consist mostly of Oculina varicosa, exist in 50 to 100 m of
Scotland (12). water along the continental shelf edge about 26 to 50 km
One of the most researched deep-water coral areas off of Florida’s central east coast.
in the United Kingdom are the Darwin Mounds. The Discovered in 1975 by scientists from the Harbor
mounds were discovered in 1998 by the Atlantic Frontier Branch Oceanographic Institution conducting surveys of
Environmental Network (AFEN) while conducting large- the continental shelf, Oculina thickets grow on a series
scale regional surveys of the sea floor north of Scotland. of pinnacles and ridges extending from Fort Pierce to
They discovered two areas of hundreds of sand and cold- Daytona, Florida (7,17–19).
water coral mounds at depths of about 1,000 m, in the Like the Lophelia thickets, the Oculina Banks host a
northeast corner of the Rockall Trough, approximately wide array of macroinvertebrates and fishes. They also are
185 km northwest of the northwest tip of Scotland. significant spawning grounds for commercially important
Named after the research vessel Charles Darwin, the species of food fishes including gag, scamp, red grouper,
Darwin Mounds have been extensively mapped using speckled hind, black sea bass, red porgy, rock shrimp, and
low-frequency side-scan sonar. They cover an area the calico scallop (20).
The fishes and invertebrates that depend on the coral

structure lose their habitat and move out of the area.
Damage may range from a decrease in the size of the coral
habitat with a corresponding decrease in the abundance
and biodiversity of the associated invertebrate and fish
species, to the complete destruction of the coral habitat.
The trawls also may resuspend sediments that, in turn,
may smother corals growing downstream of the current. In
addition, oil and gas exploration and extraction operations
have begun to move into these deep-water areas, further
threatening the resident corals.
Scientists estimate that within the Norwegian Exclu-
sive Economic Zone, 30 to 50 percent of the total coral area
of the Norwegian shelf has been damaged or destroyed by
trawling (8). Scientists from the International Council for
the Exploration of the Sea, the main provider of scien-
tific advice to the European Commission on fisheries and
environmental issues in the northeast Atlantic, have rec-
ommended that to protect the remaining deep-water coral
groves, all of Europe’s deep corals must be accurately
mapped and then closed to fishing trawlers (22).
In 1999, the first complete mapping of the Sula Reef
was carried out by the Norwegian Hydrographic Society,
Chart of the Deep-water Oculina Coral Banks Marine Protected which used the latest available multibeam echosounder
Area (MPA). The shaded area is the entire Oculina Habitat equipment to record both depth and backscatter data. The
Area of Particular Concern (HAPC); the Experimental Oculina mapping was the product of joint cooperation between the
Research Reserve (EORR) is the smaller inset box. Recent dive Geological Survey of Norway and the Institute of Marine
sites from 2001 to 2003 include: 1) Cape Canaveral, 2) Cocoa
Research. That same year, the Norwegian Ministry of
Beach, 3) Eau Gallie, 4) Malabar, 5) Sebastian, and 6) Chapmans
Fisheries issued regulations for the protection of the
Lumps/Jeff’s Reef. (Courtesy of: Dr. John K. Reed, Harbor Branch
Oceanographic Institution). Lophelia reefs. An area of 1,000 km2 at Sula, including
the large reef, is now closed to bottom trawling. In 2000,
an additional area, about 600 km2 was closed. The Røst
THREATS TO LOPHELIA AND OCULINA CORALS Reef, an area of about 300 km2 , was closed to bottom
trawling in 2002.
Both Lophelia and Oculina corals face uncertain futures. Florida’s Oculina Banks, once teeming with commer-
Until recently, Lophelia habitats remained undisturbed cially important fish, now appear to be severely depleted
by human activity. However, as traditional fish stocks are of fish stocks (23). Much of the Oculina coral has been
depleted from northern European waters, bottom trawling reduced to rubble, probably the result of a combination of
has moved into deeper waters, where the gear has affected destructive bottom trawling and natural causes like bio-
the coral beds. The towed nets break up the reef structure, erosion and episodic die-offs. Regardless of the cause, the
kill the coral polyps and expose the reef to sediment Oculina Banks now support a drastically reduced fishery
by altering the hydrodynamic and sedimentary processes because most of the significant spawning grounds have
around the reef (21). been destroyed (7,19).
Two images of the deep sea coral

Lophelia pertusa. The image on
the left shows the complex growth
structure of a small colony. On
the right is a closeup of individual
polyps. Photo: Ref. 7.
deployed concrete ‘‘reef balls’’ in the area in an attempt

to attract fish and provide substrate for coral attachment,
settlement and growth. They are cautiously optimistic
about their initial restorative efforts in the reserve (23).
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Two images of the deep-sea copral

Oculina varicosa. The image on
the left shows the complex growth
structure of a small colony. On the
right is a closeup of an individual
branch. Photo: Ref. 7.
38 MARINE DEBRIS ABATEMENT
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reefs. Available on the NOAA Ocean Explorer Web site at U.S. Environmental Protection
http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/islands01/back- Agency
ground/islands/sup10 lophelia.html. Washington, District of
17. Avent, R.M., M.E. King, and R.M. Gore. 1977. Topographic Columbia
and faunal studies of shelf-edge prominences off the central
eastern Florida coast. Int. Revue ges.Hydrobiol. 62: 185–208. TRASH IN OUR OCEANS—YOU CAN BE PART OF THE
18. Reed, J.K. 1981. In Situ growth rates of the scleractinian SOLUTION
coral Oculina varicosa occurring with zooxanthellae on 6-
m reefs and without on 80-m banks. pp. 201–206. in: W.J. Marine debris, often called litter, has become a problem
Richards (ed.), Proceedings of Marine Recreational Fisheries along shorelines, coastal waters, estuaries, and oceans
Symposium. throughout the world. It is defined as any man-made,
19. Reed, J.K. 2002. Deep-water Oculina reefs of Florida: biology, solid material that enters our waterways directly (e.g.,
impacts and management. Hydrobiologia 471: 43–55. by dumping) or indirectly (e.g., washed out to sea via
20. Koenig, C., C.F. Coleman, and S. Brooke. Coral restoration rivers, streams, storm drains, etc.). Objects ranging
in the Experimental Oculina Research Reserve of the South from detergent bottles, hazardous medical wastes, and
Atlantic. Available on-line at http://www.bio.fsu.edu/ifre/ifre discarded fishing line all qualify as marine debris. In
research oculina.html addition to being unsightly, it poses a serious threat to
21. Hall-Spencer, J. et al. 2002. Trawling damage to Northeast everything with which it comes into contact. Marine debris
Atlantic ancient coral reefs. Proc. R. Soc. London B. can be life-threatening to marine organisms and humans
22. International Council for Exploration of the Sea (ICES). and can wreak havoc on coastal communities and the
2001b. Close Europe’s cold-water coral reefs to fishing. fishing industry.
Available on-line at http://www.ices.dk/aboutus/pressrelease/
coral.asp Sources of Marine Debris
23. Marine Protected Areas of the United States (MPA). 2002.
Experimental Oculina Research Reserve. Available on-line at There are two different sources from which debris pollutes
http://mpa.gov/mpadescriptive/cs obrr.html our oceans. The first is from the land and includes users of
24. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2000.
Final Rule, Amendment 4 to the Fishery Management Plan
for Coral, Coral Reefs, and Live/Hard Bottom Habitats of the
South Atlantic Regions (Coral FMP). Federal Register, Vol.
65, No. 115, June 14, 2000.
READING LIST
Atlantic Coral Ecosystem Study (ACES), 2000. Consortium of

European scientists completed an environmental assessment of
the status of Europe’s deep-water corals, available on-line at:
http://www.cool-corals.de
Hoskin, C.M., J.K. Reed, and D.H. Mook. 1987. Sediments from
a living shelf-edge reef and adjacent area off central eastern
Florida. Pp. 42–77, In: F, JMR, Maurrasse (ed.), Symposium
on south Florida geology. Miami Geological Society. Memoirs 3.
International Council for Exploration of the Sea (ICES). 2001c:
Extract of the report of the Advisory Committee on Ecosystems
2002 on identification of areas where cold-water corals may be
affected by fishing.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1982. Fishery
Management Plan for Coral and Coral Reefs of the Gulf of
Mexico and South Atlantic. Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic
Fishery Management Councils.
Reed, J.K. and C.M. Hoskin. 1984. Studies of geological and
biological processes at the shelf-edge with use of submersibles. This article is a US Government work and, as such, is in the
In: Undersea research and technology—Scientific application public domain in the United States of America.
MARINE DEBRIS ABATEMENT 39
the beach, storm water-runoff, landfills, solid waste, rivers, grants provide support for developing and implementing
and streams, floating structures, ill maintained garbage programs to notify the public of the potential for exposure
bins and dumps and litterbugs. Marine debris also comes to disease-causing microorganisms in coastal recreation
from combined sewer overflows, and storm drains. Typical waters. The act also authorizes EPA to provide technical
debris from these sources includes medical waste, street assistance to States and local governments for the
litter and sewage. Land-based sources cause 80% of the assessment and monitoring of floatable materials. In
marine debris found on our beaches and waters. partially fulfilling that obligation, EPA has compiled
The second source of marine debris is from ocean the most current information to date on assessing and
sources, and this type of debris includes galley waste and monitoring floatable materials in the document Assessing
other trash from ships, recreational boaters and fishermen and Monitoring Floatable Debris.
and offshore oil and gas exploration and production
facilities. The International Coastal Cleanup
Adding to this problem is the population influx along
The Ocean Conservancy, formerly known as the Center
our nation’s shores. More people means more paved area
for Marine Conservation, established and maintains the
and wastes generated in coastal areas. These factors;
annual International Coastal Cleanup (ICC) with support
combined with the growing demand for manufactured
from EPA and other stakeholders. The first cleanup was
and packaged goods, have led to an increase in non-
in 1986 in Texas, and the campaign currently involves
biodegradable solid wastes in our waterways.
all of the states and territories of the United States and
more than 100 countries around the world. The ICC is the
The Beaches Environmental Assessment and Coastal Health largest volunteer environmental data-gathering effort and
Act (BEACH) of 2000 associated cleanup of coastal and underwater areas in the
The BEACH Act was enacted on October 10, 2000, world. It takes place every year on the third Saturday in
and it is designed to reduce the risk of disease to September. In 2001, over 140,000 people across the U.S.
users of the Nation’s coastal recreation waters. The participated in the ICCC. They removed about 3.6 million
act authorizes the EPA to award program development pounds of debris from more than 7,700 miles of coasts,
and implementation grants to eligible states, territories, shorelines, and underwater sites.
tribes, and local governments to support microbiological
testing and monitoring of coastal recreational waters, National Marine Debris Monitoring Program
including the Great Lakes, that are adjacent to beaches EPA along with other federal agencies helped to design the
or similar points of access used by the public. BEACH Act National Marine Debris Monitoring Program (NMDMP),
and EPA is supporting The Ocean Conservancy’s imple-
mentation of the study. NMDMP is designed to gather
scientifically valid marine debris data following a rigorous
statistical protocol. The NMDMP is designed to identify
trends in the amounts of marine debris affecting the U.S.
coastline and to determine the main sources of the debris.
This scientific study is conducted every 28 days by teams
of volunteers at randomly selected study sites along the
U.S. coastline. The NMDMP requires, at a maximum, that
180 monitoring sites located along the coast of contigu-
ous U.S. States and Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and
the U.S. Virgin Islands be fully operational. The program
began in 1996 with the establishment of 40 monitoring
sites ranging from the Texas/Mexico border to Port Ever-
glades, Florida and included Puerto Rico and the U.S.
Virgin Islands. To date 163 study sites have been des-
ignated and 128 sites are collecting data. The program
will run for a 5-year period once all of the study sites
have been established. For more information please visit:
http://www.oceanconservancy.org/dynamic/learn/issues/
debris/debris.htm.
Other Floatable Debris-Related Legislation

In response to a growing concern over floatable debris,
governments have taken actions nationally, as well as
internationally, to reduce discharges at their source. For
example, intentional at-sea dumping of garbage generated
on land became subject to international control in 1972
through the Convention on the Prevention of Marine
Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter,
40 MARINE DEBRIS ABATEMENT
plastic bags for squid, and birds may mistake plastic

pellets for fish eggs. At other times, animals accidentally
eat the plastic while feeding on natural food. According to
recent estimates, 267 marine species have been reported
entangled in or having ingested marine debris (Marine
Mammal Commission, 1998). The plastic constricts the
animals’ movements, or kills the marine animals through
starvation, exhaustion, or infection from deep wounds
caused by tightening material. The animals may starve to
death, because the plastic clogs their intestines preventing
them from obtaining vital nutrients. Toxic substances
present in plastics can cause death or reproductive failure
in the fish, shellfish, and wildlife that use the habitat.
Polluted Waters Make Trouble for Humans, Too

Humans can also be directly affected by marine debris.
Swimmers and divers can become entangled in abandoned
netting and fishing lines like marine organisms. Beach
users can be injured by stepping on broken glass, cans,
needles or other litter. Appearance of debris, such as
plastic, can also result in economic consequences. Floating
debris, either as a floating slick or as dispersed items,
is visually unappealing and can result in lost tourism
revenues. New Jersey now spends $1,500,000 annually
to clean up its beaches, and $40,000 to remove debris
from the New York/New Jersey Harbor (YOTO Discussion
Papers, 1998).
Fishing Industries and Communities Hit Hard by Marine

Debris
Marine debris also acts as a navigational hazard to
fishing and recreational boats by entangling propellers
commonly called the London Convention. Similarly, at-sea
and clogging cooling water intake valves. Repairing boats
disposal of garbage generated during the routine operation
damaged by marine debris are both time consuming and
of ships (e.g., garbage not deliberately carried to sea for
expensive. Fixing a small dent in a large, slow-moving
the purpose of disposal) was addressed through a 1978
vessel can take up to 2 days, costing the shipping company
Protocol to the 1973 International Convention for the
$30,000–40,000 per day in lost carrying fees, as well as up
Prevention of Pollution by Ships (commonly called the
to $100,000 for the repair itself (Peter Wallace, personal
MARPOL Convention).
contact). According to Japanese estimates, the Japanese
In the Shore Protection Act of 1989 provides for controls
fishing industry spent $4.1 billion (U.S.) on boat repairs in
on operations relating to the vessel transport of certain
1992 (YOTO Discussion Papers, 1998). Lost lobster traps
solid wastes (municipal or commercial waste) so that those
cost New England fishing communities $250 million in
wastes are not deposited in coastal waters. This act has
provisions that reduce wastes being deposited in coastal
waters during the transfer of waste from the waste source
to the transport vessel to the waste receiving station.
As amended by the Water Quality Act of 1987, the Clean
Water Act requires EPA to establish regulations that treat
storm water and combined sewer overflows (CSOs) as
point source discharges that must be regulated under
the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
(NPDES). The permits will prohibit non-storm water
discharges into storm sewers while leading to improved
control techniques and best management practices.
Debris Hazardous for Marine Animals

Each year millions of seabirds, sea turtles, fish, and marine
mammals become entangled in marine debris or ingest
plastics which they have mistaken for food. As many as
30,000 northern fur seals per year get caught in abandoned
fishing nets and either drown or suffocate. Whales mistake
MARINE DEBRIS ABATEMENT 41
1978. These traps continue to catch lobsters and other can wrap around living coral, smothering the animals and
marine organisms that are never harvested and sold; the breaking up their coraline structures.
communities’ economies are therefore adversely affected.
Trash Indicator of Bigger Problems
Beach Raking The typical floatable debris from Combined Sewer
Overflows includes street litter, sewage (e.g., condoms,
Mechanical beach raking, which is accomplished with a
tampons, applicators), and medical items (e.g., syringes),
tractor and is used to remove debris from the shoreline,
resin pellets, and other material that might have washed
can help to remove floatable material from beaches and
into the storm drains or from land runoff. These materials
marine shorelines. However, it can also be harmful to
or objects can make it unsafe to walk on the beaches, and
aquatic vegetation, nesting birds, sea turtles, and other
pathogens or algae’s blooms can make it unsafe to swim.
types of aquatic life. A study in Maine compared a raked
Pollutants, such as toxic substances, can make it unsafe
beach and an adjacent natural beach to determine the
to eat the fish caught from the waters. Swimming in or
effects of beach raking on vegetation. Beach raking not
ingesting waters which are contaminated with pathogens
only prevents the natural re-vegetation process, but it
can result in human health problems such as, sore
reduces the integrity of the sand root mat just below the
throat, gastroenteritis, meningitis or even encephalitis.
surface that is important in slowing beach erosion. Other
Pathogens can also contaminate shellfish beds.
problems include disturbance of vegetation if raking is
conducted too, close to a dune. By removing seaweed, beach What Needs to Be Done
erosion can also be caused. Sand compaction is reduced
when seaweed is removed, resulting in suspension of the Reducing marine debris means reducing the amount of
sand in the water during high tides and contributing to waste generated on land and disposing of it properly.
loss of sand and erosion of the beach. Beach cleaning Recycling can significantly reduce the amounts of litter
machines are harmful to nest birds and can destroy reaching marine and coastal waters. Volunteer coastal
potential nesting sites, crush plover nests and chicks, and cleanups and public education efforts can also help reduce
remove the plovers’ natural wrack-line feeding habitat. To the amount of debris reaching our waterways.
reduce the effects on nesting birds, beach raking should
What You Can Do
not be done during the nesting season.
• Dispose of trash properly. This will help reduce the
amount of trash that is washed into our waterways
Unseen Consequences
from storm drains.
Once debris reaches coastal and ocean bottom, especially • Reduce, reuse and recycle. Visit the EPA’s solid waste
in areas with little current, it may continue to cause web site for more information.
environmental problems. When plastic film and other • Cut the rings of plastic six-pack holders. This lowers
debris settle on the bottom, it can suffocate immobile the risk of entanglement to marine animals if the
plants and animals, producing areas essentially devoid of holders do make it out to sea.
life. In areas with some currents, such as coral reefs, debris • Participate in local beach, river or stream clean ups.
• Practice good housekeeping.
• Look for alternative materials or avoid excessive
packaging when deciding on purchases.
• Educate others about marine debris.
• Get involved in your local area.
What the EPA and Other Partners Are Doing

• Providing resources to educate the public on the
impact of marine debris and guidance for how to
eliminate it.
• Providing resources and technical support for the
development of studies to address the impact of
marine debris.
• Providing guidance for the implementation of regu-
lations addressing marine debris.
• Organizing and sponsoring cleanup efforts, like the
U.S. and International Coastal Cleanups.
Whether directly or indirectly, many of our land-

based activities ultimately impact and adversely affect
the oceans. At the heart of the problem lie the great
quantities of trash generated in our daily lives. Reusing
and recycling efforts have helped, but a great deal more
can be done. You can be part of the solution.
42 LARVAE AND SMALL SPECIES OF POLYCHAETES IN MARINE TOXICOLOGICAL TESTING
LARVAE AND SMALL SPECIES OF POLYCHAETES The life-cycle tests have been employed infrequently in the
IN MARINE TOXICOLOGICAL TESTING past. The test protocol is similar to that of the chronic test.
In addition to survival and growth effects, reproductive
JIAN-WEN QIU parameters, such as eggs or juveniles produced, are the
MING HUNG WONG endpoints. Only small species have been used in life-cycle
Hong Kong Baptist University tests because their life cycle can be completed in less
Kowloon Tong, Kowloon, Hong than one month. In recent years, many published toxicity
Kong studies have used small polychaete species in chronic
or life-cycle tests. Examples are Bridges and Farrar (3),
Anderson et al. (4), Linke-Gamenick et al. (5), McPherson
The ultimate goal of ecotoxicological testing is to provide et al. (6), and Nipper and Carr (7). There has also been
data to predict potential impacts of pollutants on the new development in the use of polychaete larvae (8–10).
ecosystem. To fulfill this goal, the tests should meet Below are several general conclusions regarding the
several criteria: the species should be ecologically relevant use of polychaetes in bioassays. These conclusions are
and sensitive to pollutants; the species should be readily supported by examples.
available through field collection or laboratory culture; and
the tests should yield reasonably rapid results at low cost. 1. Polychaete Larvae are Very Sensitive to Pollutants.
Although rarely consumed as seafood, polychaetes are a In Capitella capitata, bifurcated abnormal larvae
diverse group in marine ecosystems, typically consisting occurred at 10 ppb copper (11). In Arenicola cristata,
35% to 75% of the total number of species in soft bottom abnormal larvae occurred at 0.75 ppb TBTO (12).
coastal areas (1). They serve as prey for demersal fish In Galeolaria caespitosa, the 48-h EC50 for larval
and are important in the transfer of organic material development ranged from 20 to 28 ppb copper (9).
and nutrients between the sediment and the overlying 2. Polychaete Larvae are More Sensitive than the Adults
water. The use of polychaetes as bioassay organisms to Pollutants. In Capitella capitata, the 96-h LC50
began in the 1960s, stimulated by the awareness that for trochophores and adults was 0.22 and 7.5 ppm
many pollutants were threatening the ecosystems and cadmium, respectively (13). In Hydroides elegans,
the surge in studies of polychaete life history. Reish and the EC50 for trochophores was 29 ppb copper,
Gerlinger (2) is the most updated comprehensive review whereas mortality of the adults occurred only when
on the use of polychaetes in bioassays. Among the 8000 copper concentrations reached 500 ppb (10).
described species worldwide, only 49 polychaete species
3. Test Sensitivity Varies with Polychaete Species and
have been used in bioassays, of which all inhabit shallow
Toxicant. Reish and LeMay (14) compared the
waters. Most tests have been conducted with small species
toxicity of seven metals with five polychaete species.
(Neanthes arenaceodentata, Capitella capitata, Dinophilus
They found that, for the same metal, different
gyrociliatus, Ophryotrocha labronica, and O. diadema),
polychaete species gave very different results. For
which can be obtained from laboratory culture. Large
cadmium, the 96-h LC50 ranged from 2.6 ppm in
polychaetes, i.e., Nereis virens and Neanthes diversicolor,
Pectinaria californiensis to 14.1 ppm in Neanthes
have also been used. These species are usually obtained
arenaceodentata. For the same species, sensitivity
from field populations and have been used mostly in
varies with toxicant. Ophryotrocha labronica was
pollutant accumulation studies.
the most sensitive to copper, but it was the second
Polychaetes have been employed in acute, chronic,
most tolerant to chromium, and the most tolerant
and life-cycle tests to determine the toxicity of metals,
to mercury.
contaminated sediment, sediment pore water, municipal
effluents, petroleum hydrocarbons, pesticides, and other 4. The Chronic Test may not be More Sensitive than
synthetic organic chemicals. Although several species, the Acute Test. Reish and Gerlinger (2) noted that
such as Capitella capitata, Dinophilus gyrociliatus, very limited data on the comparison of acute and
Ophryotrocha labronica, and O. diadema, have been used chronic tests existed. After exposure of Neanthes
in all test types, many other species have been used only arenaceodentata to 5.1 ppm cadmium for 20 days,
in acute or chronic tests. The acute tests can be conducted no mortality existed, but the growth rate was
with larvae, juveniles, and adults. During the test, the significantly lower than that of the control. In
worms are usually not fed. When juveniles and adults another study with the same polychaete species,
are used, the acute test is usually run for 96 h. The test however, the 28-d LC50 values for mercury and
can be static, static renewal, or flow-through. In larval copper were not lower than the 4-day values (15).
tests, however, the tests are usually static, with shorter 5. Life-Cycle Tests may not be more Sensitive than Acute
exposure periods (24 or 48 h). Survivorship is usually Tests. At 100 ppb pentachlorophenol, Dinophilus
the endpoint of acute tests. Chronic tests are usually gyrociliatus adults survived well, but the total
conducted using juveniles or adults. The test protocol is number of eggs plus juveniles was significantly
the same as in acute test except the exposure duration reduced (16). Similarly, at 50 ppb mercury, Ophry-
is 10 to 28 days, during which the polychaetes are fed. otrocha diadema survived well, but the number of
The bioassay usually adopts a static renewal design. In offspring was reduced; in contrast, the 96-h LC50
addition to survival, sublethal effects such as cessation of for mercury was very close to the concentration that
feeding, defecation, or reduced growth are the endpoints. resulted in declined reproductive output (17).
EL NIÑO: THE INTERANNUAL PREDICTION PROBLEM 43
BIBLIOGRAPHY EL NIÑO: THE INTERANNUAL PREDICTION

PROBLEM
1. Qian, P.Y., Qiu, J.W., Kennish, R., and Reid, C.A. (2003).
Recolonization of benthic infauna subsequent to capping of
contaminated dredged material in East Sha Chau, Hong Geophysical Fluid Dynamics
Kong. Estuarine Coastal Shelf Sci. 56: 819–831. Laboratory—NOAA
2. Reish, D.J. and Gerlinger, T.V. (1997). A review on the
toxicological studies with polychaetous annelids. Bull Mar Once every few years, the normally cool waters of
Sci. 60: 584–607. the eastern tropical Pacific become unusually warm
3. Bridges, T.S. and Farrar, J.D. (1997). The influence of in a phenomenon known as El Niño. During El Niño
worm age, duration of exposure and endpoint selection on years, disruptive weather patterns often occur over wide
bioassay sensitivity for Neanthes arenaceodentata (Annelida: regions of the globe, including North America. For
Polychaeta). Environ Toxicol Chem. 16: 1650–1658. example, flooding rains can strike California, producing
4. Anderson, B.S. et al. (1998). Comparison of marine sediment coastal erosion, mudslides, and crop damage, while
toxicity test protocols for the amphipod Rhepoxynius abronius droughts may occur in Australia and other regions.
and the polychaete worm Nereis (Neanthes) arenaceodentata.
Along the South American coast, the local fishing
Environ Toxicol Chem. 17: 859–866.
industry is severely disrupted by the unusually warm
5. Linke-Gamenick, I., Forbes, V.E., and Sibly, R.M. (1999).
ocean waters.
Density-dependent effects of a toxicant on life-history traits
GFDL and Princeton University maintain active col-
and population dynamics of a capitellid polychaete. Mar Ecol
Prog Ser. 184: 139–148. laborative efforts aimed at understanding and predicting
El Niño. George Philander of Princeton University is a
6. McPherson, C.A. et al. (2002). Toxicity of 1,4-dichlorobenzene
in sediments to juvenile polychaete worms. Mar Pollut Bull. pioneer in the field of El Niño simulation and theory. His
44: 1405–1414. work with GFDL’s Ron Pacanowski established the viabil-
7. Nipper, M. and Carr, R.S. (2003). Recent advances in the use
ity of simulating El Niño using coupled ocean-atmosphere
of meifaunal polychaetes for ecotoxicological assessments. models and set the stage for attempts to use such models
Hydrologia. 496: 347–353. for El Niño prediction. At GFDL, Kikuro Miyakoda and
8. Palau-Casellas, A. and Hutchinson, T.H. (1998). Acute tox- Tony Rosati have led efforts to build a system to pre-
icity of chlorinated organic chemicals to the embryos and dict both El Niño and its impact on large-scale weather
larvae of the marine worm Platynereis dumerilii (Polychaeta:
Nereidae). Environ Toxicol Water Qual. 13: 149–155.
9. Ross, K.E. and Bidwell, J.R. (2001). A 48-h larval develop-
ment toxicity test using the marine polychaete Galeolaria
caespitosa Lamarck (Fam. Serpulidae). Arch Environ Contam
Toxicol. 40: 489–496.
10. Xie, Z.C., Wong, N.C., Qian, P.Y., and Qiu, J.W. (2004).
Responses of polychaete Hydroides elegans life stages to
copper stress. Mar Ecol Prog Ser. (in press).
11. Reish, D.J., Plitz, F.M., and Martin, J.M. (1974). Induction of
abnormal polychaete worms. Mar Poll Bull. 51: 125–126.
12. Walsh, G.E., Louie, M.K., McLaughlin, L.L., and Lores, E.M.
(1986). Lugworm Arenicola cristata larvae in toxicity tests:
survival and development when exposed to organotins.
Environ Toxicol Chem. 5: 749–754.
13. Reish, D.J., Martin, J.M., Plitz, F.M., and Word, J.Q. (1976).
The effect of heavy metals on laboratory populations of two
polychaetes with comparisons to the water quality conditions
and standards in Southern California marine waters. Water Modeled ocean temperature and surface current distribution over
Res. 10: 299–302. the tropical Pacific Ocean region obtained from a GFDL coupled
14. Reish, D.J. and LeMay, J.A. (1991). Toxicity and bioconcen- ocean-atmosphere model used to predict El Niño/Southern
tration of metals and organic compounds by polychaetes. Oscillation (ENSO). Lower (blue surface): three-dimensional
Ophelia Suppl. 5: 653–660. depiction of the surface on which the ocean temperature is
15. Reish, D.J. (1980). The Effect of Different Pollutants on Eco- 20 ◦ C. Undulations of this surface can be used to monitor ocean
heat content changes associated with ENSO. During the cold
logically Important Polychaete Worms. U.S. Environmental
phase of ENSO, this surface is deep in the warmer western
Protection Agency. Environmental Research Laboratory, Nar-
tropical Pacific but rises toward the sea surface in the cooler
ragansett, RI, EPA 600/3-80-053, p. 138.
eastern equatorial Pacific, as in the example shown. Upper:
16. Carr, R.S., Curran, M.D., and Mazurkiewicz, M. (1986). corresponding distribution of sea surface temperature and surface
Evaluation of the archiannelid Dinophilus gyrociliatus for ocean currents. Gray regions depict land areas of New Guinea
use in short-term life-cycle tests. Environ Toxicol Chem. 5: and northern Australia.
703–712.
17. Reish, D.J. and Carr, R.S. (1978). The effect of heavy metals
on survival, reproduction, development and life cycles of two This article is a US Government work and, as such, is in the
species of polychaetous annelids. Mar Pollut Bull. 9: 24–27. public domain in the United States of America.
44 RENEWABLE ENERGIES FROM THE OCEAN
Model skill in the prediction of eastern tropical Pacific sea

surface temperature anomalies for different forecast lead times.
Higher values indicate greater skill. Based on an ensemble of
14 retrospective forecasts for 1982–1988 using a GFDL coupled
ocean-atmosphere model. Forecast Method 1 uses both surface
and sub-surface ocean data for initialization, whereas Forecast
Method 2 uses only surface data. The results show the crucial
importance of subsurface data for the success of the forecasts with
this prediction system. [Source: Anthony Rosati, et al., Monthly
Weather Review, submitted.]
patterns. Miyakoda has long been a leader in efforts to

extend the limits of useful weather forecasts. Many of his
research group’s earlier modeling innovations had been
incorporated into operational weather forecasting models
at the National Meteorological Center, leading to signifi-
cant improvements in the 3–5 day forecasts now available
to the public.
Using coupled ocean-atmosphere models developed at
GFDL and other research centers, scientists now have
Observed and modeled atmospheric circulation anomalies over
begun to make physically based predictions of El Niño the Pacific Ocean and North America during six El Niño
conditions, with lead times of a year or more. These winters. The model simulations illustrate how long-range (1
models have the potential to predict El Niño’s effects on year) predictions of tropical Pacific sea surface temperature
weather patterns over North America and other regions may ultimately lead to improved long-range predictions of
far removed from the tropical Pacific. Farmers, energy seasonal weather anomalies, even in regions remote from the
planners, and water resource managers are examples of tropical Pacific such as the continental United States. Shown are
those who would benefit from improved extended-range composite 500 mb geopotential height anomalies in meters. The
weather and short-term climate predictions. three bottom diagrams are from atmospheric model experiments
in which observed sea surface temperatures have been specified
for different domains. [Source: Ngar-Cheung Lau and Mary Jo
GFDL’S MODULAR OCEAN MODEL Nath, Journal of Climate, August 1994.]
Detailed predictions of El Niño are made possible by the RENEWABLE ENERGIES FROM THE OCEAN
‘‘Modular Ocean Model,’’ a product of extensive research
at GFDL. Through the efforts and foresight of Mike Cox, PURNIMA JALIHAL
Keith Dixon, Ron Pacanowski, and Tony Rosati at GFDL, National Institute of Ocean
this ocean model is now a shared resource, used by hun- Technology
dreds of researchers worldwide. The model has become Chennai, India
the mainstay of the oceanographic modeling community,
not just in new operational El Niño predictions at the INTRODUCTION
National Centers for Environmental Prediction, but for
global climate change research and other applications Today renewable energies are the focus of attention
as well. because of the realization that fossil fuels are on the verge
RENEWABLE ENERGIES FROM THE OCEAN 45
of extinction. Renewables like solar and wind energy have the biggest focus has been on what is known as the
been studied thoroughly, and a lot of standard energy ‘‘Mighty Whale’’ developed by Japan Marine Science and
conversion devices have also been designed, tested, and Technology (JAMSTEC). This OWC is probably the world’s
proven. The ocean has a large potential in terms of the largest. However, Japan has been active in the area of
energy availability. However, harnessing the ocean energy the floating OWC and a concept called the Backward
forms is still in the infancy stage. Bent Ducted Buoy has been developed. This is a floating
The oceans have several untapped features like varying conventional OWC but with the opening away from the
temperature, waves, and tides. The mechanical motions wave direction. Norway has had research being carried
and the thermal variation caused by solar radiation out in wave energy for the past 25 years mainly by the
cause the oceans to have entrapped in them tremendous Norwegean University of Science and Technology. They
amounts of energy, which can be tapped. The energy have been working on the Tapered Channel and OWC
tapped from these phenomena occurring in the oceans schemes. Portugal also is an active player in wave energy
is renewable and therefore needs exploration. Although research. The Archimedes wave swing was invented here,
several attempts have been made to harness these energies and the concept uses the periodic wave pressure to cause
and convert them into electricity, none of the methods are the upper part of a buoy to move while the lower part
yet commercially viable. However, further studies in these stays in position. The United Kingdom has conducted
areas and performance evaluation of pilot plants can lead research on the largest number of varied type of wave
to improvements in the economic and technical prospects energy devices. The Shoreline OWC on Islay, the LIMPET
of such plants. The three energy sources in the oceans are OWC with Wells turbine, and the large OSPREY OWC are
waves, tides, and thermal variation along the depth. This all the U.K.’s contributions to wave energy research. Some
chapter gives a brief description of each type of energy and large prototypes like OSPREY failed before installation
gives the Indian case studies for wave energy and ocean was completed. In Sweden, work has been carried out on
thermal energy conversion. a floating buoy with a submerged tube underneath. The
tube is open to the sea at both ends, and there are some
components for the power take off mechanism in the buoy.
WAVE ENERGY However, until now, no single plant has been completely
commercialized and made repeatable. One must note that
Waves result when wind blows over the ocean surface the Indian wave energy plant has been functional for the
and energy gets transferred from the wind to the sea. past 10 years, but it generates very low average powers.
The amount of energy transferred depends on the wind Details of this plant follow in a later section. Before we
speed, the distance along which it affects the water, and move on to the case study, a few details on the nature of
the amount of time during which the wind blows. When waves will be discussed briefly.
a wave breaks at seashore, one can see the tremendous
amount of energy released. Wave Theory
Wave energy is an irregular and oscillating low-
frequency energy source that can be converted into usable The average power P (W/m) in a regular sine wave per
electric energy. It varies from location to location and from meter wave front of waves with height H and period T can
season to season. be expressed as
Harnessing wave energy involves complicated devices P = ρg2 H2 T/8π
in which the mechanical motion of the pressure waves has
where ρ is the density of water and g is the acceleration
to be converted to electrical energy. These devices can be
caused by gravity. However, in practice, waves are far from
generally categorized as follows:
ideal. In nature, waves are irregular and can be described
by statistical models. If the wave conditions are measured,
1. Floating or pitching devices
over 20 minutes, for example, the mean wave height Hm
2. Oscillating water columns (OWC) and the significant wave height Hs can be calculated. The
3. Surge or focusing devices significant wave height is defined as the average of the
highest 33% of the waves. Under such circumstances, the
The first type consists of mechanical linkages between wave power can be stated as:
floating or fixed objects. The oscillating water column type
of devices transfer the energy from the waves to pneumatic P = 0.55H2 s Tz kW/m length of wave crest
power by alternate compression and decompression of air
in a duct or chamber. This pneumatic power is converted where Tz is the zero crossing period (1). It is very clear
to mechanical power and thereby to electric power through from the above equations that the energy in waves is
a generator. The surge devices channel large waves into a dependent directly on the wave height and period, which
small area, which forces the height of waves to increase, makes it a variable and intermittent source of energy.
and when this water passes through hydroelectric turbines
on its way back to sea level, electricity is generated. CASE STUDY
Wave Energy Plants Around the World The Indian Wave Energy program
In Japan, research on wave energy began during the Indian wave energy research began in 1983 under
late 1970s. Several tests were conducted on OWCs, and the sponsorship of the Government’s Department of
was used. The major defect found in the system was the
stalling behavior of the turbine at higher flow rate. Hence,
efforts were made to carry out further studies on turbine
and to reduce the no-load losses in the system. The studies
resulted in the development of the stage II turbine.
Stage II (1994–1997). A varying chord Wells turbine

that has characteristics of self-pitch control, which can
reduce the stalling effect, was installed in 1995. The data
studies made on the system revealed that the efficiency
of the turbine has been improved because of the reduced
Figure 1. Wave energy plant.
stalling and the selection of proper generator rating.
Ocean Development. After about 6 years of research Stage III (1997–2000). An Impulse turbine with self-
in the laboratory, the wave energy group and the governing guide vanes coupled to a 55-kW generator was
Ocean Engineering Center, Indian Institute of Technology, installed, and the studies revealed that the system was
Madras, coordinated a project, which involved the operable for all periods of the year. The problem with the
fabrication, and construction of the OWC-based wave impulse turbine is that the flipping guide vanes deteriorate
energy system, which is shown in Fig. 1. the efficiency with time because of the corrosion of bearings
The structure consists of a heavy concrete caisson. in the marine environment, and a change in the geometry
The site selected was 45 m in front of the Vizhinjam of vanes can result because of many cycles of operation.
Fisheries Harbor breakwater, off the Trivandrum Coast at Hence, it was decided to change to fixed guide vanes.
the southern tip of the Indian Peninsula. The water depth
at this location is 10 m, typical for fisheries breakwaters, Stage IV (2000–Present). A special variable-speed per-
and the average annual wave power potential is of the manent magnet brushless alternator with constant power
order of 15 kW/m. The already existing breakwater gives output is now used along with the impulse turbine with
the approach needed for this structure. Figure 2 shows the fixed guide vanes. The system can deliver power to charge
sectional view of the caisson. a battery bank of 300 Ah capacity between 400 rpm and
1000 rpm. The objective of using a battery bank is to
Stages of Research deliver a constant power requirement of 7 hp to a desali-
Several stages of research were carried out on the power nation system already installed at the site. These studies
module by IIT, Chennai, and subsequently by the National helped to understand the wave-to-wire conversion process
Institute of Ocean Technology, India. and the pumping of power to the grid. The impulse tur-
bine proved to give the highest efficiency, and this finding
Stage I (1991–1994). The Constant chord Wells turbine has led other wave energy researchers around the world
coupled to a 150-kW slip ring-type induction generator to also consider using impulse turbine in place of wells
turbine for wave energy conversion. It was decided to use
the average power being generated by the plant to run a
reverse osmosis-based desalination plant.
Wave-Powered Desalination System

The wave-powered desalination system consists of the
impulse turbine, a special variable-speed alternator, and
a battery backup. As the waves are random in nature, the
alternator is a device that gives a constant DC voltage with
varying input. When the wave heights are low, the turbine
speed is low and may not be in the range within which
the alternator generates voltage. In this case, the battery
discharges and powers up the load. When more power
is generated than is required by the load, the batteries
are charged. This system was put in place after rigorous
computer simulations and laboratory testing. The system
is now operational and is now supplying water to the local
village community. The system is self-sustaining in that
energy from the sea generates freshwater out of seawater.
TIDAL ENERGY
Figure 2. Cross-sectional view and elevation of wave energy Tides are caused by the gravitational attraction of the
device. moon and the sun acting on the rotation of Earth. The
RENEWABLE ENERGIES FROM THE OCEAN 47
relative motions of these bodies cause the surface of the T

sea to be raised and lowered periodically, according to Twi
several interacting cycles. Two ∆Twi
The tide moves a huge amount of water twice each day, p1 QE
∆Two
T1
and if we could harness it, large amounts of energy could
be generated. However, converting it into useful electrical
power is not easy. Tidal power works in a manner similar P
p2 P G
to a hydroelectric plant except that the dam is much larger. T2
wf ∆Tci ∆Tco
A huge dam or barrage is built across a river or a bay with QC
a large difference between its low and high tides. When Tci Tco
the tide goes in and out, the water flows through tunnels S
in the dam. The ebb and flow of the tides can turn a
turbine. A major drawback of tidal power stations is that Figure 3. T-S Diagram for the closed Rankine cycle.
they can only generate when the tide is flowing in or out,
i.e., only for 10 hours each day. However, some advantages
are that there are no wastes like greenhouse gases, and the unit cost comes down drastically as the rating
production of electricity is reliable because tides are totally becomes higher.
predictable.
Tidal energy potential has been investigated by OTEC—Principle and Systems
several countries, notably, France, where a 240-MW OTEC uses the temperature-difference existing between
demonstration plant was built on the Rance estuary during warm surface seawater of around 27–29 ◦ C and the cold
the 1960s and has now completed 30 years of successful deep-sea water of around 5–7 ◦ C, which is available at a
operation. The Russians have built a small 400-kW device depth of 800 to 1000 m (4). Based on the power cycle, the
near Murmansk, which was later followed by a 17.4-MW OTEC system can be classified in to two open cycle and
experimental device, built by the Canadians at Annapolis closed cycle systems. In the open cycle system, the warm
on a small inlet off the Bay of Fundy. Small plants have surface water is flash-evaporated in a chamber maintained
also been installed in China. None of these countries under high vacuum and the generated vapor drives a
have developed these plants any further. In the United low-pressure turbine connected with the generator. The
Kingdom, a series of industrial consortia in collaboration exhaust steam is condensed with cold seawater taken from
with the Government have investigated the prospects for the ocean depth. For an open cycle system, a condenser
tidal energy on the Severn, Mersey and several smaller can be a means for freshwater production. The closed cycle
estuaries (2). system working on Rankine cycle uses a low boiling point
Every type of renewable energy project has its liquid like R 134a or ammonia as the working fluid. The
drawbacks, and tidal power plants have their problems. T-S diagram for the closed Rankine cycle is shown in
Obviously these stations would not be effective as the sole Fig. 3.
supplier of required energy (3). Also, some environmental The fluid is evaporated in a heat exchanger with the
issues develop with tidal energy. One issue is that warm seawater from the ocean surface. After the vapor is
the flooding of surrounding land can bring about much expanded and drives the turbine, it is condensed by cold
destruction. It could mean the relocation of settlement seawater from the depth of the ocean. This condensate
and agriculture plots. It can also change the composition is pumped back to the evaporator and recycled with the
of the habitat and threaten local inhabitants. Vegetation working fluid pump. A simplified flow diagram of the
and marine life may not to adapt to the new water levels OTEC power cycle along with the Rankine cycle is shown
and may cease to grow or live where they previously below in Fig. 4.
existed. The main advantage of tidal energy is that
it is nonpolluting. Hence, when designing tidal energy Design Requirements of OTEC Plants
plants, these factors can be built into the design to make
Choice of Working Fluid. The selection of equipment,
it economical.
sizing of piping, working conditions, and so on depend
India is also trying to venture into tidal energy in
on the working fluid, which should have low-temperature
the Gulf of Khambhat region of Gujarat on the western
boiling and condensation, high heat transfer coefficient,
side of India. Once the Gulf is closed, water levels within
be environment friendly, safe, nontoxic, and so on.
the reservoir can be controlled while the tidal fluctuation
Some working fluids are ammonia, fluro carbon, tetra
outside the reservoir continues, and hence, they can be
fluro ethane (HFL-1349), and propane. If safety is the
harnessed for the generation of tidal energy.
most important issue, HFL-134a is the choice; however,
ammonia is less expensive, easily available, and has
OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION superior thermodynamic properties. To handle ammonia,
certain safety guidelines need to be followed carefully
The method of harnessing the energy by using the and strictly.
temperature difference between the surface of the ocean
and at depths of around 1000 m is called ocean thermal Choice of Material for Heat Exchangers. For an OTEC
energy conversion (OTEC) and is again a nonpolluting plant, the heat exchanger material should have corrosion
renewable energy source. It is capital intensive, but resistance to seawater and compatibility with working
Ammonia Turbine 4 stage

vapor axial flow at 3000rpm
Mist 1250 k VA, 1500 rpm

0.90 X
separator ∼
24.4 T 9.80 p 7.01 p
Evaporator
0.97 X
24.6 T
Bypass 14.14 T Condenser
13 T
14.0 T
Water to the ⊆
sea
29.0 T After
condenser
2100 G 31.6 G
Liquid 14.0 T 7.0 T
AMM ammonia CW Cold water
Figure 4. Energy balance diagram pump pump from 1000 m
for 1-MW OTEC plant. depth
fluid. Materials that can be considered are aluminum, Biofouling Control. In warm seawater, any solid surface
nickel, stainless steel, and titanium. Combinations like begins to acquire a film in the form of a slime layer in a
titanium with ammonia and aluminum with propane few hours. This process is called fouling, and it affects the
are workable. heat exchanger performance when it grows within. It also
increases drag on the pipes and vessels if not cleared for
Equipment Selection extended periods of time.
Some means of regular cleaning and addition of anti-
Heat Exchangers. Heat exchangers are critical compo- foulants like chlorine are measures to be taken to reduce
nents, and the shell-tube, plate-fin, plate type of exchang- the effects.
ers need to be compared. Considering volume required,
fouling rates, heat transfer area, pressure drop, maxi- Power Transmission. For offshore plants, the power
mum working pressure, and other criteria, plate heat generated needs to be transmitted to shore and this
exchangers may have an edge over other types. requires underwater cables, which should have minimum
transmission losses, resistance to water pressure, and such
Turbine. The turbine generator system is another other characteristics. These requirements and more need
critical component of an OTEC plant, and the net power to be catered to for designing an OTEC plant.
production depends on the turbine efficiency. Axial flow The most complex part of setting up a floating OTEC
turbines give better adiabatic efficiency compared with plant offshore is the deployment of the long cold water pipe
radial flow turbines. and its connection to the barge. A HDPE pipe is buoyant,
and it floats easily when towed on the surface. However,
Sea Water Pumps. Seawater pumps for the warm and the lowering and the upending of the pipe requires several
cold seawater consume about 30–40% of the gross power craft and tugs with cranes and other handling equipment.
produced by the plant. The choice of material and The mooring system should be designed well for operating
characteristics to suit large discharge and low head should as well as for storm conditions.
be considered for the selection.
Case Study: The Indian 1-MW OTEC Plant
Cold Water Pipe Material. The cold water pipe is usually
around 1 km long and is subjected to varying hydrostatic The National Institute of Ocean Technology is currently in
pressures, temperatures, and forces caused by current the process of installing a floating barge-mounted OTEC
drag and waves. In addition to the conventional steel pipes, plant off the Southern coast of India of gross rating 1 MW.
other materials that can be considered are concrete, high- A 1-km-long pipe made of high-density polyethylene will
density polyethylene (HDPE), glass reinforced plastics draw the cold water. The heat exchangers are of plate type
(GRP), and so on. HDPE has some additional advantages and made of titanium. The turbine is a 1-MW ammonia
in that it is buoyant and can float in water, which helps turbine designed and fabricated for the first time. The
during towing and installation. working fluid is ammonia, and the Rankine cycle is being
used. The power plant is housed on a non-self-propelled
barge, which needs to be moored in 1000-m water depth.
Other Criteria to be Considered
The configuration of the pipe/mooring system is shown in
Station Keeping Systems. For floating OTEC plants, Fig. 5.
either the platform should be self-propelled or moored The motions of the barge under the environmental
offshore. Design of the mooring depends on various forces caused by wind, wave, and current affect the pipe
environmental factors and the life expectancy of the plant. and mooring behavior. Several analyses have been carried
ESTUARIAN WATERS 49
Surface
buoy
Short pendant
(4″ chain 6 m long)
0
Penta plate
f1000 Ball joint 4″ Chain 5 m long
Bracket
Buoyancy chamber Triplate
20 Hold fast assembly Swivel
f1000 Hdpe pipa × 850 m long

f48mm × 2600 m
Ocean depth (meters)
Steel wire mooring rope

300
2.5° Chaln 5 m long

2 Nos
Acoustic release
Tetra plate
2.5″ Chain 3 m long × 3 nos. Swivel
50 TGlumb
900
3″ Chain 55 m long 12.5 T Glump
Sea bed Figure 5. Pipe mooring configuration for

1-MW OTEC plant.
out to study the behavior of the system and arrive at BIBLIOGRAPHY

the final design. The barge was specially designed for
the OTEC plant, and some special features have been 1. Shaw, R. (1982). Wave Energy a Design Challenge. Ellis
introduced in it, such as: Horwood Publishers, New York.
2. Available: http://europa.eu.int/comm/energy transport/atlas/
htmlu/tidalintro.html.
• A large 14-m-high retractable sump supporting the
3. Available: http://ririessortment.com/tidal energy-rdrx.htm.
cold water pumps to meet the pump net positive
4. Avery, W.H. (1994). Renewable Energy from the Ocean. Oxford
suction head (NPSH) requirements.
University Press, Oxford, UK.
• A quick-release mechanism to disconnect the mooring
from the barge.
• A quick-release mechanism to disconnect the cold ESTUARIAN WATERS
water pipe.
PRIYANKA K. DISSANAYAKE
Moratuwa, Sri Lanka
When commissioned, this will be the first megawatt-rating
floating OTEC plant in the world.
IMPORTANCE OF ESTUARIES
CONCLUSIONS
Estuaries are in many ways the most complicated and
variable of aquatic ecosystems. An estuary is a place where
Harnessing ocean energies in the various forms described salt water from an ocean mixes with freshwater from
in this article is challenging and needs several engineering the land and creates a unique and special environment
and technological innovations. Most methods are still in which marine species live, feed, and reproduce.
under study. However, with a focus toward overcoming Estuaries and intertidal regions are naturally exposed
the engineering complexities, a day will dawn when to stressful conditions.
these renewable sources of energy will be harnessed An estuary and its immediate catchments form a
and will replace the fossil fuels. The oceans are vast complex system of ecological, physical, chemical, and
storehouses of energy, and man’s endeavors and ingenuity social processes that interact in a highly involved and,
will capture these ocean energy forms in such a way as to at times, unexpected fashion. Estuaries are the end point
be environment friendly and convert energy-starved areas for the detrimental effects of many upstream catchment
in the world to areas self-sufficient in energy. activities. Materials carried from the land by rivers vary
in quality and quantity, sometimes with strong seasonal
Acknowledgment patterns of high biological significance. Tidal oscillations
The author expresses her gratitude to Ms. Sharmila N and Ms. cause vigorous reversals of flow. Inherent hydrographic
Sri Lakshmi I of the National Institute of Ocean Technology, patterns can lead to accumulation of materials and
for helping with information gathering and word processing of to upstream transport from the point of addition. The
this work. estuaries as recipients of wastes from rivers entering them
50 ESTUARIAN WATERS
and cities and industries along their shores are obviously and reaches a concentration of zero at the estuary mouth.
more immediately susceptible to pollution damage than The estuary contains only saltwater and freshwater, so
any other part of the marine system. Increased loads of the saltwater fraction and the freshwater fraction always
nutrients and sediments from activities in the surrounding add up to 1 locally, which means that f + s = 1.
catchments are the two key threats to marine and Not all pollutants are introduced into the estuary
estuarine water quality. through the river or from the ocean. There are three
Estuaries are often used as disposal sites for unwanted classes of marine pollutants. Conservative pollutants are
biological or industrial products, usually referred to as substances that are inert in the marine environment;
waste. If such waste enters the estuarine ecosystem their concentrations change only as a result of turbulent
and is potentially harmful to life or has potentially diffusion. (Salt and freshwater can be considered such
detrimental effects on its health it is usually called a substances.) Nonconservative pollutants undergo natural
pollutant. decay; their concentration depends on turbulent diffusion
The usual way of controlling negative impacts of and also on the time elapsed since their introduction
pollutant dispersal in estuaries is by monitoring its into the environment. The concentration of coupled
concentration in the water and making sure that the nonconservative pollutants depends on turbulent diffusion
concentration does not exceed a certain level above which and natural decay, both of which act to decrease their
the pollutant is considered harmful. This problem consists concentration, and on the availability of other substances
of two parts, the near field and the far field. The near field in the environment, which allow the concentration to
problem considers technical details of pollutant outfall increase over time.
design and ways to inject the pollutant into the estuary
from a point source so that its concentration is reduced Conservative Pollutants
as rapidly as possible. This is an engineering task,
A conservative pollutant released at a point between
and therefore, the near field problem is not considered
the inner end and the mouth of the estuary spreads by
in oceanography. The far field problem studies the
turbulent diffusion in both directions, downstream and
distribution of the pollutant through the entire estuary,
upstream. Its diffusive behavior is no different from the
starting from the disposal site not as a point source but
diffusive behavior of salt or freshwater. In the upstream
as an extended source of uniform concentration across
direction, it diffuses in the same way as the salt water
the estuary depth and width. The far field problem thus
diffuses upstream; in the downstream direction, it follows
assumes that the engineering design of the pollutant
the freshwater diffusion. If its concentration at the outlet
outfall achieves reasonably uniform distribution over a
is cout , its concentration C in the estuary upstream from
sizeable section of the estuary and uses this situation as
the release point is thus proportional to the salt fraction;
the starting point for the analysis.
downstream from the release point, it is proportional to
the freshwater fraction:
PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROCESSES IN ESTUARIES
Upstream: C = cout (S/Sout )
If the concentration of a pollutant where it is introduced
Downstream: C = cout (f /fout )
into the estuary is known, its distribution through the
estuary can be predicted from theoretical considerations.
Here, Sout is the vertically averaged salinity at the
To understand how this is done, it is useful to begin with
outlet location, and fout is the freshwater fraction at
a look at the distribution of salt and freshwater in the
the outlet. This shows that it is possible to predict the
estuary. Let us consider salt as a ‘‘pollutant’’ and follow
distribution of a pollutant in the entire estuary if the
its path through the estuary. Its source is at the estuary
salinity distribution is known. The equation assumes
mouth, where its concentration is given by the oceanic
steady-state conditions, continuous release of the pollutant
salinity S0 . The salt enters the estuary with the net water
at the constant concentration cout .
movement of the lower layer. As it moves up the estuary,
its concentration decreases through turbulent diffusion; in
Nonconservative Pollutants
other words, the salt ‘‘pollutant’’ is diluted with freshwater
that comes down from the river. We can normalize the salt The concentration of nonconservative pollutants decreases
‘‘pollutant’’ distribution along the estuary by making it even in the absence of diffusion, through either biochem-
independent of its original ‘‘concentration’’ S0 and define ical or geochemical reaction. An example is the concen-
the salt–water fraction s as s = S/S0 , where S is the local tration of coliform bacteria released from a sewage outlet.
depth averaged salinity at any arbitrary location in the The relationship between the concentration C of such a
estuary. This normalized salt concentration or saltwater pollutant, the salinity S, and the fresh water fraction f is
fraction decreases from 1 at the mouth to 0 at the inner not as straightforward as for conservative pollutants, but
end of the estuary. concentration levels are always lower than those derived
Similarly, we can consider the freshwater introduced by from the conservative case.
the river as a ‘‘pollutant’’ and follow its path through the The concentration can be estimated by subdividing
estuary. Its source is at the inner end of the estuary, where the estuary into compartments. If the compartments are
its normalized concentration or freshwater fraction f is chosen so that the ratio r of the freshwater volume Vf
equal to 1. The freshwater then moves down through the in the compartment and the volume of freshwater R
estuary with the net water movement in the upper layer introduced by the river into the estuary in one tidal cycle
ESTUARIAN WATERS 51
is constant (r = Vf /R = constant), it can be shown that give rise to an increase in the concentration of another
the concentration of a nonconservative pollutant can be substance, which in turn may produce a third substance
approximated by an equation for the concentration in each as a result of its own decay, and so on. Whether this
compartment: chain of events constitutes pollution or not depends on
n+1−p the degree of harmfulness of each substance. Ammonium
S r nitrogen, for example, is used as a fertilizer on land. Under
Upstream: Cp = Cout
Sout1 − (1 − r)e−kT natural conditions, it converts to nitrate (Fig. 2), which is
p+1−n also a nutrient.
f r
Downstream: Cp = Cout The introduction of nutrients into the marine envi-
fout 1 − (1 − r)e−kT ronment does not automatically constitute pollution. But
when nitrate and other nutrients are again mineralized
In this equation, compartments are numbered from
in seawater, this process requires oxygen, which is not in
the inner end of the estuary, n is the compartment
unlimited supply in the ocean. Too much nutrient can lead
containing the outfall, and p is the compartment where
to such a reduction of oxygen levels that the lack of oxygen
the concentration is evaluated. T is the tidal period, and
can become a threat to marine life.
k is the decay constant for the pollutant. The larger k,
The indicators of nutrients and sediments are influ-
the faster the decrease of the concentration over time.
enced by human activities from both diffuse inputs
k = 0 represents the case where there is no independent
(urbanization and agriculture) and point discharges to the
decrease without diffusion, or the case of a conservative
environment. The recommended indicators need to be bio-
pollutant. Figure 1 compares this behavior with that of a
logically meaningful, yet readily collected and interpreted
conservative pollutant. Note that for k = 0, the equation
in relation to ecological conditions.
for the concentration reduces to
Upstream: C = cuot (S/Sout ) ROLE OF NUTRIENTS IN ESTUARIES

Downstream: C = cout (f /fout )
Nutrient Status
which is the same equation that was derived for the
Six indicators of nutrients are recommended for assessing
conservative pollutant.
the status of marine and estuarine waters: dissolved
Coupled Nonconservative Pollutants inorganic nitrogen (DIN), total nitrogen (TN), dissolved
inorganic phosphorous (DIP), total phosphorous (TP),
Biochemical or geochemical processes reduce the concen- chlorophyll a (Chl a), and dissolved oxygen (DO).
tration of a nonconservative pollutant, and they often also Individual indicators have their own limitations, but when
all six are used together, they provide a strong indication
of nutrient status.
1
1. DIN. DIN is the combined concentration of nitrate,

0.8 r = 0.2
nitrite, and ammonia. DIN is the bioavailable
fraction of the nitrogen in the water column.
0.6
2. TN. DIN may rapidly disappear as algae assimilate
it, and so TN provides a better indication of the
0.4 nitrogen cycling through the algal community and
0.005 how much is dissolved in the water. TN is the sum
0.2 0.1 of the concentrations of bioavailable (dissolved) and
0.2 particulate forms of inorganic and organic nitrogen.
0.4
0
0 5 10 15 20
1 Nitrogen
0.8 k = 0.01
Nitrate
Concentration
nitrogen
0.6
0.4
0.1 Ammonia
0.2 2 nitrogen
3
4
0 Nitrite nitrogen
0 5 10 15 20
Time
Figure 1. Behavior of conservative and nonconservative pollu-
tants. Figure 2. Behavior of a coupled nonconservative pollutant.
52 ESTUARIAN WATERS
3. DIP. DIP is typically measured as the concen- with high levels of nitrogen, algal blooms occur. Systems
tration of reactive orthophosphates, which is the may be phosphorous limited, however, or become so when
form of phosphorous most readily bioavailable to nitrogen concentrations are high and N:P>20:1(1). In such
aquatic plants. cases, excess phosphorous triggers eutrophic conditions.
4. TP. Like DIN, algae may rapidly assimilate DIP and For optimum alagal growth, the N:P ratio should be in the
so TP provides a better indication of the phosphorous range of 16–20:1(1). Increased reliance on the N:P ratio as
cycling through the algal community and how much a management tool is widely accepted by marine scientists
is dissolved in the water. TP is the sum of the and engineers to control nuisance algal blooms.
concentrations of dissolved and particulate forms of Another limitation on using N:P ratios is the consid-
inorganic and organic phosphorous. erable uncertainty over what measure of nitrogen and
phosphorous should be used in calculating the N:P ratio.
5. Chl a. Chl a is a crude measure of phytoplankton
The ratio of TN:TP generally overestimates the algal avail-
biomass. Apart from light, phytoplankton are
able nitrogen to algal available phosphorous ratio aN:
primarily limited by nutrient availability; Chl a is
aP because organic phosphorous is more readily avail-
often used as an integrated, surrogate measure of
able than organic nitrogen and DIN:DRP underestimates
nutrient status.
aN:aP because DRP includes some organic phosphorous
6. DO. DO, measured preferably as percent saturation compounds in addition to orthophosphates (1). Therefore,
(%), is the net balance of the amount of oxygen the ratio of DIN:DIP gives a better estimate of the N:P
produced by photosynthesis, relative to that con- ratio (1).
sumed by respiration and other forms of biological The recommended levels of total phosphorous in
and chemical oxygen demand. Low DO (hypoxia) can estuaries and coastal ecosystems to avoid algal blooms
arise following blooms of phytoplankton stimulated is 0.01–0.10 mg/l and 0.1–1 mg/l nitrogen (a 10:1 ratio of
by nutrient enrichment. As the large mass of plant N:P) (1). It is recommended that total phosphorous levels
tissue decays, DO is lowered in the water column, in waterbodies should range within −0.005–0.15 mg/L to
and this can result in fish kills and nutrient inputs prevent eutrophication in estuarine waters; guidelines for
from the sediments. protecting aquatic ecosystems recommend that phosphate
values should not exceed 0.015 mg/L in estuaries (1).
Nutrients That Are Limiting Factors for Estuarine ANZECC guidelines recommend the following concen-
Phytoplankton tration ranges to protect aquatic ecosystems: total N range
A limiting nutrient is a nutrient or trace element that from 0.01–0.10 mg/L for estuaries and 0.01–0.06 mg/L
is essential for phytoplankton to grow but is available for coastal waters. The nitrate value should not exceed
in quantities smaller than required by the plants or 0.1 mg/L for estuaries (1).
algae to increase in abundance. Therefore, if more of
a limiting nutrient is added to an aquatic ecosystem, Regeneration of Nutrients (cycling)
larger algal populations develop until nutrient limitation Nitrogen Cycle in An Estuary (Fig. 3)
or another environmental factor (e.g., light or water
temperature) curtails production, although at a higher Phosphorous Cycle in An Estuary
threshold than previously.
Organic P → Inorganic P → Organic P
It is often said that nitrogen is the limiting nutrient
in marine and coastal waters; however, the general
assumption is often incorrect (1). Phosphorous, silica, and BUDGETARY MODELS FOR ESTUARIES
iron can also limit production in marine and coastal
waters, and different trophic groups within the same In science, models are tools that help us conceptualize,
ecosystem can be limited by different elements and integrate, and generalize knowledge. ‘‘Budget models’’ are
nutrients (1). simple mass balance calculations of specific variables (such
as water, salt, nitrogen, phosphorous, etc.) within defined
Redfield Ratios. The recommended ratios of nutrients in geographic areas and defined periods.
estuaries are given by Redfield ratios, which are C:N:P = The fluxes of materials to and from a system may
106:16:1 for algae and Si:N:P = 20:106:16:1 for diatoms (1). be budgeted by many different procedures, but there are
Recently, Harris has suggested that a C:N:P ratio of inherent similarities among these procedures. A budget
166:20:1 is probably more representative of the average describes the rate of material delivery to the system
phytoplankton composition (1). However, a review of the (‘inputs’’), the rate of material removal from the system
literature by Hecky and Kilham showed that the optimum (‘‘outputs’’), and the rate of change of material mass within
N:P ratios for 14 freshwater and marine phytoplankton, the system (‘‘storage’’). Some materials may undergo
for which data were available, ranged from 7–87 (1). internal transformations. Such changes are sometimes
If the concentration of Si or N relative to P falls below referred to as ‘‘internal sources and sinks.’’ Figure 4
these ratios (N:P<16:1, Si:P<20:1, these may be limiting depicts the budget for any material.
nutrients (carbon is never limiting because it is available Without further interpretation, budgets do not provide
as a gas (CO2 ); carbon in organic matter comes from information on the processes, which account for the
dissolved CO2 in water. The nitrogen levels control the summed sources minus sinks (2). Some inferences about
rate of primary production. If the system is provided the actual processes can be drawn by comparisons among
ESTUARIAN WATERS 53
that the discussion to follow is based on the Y’s for C, N,

Atmosphere
and P, as derived from nutrient budgets. The following is
External loads generally computed using the Y’s.
Diatomaceous
(catchment and
organic matter
N2 C:N:P = 106:16:1 NH3
sewage inputs) • Net ecosystem metabolism, that is, the difference
(gas) between primary production and respiration
Seawater
• Net nitrogen fixation minus denitrification
O2 Nitrification
C106N16P NO3 Sediment • Net sulfate reduction
irrigation
&
• Net CaCO3 precipitation
C106N16P Denitrification Mixing • Net CO2 gas flux across the air–sea interface.
Dissimilatory
C106N16P NH3 NONCONSERVATIVE DISSOLVED INORGANIC P AND N
nitrate reduction
to ammonia FLUXES IN NEGOMBO ESTUARY, SRI LANKA, USING THE
C106N16P NH3 Anoxic STANDARD LAND–OCEAN INTERACTION IN THE
Sulfate reduction sediment
COASTAL ZONE (LOICZ) METHODOLOGY (3)
Burial 33-1/40
The Negombo estuary (7◦ 4 –7◦ 12 N: 79◦ 47 –79◦ 51
Figure 3. Nitrogen cycle in an estuary. E) is situated on the west coast of Sri Lanka. The
estuary receives water from the Attanagalu Oya (ja-Ela
and Dandugam Oya) drainage basin and is a dominant
morphological feature of the watershed. The brackish
water area is 3239 ha and is considered the estuarine part
of the contiguous wetland system of the Muthurajawela
Marsh Negombo Estuary. The main freshwater source,
Σ (outputs) system Σ (inputs)
Attanagalu Oya, empties at Ja-Ela and Dandugam Oya
storage
at the southern tip of the estuary. In addition, the
Hamilton canal is the connecting watercourse of the Kelani
Estuary and the Negombo Estuary running parallel to
Σ (Internal sources, sinks) the west coast from the north to the south along the
Muthurajawela Marsh.
LOICZ, a one-box, one-layer model was used for this
study, and the data available are applied on a seasonal
basis (dry and wet). The data used are mentioned below
Material budget and are the averages for dry and wet seasons:
Figure 4. Budget for any material. 1. river discharge

2. precipitation
3. evaporation
budgets for different materials. This approach is referred
4. average salinity outside the system, within the
to as ‘‘stoichiometric analysis’’ of the fluxes.
system, and in the river discharge
It is also useful to describe such a budget in terms of
this simple equation: 5. dissolved inorganic phosphate (DIP) outside the
system, within the system, and in the river discharge
dM 6. dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) outside the
= inputs − outputs + (sources − sin ks)
dt system, within the system, and in the river discharge
where dM/dt represents the change in mass of any The nonconservative DIN and DIP fluxes are given
particular material in the system with respect to time (2). in (Table 1).
In broad summary, water and salt budgets are used

to estimate water exchange in coastal systems. Nutrient C
budgets (as a minimum, dissolved inorganic phosphorus [p − r] = −DIP ×
P part
and dissolved inorganic nitrogen) are also developed,
and departure of the nutrient budgets from conservative nfix − denit = Nobs − Nexp
behavior is a measure of net system biogeochemical fluxes.
nfix − denit = N − P × (N : P)part
Stoichiometric Analysis of Fluxes
The system is an internal source for DIP and an internal
In chemistry, ‘‘stoichiometry’’ is the study of the combi- sink for DIN in both the wet and dry seasons. In the
nation of elements in chemical reactions. Therefore, we dry season, the N:P ratio is less than the Redfield ratio
use the term ‘‘stoichiometric analysis’’ to describe this of 16:1; therefore, the estuary is N limiting. In the wet
approach to budgetary analysis. It should be kept in mind season, the N:P ratio is greater than the Redfield ratio
54 ESTUARIAN WATERS
Table 1. Nonconservative Dissolved Inorganic P and N shallower, so benthic processes that interact with
Fluxes in Negombo Estuary (Sri Lanka) Considering a denitrification such as benthic productivity are more
one–box, one Layer Systema important, and
Dry Season Wet season episodically driven resulting in differences in the
Rate, Rate, quality, timing, and delivery rates of carbon inputs
Process (mmolm−2 d−1 ) (mmolm−2 d−1 ) to the sediments.
Area 32.39 km2 32.39 km2
DDIP +0.052 +0.008 WATER QUALITY GOALS
DDIN −0.104 −0.837
DIN:DIP 13 18
Stoichiometric Analysis In developing an effective strategy for mitigating the
(nfix-denit)phytoplanktonb −0.936 −0.965 effects of nutrient overenrichment, one must understand
(p-r) phytoplanktonc −5.512 −0.848 the physical and ecological relationships that determine
(nfix-denit)sea grassb −1.664 −1.077 the extent and causes of nutrient overenrichment, along
(p-r)sea grassc −28.6 −4.4 with societal objectives and behavioral responses. Societal
nfix-denit)mangroveb −0.676 −0.925 objectives determine goals that a management strategy
(p-r)mangrovec −67.6 −10.4 strives to achieve and is the bench mark against which it
a
Reference (3). is evaluated.
b
(N:P)part assumed to be 16 (plankton), 11(mangrove), and 30 (sea grass). The appropriate set of policies for any given estuary
c
(C:P)part assumed to be 106(plankton), 1300 (mangrove), and 550 depends on the nutrient sources for that estuary. For
(sea grass). example, if the main nutrient source is agriculture,
a set of policies designed to promote the adoption of
best management practices is required. These can be
implemented at the local, regional, or national level.
of 16:1 but less than 20:1; therefore, the estuary has Alternatively, if atmospheric deposition is the main source
optimum nutrient concentrations, which support optimum of nutrients, policies that reduce atmospheric emissions of
phytoplankton growth. nitrogen are needed. The source of atmospheric nitrogen
The DDIP>0 in both seasons. This system with is often outside the local jurisdiction governing the
DDIP>0 is producing DIC via net respiration (p − r) and estuary, so policies to combat this nutrient source must be
is heterotrophic. The negative signs of (p − r) calculated implemented at the regional or national level.
for phytoplankton, sea grass, and mangrove support this
assumption if phytoplankton, sea grass, and mangrove Establishing Criteria and Standards
dominate the input of organic matter from outside the
system respectively. The (nfix−denit) is negative for phy- A water quality criterion is that concentration, quality,
toplankton as well as for sea grass and mangroves, indicat- or intensive measure that, if achieved or maintained,
ing that denitrification is the main process taking place. allows or makes possible a specific water use. Water
The denitrificate rates are in the range of −0.676 to −1.664 quality criteria are often the starting point in deriving
for the dry season and −0.925 to −1.077 in the wet season. standards, but criteria do not have a direct regulatory
Nitrogen is typically the nutrient that controls impact because they relate to the effect of pollution
primary production in marine coastal ecosystems and, rather than its causes. A water quality standard is the
as such, is commonly implicated in the eutrophication translation of a water quality criterion into a legally
of coastal waters. Denitrification is probably the most enforceable ambient concentration, mass discharge, or
important nitrogen cycling pathway because it is one effluent limitation expressed as a definite rule, measure, or
of the few natural processes that can counteract limit for a particular water quality parameter. A standard
eutrophication. Up to 60 to 80% of the external nitrogen may or may not be based on a criterion.
load delivered to coastal ecosystems may be lost to Traditionally, water quality standards have been abso-
coupled sediment nitrification–denitrification. Despite its lute numbers as a concentration or discharge of a toxic
importance, sediment denitrification has rarely been substance that may not be exceeded or an oxygen concen-
measured in Sri Lankan coastal ecosystems. tration that must be maintained. However, water quality
Worldwide denitrification studies in tropical and in a given waterbody can fluctuate as a result of random
subtropical estuaries where N2 fluxes have been directly factors, such as weather and uncertainties in hydro-
measured are also rare; most work has been carried out in logic processes. Eutrophication impacts include increased
temperate West European and North American systems. primary productivity; increased phytoplankton biomass;
There are distinct biogeochemical differences between reduction in water clarity; increased incidents of low oxy-
tropical/subtropical and temperate estuaries. Differences gen; changes in trophic structure, trophic interactions, and
in tropical/subtropical estuaries most likely to influence trophodynamics of phytoplankton, zooplankton, and ben-
denitrification rates include thic communities; damage to coral reefs; fish kills; reduced
fisheries production; and decreased biotic diversity.
In general, the public must accept the need for improved
generally low water column nitrogen concentrations, receiving water quality and prevention measures. If
different temperature and light regimes, the public does not perceive a problem, it is unlikely
differences in benthic infauna, that elected officials will pursue this issue or that
NOS/NMFS COOPERATIVE RESEARCH ON COASTAL FISHERIES AND HABITATS AT THE BEAUFORT LABORATORY 55
agency staff will have the resources or authority to is to better understand the linkages between biological
implement solutions. and physical oceanographic processes and fish population
When setting up water quality standards, many other distribution, abundance and dynamics.
factors must also be considered (4) Recently, the Laboratory has been involved in the South
Atlantic Bight Recruitment Experiment (SABRE), the pur-
• Are damages subject to threshold effects or are pose of which is to understand the effect of environmental
they continuous? variation on young menhaden survival, and ultimately,
• During which season are impacts the greatest? recruitment to the fishery. Employees have conducted egg
• Are sudden discharges controlled? and larval investigations on the continental shelf, have
• What are the flushing and mixing conditions in studied ingressing larvae at inlets, and have examined
the estuary? juveniles in estuarine nursery habitats. Coupling field
• What timescales are involved? observations, behavioral models and physical models has
provided insights into the role that physical transport
BIBLIOGRAPHY plays in controlling larval supply to inlets.
Current research in fisheries oceanography ranges
1. ANZECC/ARMCANZ. (October 2000). Australian and New from the effect of Langmuir circulation on plankton
Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality. Avail- distributions, to the exchange of larval fishes across the
able: http://www.ea.gov.au/water/quality/nwqms/#quality. Cape Hatteras zoogeographic boundary, to the role of
2. Gorden, D.C., Jr., Bondrean, P.R., Mann, K.H., Ong, J.E., the Charleston Bump as essential spawning and nursery
Silnert, W.L., Smith, S.V., Wattayakern, G., Wulff, F., and habitat. The scales studied range from meters to hundreds
Yangi, T. (1996). LOICZ Biogeochemical Modelling Guidelines. of kilometers and from hours to decades, thereby allowing
LOICZ/R & S/95-5, vit p. 96 LOICZ, Texel, the Netherlands. Laboratory researchers to link processes-oriented work
3. Dissanayake, U.A.P.K. (2003). Strategies for the Improved with studies examining annual and decadal variation in
Management of the Coastal Zone of Sri Lanka. M.Sc. fish populations.
Thesis Environmental Management, University of Moratuwa,
Sri Lanka.
4. Committee on the Causes and Management of Eutrophication. HARMFUL ALGAL BLOOMS
(2000). Ocean Studies Board, Water Science and Technology
Board, National Research Council. Clean Coastal Waters: Laboratory employees have been studying the ‘‘red tide’’
Understanding and Reducing the Effects of Nutrient Pollution. dinoflagellate, Gymnodinium breve, since a bloom in
National Academy Press, Washington, DC. coastal North Carolina waters in 1987 caused both fish
kills and shellfish closures. The source of G. breve cells is
the shelf off the west coast of Florida, where blooms have
NOS/NMFS COOPERATIVE RESEARCH ON occurred in 21 of the last 22 years. Local eddy circulation in
COASTAL FISHERIES AND HABITATS AT THE the northeastern Gulf of Mexico and in the vicinity of the
BEAUFORT LABORATORY Dry Tortugas affects the retention and coastal distribution
of blooms on the western Florida shelf as well as influences
JON HARE the entrainment of cells into the Loop Current-Florida
NOAA Center for Coastal Current-Gulf Stream systems. All blooms off the Florida
Fisheries and Habitat Research Keys and in the South Atlantic Bight can be traced to
the inoculation of shelf water with Gulf Stream water, as
EARLY LIFE HISTORY OF FISHES well as the proper physical conditions that support blooms.
Monitoring and research of G. breve is continuing, as is
Laboratory researchers have studied fish early life history work with other species that potentially cause harmful
since the early 1900’s. Work is conducted on egg, larval algal blooms.
and juvenile stages of species ranging from anadromous The Laboratory’s remote sensing capabilities contribute
shad to highly migratory tuna and billfishes. Topics of to the study of harmful algal blooms. The Laboratory
study include taxonomy, distribution, growth, predation, serves as the Southeast Node of NOAA’s CoastWatch
physical transport, behavior and stock identification. program and researchers at the Laboratory are involved
Research on early life history stages at the Laboratory in the development of regional ocean color algorithms for
is supported by a fish rearing facility. A variety of species the SeaWIFS satellite.
have been reared ranging from summer flounder, to black
sea bass, to spotted sea trout. Fish from this facility are
FLORIDA BAY-EVERGLADES NATIONAL PARK
used in ecological, physiological, and behavioral studies.
Laboratory scientists initiated fisheries and habitat
FISHERIES OCEANOGRAPHY research in Florida Bay and adjacent waters in 1983. Past
research has examined a variety of topics including larval
Laboratory staff have been active in fisheries oceanog- fish distributions, ecology of juvenile spotted seatrout and
raphy since the late-1970’s. The goal of this research gray snapper, evaluation of habitat use by juvenile fishes
and invertebrates, nutrient limitation of seagrass growth
This article is a US Government work and, as such, is in the and responses of both plant and animal communities to
public domain in the United States of America. the die-off of seagrasses first identified in 1987.
56 NOS/NMFS COOPERATIVE RESEARCH ON COASTAL FISHERIES AND HABITATS AT THE BEAUFORT LABORATORY
Building on this past work, investigators at the since the 1960’s. In 1996, catch of both species totaled 1.8
Laboratory are conducting laboratory and field research million pounds and was valued at $94.2 million. Research
as part of the Florida Bay Study. The overall goal of this has included studies of life history, movements, juvenile
work is to evaluate the relation between environmental abundance, and patterns in the fishery. Current efforts
and habitat change and the recruitment, growth and include examination of the environmental factors that
survivorship for fishery organisms in Florida Bay. contribute to recruitment variability and continuation of
Current research includes: examination of the influence the monitoring of fishery patterns.
of environment and habitat on larval and juvenile fish Beginning in the late 1970’s, menhaden boasts were
growth and survival; development of an individual-based asked to complete logbooks of daily purse-seine activities.
energetic model for larval spotted seatrout; evaluation For each purse-seine set, time, location, catch, and
of the effect of habitat on the distribution of fishes and weather conditions are enumerated. Approximately 6,800
invertebrates and determination of the origin of elevated forms describing 23,000 purse seine sets are collected
mercury levels in upper trophic levels. annually. Laboratory personnel also collect data on
landings, fishing effort, and size and age of catch.
SEAGRASS RESTORATION These data are used for stock assessments, are helpful
to industry personnel and are used by researchers to
Research on various aspects of seagrass ecology at the
address various scientific questions. For example, these
Laboratory has been continuous for 20 years. Areas of
data are being used to examine the effects of hypoxia
investigation have included development and dissemi-
on Gulf menhaden distribution. Preliminary analyses
nation of planting techniques monitoring protocols, and
indicate that catches during the summer of 1995 were
success criteria, as well as studies to determine the
low in hypoxic areas near shore. These data on adult fish
light requirements of seagrasses, functional equivalency
distribution allow examination of the effects of hypoxia on
of restored beds as compared to natural, undisturbed
higher tropic levels.
systems, and landscape scale studies regarding the tem-
poral dynamics of seagrass bed pattern and distribution.
Emphasis has been placed on research information trans- REEF FISH RESEARCH
fer to managers, active participation in research projects,
and litigation. The research approach has been to sus- Laboratory employees have studied reef fish off the
tain a broad-based program covering a variety of eco- southeastern United States since the late 1960’s and
logical processes which allows the scientists to quickly have addressed both applied fishery issues and basic
adapt and respond to changing management concerns reef fish ecology. The Laboratory’s Southeast Region
and issues. Headboat Survey collects fisheries and biological data
to support management activities. Approximately 165
MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH USES OF GIS vessels are monitored throughout the southeast, and in
1996, biological samples were collected from 37, 435 fishes
Laboratory employees use Geographic Information Sys- of 124 species. These data are also used to examine
tems for various research and management activities. patterns in the fishery and to study the structure and
Menhaden researchers are examining the spatial and distribution of reef fish communities.
environmental aspects of menhaden catch and marine A variety of studies of reef fish ecology have been
mammal researchers are studying the spatial interaction conducted by Laboratory employees using SCUBA. A
between fisheries and marine mammals. temporal comparison off North Carolina suggests an
As a more in depth example, researchers at the increase in reef fish diversity and abundance possibly
Laboratory are using GIS to map and to understand owing to climate change. The impact of removing
the distribution of aquatic seagrasses throughout the piscivorous predators from reef areas is also being studied.
southeastern United States. Aquatic seagrass beds are Employees are continuing to examine changes in fish
important habitat to many fish and shellfish species. assemblages on managed and unmanaged reefs at Key
Linkage with the NOAA Coastal Assessment Framework Largo and participate in annual dives to assess reef fish
associates the aquatic beds with coastal drainage basins. populations at the Grays Reef National Marine Sanctuary
Within North Carolina, the vast majority of seagrass beds off Sapelo Island, Georgia. Future research includes
are inside the barrier islands of the Pamlico-Albemarle working with fisheries and GIS data to map essential
Estuarine Complex. Distribution of seagrass beds is reef fish habitat, and studying recruitment of larval fishes
related to annual extremes of salinity but other, more- to reef habitats.
local factors are also involved. The restricted abundance
of seagrass beds along mainland shores reflects salinity
stress, water quality, and water use problems from coastal STOCK ASSESSMENT
development. These large-scale studies of seagrass are
Stock assessments are conducted by Laboratory employees
being linked with the smaller scale seagrass dynamics
for a variety of species in support of fisheries management.
studies conducted by Laboratory employees.
Stock assessments involve estimating population size-at-
MENHADEN RESEARCH age, data which are collected by laboratory employees.
From estimates of population size at age, age-specific
Scientists at the Beaufort Laboratory have been studying fishing mortality for different levels of natural mortality
Atlantic menhaden since the 1950’s and Gulf menhaden can be calculated. Information on reproduction, such as
DISTRIBUTION AND DYNAMICS OF GAS HYDRATES IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT 57
age-specific maturity and fecundity, are used to calculate from April-December and during their emigration in early
spawning potential ratios and to provide an indication winter, are vulnerable to capture in pound nets set
of the level of fishing pressure experienced by the behind barrier islands. North Carolina pound nets are
stock. The results of these assessments are provided to a passive gear that allow turtles to feed and to surface,
regional fishery management councils and commissions to breathe.
and include recommendations on how to either build Parts of the Pamlico-Albemarle Estuarine Complex
or sustain healthy fish stocks along the Atlantic and were established as a pilot index area for sea turtles
Gulf coasts. in 1995, using catch rates in pound nets as an index
Laboratory employees conduct annual stock assess- of abundance. The feasibility and methodology was
ments for Atlantic menhaden and five year assessments for established and the fishery was sampled again during
Gulf menhaden. Stock assessments are also completed for fall 1996 and 1997. The goal of this project is to establish
various reef fishes; recent assessments include red porgy, an index-abundance-area to monitor, assess, and predict
black sea bass, red snapper, vermilion snapper and scamp. the status of and impacts to sea turtles and their
Staff also conduct or provide advice on stock assessments ecosystems. The cooperation of pound net fishermen in
for other fishery species in the southeast including blue the area provides data not only on abundance, but also
crab, red drum, weakfish and wreckfish. on movement and demography of these populations. In
addition, blood samples are taken for analyses of health
status, sex, and genetics.
LINKING STOCK ASSESSMENTS WITH OCEANOGRAPHIC
AND ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES
PHRAGMITES RESEARCH
The ability to conduct stock assessment work and
process-oriented work has allowed Laboratory researchers Researchers at the Laboratory are studying the use
to further understand the processes that influence of Phragmites marsh by fish and shellfish species.
recruitment and stock abundance. For example, Gulf Throughout the eastern United States many Spartina
menhaden recruitment has been examined relative to alterniflora salt marsh systems are being altered through
Mississippi River discharge, a relation suggested by work Phragmites australis invasion. While information is
done at the Laboratory during the GOMEX project. As lacking on the use of P. australis marsh by fish
another example, Atlantic menhaden recruitment has and shellfish species, increase in spatial distribution of
been related to the ingress of menhaden larvae into Phragmites has concerned resource managers, who view
Beaufort Inlet. This time series of wintertime larval such a shift as a degradation in habitat quality. Research
ingress at Beaufort Inlet has been used by participants conducted by Laboratory staff shows no significant
in the SABRE program and data collection will continue. differences in fish abundance or biomass between tidal
P. australis and S. alterniflora marsh. Further, species
MARINE MAMMALS diversity was higher in P. australis marsh. Stable isotope
data from marsh fauna indicate that P. australis is an
The Laboratory’s research on marine mammals focuses on integral part of the estuarine food web.
their interactions with fisheries, as well as life history and
stock identification. Bottlenose dolphins are the primary MARINE CHEMISTRY
species studied. Activities include recovery of stranded
animals, live captures for tagging and data collection, The Laboratory has a long history and continues
photo-identification, and analysis of life-history samples. research in marine chemistry. Although not highlighted
Results contribute to basic biological knowledge and to here, the work bridges the gap between chemistry and
effective management and conservation. habitat and fisheries issues. Studies include metals in
As an example of some of the research conducted, the environment and their transfer through the food
dolphin 717 was freeze-branded during a live capture chain, the relation between iron and primary production,
in 1995, and has since been regularly observed in the and otolith microchemistry as an indicator of past
Beaufort area. Laboratory scientists know that she was environmental exposure.
a 3.5 year old female at the time of capture. Monitoring
continues to determine when she will have her first calf as
part of life history and recovery studies. DISTRIBUTION AND DYNAMICS OF GAS
HYDRATES IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT
SEA TURTLES
ANNE M. TREHU
Laboratory scientists continue an active program of MARTA E. TORRES
sea turtle research. Surveys conducted since 1988 have Oregon State University
underscored the importance of North Carolina’s inshore Corvallis, Oregon
waters, particularly the Pamlico-Albemarle Estuarine
Complex, to juvenile loggerhead (Caretta caretta), green
(Chelonia mydas), and Kemp’s ridley (Lepidochelys Gas hydrate is an ice-like substance that forms at low
kempii) sea turtles. Sea turtles are present in the Complex temperature and high pressure when adequate amounts
58 DISTRIBUTION AND DYNAMICS OF GAS HYDRATES IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT
Ice crystal Methane 400

molecule Ocean temperature profile
450
Top of hydrate
500 stability field
Methane
550 +
Water depth, m
Water
600 Seafloor
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of a gas hydrate molecule. 650

Base of hydrate
stability field
700
of water and low molecular weight gases, such as carbon Gas hydrate
stable Subsurface
dioxide, methane, and other hydrocarbons, are present temperature
(Fig. 1). In nature, gas hydrates containing primarily 750
gradient
methane are widespread in the Arctic and in the shallow
sediments on continental margins. Under certain geologic 800
conditions, enough methane hydrate may be present for 4 6 8 10
these deposits to represent a fossil fuel resource for the Temperature, °C
future. Concentrated deposits of gas hydrate near the
Figure 2. The temperature and pressure conditions under which
seafloor form the substratum for unique assemblages
gas hydrate is stable are constrained thermodynamically as
of microbes that are only now being discovered; these shown by the stability boundary (shown here for pure methane
microbes constitute the base of a foodweb for clams and hydrate in seawater). Hydrate is stable at low temperature and
other organisms, similar to those found at hydrothermal high pressure (which increases as water depth increases). This is
vent sites. Destabilization of gas hydrate in marine shown by the light gray field. In this example, which depicts a site
sediment may occur when artificial structures that located at 600 m depth, the water temperature profile and the
heat up the surrounding sediments are installed; this subseafloor temperature gradient are typical for the continental
may, in turn, result in catastrophic structural collapse. margin offshore Oregon. The top of the gas hydrate stability zone
Because methane is a powerful greenhouse gas, sudden here is located within the water column at 485 m. Gas hydrates
are stable in the sediments from the seafloor to a depth of 665 m,
destabilization of gas hydrate on a large scale can have
where the subsurface temperature becomes too high for methane
an impact on global climate. Indeed, past episodes of
hydrate to be stable.
climate change linked to gas hydrate destabilization have
been documented in the geologic record. For all of these
reasons, researchers in many countries are trying to better must exceed that required to stabilize the gas hydrate
understand the distribution and dynamics of gas hydrates structure. Not enough methane is present in the sediments
in the marine environment. throughout most of the ocean basins. Gas hydrate is
restricted to regions where organic material, which
NECESSARY CONDITIONS FOR FORMATION OF GAS decomposes to form methane, is unusually abundant or
HYDRATE IN NATURE where fluid flow transports gas into the gas hydrate
stability zone from greater depth. These conditions are
The temperature and pressure conditions required for met on many continental margins (Fig. 3).
gas hydrate to be chemically stable are found at the Other factors affecting gas hydrate stability are the
seafloor everywhere the water depth is greater than salinity of the pore waters and the composition of
300–500 m. (The minimum depth for gas hydrate stability the hydrate-forming gases that are present. Moreover,
decreases as the water temperature decreases.) As temperature and pressure conditions can change locally
temperature increases beneath the seafloor at a rate that as a result of focused fluid flow, tectonic activity, or the
is controlled by the regional geothermal gradient, the introduction of artificial structures. It can change globally
effect of increasing temperature will eventually overtake as a result of climatic perturbations. The distribution and
the effect of increasing pressure, and gas hydrate will no abundance of gas hydrate in the marine environment are
longer be stable (Fig. 2). This balance between increasing therefore constantly changing. New discoveries are being
pressure and temperature results in a gas hydrate stability made every year, increasing the number of verified gas
zone beneath the seafloor that ranges in thickness from hydrate sites.
a few centimeters to several hundred meters. Based on
these criteria, gas hydrate has the potential of forming ORIGIN OF THE GAS IN GAS HYDRATE
almost everywhere beneath the continental slope and
ocean basins. The gas in gas hydrate has two possible origins. Methane
Another critical condition that must be met for gas can be generated in the upper few hundred meters
hydrate to form is that the concentration of gas present by microbes (biogenic gas), or it can migrate into the
DISTRIBUTION AND DYNAMICS OF GAS HYDRATES IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT 59
Recovered onshore hydrates Recovered offshore hydrates

Inferred onshore hydrates Inferred offshore hydrates
Figure 3. Global map showing locations where gas hydrate has been identified either through
sample recovery or remote sensing. Figure courtesy of Alexei Milkov (BP America, Exploration
and Production Technology Corp).
gas hydrate stability zone at greater depth. If the

gas comes from subseafloor depths greater than about
2 km, it probably contains higher order hydrocarbon
gases such as ethane and propane and has a distinctive
carbon isotopic signature (thermogenic gas). Both sources
of gas contribute to gas hydrate formation in marine
sediments. Thermogenic gas is important in focused gas
hydrate deposits, whereas biogenic gas dominates in the
gas hydrates that are broadly distributed throughout
large regions.
REMOTE SENSING FOR SUBMARINE GAS HYDRATES
Because methane hydrate is not stable at atmospheric

pressure unless the temperature is below −60 ◦ C, gas
hydrate samples are rare. Most of the gas hydrate in a
sediment sample is probably lost because the gas hydrate Figure 4. Burning the methane that is released as a gas hydrate
decomposes as the sample is recovered. Only large chunks sample decomposes. Hands belong to Robert Collier (College
of gas hydrate survive the trip from the seafloor to of Oceanic and Atmospheric Science, Oregon State University).
the earth’s surface. Even these large chunks decompose Picture taken by one of the authors (M. Torres).
rapidly after recovery, and the methane that is released by
this decomposition can be burned, leading to the dramatic
phenomenon of ‘‘burning ice’’ (Fig. 4). Special tools are elastic properties of sediments across this boundary
required to sample and preserve natural gas hydrates for results in a distinctive seismic reflection known as the
detailed studies. bottom-simulating reflection (BSR). This reflection can
Several geochemical and geophysical techniques are be mapped over large areas of the ocean. Similarly, gas
available for indirectly identifying the presence of gas hydrates near the seafloor appear as strong reflections
hydrate in situ. One of the most widespread techniques at the seafloor, although many other geologic features
is the use of seismic reflection data to detect the also produce seafloor ‘‘bright spots.’’ Geophysical surveys
subseafloor boundary between sediments containing gas are therefore a primary tool for determining whether
hydrate and sediments that contain free gas (Fig. 5). gas hydrate is present in a ‘‘frontier’’ area. In many
These data are analogous to an echo sounding of the places, the presence of gas hydrate has been inferred
earth beneath the seafloor. A sharp contrast in the from observations of a BSR in data that were originally
60 DISTRIBUTION AND DYNAMICS OF GAS HYDRATES IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT
OBSERVATIONS OF GAS HYDRATE MOUNDS ON THE

SEAFLOOR
Mounds of gas hydrates have been directly observed at the

seafloor during submersible dives and by using deep-towed
cameras and remotely operated vehicles (ROVs). Although
many of these gas hydrate occurrences were originally
identified on seafloor imaging data, some have been found
by serendipity. For example, massive gas hydrate mounds
offshore Vancouver Island, Canada, were first discovered
when fishermen dragging for ground fish accidentally
dredged some up in their nets (Fig. 6). Because gas hydrate
is buoyant, their net rose rapidly to the sea surface when
the gas hydrate broke free from the seafloor. Someone on
board recognized that the bubbling, decomposing ‘‘ice’’ in
Figure 5. Data showing how the seafloor and subseafloor reflect the net was gas hydrate. Fortunately, no one was smoking!
high frequency sound waves. Such remote sensing strategies are Although these seafloor gas hydrate deposits may
used to survey the seafloor for the presence of gas hydrate. Bright constitute only a small percentage of the total amount of
(white) spots in the upper image indicate the presence at the gas hydrate present in marine sediments, they represent
seafloor of gas hydrate and associated carbonate. The presence
the most accessible and best studied deposits and are
of the reflection labeled BSR in the subsurface (lower image)
indicates that gas hydrate is widespread deep in the sediments,
usually accompanied by complex and as yet poorly
even though massive gas hydrate at the seafloor is restricted to understood faunal assemblages. In all cases that have
the summit of this structure. The seismic data can also be used to been studied in detail, these deposits contain a mixture of
image the subsurface plumbing system that led to development biogenic and thermogenic gas and result from geological
of the hydrate deposit. Seafloor reflectivity data were acquired structures that focus gas to the seafloor from a deep-
in 1999 by Chris Goldfinger (College of Oceanic and Atmospheric seated source. They represent gas hydrate ‘sweet spots’’
Science, Oregon State University). Seismic data were acquired by that punctuate widespread diffuse deposits inferred from
one of the authors (A. Trehu) in collaboration with Nathan Bangs seismic data.
(Institute for Geophysics, University of Texas). Vigorous expulsion of gas bubbles into the ocean is
often observed above seafloor hydrate mounds, even when
acquired to address other problems in marine geology. the mound lies within the thermodynamic gas hydrate
These reflective patterns, however, are of limited use for stability field. The gas discharge, which is often episodic,
determining how much gas hydrate is present and how provides evidence for the dynamic processes that lead
it is distributed within the sediments. Researchers are to the formation of massive hydrate near the seafloor.
developing new geophysical techniques to better quantify It is likely that these deposits are ephemeral and that
the distribution of gas hydrate from seismic and other they are subject to destruction when fluid flow patterns
remote-sensing techniques. change or when the seafloor is perturbed. It is possible that
Figure 6. A thinly sedimented mound of

gas hydrate exposed on the seafloor. White
spots around the hydrate mound are clams,
which are often associated with seafloor
methane seeps. Photo was taken in August
2002 approximately 50 km offshore Vancouver
Island during a survey by ROPOS (Remotely
Operated Platform for Ocean Science), a
Canadian research vehicle. Courtesy of Ross
Chapman (University of Victoria).
OCEANOGRAPHIC ENVIRONMENT OF GLACIER BAY 61
large blocks of gas hydrate can spontaneously break away the amount of hydrate present in the sediments using
and rise to the sea surface, transporting methane from this technique requires knowledge of the salinity of
the seafloor to the atmosphere. Long-term observations the in situpore water. This technique is limited by the
of these deposits are needed to evaluate whether they need to extract pore water from the core, which is time
represent a useable resource and whether they are an consuming and disrupts the sample for other studies.
important factor in transferring methane from the ocean Yet another technique is to measure the temperature
to the atmosphere. of cores using a scanning infrared camera. Because gas
hydrate decomposition is endothermic (takes up heat),
locations in the core where gas hydrate is decomposing
SAMPLING GAS HYDRATES THROUGH DRILLING
are up to several degrees colder than the rest of the
core. This technique can efficiently and noninvasively
More detailed information on the fine-scale distribution sample the entire core but must be calibrated through
of gas hydrate in marine sediments can be obtained by comparison with other methods. Because core recovery
drilling into the subsurface. Logging techniques permit is often incomplete, geophysical logging methods (which
measurement of geophysical and geochemical parameters measure electrical resistivity, elastic wave velocity,
throughout the entire borehole; coring allows for recovery density, and other physical parameters) are needed to
of subsurface samples. Logging and coring to study gas sample the entire borehole. Models for interpreting these
hydrates is very expensive and has only been undertaken geophysical parameters obtained through logging must
in a handful of places worldwide (Fig. 3). The Ocean
also be calibrated.
Drilling Program (ODP), an international endeavor that
enables the research community to sample up to a
few kilometers beneath the Earth’s surface to address CONCLUSION
problems of environmental change, earth history, and
mantle dynamics, has dedicated several expeditions to
study gas hydrates offshore Chile (Leg 141), the eastern Gas hydrate is widespread in shallow sediments on the
United States (Leg 164), Japan (Leg 196), and the Pacific margins of the continents and represents an important,
Northwest of the United States (Legs 146 and 204). but often overlooked, component of the global carbon cycle.
The Japanese government has recently supported several The distribution of gas hydrate is very heterogeneous.
expeditions to drill gas hydrates in the Nankai Trough While gas hydrate probably represents only ∼1–2% of
offshore Japan. New programs are being planned to the total volume of continental margin sediments that lie
sample submarine gas hydrates in the Gulf of Mexico within the gas hydrate stability zone at the present time,
and elsewhere. concentrated deposits containing 10–30% gas hydrate
These drilling projects provide critical information have been found. These generally result from geologic
needed to ‘‘ground truth’’ estimates of gas hydrate conditions that lead to focusing of gas from a large volume
abundance and distribution inferred from remote sensing in the subsurface into the gas hydrate stability zone.
techniques. One conclusion from recent experiments is The amount and distribution of gas hydrate in the
that the total amount of gas hydrate present in the globe, seafloor, however, are probably not static. Instead, they
while still huge, may be less than previously thought. More change with time in response to changes in temperature,
importantly, these projects have revealed the ‘‘patchiness’’ pressure, and fluid flow, which are, in turn, driven by
of gas hydrate distribution beneath the seafloor and tectonics (e.g., earthquakes and underwater mountain
provide information on factors, such as sediment grain building) and global climate change. Rapid release of
size, that may be controlling the heterogeneity in their methane from gas hydrate in response to changes in ocean
distribution. They also provide unique information of the temperature and depth may affect global climate.
chemistry of the gases that form the gas hydrate and on
the origin of these gases. This information is essential for
understanding how gas hydrate deposits develop. OCEANOGRAPHIC ENVIRONMENT OF
GLACIER BAY
QUANTIFYING THE AMOUNT OF GAS HYDRATE IN
BOREHOLES Alaska Biological Science
Center—U.S. Geological Survey
To estimate the amount of gas hydrate in situ, several
different types of measurements must be used because Oceanography describes one of the most fundamental
different techniques have different sensitivity and spatial physical aspects of a marine ecosystem. Glacier Bay
resolution. The only way to directly measure the amount exhibits a highly complex oceanographic regime within
of gas in a core is to maintain the in situ pressure as it a small area. An understanding of many of the resource
is recovered. This is technically difficult and can only be and research issues in Glacier Bay will not be possible
done for a limited number of samples in each drill hole. without an understanding of the underlying oceanographic
Another common technique is to measure the salinity
or chloride concentration in the pore waters. Because
salts are excluded when gas hydrate forms, the water This article is a US Government work and, as such, is in the
that is released when it decomposes is fresh. Estimating public domain in the United States of America.
62 NOS SANCTUARIES PROTECT NATION’S MARITIME HISTORY
processes causing the large spatial and annual variation nutrient enhanced system. The Bay is now known to
found within the Bay. exhibit phenomenally high primary productivity, which
The Bay is a recently (300 years ago) deglaciated fjord is sustained throughout the summer in sharp contrast to
located within Glacier Bay National Park in Southeast other interior waters of Southeast Alaska and adjoining
Alaska. Glacier Bay is a fjord estuarine system that shelf and oceanic areas. The limits on this productivity
has multiple sills. These sills are often associated appear to be caused not by grazing by zooplankton
with contractions and are backed by very deep basins or nutrient limitation, but by light penetration. Light
with tidewater glaciers and many streams. Glacier Bay penetration in Glacier Bay is significantly reduced by both
experiences a large amount of runoff, high sedimentation, sedimentation phenomena related to the young nature
and large tidal variations. Melting occurs year-round, of the terrestrial environment and to the high levels of
which is thought to fuel the estuarine circulation even the primary productivity itself. In addition to these major
through the winter. This runoff, and the presence of the changes in understanding, we have identified several new
tidewater glaciers makes the bay extremely cold. There are phenomena that will need further study to understand
many small- and large-scale mixing and upwelling zones at their nature and significance.
sills, glacial faces, and streams. The complex topography As a result of the oceanographic monitoring program
and strong currents lead to highly variable salinity, and the synthesis effort funded by the NPS there is now
temperature, sediment, productivity, light penetration, an extensive body of oceanographic and weather data
and current patterns within a small area. This complexity integrated into the Glacier Bay information management
defies simple characterization or modeling based on other system and available on CD-ROM. The Oceanographic
areas in Southeast Alaska. While several oceanographic Analyst Extension, a Geographic Information System
studies have been conducted in Glacier Bay, these studies (GIS) tool, has been created to allow viewing, analysis, and
are contradictory and were of short duration and limited manipulation of these complex data in 3 and 4 dimensions.
coverage, missing much of the spatial, seasonal and annual
variation. In addition, some assumptions based on past
studies have been contradicted by recent results. The NOS SANCTUARIES PROTECT NATION’S
constantly changing nature of the Bay may contribute to MARITIME HISTORY
contradictions among past studies and between recent and
historical results.
The primary data used in this study (see the Fjord NOAA National Ocean Service
Oceanographic Monitoring Handbook) were oceanographic
surveys consisting of samples of 24 central-channel
stations from the mouth of the bay to the heads of both Marine archaeology allows us to unravel the mysteries and
the East and West Arm taken between 1992 and 2000. riddles of shipwrecks and clarify our history. Each fragile
A oceanographic instrument (CTD) capable of recording wreck is a time capsule of our past. The remains of sunken
depth, temperature, salinity, light penetration, amount vessels and their contents provide a distinctive window
of sediment, and amount of phytoplankton was used to into the history of the ships and the lives of its passengers
obtain measurements at one-meter intervals throughout and crew. Using state-of-the-art technology, such as sonar
the water column to a depth of 300 m at each station. and remotely operated vehicles, marine archaeologists are
Surveys were conducted up to seven times a year in such now able to conduct advanced explorations and create
a manner as to encompass the primary annual variation accurate depictions of wreck sites.
in oceanographic patterns. The National Ocean Service’s National Marine Sanc-
Results from the current work indicate several shifts in tuary Program plays a pivotal role in the exploration
the dominant paradigm of oceanographic understanding and preservation of the nation’s maritime history. By
for this area. Primarily, deep-water renewal, and with it protecting oceanic treasures within a sanctuary, marine
increased nutrient availability, is not limited to the winter archaeologists are able to uncover and preserve invalu-
months but can and probably does occur regularly in the able information and artifacts. Shipwrecks discovered in
spring/summer/fall at least during spring-tide series. We the sanctuaries, such as the USS Monitor, Portland, and
believe that Glacier Bay is not a traditional silled fjord those in Thunder Bay, are essential to understanding the
estuary nor a plain fjord estuary like most estuaries in importance of maritime history.
Southeast Alaska, but a combination of a stratified deep
basin estuary and a tidally mixed estuary. This results in
USS MONITOR
a complete blockage of estuarine circulation at the mouth
of the bay; instead, mixing occurs by turbulent diffusion
Undiscovered for more than 100 years, the USS Monitor
rather than buoyancy-driven entrainment as seen in a
was found in 1973 off the coast of North Carolina by
traditional estuary. In addition, where this turbulent
scientists from Duke University using sidescan sonar
water meets the deep stratified basin, a tidally-mixed front
technology. In 1862, this famous Civil War ship’s battle
is created. This front is ideal for encouraging high primary
with the Confederate ironclad Virginia revolutionized the
productivity by phytoplankton. Mixing phenomena have
now been observed to be much more extensive in Glacier
Bay than previously thought. This, as with the increased This article is a US Government work and, as such, is in the
deep-water renewal, almost certainly results in a more public domain in the United States of America.
NOS SANCTUARIES PROTECT NATION’S MARITIME HISTORY 63
The crew on the deck of the USS Monitor. Members of the

crew were lost when the Monitor sank in 1862. Human remains The Monitor’s turret broke the surface during the summer 2002
recently were found when the newly recovered turret was expedition—the first time it had done so in 140 years
excavated last summer. (Monitor Collection, NOAA)
use state-of-the-art technology including side-scan sonar

war at sea, and marked the end of an era of wooden-hulled and remote operating vehicles for exploration. View the
sailing warships. The Monitor was the first of a class of low- side-scan sonar images of the Portland that were collected
freeboard, turreted war ships developed during the Civil last year.
War. Its revolving turret revolutionized naval warfare, Stellwagen Bank, first discovered by Captain Henry
and other features of the Monitor foreshadowed the future Stellwagen in 1854, was especially important to navigators
of naval technology. when they sailed at night or in poor weather. Mariners
The Monitor is more than an era frozen in time. Its could gauge the distance to the sea floor and, when they
dedication in 1975 as the first national marine sanctuary saw the bank, would know that they were entering the
opened the door to advances in maritime archaeology Massachusetts Bay. The wealth of sea life present in the
and historic preservation. Since its discovery, numerous area also allowed for centuries of prosperous fishing fleets
research expeditions have been conducted to study and and other economic gains.
recover the wreck. One of the most recent was in the Stellwagen Bank was designated on Nov. 4, 1992, as the
summer of 2002. With the help of a claw-like structure nation’s 11th national marine sanctuary. Stretching 842
known as the spider, the turret of the Monitor was square miles, more than 1 million people each year visit
recovered. Human remains also were found during the the sanctuary. Many of them are intent on experiencing
excavation of the turret in 2002. More than 100 artifacts an encounter with the well-known Humpback whale.
also have been retrieved from the wreck, including the
ship’s anchor, condiment bottles, dinnerware, and a
portion of leather bookbinding. These artifacts are now
part of The Monitor Collection, which is housed in The
Mariners’ Museum Research Library. More information
about the USS Monitor is available from the Monitor
National Marine Sanctuary.
PORTLAND AT STELLWAGEN BANK
The coastal steam ship Portland, which rests on the sea

floor of the Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary,
sank Nov. 27, 1898, during the infamous ‘‘Portland Gale
of 1898.’’ All 192 passengers and crew were lost. With the
help of state-of-the-art technology, the sanctuary obtained
three new side-scan sonar images of the wreck. The
images clearly show the side-by-side smoke stacks and
the diamond-shaped metal walking beam that provided
power to the side paddle wheels. The Portland has yet
to be fully explored, but another mission is scheduled
for September 2003. During this missions, scientists will A sonar image of the Portland, taken in 2002
64 QUANTIFICATION OF ANOXIA AND HYPOXIA IN WATER BODIES
10
10
10
8 10
6
6
Depth, m
6
4 2
4
12
2
2
18
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
Figure 1. Dissolved oxygen isopleths for small urban Lake
Wilcox, Ontario. The beginning of each year is indicated.
On June 30, 1906, the New Orleans was carrying coal when she
collided with the William R. Linn. Al of the crew boarded the Linn
environment, where it can occur naturally in lakes (4) or
safely before the pilothouse of he New Orleans blew off and the
not (5) and where recent increases in organic and nutrient
vessel sank. This sonar image of the wreck was taken in summer
2001 loading and changes in water flow have increased oxygen
depletion in lakes (6), reservoirs (7), and large rivers (8,9).
THUNDER BAY
OCCURRENCE OF DO DEPLETION
The Thunder Bay National Marine Sanctuary and
Underwater Preserve, dedicated on Oct. 7, 2000, is the An example isopleth (Fig. 1) for several years of DO
first freshwater and Great Lakes sanctuary. More than data for an urban lake demonstrates DO variability with
100 19th and 20th century shipwrecks rest in Thunder respect to space and time. The lake experiences severe
Bay and the surrounding waters of Lake Huron. For this anoxia in the hypolimnion because the bottom water is
reason, it has earned the nickname ‘‘Shipwreck Alley.’’ stagnant during the summer and fall. Entrainment of
Located off the coast of Alpena, Mich., Thunder Bay’s hypolimnetic anoxic water may lead to hypoxic conditions
collection of shipwrecks represents the diversity of vessels in the epilimnion in late summer. Such variation can be
that navigated the Great Lakes, from wooden schooners quantified by computing anoxic and hypoxic factors.
to steel-hulled steamers.
These preserved vessels still have stories to tell of
Great Lakes maritime history and commerce. Some of DEFINITION
the wrecks have been broken apart and washed away,
and others have recently been found and are waiting to The anoxic and hypoxic factor [AF (4), HF (10)] are
be explored. Many wrecks are yet to be discovered but calculating methods that quantify the extent and duration
likely will be found as explorations continue. For more of anoxia and hypoxia based on oxygen profiles and
information, read more about surveying Thunder Bay’s morphometric (hypsographic) information. They are based
Shipwreck Alley in June 2001. on a series of measured oxygen profiles and morphometric
data and can be computed for any water body (lake,
reservoir, river, marine area). To render this index
QUANTIFICATION OF ANOXIA AND HYPOXIA comparable across waters like other areal measures,
IN WATER BODIES for example, areal nutrient loads and fish yields, AF
is corrected for (lake) surface area by simple division.
GERTRUD K. NÜRNBERG Expressed this way, AF or HF is a ratio that represents
Freshwater Research the number of days in a year or season that a sediment
Baysville, Ontario, Canada area equal to the (lake) surface area is anoxic or
hypoxic. Hence, its units are d/yr and d/season, summer
or winter.
Hypoxic conditions (dissolved oxygen, DO, concentration The exact steps in computing the specific factors are
below saturation) are widely spread in freshwater described in Fig. 2. The difference between the HF and the
and saline environments. Especially in recent years, AF lies in the different threshold DO concentration used.
anthropogenic impacts have led to severe increases in The AF is based on the oxycline depth or its approximation;
estuarine and coastal anoxia [e.g., Gulf of Mexico (1) and the HF is based on a certain threshold that indicates the
European coast-lines (2)]. Diaz (3) describes 44 marine hypoxic conditions of choice for that particular project, for
areas of moderate to severe hypoxia worldwide. Hypoxia example, 6.5 mg/L DO. To consider the mixed layer anoxia
and anoxia (lack of oxygen or zero concentration of or hypoxia separately, epilimnetic factors (AFepi , HFepi )
DO) may even be more established in the freshwater can be computed, as defined in Fig. 2.
QUANTIFICATION OF ANOXIA AND HYPOXIA IN WATER BODIES 65
where the fall turnover date is the Julian day of the

year; T is the average July, August temperature at circa
1 m above the bottom at the deepest location of the
a1
lake (C◦ ); and z is mean depth, lake volume/lake surface
a2
a2 a3 area (m).
Seasonal Factors. The AF and HF can be determined for

Figure 2. Computation and definition of anoxic and hypoxic the stratification periods separately as winter (e.g., AFwin
factors. The sketch indicates different lake areas that become in d/winter) or summer factor (e.g., AFsum in d/summer).
anoxic sequentially with time, where a1 becomes anoxic first, When there is no winter anoxia, AFwin is zero, and AFsum
then a2 , etc. is equal to AF in d/yr.
Epilimnetic Factors. In stratified water bodies, it can

Determination of Anoxic or Hypoxic Factor
be interesting to separate hypolimnetic from epilimnetic
1. For the anoxic factor, the oxycline is determined at hypoxia, so that guidelines can be established specifically
1 or 2 mg/L dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration for the mixed zone. Therefore, epilimnetic factors (AFepi ,
from (DO) profiles. The choice of the threshold HFepi ) can be defined. These factors are determined by
values depends on the method of DO measurement. subtracting, for each period i, terms corresponding to
For example, 2 mg/L measured by a DO probe anoxia or hypoxia in the seasonal stratified area below
may actually coincide with anoxic conditions at the the thermocline (athermo i ) from those for the whole water
sediment surfaces located at that depth. column before summation, according to
For the hypoxic factor, the depth of the DO
concentration threshold in question, for example, n

t i · ai ti · athermo i
6.5 mg/L, is determined. AFepi or HFepi = −
Ao i Ao i
i=1
2. The periods (total number n), for which the DO
levels according to the chosen threshold are at
Application
approximately the same depth, are established.
3. The duration of each period of constant DO levels Internal Load Calculation. The anoxic factor was orig-
(ti , in days) is multiplied by the corresponding area inally developed to determine the internal phosphorus
(ai ) and divided by the total surface area (Aoi ) for the load in lakes as the product of anoxic areal release rates
period (i). Especially in reservoirs where volumes (experimentally determined or predicted from sediment
and therefore areas change, is it important to use phosphorus concentration) and AF according to Eq. 1 (12).
the surface area specific for the period. In water
bodies without large volume changes, the average Internal load = Release rate × AFsum (1)
surface area Ao can be used instead.
4. These n terms, numbers of periods at different where (summer) internal load is in mg TP per lake surface
oxyclines, are then added up over the season or area (m2 ) per summer, and release rate represents a
year, according to summer average in mg TP released per anoxic sediment
area per day of the anoxic summer period. If there is
t 1 · a1 t 2 · a2 t 3 · a3 t n · an t i · ai
n
phosphorus release under ice in the winter, a release rate
+ + + ··· + = representative for the winter and AFwin are substituted in
Ao1 Ao2 Ao3 Aon Aoi
i=1 Eq. 1 to estimate the winter internal load.
Therefore AF and HF are defined as follows, where
a lower DO threshold is used for AF (1 or 2 mg/L) Lake to Lake Variation. Anoxia can vary extensively
than for HF (e.g., 6.5 mg/L): between lakes. Even in geographically near areas like the
Muskoka—Haliburton region on the Precambrian shield

n
t i · ai in southern Central Ontario, the AF ranged from 0 to
AF or HF = 70 d/yr in relatively pristine lakes that were often small,
Aoi
i=1 but deep, whereas at least 50% had an AF > 10 d/yr. Lakes
in more fertile regions, such as in the St. Lawrence–Great
End of Summer Stratification. In stratified lakes, much Lakes region, had consistently high AFs between 40 and
of the oxygen depletion occurs in the fall when DO profiles 70 d/yr. Such differences in lakes and their AF indicate
may not always be available. The duration of the last the need for different management strategies (5).
period of anoxia or hypoxia can be estimated from the Quantification of anoxia by the AF has been proven
average summer hypolimnetic temperature according to useful in explaining lake to lake variation in anoxia. In
a model that predicts the fall turnover date (or end of particular, dependency of anoxia on nutrient concentration
summer stratification) from the following equation, based and morphometry was found and multiple regressions
on 92 worldwide lakes, R2 = 0.47, p < .0001 (11):
of the AF on average lake TP and TN concentrations
and a morphometric ratio were highly significant in
Log(fall turnover date) = 2.62 − 0.116 log(T)
North American lakes (4) (Table 1, Eqs. A to C). These
+ 0.042 log(z) − 0.002 latitude relationships can be used to model (or predict) the AF
Table 1. Relationships and Models Involving the Anoxic Factor (AF) that Demonstrate Between Lake Variation of Anoxia
in North American Stratified Lakesa
Equation Predicted Regression Equationb N R2 Source
A AFsum −35.4 (5.1) +44.2 (4.3) log (TPannual ) + 0.950 (0.187) z/A 0.5
73 0.65 (4)
B AFsum −36.2 (5.2) +50.1 (4.4) log (TPsummer ) + 0.762 (0.196) z/A0.5 70 0.67 (13)
C AFsum −173 (25) +72.5 (9.7) log (TNsummer ) + 0.789 (0.219) z/A0.5
o 61 0.54 unpubl. data
D AFsum −39.9 (9.7) +27.0 (4.0) log (TP-Load) 17 0.76 (4)
E Fish species number 0.97 (2.42) −1.53 (0.49) log (AFsum +1) +5.38 (1.02) log (Ao ) 52 0.51 (14)
F Fish species number 4.92 (1.38) −6.12 (1.44) log (AFwin +1)b +0.56 (0.11) z 32 0.71 (14)
G Winterkill AFwin −1 + 10(0.091 z+0.804) – – Based on Eq. F
a
AFsum , summer AF (d/summer); AFwin , winter AF (d/winter); Winterkill-AFwin , value of AFwin above which a fish winterkill is likely for a given z; z, mean
depth (m); Ao , lake surface area (km2 ); TPannual , annual water-column average TP (µg/L); TPsummer , epilimnetic summer TP (µg/L); fish species number, also
called fish species richness is based on Central Ontario lakes.
b
All regressions are highly significant at p < .001, except as noted byb , p < .01. Standard errors of the regression coefficients are given in parenthesis.
in lakes where DO data are not available or difficult 50

to obtain, as in polymictic lakes. The AF describes the o m e h
sediment surface that is overlain by anoxic water in
40
stratified lakes, so it can be hypothesized that its predicted
value resembles anoxic sediment surfaces in polymictic
lakes. Such a modeled variable is useful in determining 30
z/A0.5
internal load according to Eq. 1 for shallow lakes, where
release rates may be available but not the extent of anoxic 20
sediment areas.
10
Trophic State Classification. The concept of the anoxic
factor was used to establish limits for trophic state
0
classification with respect to anoxia (13). When classified
with respect to the trophic state, below 20 d/yr, the 0 20 40 60 80 100
AF indicates oligotrophic conditions, 20 to 40 d/yr are AF, d/summer
usually found in mesotrophic lakes, 40–60 d/yr represents Figure 3. Chart to determine the lake trophic state from the
eutrophic conditions, and above 60 d/yr is typical of anoxic factor (AF) and the morphometric variable z/A0.5
o . Observed
hypereutrophic conditions (13). A more exact measure values from 70 North American lakes are presented. The symbol
of the trophic state would include lake morphometry, size indicates the four trophic states, oligotrophy, mesotrophy,
measured as z/A0.5 , because the deeper the lake compared eutrophy, and hypereutrophy (from small to large), and lines
to its area (the larger z/A0.5 ), the larger the AF. Based on indicate the trophic state boundaries based on TPsummer in
Equation B, Table 1).
the relationship of the AF with the summer average TP
and the morphometric ratio of Eq. B in Table 1, a chart
was drawn to assist in evaluating a specific lake’s trophic
Number of coldwater fish species
state (Fig. 3). 7

Fish species richness correlated with the AF in Central 6
Ontario lakes after variability due to lake area was taken
5
into account, and winter kill could be predicted by using
a seasonal AF that quantifies anoxia under ice, and mean 4
depth (14) (Table 1). In particular, cold water species 3
including Salmonidaes, Coregonidae, and Gadidae were 2
sensitive to summer and winter anoxia, and they occurred
1
only when AFsum was below 32 d/summer or AFwin was
below 4.4 d/winter (Fig. 4). 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 5 10 15 20
Spatial Within-Lake Variability. In large and morphome- AF, d/summer AF, d/winter
trically distinct water bodies, the factors can be estimated Figure 4. Number of South Central Ontario coldwater fish
separately for different sections. For example, the AF species in relation to AFsum (left panel) and AFwin (right panel).
was quite different between the two basins in small
(77 ha) Cinder Lake, Ontario, at 12 and 40 d/summer
(4). Similarly pronounced were differences for the 100-km But the AF of the 48-km long, deep lacustrine section
long, narrow (maximum 1 km wide) reservoir, Brown- was higher, 88 d/yr on average, ranging from 72 to
lee Reservoir, on the Snake River in Idaho and Oregon 114 d/yr, because this section is stratified all summer
(15). The total reservoir had an AF of 68 d/yr on aver- long. The AF for the 52-km long, shallow riverine section
age between 1962 and 2000, ranging from 53 to 90 d/yr. was only 10 d/yr in 1999 and 14 d/yr in 2000 because
QUANTIFICATION OF ANOXIA AND HYPOXIA IN WATER BODIES 67
it is often mixed and reaerated from atmospheric oxy- good inverse relationship of the fall outflow with anoxia
gen. Epilimnetic factors were smaller than factors for and hypoxia can be expected because severe DO depletion
the whole water column, as expected. Severe anoxia in happens mostly in the summer and fall; high flow rates
this reservoir is apparent because the long-term aver- out of the dam at that time would destabilize stratification
age lacustrine AFepi was 10 d/yr, indicating that overall, in the lacustrine section, leading to decreased hypoxia.
an area in the lacustrine epilimnion equal to the lacus- On the other hand, a strong inverse correlation for spring
trine surface area is overlain by water below 2 mg/L DO inflow with hypoxia can be explained by a delay in the
for 10 days per summer. The average HFepi of 58 d/yr onset of stratification.
indicates that the Oregon state criterion of 6.5 mg/L
DO for the water column was exceeded in the lacus- Climatic Effects. The factors quantify annual trends, so
trine epilimnion for an equivalent of circa 2 months, climatic effects on DO depletion can be investigated. For
on average. example, the Pacific Northwest Index (PNI) was signifi-
cantly correlated with HF and HFepi [Fig. 6 (10)]. The PNI
Annual Variability. Year-to-year variability can be quite is a normalized index based on three terrestrial climate
large and ranged from 72 to 114 d/yr AF and 102 to variables for the western North American continent: the
215 d/yr HF in lacustrine Brownlee Reservoir between air temperature at San Juan Islands, the total precipita-
1962 and 2000, from 45 to 68 d/yr AF in a small urban tion at Cedar Lake in the Cascade Mountains, and the
lake, Lake Wilcox, between 1987 and 2000, and from 0 to snowpack depth on Mount Rainier (16).
10, 9 to 30, and 10 to 50 d/yr AF in three small glacial
lakes on the Precambrian shield [Nürnberg, unpublished Establishment of Criteria and Guidelines. The factors are
data and (4,5,10)]. particularly useful in setting DO criteria and guidelines
Although the average AF can be predicted from TP because the quantification of hypoxia is flexibly based on
and morphometry according to the equations in Table 1, individual threshold values and can be adapted to various
TP concentration cannot always explain the variability DO levels. Typically, a threshold DO concentration is set
in the AF between years, as the variation between by governmental agencies under which a water body is
annual average TP is often small. Instead, physical considered ‘‘impaired’’ and a plan to attain the guidelines,
characteristics, especially hydrology in flow-managed including the process of determining a TMDL (total
reservoirs have been found to control the residual variance maximum total load) (17), is initiated. These thresholds or
of DO depletion between years. acceptable levels vary for different water bodies, agencies,
For example, several annual and seasonal hydrologic and intended usage but can all be accommodated by
variables were significantly (p < .01) correlated with AF, various definitions of the hypoxic factor.
HF, AFepi , and HFepi in the Snake River Brownlee
Reservoir. In particular, spring (April–May), summer Additional Applications. Furthermore, AF helped to
inflow (July–Sept) (Fig. 5), and late fall (Oct–Dec) flushing compare methods to measure denitrification rates in lakes
rate or its inverse, the residence time, were strongly and determine the most appropriate one (18) and reveal
correlated with the factors, so that they were smallest the dependency of hypolimnetic anoxia in tropical African
during periods of high inflow or flushing (10). Such a reservoirs on stage height and volume (19). The anoxic
80
1992
70
Epilimnetic hypoxic factor (days/yr)
1991
1996
1994 1993
60 2000
1962
1995
1963
50
1999
40 Figure 5. Lacustrine HFepi of the
Snake River Brownlee Reservoir,
1997 versus average summer inflow
(July–Sept, computed from daily
30 average flow values in cubic feet per
00 00 0 0 0 0 0 0
60 80 00 00 00 00 00 00 second) between 1962 and 2000. The
10 12 14 16 18 20 regression line is shown for n = 11,
Jul-Sep. average inflow (cfs) p < .001, R2 = 0.72.
250
1992
200
1991
HF, days/yr
2000
1996
1995 1993
1963 1994
150
1962
1999
100 1997
1992
70 1991
Epilimnetic HF, days/yr
1996
1994
60 2000 1993
1962
1995
1963
50
1999
40
Figure 6. Lacustrine HF (top) and HFepi (bottom) 1997
of Brownlee Reservoir versus the Pacific North-
west Climate Index (PNI). Regression lines are 30
−1 0 1 2
shown for n = 11, HF: p < .05, R2 = 0.41; HFepi :
p < .02, R2 = 0.49. PNI
factor and its relationship with TP and morphometry were 5. Nürnberg, G.K. (1997). Coping with water quality problems
combined with information on fossil midge (Chironomidae) due to hypolimnetic anoxia in Central Ontario Lakes. Water
assemblages in paleolimnological studies to establish Quality Research Journal of Canada 32: 391–405.
training sets and hindcast hypolimnetic anoxia for the 6. Schertzer, W.M. and Sawchuk, A.M. (1990). Thermal struc-
past (20–22). ture of the Lower Great Lakes in a warm year: implications
for the occurrence of hypolimnion anoxia. Trans. Am. Fish.
Soc. 119: 195–209.
CONCLUSIONS
7. Gordon, J.A. (1993). Dissolved oxygen in streams and
reservoirs. Water Environ. Res. 65: 571–573.
In general it can be concluded that the quantification of
anoxia and hypoxia leads to increased knowledge of factors 8. Quinn, J.M. and McFarlane, P.N. (1989). Epilithon and
that control oxygen depletion in any freshwater and should dissolved oxygen depletion in the Manawuta River, New
be useful in estuarine and marine systems as well. Zealand: Simple models and management implications. Water
Res. 23: 825–832.
9. Chambers, P.A., Brown, S., Culp, H.M., and Lowell, R.B.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
(2000). Dissolved oxygen decline in ice-covered rivers of
northern Alberta and its effects on aquatic biota. J. Aquat.
1. Rabalais, N.N., Turner, R.E., and Wiseman, W.J. (2001).
Ecosys. Stress Recov. 8: 27–38.
Hypoxia in the Gulf of Mexico. J. Environ. Qual. 30: 320–329.
2. Johannessen, T. and Dahl, E. (1996). Declines in oxy- 10. Nürnberg, G.K. (2002). Quantification of oxygen depletion
gen concentrations along the Norwegian Skagerrak Coast, in lakes and reservoirs with the hypoxic factor. Lake and
1927–1993: A signal of ecosystem changes due to eutrophica- Reservoir Manage 18: 000–000.
tion? Limnol. Oceanogr. 41: 766–778. 11. Nürnberg, G.K. (1988). A simple model for predicting the
3. Diaz, R.J. (2001). Overview of hypoxia around the world. J. date of fall turnover in thermally stratified lakes. Limnol.
Environ. Qual. 30: 275–281. Oceanogr. 33: 1190–1195.
4. Nürnberg, G.K. (1995). Quantifying anoxia in lakes. Limnol. 12. Nürnberg, G.K. (1987). A comparison of internal phosphorus
Oceanogr. 40: 1100–1111. loads in lakes with anoxic hypolimnia: laboratory incubations
FLOATING ICE 69
versus hypolimnetic phosphorus accumulation. Limnol. a large amount of drifting sea ice that floats around the
Oceanogr. 32: 1160–1164. Beaufort Gyre.
13. Nürnberg, G.K. (1996). Trophic state of clear and colored, In Antarctica, sea ice covers from 17 to 20 million
soft- and hardwater lakes with special consideration of square kilometers in late winter, but then the seasonal
nutrients, anoxia, phytoplankton and fish. Lake and Reservoir decrease is much larger, with only about 3 to 4 million
Management 12: 432–447.
square kilometers left at the end of summer. Here, sea
14. Nürnberg, G.K. (1995). Anoxic factor, a quantitative measure ice is continually stirred by winds and ocean currents. Ice
of anoxia and fish species richness in Central Ontario lakes.
moves at an average speed of 10 to 20 kilometers per day,
Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 124: 677–686.
and it is divergent northward with divergences of up to
15. Freshwater Research, Brown and Caldwell. (2001). Assess-
10% per day.
ment of Brownlee Reservoir Water Quality. 2001, Technical
Report for the City of Boise, ID.
Floating ice can be divided into two categories, namely
ice shelf and proper sea ice, which have a completely
16. Petersen, J.H. and Kitchell, J.F. (2001). Climate regimes
and water temperature changes in the Columbia River:
different origin. Ice shelves are floating masses of ice that
bioenergetic implications for predators of juvenile salmon. originate from the land and are normally attached to the
Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 58: 1831–1841. glacier that produced them, which is, in fact, terrestrial
17. EPA. (1999). Protocol for Developing Nutrient TMDLs. U.S. ice that has recently seeped onto the surface of the ocean.
EPA, Washington, DC. Icebergs are fragments of these ice shelves. The largest is
18. Molot, L.A. and Dillon, P.J. (1993). Nitrogen mass balances the Ross Ice Shelf, in Antarctica, that covers an area
and denitrification rates in Central Ontario lakes. Bio- of about 540,000 square kilometers, about the size of
geochem. 20: 195–212. Texas. It contains a third of all the floating ice in the
19. Townsend, S.A. (1999). The seasonal pattern of dissolved Antarctic oceans and is 90 meters thick at its hinge point
oxygen, and hypolimnetic deoxygenation, in two tropical and 200 meters at the front.
Australian reservoirs. Lake & Reservoirs: Research and Sea ice is formed from ocean water that freezes. As
Management 4: 41–53. the oceans are salty, freezing occurs at −1.8 ◦ C. Sea ice
20. Quinlain, R., Smol, J.P., and Hall, R.I. (1998). Quantitative itself is largely fresh, because the ocean salt, by a process
inferences of past hypolimnetic anoxia in south-central called brine rejection, is expelled from the forming and
Ontario lakes using fossil midges (Diptera: Chironomidae). consolidating ice. The resulting highly saline (and hence
Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 55: 587–596. dense) water has an important influence on the ocean,
21. Little, J.L. and Smol, J.P. (2001). A chironomid-based model overturning circulation. Fresh sea ice is formed by the
for inferring late-summer hypolimnetic oxygen in southeast- cooling of the ocean as heat is lost into the atmosphere.
ern Ontario lakes. J. Paleolimnol. 26: 259–270.
The uppermost layer of the ocean is supercooled to slightly
22. Clerk, S., Hall, R., Quinlain, R., and Smol, J.P. (2000). below the freezing point, at which time tiny ice platelets,
Quantitative inferences of past hypolimnetic anoxia and
known as frazil ice, form. Water movements push the frazil
nutrient levels from a Canadian Precambrian Shield lake.
crystals against each other, causing the fragile arms of the
J. Paleolimnol. 23: 319–336.
crystals to break. Soon, a mixture of damaged crystals and
crystal remnants occurs that results in an oily-looking ice
FLOATING ICE soup on the surface of water, called grease ice. The name
comes from its dark, oily appearance. In time, grease ice
ALDO CONTI become frozen into a thin, transparent layer of ice. Still
Frascati (RM) dark, like the grease ice, the first transparent stage is
Frascati, Italy called dark nilas. It then grows thicker, thick enough to
reflect light, and goes from dark to light. This solid white
layer is referred to as light nilas. Water starts freezing
Floating ice, or sea ice, is very important because it at the bottom of the ice, increasing its thickness. When
regulates the surface exchange of heat, moisture, and nilas becomes 30 cm thick, it is called first-year ice. In
salt between the atmosphere and the oceans. It is a high a single winter, first-year ice can grow up to 2.5 meters
latitude phenomenon and can be found only in the Arctic in thickness.
ocean and in the oceans around Antarctica. Although the Sea ice influences the climate system in a number
local amount of sea ice changes with the season, at any of ways, by altering the heat and chemical exchanges
given time sea ice covers, globally, an area larger than the between the atmosphere and oceans. It has a high
North American continent. albedo; that is, sea ice is a strong reflector of solar
In the Arctic ocean, sea ice covers an average 14 to radiation, and therefore energy. The growth and decay
16 million square kilometers in late winter and 7 to 9 of sea ice are positive feedback processes: freezing and
million square kilometers at the end of summer. Here, the melting processes are self-promoting. When ice melts,
ice cover circulation is characterized by two large-scale for example, more solar energy is absorbed into the
motions. A strong transpolar drift current transports sea ocean surface waters, thereby promoting further melting.
ice from the Bering Strait over the North Pole down to the Alternately, more energy is reflected as ice growth occurs,
east coast of Greenland. Then, much of the Arctic winter restricting the solar radiation that warms the surface
is characterized by a persistent high-pressure center over of the ocean. Less sea ice during one season may allow
the western Arctic region, which stimulates a clockwise surface waters to store enough energy to inhibit sea ice
rotation of surface winds and waters, which accumulate formation in the following season. Sea ice also acts as
70 TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT: HARDWARE DEVELOPMENT—MARINE INSTRUMENTATION LABORATORY (MIL)
an insulator, inhibiting exchanges of mass, heat, and hardware and software necessary for data acquisition
momentum across the air-sea interface. The perpetual systems, and provide various facility and ancillary
drift of sea ice extends these influences to regional and support services.
global scales. It influences the chemistry and circulation
of the world’s oceans by redistributing salt and freshwater
and stimulating dense water formation, which facilitates OCEANOGRAPHY
overturn of the global ocean.
The seasonal sea ice cycle affects both human activities The purpose of this equipment is the measurement of
and biological habitats. For example, shipping vessels have water currents, temperature, water quality parameters,
to work quickly during periods of low ice concentration. wave conditions and the sampling of water and sediments
Sea ice is the natural habitat of many mammals, like polar for subsequent analysis.
bears and seals, that hunt, feed, and breed on the ice.
Scientists are worried that global warming might reduce Focus on Current Measurements
ice formation, affecting the very limited food chain these
animals depend on. MIL maintains a strong commitment to maintaining
the current state of the art in this area. We currently
maintain an inventory consisting of 8 RD ADCP’s and
TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT: HARDWARE several Sontek point current meters. We are currently
DEVELOPMENT—MARINE INSTRUMENTATION also investigating the 3DACM current meter produced
LABORATORY (MIL) by Falmouth Scientific. MIL has also developed in house
two series of satellite reporting Lagrangian drifters using
Loran and GPS position sensing systems. Additionally
Great Lakes Environmental MIL maintains a large active inventory of Vector
Research Laboratory (NOAA) Averaging Current Meters (VACM), Marsh-McBirney EM
current meters and Neal Brown smart acoustic current
MIL’s goal is to provide high quality instrumentation meters (SACM). These aging systems are in the sunset
packages for oceanographic, biological, chemical, and phase of their utilization.
water resources data collection. The highly skilled
engineers and technicians of the Marine Instrumentation
Laboratory (MIL) design electronics, develop schematics,
manufacture circuit boards and develop computer software
to support major systems design. MIL supports and
maintains existing GLERL instrumentation, provides the
This article is a US Government work and, as such, is in the

public domain in the United States of America.
TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT: HARDWARE DEVELOPMENT—MARINE INSTRUMENTATION LABORATORY (MIL) 71
Autonomous CTD Profiler

The ACP was programmed to mechanically drive a CTD
package up and down a cable through 40 meters of
the water column at the rate of once per hour, taking
measurements at sub-meter intervals. The ACP uses an
electric motor to drive the CTD package up and down a
wire rope cable. Rubber end stops attached to the cable
determine the limits of travel and can be adjusted to meet
the specific requirements of the experiment. The operation
of the ACP is controlled by an embedded microprocessor
and data is stored onto a compact flash disk. The flexibility
of the programmable data logger allows specifying the
interval of the cycles as well as the sample rate. The unit
can sample and record data from the sensors in intervals
as small as 10 cm.
Microcontrollers and Dataloggers

Recent advances in electronics have produced very
small and economical computer driven controllers. These
powerful tools have made it possible for instrument
developers to design powerful measurement platforms
with a minimum investment of time and capital. The
controller recently developed for the MIL programmable
sequential sediment sampler is shown.
Lagrangian Drifters
An important area of work for MIL has been the design and
development of drifting current measurement systems.
An example of an MIL designed drifter which used the
GPS system to report locations to the ARGOS series
satellites is shown. This unit is controlled with a Tattletale
2B datalogger. Currently we have 11 of these units in
inventory. These units were produced significantly in
advance of the availability of similar commercial units.
Sequential Sediment Samplers

MIL has designed in house a programmable 24 bottle
suspended sediment sampler. This instrument is currently
in it’s third version. Early examples utilized an entirely
in house designed controller. The current version uses a
Tattletale TFX-11 datalogger. Currently there 22 units in
active use with 14 committed to the EEGLE project in
72 TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT: HARDWARE DEVELOPMENT—MARINE INSTRUMENTATION LABORATORY (MIL)
FY99. Several of these instruments have been distributed

both nationally and internationally.
Plankton Survey System (PSS)

The Plankton Survey System (PSS) was assembled by
GLERL’s Marine Instrumentation Lab (MIL) in 1997
to measure distribution and abundance of zooplankton,
tiny waterborne crustaceans that serve as a food base
for various species of larval fish. It measures turbidity,
chlorophyll a, photosynthetically active radiation (PAR),
conductivity, temperature, and zooplankton distribution.
The PSS and its onboard instruments has been suc-
cessfully used on an ongoing basis to survey physical,
chemical and biological conditions before, during and after
Lake Michigan sediment resuspension events as part
of the 5-year Episodic Events Great Lakes Experiment
(EEGLE) program.
METEOROLOGY
WebCams and Met Stations

GLERL’s Marine Instrumentation Laboratory has de-
ployed and is maintaining a real-time network of shore-
based meteorological instrument packages in Wisconsin,
Michigan, Illinois, and Indiana. Stations in Illinois and
Michigan also include web cameras. All meteorological
observation stations measure and record wind speed,
wind gust, wind direction, and air temperature. In

addition, instruments in Chicago measure water levels,
and instruments at Muskegon measure dew point, relative
humidity, atmospheric pressure, and light level. This data
as well as camera images are updated at 5-30 minute
intervals and displayed on GLERL’s website.
Lake Michigan Wireless Environmental Observatory

MIL is developing the first environmental observatory
using wireless internet technology on the Great Lakes
at GLERL’s Lake Michigan Field Station in Muskegon,
MI. When fully developed, the observatory will provide
chemical, physical and biological data to support long-
term research on the Great Lakes. These data will be
available to the scientific and educational community via
SEASONAL COUPLING 73
still a noticeable lack of knowledge about the relationship

between macrofauna and the temporal distribution and
spatial variability of nutrients in sediments. Some works
have conducted a seasonal study of porewater chemistry
focusing on nitrogen organic compounds, such as dissolved
free amino acids (13), and ammonium profiles and produc-
tion (13–15). These studies have indicated that tempera-
ture has a pronounced effect on the porewater ammonium
production rate and seasonal variation. In addition to
the effect of environmental parameters that exhibit sea-
sonal patterns and mineralization processes in sediments
the internet through real-time observations. The goal of
by bacteria, macrofauna also contribute to the total ben-
this project is to put in place the infrastructure needed to
thic metabolism by feeding, assimilation, and respiration.
simplify sensor deployment and data acquisition to allow
Recently, we have shown that the excretory activity of
information access by scientific researchers, educators and
macrofauna strongly influences the magnitude and sea-
the public. This is an important contribution to GLERL’s
sonal variability of the biogenic upward flux of nutrients
leadership in supporting and promoting observation
(16; TEMPORAL SCALING OF BENTHIC NUTRIENT REGENERATION IN
system development among Great Lakes universities and
BIVALVE-DOMINATED TIDAL FLAT). However, field studies on
non-governmental organizations.
the relationship between porewater nutrient concentra-
The environmental observatory consists of an offshore
tions and macrofaunal communities come often from iso-
buoy connected to a hub that receives data from various
lated surveys (17) or from transplantation/manipulation
environmental sensors such as an acoustic doppler current
experiments (8,9). In particular, evidence of a coupling
profiler. The data are then sent through a wireless link to
between the seasonal variability of nutrient concentra-
an onshore receiver connected to the internet.
tions in porewater and macrofauna-influenced upward
flux of nutrients is still lacking.
SEASONAL COUPLING BETWEEN INTERTIDAL
MACROFAUNA AND SEDIMENT COLUMN SEASONALITY OF POREWATER NUTRIENT
CONCENTRATIONS
POREWATER NUTRIENT CONCENTRATIONS
PAOLO MAGNI We present here relevant results obtained from a
multidisciplinary study carried out on a sandflat in the
IMC-International Marine
Centre, Torregrande-Oristano, Seto Inland Sea (18–20). Extended information on the
Italy environmental characteristics and variability of this flat
are reported in our associated papers (21–23). Emerged
SHIGERU MONTANI sediment temperature ranges widely through the year,
Hokkaido University from 2.8 ◦ C (December) to 30.0 ◦ C (July) in 1995 (Fig. 1).
Hakodate, Japan At an individual sampling station, we investigated the
macrofaunal communities (TEMPORAL SCALING OF BENTHIC
NUTRIENT REGENERATION IN BIVALVE-DOMINATED TIDAL FLAT) in
BACKGROUND parallel with the distribution of ammonium, phosphate,
and silicate in porewater, monthly from January 1995 to
It is well established that dense bivalve assemblages play April 1996. All these nutrient species showed marked
a major role in the processes of benthic nutrient regen- spatial and temporal patterns and had a 10 to >30-
eration in coastal marine ecosystems (1–7). In recent fold variability between layers and months (Fig. 2).
years, there is increasing evidence of the close rela- Ammonium varied from 75.1 (0–0.5 cm, January 1995) to
tionship between nutrient concentrations in sediments
and macrofauna-influenced upward flux of nutrients that
35
enhances benthic primary productivity. This coupling has
been shown, to varying degree, for a variety of ben- 30
Temperature, °C
thic communities dominated by both suspension and 25

deposit feeders. The former, including semi-infaunal mus- 20
sel species, such as Musculista senhousia and Modiolus
15
americanus (8,9), filter particulate matter from the water
column; the latter, such as holothurians (10), consume 10
high amounts of sediment bacteria, microalgae, and dead 5
organic matter (11). Due to the complexity and multi-
0
plicity of mechanisms that govern nutrient cycling in
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
coastal ecosystems, these studies highlight the need for

integrated investigations on the variability of porewa- ’95 ’96
Time, month
ter nutrient concentrations and the composition, biology,
and behavior of in situ macrofaunal species (12). There is Figure 1. Seasonal variation of sediment temperature.
74 SEASONAL COUPLING
(a) NH4+-N µM
0–0.5
600
0.5–2
Sediment depth, cm
2–3 500
3–4
400
4–5
5–6 300
6–7
7–8 200
8–9 100
9–10
13 Jan
6 Feb
1 Mar
12 Apr
16 May
14 Jun
12 Jul
10 Aug
7 Sep
3 Oct
30 Oct
27 Nov
26 Dec
24 Jan
22 Feb
21 Mar
17 Apr
(b) PO43−-P µM
0–0.5
0.5–2 30
Sediment depth, cm
2–3 25
3–4
4–5 20
5–6 15
6–7
7–8 10
8–9
5
9–10
13 Jan
6 Feb
1 Mar
12 Apr
16 May
14 Jun
12 Jul
10 Aug
7 Sep
3 Oct
30 Oct
27 Nov
26 Dec
24 Jan
22 Feb
21 Mar
17 Apr
(c) Si(OH)4-Si µM
0–0.5
0.5–2 300
Sediment depth, cm
2–3 250
3–4
4–5 200
5–6 150
6–7
7–8 100
8–9
50
9–10
13 Jan
6 Feb
1 Mar
12 Apr
16 May
14 Jun
12 Jul
10 Aug
7 Sep
3 Oct
30 Oct
27 Nov
26 Dec
24 Jan
22 Feb
21 Mar
17 Apr
Figure 2. Spatial and seasonal variation of

porewater ammonium (NH4 + -N) (a), phos-
phate (PO4 3− -P) (b), and silicate [Si(OH)4 -Si] 1995 1996
(c) concentrations. Time, month
908 µM (0–0.5 cm, 30 October 1995), phosphate from 0.9 This was obtained by calculating the sediment porosity
(0–0.5 cm, January 1995) to 36.9 µM (4–5 cm, September of each layer from the water content (weight loss on
1995), and silicate from 17.1 (0–0.5 cm, February 1996) to drying at 105◦ C for 20 h), assuming the bulk density
379 µM (5–6 cm, 30 September 1995). of sediment particles as 2.5 g cm−3 . Each volume of
The spatial and temporal distribution of ammonium, porewater was subsequently multiplied by the relevant
phosphate, and silicate concentrations were consistent nutrient concentrations, which were finally expressed as
with each other. They were lowest in winter, progressively areal depth-integrated values (mmol m−2 ). Ammonium,
increased through spring and summer in the uppermost phosphate, and silicate concentrations showed a strong
layers, and were highest between September and October correlation with each other (Fig. 3). These results suggest
1995; a major increase occurred in intermediate layers (i.e., that similar and/or coincident processes may govern the
between 3 and 8 cm). Subsequently, minor but noticeable spatial and seasonal variability of major inorganic forms
peaks of ammonium and phosphate concentrations were of N, P, and Si in sediment porewater.
also found in March 1996, up to 518 and 32.7 µM at We were thus interested in assessing the existence
6–7 cm, respectively. of common environmental factors (i.e., temperature)
For each sampling occasion and nutrient species, we and/or biological (i.e., macrofauna-influenced) processes
summed the concentrations measured in each layer of that influence the variability of ammonium, phosphate,
the sediment column to be representative of an all- and silicate in porewater. Ammonium and silicate were
layer monthly pool expressed on a square meter basis. highly correlated with temperature (Fig. 4). This could
SEASONAL COUPLING 75
30 35
r2 = 0.600 (p < 0.001)
Porew. NH4+-N, mmol m−2
25 30
Temperature, °C
25
20
20
15 15
10 10
5 r2 = 0.684 (p < 0.001)
5
0
0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0.0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 Porewater NH4+-N, mmol m−2
Porewater PO43−-P, mmol m−2
35
30 30
r2 = 0.853 (p < 0.001)
Temperature, °C
25 25
20
20
15
15 10
10 5 r2 = 0.331 (p < 0.05)
0
5
0.0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2
0 Porewater PO43−-P, mmol m−2
0 3 6 9 12 15
Porewater Si(OH)4-Si, mmol m−2 35
30
Temperature, °C
15
Porew. Si(OH)4-Si, mmol m−2
r2 = 0.460 (p < 0.01) 25

12 20
15
9
10
6 5 r2 = 0.679 (p < 0.001)
0
3 0 3 6 9 12 15
Porewater Si(OH)4-Si, mmol m−2
0
0.0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 Figure 4. Relationship between porewater ammonium (NH4 + -N),
phosphate (PO4 3− -P), and silicate [Si(OH)4 -Si] concentrations in
Porewater PO43−-P, mmol m−2 the uppermost 10 cm sediments and temperature.
Figure 3. Relationship between porewater ammonium (NH4 + -N),
the uppermost 10 cm of sediments.
EXCRETION RATES OF NUTRIENTS) and scaling up (TEMPORAL
SCALING OF BENTHIC NUTRIENT REGENERATION IN BIVALVE-
be consistent with previous studies that have focused DOMINATED TIDAL FLAT) of nutrient excretion rates by two
on the distribution of ammonium and found that it was bivalve species dominant on this flat, Ruditapes philip-
strongly dependent on seasonal variations in tempera- pinarum and Musculista senhousia. The plots of bivalve
ture (13,24,25), whereas little combined information is excretion rates of ammonium, phosphate, and silicate
available on the distribution of ammonium, phosphate, versus their relevant pool in the porewater showed a
and silicate in the sediment column and relevant influ- highly significant positive correlation in all cases (Fig. 5).
encing factors. In our study, for instance, the correla- These results suggest the importance of the physiolog-
tion between temperature and phosphate was signifi- ical activity of the benthos on the seasonal variability
cant, yet rather weak. We then tested the hypothesis of porewater chemistry. We conclude that the seasonal
that the seasonal variation of all three nutrient species patterns of nutrient concentrations in the porewater are
could be related to the activity of in situ benthic macro- strongly coupled with the extent of biogenic regenera-
fauna. tion of nutrients due to bivalve excretory activity. This
study thus provides evidence of the influence of bio-
COUPLING WITH THE EXCRETORY ACTIVITY OF logical processes on the seasonal patterns of porewater
DOMINANT BIVALVES nutrient distribution, suggesting a major role of macro-
fauna not only at the sediment–water interface, but
We based our considerations on previous physiologi- also in the year-round processes that occur within sed-
cal measurements (LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS ON BIVALVE iments.
76 SEASONAL COUPLING
30 Mytilus edulis. In: Trophic Relationships in the Marine

Environment. Proc. 24th Europ. Mar. Biol. Symp. Aberdeen,

25 Univ. Press, pp. 89–103.
20 7. Yamamuro, M. and Koike, I. (1993). Nitrogen metabolism
of the filter-feeding bivalve Corbicula japonica and its
15 significance in primary production of a brackish lake in Japan.
10 Limnol. Oceanogr. 35: 997–1007.
8. Reusch, T.B.H. and Williams, S.L. (1998). Variable responses
5
y = 0.34x + 10.3 r 2 = 0.584 (p < 0.001) of native eelgrass Zostera marina to a non-indigenous bivalve
0 Musculista senhousia. Oecologia 113: 428–441.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 9. Peterson, B.J. and Heck, K.L., Jr. (2001). Positive inter-
NH4+-N excretion, mmol m−2 day−1 action between suspension-feeding bivalves and sea-
grass—a facultative mutualism. Mar. Ecol. Progr. Ser. 213:
1.2 143–155.
Porew. PO43−-P, mmol m−2
y = 0.10x + 0.15 r 2 = 0.719 (p < 0.001)

1.0 10. Uthike, S. (2001). Interaction between sediment-feeders and
microalgae on coral reefs: grazing losses versus production
0.8 enhancement. Mar. Ecol. Progr. Ser. 210: 125–138.
0.6 11. Uthike, S. (1999). Sediment bioturbation and impact of
feeding activity of Holothuria (Halodeima) atra and Stichopus
0.4
chloronotus, two sediment feeding holothurians, at Lizard
0.2 Island, Great Barrier Reef. Bull. Mar. Sci. 64: 129–141.
0.0 12. Christensen, B., Vedel, A., and Kristensen, E. (2000). Car-
0 2 4 6 8 bon and nitrogen fluxes in sediments inhabited by
suspension-feeding (Nereis diversicolor) and non-suspension-
PO43−-P excretion, mmol m−2 day−1 feeding (N. virens) polychaetes. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 192:
203–217.
Porew. Si(OH)4-Si, mmol m−2
15
y = 0.24x + 3.2 r 2 = 0.495 (p < 0.01) 13. Landén, A. and Hall, P.O.J. (1998). Seasonal variation of
12 dissolved and adsorbed amino acids and ammonium in a near-
shore marine sediment. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 170: 67–84.
9 14. Blackburn, T.H. (1980). Seasonal variation in the rate of
organic-N mineralization in oxic marine sediments. In:
6 Biogechimie de la matière organique à l’interface eau-sediment
marine. Édition du CNRS, Paris, pp. 173–183.
3
15. Laima, M.J.C. (1992). Extraction and seasonal variation of
0 NH4 + pools in different types of coastal marine sediments.
0 10 20 30 40 Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 82: 75–84.
Si(OH)4-Si excretion, mmol m−2 day−1 16. Magni, P., Montani, S., Takada, C., and Tsutsumi, H. (2000).
+
Temporal scaling and relevance of bivalve nutrient excretion
Figure 5. Relationship between porewater ammonium (NH4 -N), on a tidal flat of the Seto Inland Sea, Japan. Mar. Ecol. Progr.
Ser. 198: 139–155.
the uppermost 10 cm of sediments and bivalve-influenced upward
flux of those nutrients. 17. Lomstein, B.A., Blackburn, T.H., and Henriksen, K. (1989).
Aspects of nitrogen and carbon cycling in the northern Bering
Shelf sediment: I. The significance of urea turnover in the
BIBLIOGRAPHY
mineralization of ammonium ion. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 57:
237–248.
1. Jordan, T.E. and Valiela, I. (1982). A nitrogen budget of the
ribbed mussel, Geukensia demissa, and its significance in 18. Magni, P. (1998). A multidisciplinary study on the dynamics
nitrogen flow in a New England salt marsh. Limnol. Oceanogr. of biophilic elements (C, N, P, Si) in a tidal estuary of
27: 75–90. the Seto Inland Sea, Japan: physico-chemical variability
2. Dame, R.F., Zingmark, R.G., and Haskin, E. (1984). Oyster and macrozoobenthic communities. Ph.D. Thesis, The United
reefs as processors of estuarine materials. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Graduate School of Ehime University, Japan, p. 258.
Ecol. 83: 239–247. 19. Montani, S. et al. (1998). The effect of a tidal cycle on the
3. Murphy, R.C. and Kremer, J.N. (1985). Bivalve contribution dynamics of nutrients in a tidal estuary in the Seto Inland
to benthic metabolism in a California lagoon. Estuaries 8: Sea, Japan. J. Oceanogr. 54: 65–76.
330–341. 20. Magni, P., Montani, S., and Tada, K. (2002). Semidiurnal
4. Boucher, G. and Boucher-Rodoni, R. (1988). In situ measure- dynamics of salinity, nutrients and suspended particulate
ments of respiratory metabolism and nitrogen fluxes at the matter in an estuary in the Seto Inland Sea, Japan, during a
interface of oyster beds. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 44: 229–238. spring tide cycle. J. Oceanogr. 58: 389–402.
5. Nakamura, M., Yamamuro, M., Ishikawa, M., and Nishi- 21. Magni, P. and Montani, S. (1997). Development of benthic
mura, H. (1988). Role of the bivalve Corbicula japonica in microalgal assemblages on an intertidal flat in the Seto
the nitrogen cycle in a mesohaline lagoon. Mar. Biol. 99: Inland Sea, Japan: effects of environmental variability. La
369–374. mer. 35: 137–148.
6. Prins, T.C. and Smaal, A.C. (1990). Benthic-pelagic coupling: 22. Magni, P. and Montani, S. (1998). Responses of intertidal
the release of inorganic nutrients by an intertidal bed of and subtidal communities of the macrobenthos to organic
MAPPING THE SEA FLOOR OF THE HISTORIC AREA REMEDIATION SITE (HARS) OFFSHORE OF NEW YORK CITY 77
load and oxygen depletion in the Seto Inland Sea, Japan. J.

Rech. Océanogr. 23: 47–56.
23. Magni, P. and Montani, S. (2000). Physical and chemical
variability in the lower intertidal zone of an estuary in the
Seto Inland Sea, Japan: seasonal patterns of dissolved and
particulate compounds. Hydrobiol. 432: 9–23.
24. Blackburn, T.H. and Henriksen, K. (1983). Nitrogen cycling
in different types of sediments from Danish waters. Limnol.
Oceanogr. 28: 477–493.
25. Klump, J.V. and Martens, C.S. (1989). Seasonality of nutrient
regeneration in an organic-rich coastal sediment: kinetic
modeling of changing pore-water nutrient and sulfate
distribution. Limnol. Oceanogr. 34: 559–577.
MAPPING THE SEA FLOOR OF THE HISTORIC

AREA REMEDIATION SITE (HARS) OFFSHORE
Figure 1. Map showing the area offshore of New York and
OF NEW YORK CITY New Jersey that has been used for the disposal of dredged
materials and other wastes since the late 1800’s. The Historic
BRADFORD BUTMAN
Area Remediation Site (HARS) is outlined in red.
U.S. Geological Survey
Repeated surveys using a multibeam mapping system

document changes in the topography and distribution of
sediments on the sea floor caused by placement of dredged
material, remedial capping, and natural processes.
INTRODUCTION
The area offshore of New York City has been used for
the disposal of dredged material for over a century. The
area has also been used for the disposal of other materials
such as acid waste, industrial waste, municipal sewage
sludge, cellar dirt, and wood. Between 1976 and 1995,
the New York Bight Dredged Material Disposal Site, also
known as the Mud Dump Site (MDS), received on average
about 6 million cubic yards of dredged material annually.
In September 1997 the MDS was closed as a disposal
site, and it and the surrounding area were designated as
the Historic Area Remediation Site (HARS) (Figs. 1 and 2).
The sea floor of the HARS, approximately 9 square nautical
miles in area, currently is being remediated by placing a
minimum 1-m-thick cap of clean dredged material on top
of the surficial sediments that are contaminated from
previous disposal of dredged and other materials. The
U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) is working cooperatively
with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) to map
the sea floor geology of the HARS and changes in the Figure 2. Shaded relief image of the Historic Area Remediation
characteristics of the surficial sediments over time. Site (HARS) in April 2000 showing the Primary Remediation Area
(PRA, divided into nine cells), the no discharge zone (ND), the
former Mud Dump Site (MDS), and the discontinued Cellar Dirt
HIGH-RESOLUTION SURVEYS OF THE SEA FLOOR OF THE Disposal Site (CDDS). Companion images are shown in Figures 4
HARS and 5. See text for a description of this image and major features.
Bathymetric contour interval is 5 m (red lines).
Surveys of the HARS were conducted in November
1996 (prior to the closing of the Mud Dump Site),
November 1998 (during early remediation of the HARS), and April 2000 (during continued remediation of the
HARS) using a Simrad EM1000 multibeam mapping
system (Fig. 3). Survey lines were run approximately
This article is a US Government work and, as such, is in the 100 m apart to provide full coverage of the sea floor. The
public domain in the United States of America. EM1000 measured the depth of water (to an accuracy of
78 MAPPING THE SEA FLOOR OF THE HISTORIC AREA REMEDIATION SITE (HARS) OFFSHORE OF NEW YORK CITY
Figure 3. High-resolution multibeam mapping systems use

sound from an array of transducers to measure water depth and
sediment characteristics of the sea floor. The horizontal resolution
of the maps is a few meters, providing an image of the sea floor
topography and sediment properties somewhat comparable to an
aerial photograph.
Figure 4. Pseudo-colored backscatter intensity and shaded relief

about 30 cm) as well as the intensity of sound reflected
map of the entire HARS in April 2000. The faint north-trending
from the sea floor, which is referred to as backscatter
stripes run parallel to the survey tracklines and are artifacts of
intensity. High backscatter intensity generally indicates data collection and environmental conditions. The pink, green,
the presence of rocks and coarse-grained sediments, and yellow boxes outline areas shown in Figure 6 to illustrate
while low backscatter intensity indicates the presence changes in backscatter intensity between 1996, 1998, and 2000.
of finer grained sediments. Direct observations using See text for a description of this image and major features.
bottom photographs, video, and grab samples are needed Bathymetric contour interval is 5 m (red lines).
to verify interpretations of the sea floor geology based on
backscatter intensity.
high intensity (rock outcrops and coarse-grained
sediments). These data are draped over the shaded
IMAGES OF THE HARS SEA FLOOR relief image. The resultant image displays light and
dark intensities within each color band that result
In this fact sheet, the topography and backscatter intensity
from a feature’s position with respect to the light
data measured by the multibeam mapping system are
source. For example, north-facing slopes, receiv-
presented in three types of images. Each of these images
ing strong illumination, show as a light intensity
highlights different features and characteristics of the
within a color band, whereas south-facing slopes,
sea floor.
being in shadow, show as a dark intensity within a
color band.
(1) A shaded relief image (Fig. 2) visually shows small
topographic features (with relief of a few meters) (3) A shaded relief image, colored by bathymetry,
that could not be effectively shown by contours alone combines the high-resolution view of topography
at this scale. The image was created by vertically with color to show water depth (Fig. 5A).
exaggerating the topography four times and then
artificially illuminating the relief by a light source THE SEA FLOOR OF THE HARS
positioned 45◦ above the horizon from the north. In
this image, topographic features are enhanced by Within the HARS, one of the most striking aspects of the
strong illumination on the north-facing slopes and sea floor is the variability in backscatter intensity and
by shadows cast on the south-facing slopes. bottom morphology over distances of a few kilometers or
(2) A shaded relief image, colored by backscatter inten- less, caused by both natural and anthropogenic processes.
sity, combines the high-resolution view of topog- This fact sheet presents companion images showing the
raphy with a measure of sediment characteristics sea floor of the HARS as mapped in April 2000 in plan
(Figs. 4, 5B, and 6). In these images, the backscat- view (Figs. 2, 4, and 6) and in perspective view (Fig. 5).
ter intensity is represented by a suite of eight colors Images of selected areas in 1996, 1998, and 2000 illustrate
ranging from blue, which represents low intensity changes over time (Fig. 6). Major features of the sea
(fine-grained sediments), to red, which represents floor of the HARS shown in these images include two
MAPPING THE SEA FLOOR OF THE HISTORIC AREA REMEDIATION SITE (HARS) OFFSHORE OF NEW YORK CITY 79
Figure 5. Perspective view of the Historic Area Remediation

Site, looking from south to north, based on the multibeam survey
carried out in April 2000. A, Shaded relief map with color-coded
bathymetry. B, Backscatter intensity draped over shaded relief
(see text for a description of the color scheme). The north-trending
stripes, running parallel to the survey tracklines, are artifacts of
data collection and environmental conditions. The topography,
surface features, and the surficial sediments of the HARS have Figure 6. Pseudo-colored backscatter intensity and shaded relief
been heavily influenced by the disposal of dredged and other map of parts of the HARS in 1996, 1998, and 2000 (see Fig. 4
material in this region over the last century, and by recent for location). These images illustrate changes in the sea floor
remedial capping. See text for a description of these images and topography and backscatter intensity that occurred between 1996
major features. and 1998 and between 1998 and 2000 caused by placement
of dredged material and by remedial capping. See text for a
description of these images and major features.
relatively smooth topographic highs composed of material
dumped in the late 1800’s and early 1900’s (‘‘Topographic
highs’’ in Fig. 5A); mounds of material in the Mud Dump
Between 1996 and 1998, changes include (1) mounds
Site (‘‘Disposal mounds in MDS’’ in Fig. 5A); two circular
of medium backscatter intensity dredged material in the
features where contaminated sediments were placed and
northeastern corner of the MDS, some as high as 6 m,
then capped with sand, one in the late 1980’s, and the other
placed between November 1996 and September 1997
in 1997 (‘‘Sand capping’’ in Figs. 4 and 5B and ‘‘Previous
(compare panels A and B, Fig. 6); (2) a circular area of
capping’’ and ‘‘New sand capping’’ in Fig. 6); material
low-backscatter intensity material about 1 km in diameter
deposited between the November 1996 and November
and 2 m thick in the southern part of the MDS associated
1998 survey (‘‘Recent placement’’ in Figs. 4 and 5A); many
with sand capping (compare panels C and D, Fig. 6); and
features about 50 m in size interpreted to be individual
dumps of material (‘‘Historical dumps’’ in Figs. 4 and 5B); (3) a circular area of low backscatter intensity material in
and material placed as part of remediation activities PRA1 associated with remedial capping (compare panels
(‘‘Remedial capping’’ in Figs. 4, 5B, and 6). E and F, Fig. 6).
Between 1998 and 2000, changes include (compare
panels F and G, Fig. 6) (1) increased backscatter intensity
CHANGES IN SURFICIAL PROPERTIES BETWEEN 1996, in PRA1 due to additional placement of material and
1998, AND 2000 consolidation, de-watering, and possible winnowing of the
previous cover; (2) a series of crater-like features in the
Comparison of the topography and backscatter intensity western part of PRA2, 30 to 70 m long and on the order of
from the three multibeam surveys show how the area 20 m wide with elevated rims and central depressions, that
changed as a result of dredged material placed before the were apparently formed as remedial material impacted the
Mud Dump Site was closed and ongoing remediation of soft sediments on the sea floor; and (3) an area of reduced
the HARS (see Fig. 2 for locations of placed material from backscatter intensity in the northeastern corner of PRA2
USACE records). caused by the placement of remedial material.
80 NOAA AND UNIVERSITY SCIENTISTS STUDY METHYL BROMIDE CYCLING IN THE NORTH PACIFIC
Resolution limits of the multibeam system, and the

amount of material placed over a relatively large area,
preclude using the repeated topographic surveys for
determining the amount of material placed on the sea floor.
However these multibeam data clearly show the overall
regional geology and, through comparison of topography
and backscatter intensity, document the location of placed
material and changes in sediment properties over time.
NOAA AND UNIVERSITY SCIENTISTS STUDY

METHYL BROMIDE CYCLING IN THE NORTH
PACIFIC
SHARI YVON-LEWIS
Atlantic Oceanographic and
Meteorological Laboratory Figure 1. Cruise Track.
KELLY GOODWIN
SARA COTTON
University of Miami
JAMES BUTLER
Climate Monitoring and
Diagnostics Laboratory
DANIEL KING
University of Colorado
ERIC SALTZMAN
RYSZARD TOKARCZYK
University of Miami
PATRICIA MATRAI
BRIAN YOCIS
Figure 2. Scientists collecting water samples for production and
EILEEN LOISEAU
degradation incubations.
Bigelow Laboratory for
Ocean Sciences
a Class I ozone-depleting substance in the amended and
GEORGINA STURROCK adjusted Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete
Commonwealth Scientific and Stratospheric Ozone. The role of the ocean in regulating
Industrial Research the atmospheric burden of this gas is still somewhat
Organization—Australia uncertain. Methyl bromide is both produced and destroyed
in the ocean through chemical and biological processes.
As part of a study supported by both NASA and NOAA, The organisms or reactions that produce CH3 Br at
scientists from two NOAA laboratories, three universities rates sufficient to explain its observed concentrations
and CSIRO participated in a research cruise aboard the are not known. Degradation has been shown to occur
R/V Ronald H. Brown. The cruise departed Kwajalein, at rates that are faster than can be explained by known
Republic of the Marshall Islands on 14 September 1999 chemical degradation reactions, and evidence suggests
and arrived in Seattle, Washington on 23 October 1999 that this additional degradation is bacterial consumption
with stops in Honolulu, Hawaii, Dutch Harbor, Alaska, of CH3 Br. While recent measurements have shown that,
and Kodiak, Alaska. The objective of this research effort on the whole, the ocean is a net sink for CH3 Br,
was to obtain reliable measurements of the uptake measurement coverage to date has been limited and
and emission of methyl bromide and other climatically sporadic, which restricts our ability to map the spatial and
important halocarbons in tropical to temperate regions of temporal variations that are necessary for understanding
the North Pacific Ocean. how the system will respond to perturbations (e.g.,
Atmospheric methyl bromide (CH3 Br), which is of both Global Warming).
natural and anthropogenic origin, has been identified as The measurements made during this cruise are
designed to help improve our understanding of the
This article is a US Government work and, as such, is in the role that the oceans play in the cycling of CH3 Br.
public domain in the United States of America. The program involved instrumentation from two NOAA
Next Page
TIDALLY MEDIATED CHANGES IN NUTRIENT CONCENTRATIONS 81
laboratories and two universities. Measurements were during ebb flow and salt water intrusion during the flood
made of the concentrations of CH3 Br and a suite of may determine strong changes in salinity and dissolved
natural and anthropogenic halocarbons in the air and and particulate compounds. Several studies in riverine
surface water, degradation rates of CH3 Br in the surface and estuarine waters have investigated the distribution of
water, production rates of CH3 Br and other natural nutrient (e.g., ammonium, nitrate, phosphate, and silicate)
halocarbons in the surface water, and depth profiles of concentrations, based on the salinity gradient in the
CH3 Br and other halocarbons. The combined results from system at a particular tidal state (1–3). Accordingly, plots
these measurements will be used to constrain the budget of nutrients versus salinity are often used to assess the
of CH3 Br in these waters at this time of year. The relative source of different nutrient species, whether from inland,
importance of the biological and chemical processes will outside the estuary, or within it (3–7).
be examined for tropical and high latitudes. Attempts will An evaluation of the distributional pattern of nutrients
also be made to extract relationships between the rates along an estuary has important ecological implications
and concentrations measured and satellite measurements in relation to the cycling of biophilic elements, such
in order to develop proxies that can provide global coverage as N (nitrogen), P (phosphorous), and Si (silicon). It is
on shorter time scales. At this time, there is insufficient
known that numerous processes influence the behavior
data to examine seasonal and long-term trends in net flux,
of nutrients, whether they show conservative mixing or
production, or degradation. Until satellite measurable
reflect removal or addition along an estuary. Ammonium
proxies can be found, additional research cruises are
consumption and ammonium oxidation, for instance, are
needed to reduce the uncertainty in the global net flux
predominant in the water column, whereas denitrification
estimate and to map the spatial and temporal variations
in sediments is responsible for nitrate removal from
in the net fluxes, production rates, and degradation rates
the water column (8–10). By contrast, bioturbation and
of CH3 Br and other climatically important halocarbons.
excretion by abundant benthic animals may greatly
contribute to the upward flux of regenerated nutrients,
TIDALLY MEDIATED CHANGES IN NUTRIENT such as ammonium and phosphate, which in turn enhance
primary production (11,12). Accordingly, it has been
CONCENTRATIONS shown that regeneration processes within an estuary
are consistent with often encountered nonconservative
PAOLO MAGNI mixing of ammonium (4,8,13,14). This corresponds to
IMC—International Marine the tendency of ammonium concentration to be high at
Centre
midsalinity ranges, resulting in a poor correlation with
Torregrande-Oristano, Italy
salinity. In contrast, nitrate tends to show conservative
behavior, as evidence of its riverine origin (2,14,15),
SHIGERU MONTANI
although addition (15) or removal (7) is also found.
Hokkaido University
Hakodate, Japan
Moreover, it must be considered that in some cases,
nitrate versus salinity plots may fail to unravel active
nitrate turnover, leading to an approximate balance of
Freshwater runoff during ebb flow and salt water intru- sources and sinks (16). As for silicate, a general pattern
sion during the flood may have a major effect on short-term indicates that estuarine mixing of this nutrient species
changes in nutrient (ammonium, nitrate+nitrite, phos- tends to be conservative (2,7,13). Yet, either silicate
phate, and silicate) concentrations along an estuary. removal (7,17) or addition (4) occurs in relation to the
Time series hourly measurements conducted in a mixed- development of an algal population in rivers or to a closer
semidiurnal type estuary (i.e., characterized by two major interaction with estuarine sediments, respectively, and
lower and higher tidal levels) show that these changes are varies with season (14). A major upward flux of silicate
a strong function of both tidal state (e.g., low vs. high tide) from sediments might also be related to the biological
and amplitude (e.g., neap vs. spring tide). In particular, activity and excretory processes of abundant macrofaunal
the changes in nutrient concentrations are higher during assemblages (18,19).
ebb than during flood tide and largest between the lower In addition to these general considerations, the
low tide and the higher high tide of a spring tide. Finally, distribution and cycling of nutrients depend strongly on
the importance of investigating simultaneously different the specific characteristics of each estuary, including water
stations along the estuarine spine is highlighted, in addi- residence time and water depth, nutrient levels, and the
tion to studying the nutrient distribution based on selected extent of salt-water intrusion. Uncles and Stephens (3)
salinity intervals which may reflect only the conditions at showed that saline intrusion was a strong function of the
a particular tidal state. tidal state and a weaker function of freshwater inflow.
Accordingly, Balls (2) indicated that conservative mixing
BACKGROUND of phosphate, is a function of estuarine flushing time,
as related to particle–water interaction and chemical
An important aspect of the high variability of tidal speciation (20). In particular, phosphate removal at low
estuaries is related to the effect of the tidal cycle on salinities may be due to adsorption to iron and aluminium
the physical and chemical characteristics of the water. colloidal oxyhydroxides that aggregate and undergo
In particular, on a timescale of hours, freshwater runoff sedimentation (7).

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Oceanography Oceanography: Air-Sea Interaction

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OCEANOGRAPHY

AIR–SEA INTERACTION For stable conditions (Tair > Tsea ),

S.A. HSU z 620(Tair − Tsea )

INTRODUCTION B = 0.146(Tsea − Tair )0.49 (3)

AOML’s mission is to conduct a basic and applied

Originally under the jurisdiction of the Environmental

LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS ON BIVALVE

Benthic nutrient regeneration may be referred to as a new

May 9–10, 1996 September 6–7, 1996

PO4 3− –P; and silicate Si(OH)4 –Si] dur-

low tide between treatments (based on

Mytilus edulis (m)

well-balanced stoichiometric ratios among the nutrient BIBLIOGRAPHY

(a) 25000 estimate the magnitude and temporal scaling of biogenic

cate for the two dominant bivalves R. philippinarum and

200 C.nereis erithraeensis EXCRETION RATES OF NUTRIENTS. For silicate, we adopted

0 The highest excretion rates of nutrients were estimated

and 34.1 mmol m−2 d−1 for ammonium, phosphate, and

Period Temperature, ◦ C Excretion Rate, µmol g−1 DW h−1

Month Station R. philippinarum M. senhousia

60 by a comparison with the extent of benthic nutrient

Ruditapes philippinarum regeneration through diffusive flux. In particular, nutrient

Ruditapes philippinarum balanced in their stoichiometric ratios, and thus act as

Ecol. Progr. Ser. 2: 35–43.

lation number of coastal marine phytoplankton: effects of

thetic organisms. Funct. Ecol. 8: 273–279.

RUBBLE-MOUND STRUCTURES Armor Stability. The stability formulas are based on

Smooth, rounded Random 2.1 2.4

Stability Smooth, Random 1.2 1.1 2.4 1.9

Figure 1. Typical section of a rubble-mound

SWL H +d0 SWL SWL SWL

Pressure according to sainflou Pressure according to minikin

(c) Pressure according to goda

Figure 2. Pressure on vertical breakwaters.

ρw gH where H = wave height;

(a) Crest wall

Typical vertical breakwater

(b) Crest wall Cellular concrete caisson

Concrete caisson vertical breakwater

(c) Sliding Overturning

Seaward Landward Seaward Landward

SWL SWL SWL SWL

Figure 3. Vertical breakwater sections and types of failure.

BIBLIOGRAPHY from the sea surface, the hydrological cycle would be

It is clear that the ocean is a crucial component of the

As waves move from the deep ocean to shallow coastal Currents

oiled beaches are some of the most visible effects of

Figure 1. Upwelling along a coast. TYPES OF COASTAL WATERS

Estuaries and Bays

19. Lyven, B. et al. (2003). Competition between iron- and carbon-

up deep-water coral communities: hard (stony) corals of

WHAT ARE DEEP-WATER CORALS?

from ∼1.0–2.5 cm/yr, whereas branching shallow-water LOPHELIA PERTUSA DISTRIBUTION

Two of the more significant deep-sea coral species are

Global distribution of Lophelia per-

of approximately 100 km2 and consist of two main

The fishes and invertebrates that depend on the coral

Two images of the deep sea coral

that the discussion to follow is based on the Y’s for C, N,