Wetland

Journal of Cleaner Production 419 (2023) 138288
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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro
The effects of environmental empathy and sustainable intelligence on

wetland tourists’ revisit intention using an extended model of
goal-directed behavior
Guoyi Chen a, *, Mingxuan Zou a, Ning Ran a, Bangquan Yan a, Shangkang Li b
a
Department of Business Management, Chongqing Three Gorges University, Chongqing, China
b
Department of Transportation Management and Economics, Nantong Shipping College, Jiangsu, China
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Handling editor: Govindan Kannan Although environmental empathy and sustainable intelligence have been identified as important concepts,
relatively few researches have been conducted to explore their roles in wetland park tourists’ decision-making
Keywords: process. Hence, in order to address this gap, the present study develops an extended model of goal-directed
Sustainable intelligence behavior, and then conducted a sequential and mixed research approach based on a quantitative survey(n =
Environmental empathy
353) and qualitative interviews(n = 60) to explore the formation of tourists’ intention of revisiting a wetland
Wetland park
park. Specifically, three critical constructs (i.e., environmental empathy, sustainable intelligence, and pro-
Model of goal-directed behavior
Decision-making process environmental tourism behavior) were incorporated into the extended model of goal-directed behavior
(MGB). And an onsite survey was conducted for tourists (n = 353) who visited six national wetland parks in
Chongqing province of China. The proposed model was examined using structural equation modeling. Quanti
tative analysis reveals that the three critical constructs formed positive and significant causal relationships with
the constructs in original MGB, and all the constructs in the original MGB were significant predictors of revisit
intention. Quantitative and qualitative analysis have revealed that both environmental empathy and sustainable
intelligence positively influence tourists’ revisit intention while sustainable intelligence (0.043) has a greater
impact on this process than environmental empathy(0.029). Desire acted an important mediating role between
antecedents of MGB and behavioral intention. Understanding tourists’ psychology and Behavior is beneficial for
park practitioners’ marketing strategies improvement and sustainable tourism development. The findings of this
study will not only enrich the theory of traveler behavioral intention, but also expand the model of goal-directed
behavior under natural-based destination sites.
1. Introduction on wetland mainly focused on park planning and construction, Land

scape design, and the protection of ecological and natural environment
A wetland Park refers to a natural or artificial park that serves a (Hentges and Stewart, 2010; Ye et al., 2016). Relatively few researches
variety of beneficial functions, including wetland protection and utili have focused on wetland tourists’ visit desire and intention, in specific,
zation, science popularization and education, wetland research, who the tourists are, why they visit, and how the revisit intention was
ecological tourism, recreation, and wildlife protection (Zhou et al., formed from a consumer perspective. In fact, wetland tourists experi
2020). Furthermore, Wetland Parks provide ample recreational leisure ence was a very important theme as the satisfaction of wetland tourists
opportunities based on wild plants and animals. In fact, China has 901 remains relatively low in the past decades. Lin et al. (2022) stated that
national wetland parks covering a total area of 3.6 million hectares. stated that theses wetland parks receive poor scores in terms of
About 230 million tourists visit wetlands for outdoor tourism and perceived value and revisit rate. They found that 78% of the tourists
sightseeing, spending more than 53 billion RMB each year. (Li, 2021). reported staying in the wetland park for less than 3 h, and only 19% of
With the continuous development and growth of wetland parks, a the tourists chose to stay for a whole day. M. T. Lee et al. (2020) also
growing number of researches have been conducted. Previous research found that tourists had a low participate rate in environmental
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: 20090004@sanxiau.edu.cn (G. Chen).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.138288
Received 30 May 2023; Received in revised form 6 July 2023; Accepted 27 July 2023
Available online 29 July 2023
0959-6526/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
G. Chen et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 419 (2023) 138288
protection activities. Only 20.4% of the tourists reported getting 2. Literature review
involved in environmental-protection activities. This indicated that
wetland tourists were less satisfied with natural education and public 2.1. Model of goal-directed behavior (MGB) and its extended model
environmental activities during journey, which inevitably influence
their future decision-making to revisit these sites. The MGB model, initially proposed by Perugini and Bagozzi (2001),
From a practical perspective, understanding tourists’ psychology and has been extensively studied and applied by numerous researchers to
behavior is beneficial for park practitioners to improve their marketing understand human intentions and behaviors in different situations. It is
strategies and increase tourism revenue. Previous studies have used the considered an extension of the traditional TPB (Theory of Planned
Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) and Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) Behavior) and TRA (Theory of Reasoned Action). Compared to previous
to predict customers’ decision-making process. The TRA assumes that models, MGB has the following three improvements: a) the intention for
tourists make rational decisions based on their attitudes, subjective a behavior is motivated by the desire for performing this behavior, and
norms, and behaviors (Ajzen, 1985). The TPB incorporates the this desire is directly influenced by attitude, subjective norms, perceived
non-volitional construct of perceived behavior control (PBC) into the behavior control as well as anticipated emotions; b) anticipated emo
study (Ajzen, 1991). However, both the TRA and TPB have limitations as tions including positive and negative ones are considered as imperative
they neglect the influence of past behavior and individual motivation variables in the decision-making process, and c) frequency of past
(Leone et al., 2004). To address these limitations, Perugini and Bagozzi behavior is also considered to haveinfluence on humans’ desire, inten
(2001) proposed the Model of Goal-directed Behavior (MGB), which tion and behaviors(Perugini and Bagozzi, 2001).
incorporates frequency of past behavior, anticipated emotions, and Nowadays researchers have emphasized the need to enhance tradi
desire to increase the predictive power of tourists’ behavior. Researchers tional psychological concepts by introducing new constructs that are
have also suggested the need to revise the existing MGB model by critical under specific conditions., They have also emphasized the
incorporating new constructs in specific contexts for a deeper under importance of modifying existing paths among latent attributes Armit
standing of tourist behavior (Hsu et al., 2006; Norman and Conner, age et al. (1999); Hsu et al. (2006); Norman and Conner (2005). The new
2005). antecedents added to the original model should be critical factors
Wetland park tourism provides opportunities for natural education influencing individuals’ decision-making process. And this kind of pro
and ecological protection experiences (Zhang and Lei, 2012). Wetland cessing method was described by Song et al. (2012) as the broadening
tourists are individuals with a strong orientation towards environmental and Deeping of a model.
empathy and a willingness to participate in ecological protection ac In the field of tourism-related research, MGB has been modified by
tivities (Khoshkam et al., 2016). These tourists are highly environmen researchers through incorporating some new constructs (Meng and
tally aware and actively engage in environmental activities. Therefore, Choi, 2016; C. K. Lee et al., 2020; Song et al., 2017). For example, Lee
pro-environmental tourist behavior is an important factor in under et al. (2012) developed an extended MGB to examine potential tourists’
standing the decision-making process of wetland tourists. Environ decision-making process by incorporating the construct of perception of
mental empathy and knowledge of environmental protection are influenza A H1N1 and nonpharmaceutical interventions during the
believed to be effective variables in the formation of pro-environmental widespread of H1N1 in 2009. Song et al. (2012) developed an MGB
behavior. While previous research has explored tourists’ model by incorporating environmentally friendly perception to the
pro-environmental decision-making processes, no study has investigated revisit intention of mud festival tourists. C. K. Lee et al. (2020) extended
the roles of sustainable intelligence (SI) and environmental empathy the MGB model by adding two constructs, cultural worldview and
(EE) in influencing wetland park tourists’ decision-making processes. authenticity, to test the model in the context of a heritage tourism
Therefore, this study extends the MGB by incorporating three constructs destination. In 2021, Xu et al. developed an Extended MGB to investi
(pro-environmental tourism behavior, environmental empathy, and gate the role of non-pharmaceutical interventions in predicting cruise
sustainable intelligence), which are expected to enhance the under travelers’ decision-making process during the COVID-19 pandemic. Li
standing of tourists’ revisit intentions. and Su (2022) extended MGB model by incorporating novelty seeking
In addition, researchers have also done a lot of quantitative re and food authenticity to examine the decision-making process of youth
searches for examining factors influencing tourists’ pro-environmental travelers at night markets, and these findings revealed that these addi
behaviors in western countries; however, few have done for identi tional constructs had a positive influence on all MGB constructs to some
fying factors and their relationships under Chinese wetland context., extent. In our research, we extended the original MGB model by incor
This research aims to fill this gap by examining the influencing factors of porating sustainable intelligence and environmental empathy to study
Chinese wetland tourists’ revisit intentions. In specific, the aims of this the pro-environmental behavior of wetland park tourists.
research include: (1) to explore the importance of sustainable intelli
gence and environmental empathy in influencing tourists’ desire and 2.2. Wetland tourism and MGB
intention to revisit wetlands, (2) to identify key antecedents influencing
wetland tourists’ desire and revisit intention, and (3) to verify the The MGB model was chosen as the framework for this research to
explanatory power and accuracy of the extended conceptual model investigate wetland tourists’ pro-environmental behavior, and the rea
through modeling comparison with original MGB model under the sons are as followings: firstly, compared with previous TRA and TPB
context of wetland. model, MGB is a comprehensive and excellent framework for describing
In addition, this research examines the mediating role of desire in the tourists’ behavior. While TRA and TPB have been used in some social-
relationship between sustainable intelligence, environmental empathy, psychological research on tourists’ behavior, the MGB model has
and tourists’ revisit intention. This study not only contributes to the demonstrated greater explanatory power in various tourism contexts,
theoretical framework of nature-based destination tourism by extending including tourism destinations and hospitality research (Lee et al., 2012;
the original MGB but also provides a comprehensive understanding of Meng and Choi, 2016). In fact, MGB was frequently employed to
the roles of sustainable intelligence and environmental empathy in examine tourists’ behavior in sustainable tourism, which shares simi
wetland park tourists’ decision-making processes. The findings of this larities with wetland-based tourism, such as environmental concern,
study will have practical implications for practitioners in better under green activities and low-carbon trip, etc. (Zhang et al., 2021; Song et al.,
standing wetland park tourists and meeting their demands. 2012). Therefore, MGB model can be used in this research as an effective
model for understanding wetland tourists’ pro-environmental behavior.
Secondly, the features of wetland tourism justify the use of MGB
model in this research. As an emerging concept, wetland tourism
2
encompasses sustainable elements, such as low-carbon transportation, further found that individuals with a high level of sustainable intelli
environmental empathy, and environmental concern, interact with wild gence are more inclined to adopt sustainable tourism practices and
animal and plants, rural life and agricultural production, etc. (Egresi revisit natural-based destinations. Park et al. (2022) found that when
et al., 2021; Diaz-Christiansen et al., 2016) These emerging and unique tourists understand that their knowledge and commitment can bring
features differentiate wetland tourism from traditional mass tourism. As environmental benefits, they are more likely to engage in environmen
a result, tourists may have environmental-related goals during their tally conscious behaviors in hospitality and leisure services. Specifically,
journey and may experience differences and inconveniences, which they developed an extended TPB model by adding three constructs
becomes key component of past behavior (Lee and Hsieh, 2016). Thus, -residents’ support, Sustainable intelligence and behavioral intention -
from this point of view, MGB model, which was used to examine tour to examining tourist’s decision-making process when paying compara
ists’ travelling goal and previous behavior, is a suitable framework for ble hotel prices for a green hotel. The results indicated that sustainable
studying wetland tourists’ pro-environmental behavior. intelligence is a significant antecedent contributing to tourists’
Thirdly, as a new emerging tourism phenomenon, wetland tourism pro-environmental behavior, which in turn influences their intention to
has certain weaknesses and inconveniences, such as deficient recrea engage in such behavior. Based on the above, the study then put forward
tional facilities and being far from city centers (Wang et al., 2012). the following hypotheses in a wetland setting.
Tourists must overcome these inconveniences to undertake such a
H1. Environmental empathy has a positive influence on pro-
journey. On the other hand, wetland tourism also brings economic
environmental tourism behaviors during wetland tourism.
benefits and job opportunities for local citizens while supporting sus
tainable tourism development (Xu and He, 2022). Encouraging tourists H2. Sustainable intelligence has a positive influence on pro-
to participate in wetland tourism is therefore necessary. To achieve this, environmental tourism behaviors during wetland tourism.
it is crucial to fully study tourists’ past behavior and habits, as they act as
critical antecedents that stimulate tourists’ continuous behavior. On this 2.3.2. Pro-environmental tourism behaviors and desire
occasion, MGB framework, which incorporates the analysis of tourists’ Lee et al. (2021) argued that individuals with a high natural orien
past behavior, is considered as an ideal model for this research. tation and environmental consciousness would have a strong desire for
experiencing environmentally friendly products and service. Compared
2.3. Hypothetical relationships with individuals who are not environmentally oriented, those with a
high environmental consciousness are more likely to purchase green
2.3.1. Environmental empathy, sustainable intelligence, and pro- products and services. Thus, environmentally friendly tourism behavior
environmental tourism behaviors refers to tourists’ behavior aiming at pursuing environmentally friendly
The current study expanded the applicability of the original MGB and resource conservation.
model and enhanced its predictive power by incorporating three envi Previous studies have proved the influence of environmental friendly
ronmentally related constructs: environmental empathy, sustainable tourism behavior on tourists’ desire, for instance, Song et al. (2012)
intelligence, and pro-environmental tourism behaviors. These three stated that festival visitors who have a high environmental conscious
antecedents were considered important elements for evaluating tourists’ mind toward nature are more likely to perform environmental -friendly
pro-environmental intention and behavior (e.g., Markle, 2013; Larson behaviors and think more about their impact on natural environment,
et al., 2015; Lange and Dewitte, 2019; Menardo et al., 2020). and furthermore, tend to have a high desire to revisit a natural-based
Environmental empathy, as defined by Albelda and Sgaramella tourism destination. Lavuri et al. (2023) examined sustainable con
(2015), refers to the ability to experience and feel environmental issues, sumption in China and India using stimulus-organism-response theory,
and it had influenced on peoples’ attitude and behaviors toward the they found that pro-environmental self-identity had a positive effect on
environment (Cheng and Monroe, 2012; Islam et al., 2019; Kim and consumers’ pro-environmental behavior and desire in both countries. In
Cooke, 2021; Raza et al., 2021). For example, witnessing wildlife this regard, the following hypothesis is proposed.
mistreatment may enhance tourists’ environmental empathy and moti
H3. Pro-environmental tourism behaviors have a positive influence on
vate them to take action to protect them (Cheng and Monroe, 2012).
desire for wetland tourism.
Moreover, Cheng and Monroe (2012) argued that the feeling of the duty
for the protection of the natural world contributes most to peoples’
2.3.3. Attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, and desire
pro-environmental intention. Raza et al. (2021) considers environ
An attitude refers to an individual’s stable psychological tendency
mental empathy as an effective construct for understanding tourists’
towards a specific object (person, idea, emotion or event, etc.) (Ajzen,
environmental conscious behaviors because most eco-friendly leisure
1991). When the outcome is favorable, individuals may have a strong
behaviors are related to people’s belief. They believe that their efforts
willingness to engage in corresponding behavior (Ajzen, 1991). Conse
and measures can benefit the living condition of plants and animals.
quently, the desire to conduct the act was incorporated into increase the
Numerous studies have shown that tourists with a high level of envi
predictive power in explaining intention, for it was the main predictor to
ronmental empathy are more likely to participate in eco-friendly be
conduct an action (Kim et al., 2012; Yim and Byon, 2020). From a
haviors, such as waste reduction, low-carbon travel, and purchasing
theoretical perspective, desire serves as the primary predictor of inten
green products.
tion and mediates the effects of attitude, subjective norms, and antici
Sustainable intelligence, as defined by López-Sánchez and Pulido-
pated emotions. Therefore, attitudes indirectly influence the intention to
Fernández (2016), refers to the inherent capacity, the possession of
engage in a certain behavior through desire in the MGB model.
which motivated visitors to apply knowledge and skills for sustainable
A subjective norm refers to the perceived social pressure to engage in
tourism and adopt pro-environmental measures” (p. 61). From this
a specific behavior. In modern society, individuals are often influenced
perspective, this definition highlights tourists’ inherent ability to apply
by others, such as friends, relatives, and colleagues, and their opinions
knowledge for environmental protection.
can shape individuals’ perceptions. Similar to attitudes, an individual’s
Lee et al. (2021) argue that tourists with high sustainable intelli
subjective norm indirectly influences behavioral intentions through
gence are more likely to participate in pro-environmental initiatives
desire (Perugini and Bagozzi, 2001).
during their journey. Their intellectual understanding of sustainability
Perceived behavior control refers to an individual’s confidence or
proves beneficial for engaging in sustainable tourism. Additionally, L′
ability to engage in a behavior. Unlike attitudes and subjective norms,
opez-S′ anchez and Pulido–Fern’ andez (2016) cited that sustainability
perceived behavior control is considered a non-volitional aspect. Spe
intelligence could be divided into three groups, based on tourists’ sus
cifically, the strength of an individual’s intention to engage in a behavior
tainable knowledge, levelof commitment and capacity. Their research
3
is influenced by their available resources and abilities. Previous re negative anticipated emotions are hypothesized to influence tourists’
searches have verified its important role in forming intention, and desire and behavior in wetland parks.
subsequently affects decision-making in the TPB (Meng and Choi, 2016;
H7. Positive anticipated emotion has a positive influence on desire for
Yim and Byon, 2020). For instance, Song et al. (2012) discussed that
wetland tourism.
even when attitudes and subjective norms are neutral, individuals may
still have the intention to engage in certain behaviors. From this H8. Negative anticipated emotion has a positive influence on desire for
perspective, it can be assumed that the influence of perceived behavior wetland tourism.
control cannot be neglected, as it reinforces desires and subsequent
actions in the MGB (Leone et al., 2004; Meng and Choi, 2016; Lee et al., 2.3.5. Frequency of past behavior, desire, and intention
2012). Frequency of past behavior refers to the habitual and persistent
The MGB model has also been applied in tourism-related research, behavior, and previous researches have stated that this type of persistent
and numerous empirical studies have indicated that three main con behavior would promote individuals’ desire and behavioral intentions
structs - attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavior control - are (Yim and Byon, 2020; Chiu and Cho, 2022).In Yim and Byon (2020)’s
critical factors in the formation of desire (Lee et al., 2012; Song et al., view, frequency of past behavior is a critical factor influencing in
2012; Kim et al., 2012). For example, Song et al. (2012) applied MGB dividuals’ desire and intention towards a certain behavior. Numerous
model to understand festival visitors’ decision-making process for studies also have demonstrated that desire acts as a significant variable
environmentally friendly tourism and the result showed that both atti in predicting behavioral intention. In Ajzen (1991)’s view, desire func
tude and subjective norms had affected visitors’ behavioral intention tions as proximal cause of intention, compared with other factors in the
through the mediation of desire. Diez-Valcarce et al. (2012) also MGB model, and other variables are medicated by desire.
extended the MGB model under the retailing context. Their findings In the empirical studies, numerous studies have proved a relation
supported the significant roles of attitude, subjective norms, and ship among these three variables. For example, in Chen (2013) study, it
perceived behavior control in shaping customers’ purchasing intentions revealed that desire was a significant predictor of international pas
indirectly through desire. Moreover, studies in the field of tourism have sengers’ intention to participate in carbon offset programs. Han and
also demonstrated the potential relationship between these factors and Yoon (2015) also investigated the tourists’ attitude toward green
tourists’ sightseeing behavior. For instance, Song et al. (2012) con consumerism, and the result showed that their frequency of past
ducted a study on low-carbon tourism behavior and found that tourists’ behavior was an important predictor of their intention to repurchas.
attitudes, perceived control, and subjective norms significantly influ Furthermore, some studies also investigated the relationship among
enced their behavior. Similarly, in a study on green hospitality, Han and desire, intention and past behavior under the context of natural-based
Yoon (2015) suggested that attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived tourism. Song et al. (2012) conducted a survey on tourists’ intentions
behavior control positively influenced guests’ intentions to stay in green to participate in environmental activities, and the results showed a
hotels. Wong et al. (2021) emphasized the importance of attitudes, positive and causal relationship among desire, intention, and past
subjective norms, and perceived behavior control in individuals’ behavior. In the field of slow tourism, Meng and Choi (2016) examined
involvement in green events. Concluded above, this research posits the hiking tourists’ decision-making processes using the MGB framework,
following hypothesis. and the result revealed that there was a positive relationship between
desire and behavioral intention. In the context of international tourism,
H4. Attitudes have a positive influence on desire for wetland tourism.
Yi et al. (2020) stated that tourists’ desire to adopt the sharing economy
H5. Subjective norms have a positive influence on desire for wetland has been found to positively influence their intention to use Airbnb
tourism. during international trips. Therefore, based on above, this paper posits
the following hypotheses.
H6. Perceived behavior control has a positive influence on desire for
wetland tourism. H9. Past behavior has a positive influence on desire for wetland
tourism.
2.3.4. Anticipated emotions and desire
H10. Past behavior has a positive influence on intention for revisiting
Anticipated emotions refer to the affective consequence that one
the wetland park.
expects to experience while successfully achieving a particular goal
(Leone et al., 2004)). An individual may anticipate future emotional H11. Desire has a positive influence on intention for revisiting the
state and form corresponding emotion states which are either positive or wetland park.
negative. (Hsu et al., 2006). Song et al. (2012) stated that both positive
and negative anticipated emotions are regarded as the main factors 2.3.6. Perceived behavior control and behavior intention for revisiting
influencing the formation of desire and intention. As a non-volitional construct, Perceived behavior control is related
Empirical studies have demonstrated that the two anticipated emo with perceived ease or difficulty of completing a specific task, and
tions indeed affect the formation of desire. In Kim et al. (2012)’s view, mainly involves one’s conviction about their ability and capacity to
both positive and negative anticipated emotions have significantly perform this behavior (Lee et al., 2012). It is correlated with the locus of
influenced international tourist’ desire. For instance, Chen (2013) control. In specific, the willingness of individuals to engage in a certain
investigated international airline passengers participating in carbon behavior is significantly influenced by the context of resource avail
offset programs, and the results showed a positive relationship between ability and opportunities. Meng and Choi (2016) also added that in
positive anticipated emotions and tourists’ desire. Similarly, in the study dividuals may have the intention to engage in certain behaviors if they
of hotel guests’ behavior, research has also shown that anticipated feel capable of completing them, even if their attitude and subjective
emotions of guests do influence their behavior. For example, Han and norms are entirely neutral. Thus, it is assumed that perceived behavior
Yoon (2015) investigated green consumerism in the context of hotels control, which reflects the perceived difficulty or ease of completing a
and restaurants, and the results showed that both positive and negative certain behavior, reinforces individuals’ behavioral intentions in the
anticipated emotions play a critical role in shaping guests’ desire for MGB (Kim et al., 2020; Li and Su, 2022). Therefore, this study posits the
behavior. Song et al. (2017) in their study of visa exemption and Lee following hypothesis.
et al. (2018) in their study of pop culture tourism, found that positive
H12. Perceived behavioral control has a positive influence on behav
and negative anticipated emotions positively influence desire.
ioral intention for revisiting the wetland park.
Concluded above, based on the literature review, both positive and
4
In summary, the proposed model is presented in Fig. 1. This extended with relevant instructions not to destroy wetland environment”) (see
model includes the original variables of MGB and new predictors (i.e., Table 3).
environmental empathy, sustainable intelligence, and pro- The constructs of original MGB model were also modified to fit the
environmental tourism behavior). wetland research context. For example, the respondents’ attitude toward
the wetland were measured with four items (e.g., “I think visiting the
3. Research design wetland site is a [positive, valuable, beneficial, and necessary]
behavior”). Similarly, the subjective norms were also measured with
A mixed-methods approach was adopted for this research to obtain four items (e.g., “Most people who are important to me [agree with,
quantitative data in the form of SEM analysis and qualitative data in the support, understand, and recommend] that I visit the wetland site”).
form of thematic coding. The basic rationale for adopting a mixed- Anticipated emotions were measured with 8 items, among which 4 items
methods approach in this research is that the combination of quantita were about positive emotions and 4 items were about negative emotions
tive and qualitative methods can complement and reinforce each other, (e.g., “If I revisit the wetland site, I will be excited,” and “If I can’t revisit
test the hypotheses, and enhance the validity of the research (Teddlie the wetland site, I will be angry”). The construct of perceived behavior
and Yu, 2007), thus this type of approach was widely used in educa control consisted of four items(e.g., “I am confident that if I want, I can
tional and business research. visit the wetland site,” “I am capable of attending the wetland site,” “I
have enough resources (money) to visit the wetland site,” and “I have
enough time to visit the wetland site”).
3.1. Quantitative survey The construct of desire was measured with four items, (e.g., “I
[would like to, hope to] revisit the wetland site,” and “I [want to have
3.1.1. Measurements fun or experience an unforgettable memory] when I revisit the wetland
A broad and extensive literature review on tourists’ decision-making site”), Frequency of past behavior was assessed using a single item (i.e.,
behavior and pro-environmental behaviors was conducted to elicit a “How many times have you been to an wetland site?”). Behavioral
preliminary list of measurement items Kaiser and Gutscher (2003); Lam intention to revisit the mud festival was operationalized with four items
and Hsu (2004); De Groot and Steg (2007); Song et al. (2012); Zhang (e.g., “I will make an effort to revisit the wetland site in the near
et al. (2021). To promote validity, multiple indicators were used in this future”).
study to measure the theoretical constructs. It can cover different aspects This item, frequency of past behavior was coded as a continuous
of these constructs. In addition, in order for enhancing validity of this variable, while all other items were evaluated on a 5-point Likert scale.
measurement, the researchers asked five wetland scholars and tourism
managers to pre-review and re-define the generated items, this ensure 3.1.2. Data collection
that these items were appropriate to measure items for wetland. Chengdu-Chongqing economic circle is a region in western China
Furthermore, a pre-test was conducted with 32 tourists who had visited with the highest level of economic development and great market po
the wetland sites. The ambiguous items were identified and re-defined tential (Wang et al., 2022). It has recently been identified as one of the
for clarity description. best areas for outdoor recreation. This position presents significant po
Environmental empathy, sustainable intelligence, and pro- tential opportunities for promoting its outdoor leisure destinations.
environmental tourism behaviors were three newly added constructs, Thus, the population of this research was Chinese tourists who have
and each was measured with several questions (e.g., “I get involved with visited wetland park in Chongqing of China. To ensure the independence
the feelings of the suffering animals and plants”; “I think that activity for and representativeness of the sample, six wetland parks located in
the sustainability of ecotourism destination is important”; “I comply different areas of Chongqing province were selected as the research
sites: Hanfeng Lake National Wetland Park, Longhe National Wetland
Park, Caiyun Lake Wetland Park, Fujiang National Wetland Park, Xiuhu
Wetland Park, and Shuanggui Lake National Wetland Park. An on-site
survey was conducted from Feb 22 to Feb 26, 2023, which coincided
with the winter holiday when the majority of citizens were engaged in
recreational activities. 12 trained undergraduates majoring in hospi
tality management were selected as field researchers to collect the pri
mary data. To ensure an appropriate sample for this research, random
sampling was employed to the collect the data and the students were
required to collect data at different Scenic spots from Wednesday to
Sunday.
The field researchers conveniently approached potential re
spondents, introduced the purpose of the research program, and
distributed questionnaires to those who provided verbal consent. The
survey was conducted on a voluntary basis to ensure that tourists did not
feel obligated to participate. Considering high temperature during the
survey, the participants were given a kind of cold drink named ’Nongfu
Spring’ after completed the questionnaire. The field researcher distrib
uted 411 questionnaires and received 376 completed questionnaires,
resulting in a response rate of 91.5%. During the process of data
screening, 23 questionnaires were eliminated due to the fact of Critical
data loss. therefore, a total of 353 questionnaires were deemed valid for
statistical analysis. The sample descriptions of the respondents were
described in Table 1. The sample consisted of 51.6% male and 48.4%
female respondents. The most frequently reported age group was 31–40
years (29.18%), followed by 41–50 years (23.51%) and 51–60 years
(18.41%), indicating that middle-aged and elderly tourists constitute the
Fig. 1. Research model. majority of wetland park visitors. Furthermore, more than two-fifths
5
Table 1 Additionally, their understanding of the differences between wetland

Sample description. park tourism and traditional mass tourism models was examined, and
Characteristic n % Characteristic n % the factors influencing wetland tourist revisit intention were also
considered. This questionnaire protocol was pilot tested among ten
Gender Education
Female 168 48.4% High School 103 29.18% hospitality postgraduates in advance for valid test.
Male 185 51.6% Bachelor’s degree 154 43.63%
Age Master and above 96 27.20% 3.2.2. Data collection and analysis
18 to 20 32 9.07% Monthly income Data was collected on spot. The questionnaire was printed and then
(RMB)
21 to 30 56 15.86% <2000 57 16.15%
distributed to respondents during their journey. All the interviews were
31 to 40 103 29.18% 2000–3999 127 35.98% completed voluntarily. Data was analyzed using thematic coding.
41 to 50 83 23.51% 4000–5999 96 27.19% Themes were identified according to the study variables. The most
51 to 60 65 18.41% 6000 and above 73 20.68% frequently mentioned themes as well as the similarities among themes
61 and older 14 3.97% Marital status
provided additional support for the quantitative findings. Member
Occupation Single 104 29.46%
Enterprise employee 183 51.84% Married 235 66.57% checking was also utilized with the quantitative findings to further
Governmental 35 9.92% Divorced 14 3.97% validate the responses.
employee
Public institutions 42 11.90%
4. Results
Self-employed 80 22.66%
Other 13 3.68%
4.1. Quantitative phase
(43.63%) of the respondents held a Bachelor’s degree, followed by those 4.1.1. Measurement model
who had obtained a master’s degree or higher (27.20%). This reflects Mardia’s standardized coefficient was used to test if the data
that the participants have sufficient knowledge and intelligence, making assumed multivariate normality. In fact, the Mardia’s standardized co
them highly qualified for this survey. efficient of this measurement model was 42.92, much higher than the
criterion of 5, indicating that the collected data of this study were non-
3.1.3. Data analysis normally distributed (Byrne, 2006). In addition, Amos 24.0 was used to
SPSS 26 was used to analyze the quantitative data collected. firstly, test the mediating effects. The bootstrapping with 2000 samples was
this research used exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) to identify the performed, and bias-corrected confidence intervals at 95% confidence
underlying structure of the variables, and optimize the indicators of the level were estimated (Nevitt and Hancock, 2001). Therefore,
construct. secondly, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to es boot-strapping was adopted to estimate the SEM in the study. In addi
timate a measurement model of the EMGB variables. Thirdly, Structural tion, as presented in Table 4, the correlations among all the research
Equation Modeling (SEM) was then adopted to test the causal relation constructs were generally equal to or less than 0.75, indicating that data
ships among the variables, and the research hypotheses were tested. has no high multicollinearity (Green, 1978).
CFA was employed to evaluate this model and check data quality
3.2. Qualitative survey including reliability and validity. It can be seen from Table 2 that the
goodness-of-fit indices reaches a satisfactory level, thus the proposed
Although the quantitative component illustrates a possible effect of measurement model was proved to fit data well: χ 2 = 1578.96, S-Bχ 2 =
environmental empathy, sustainable intelligence, and pro- 893.417, df = 667, normed fit index (NFI) = 0.910, non-normed fit
environmental tourism behavior on the dependent variable tourists’ index (NNFI) = 0.959, comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.981, and root
revisit intention, further open-ended questions were necessary to gain mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.038. In addition,
additional insight into tourists’ frame of reference toward revisiting the Table 3 presented that Cronbach’s alpha value of each construct was
wetland parks. Therefore, a concurrent triangulation strategy was used above 0.7, indicating an acceptable level of reliability for this research
in which open-ended questions were distributed to self-selected partic model. The outcome above all support the statement that the multi-item
ipants at the end of the quantitative component. measures constructs used in this study are highly reliable.
The concurrent triangulation strategy was the chosen qualitative Table 4 presented the Discriminant and Convergent validity statis
method for this study because of its one phase adaptability. Since the tics. It can be seen from Table 4 that composite reliability (CR) values
survey was distributed on-spot, it was most feasible to include the exceeded the suggested cut-off of 0.70, and average variance extracted
qualitative component in the same phase as the quantitative component. (AVE) exceeded the suggested cut-off of 0.50, indicating a sufficient
This approach allowed for a shorter period of time for data collection as level of convergent validity for the measurement model (Hair et al.,
well as well-validated results. 2006).
While comparing MGB with EMGB, it can be seen that there was a
3.2.1. Sample and measurements significant difference between MGB and EMGB models (Table 5),
A follow-up qualitative survey with open-ended questions was Δχ 2（382） = 705.84. P < 0.001. The R2 for desire in the EMGB
designed after the quantitative research, the purpose was to achieve a improved from 0.719 to 0.738 by adding three eco-tourism variables (i.
fuller understanding of the data obtained from the previous phase, e., environmental empathy, sustainable intelligence, and environ-
quantitative phase. At the end of the quantitative phase, participants mentally friendly tourism behaviors). It indicated that EMGB per
were asked if they would be willing to answer additional questions formed better than the MGB at explaining tourists’ desire to revisit the
related to their attitudes and behavior towards wetland park tourism. A wetland destination sites.
total of 60 respondents from the sample were invited to participated in
this interview. 4.1.2. Structural model results and hypothesis testing
Eight open-ended questions were designed to investigate re As can be seen from Fig. 2, S–B χ 2 = 1091.895, df = 747, NFI =
spondents’ intention to revisit the national wetland park. These open- 0.903, NNFI = 0.964, CFI = 0.967, and RMSEA = 0.035, all these results
ended questions primarily addressed respondents’ travel experiences indicated that this proposed model fits data well. As to hypothesis
and pro-environmental behaviors at the wetland park, the challenges testing, hypotheses 1 and 2 states that environmental empathy and
and obstacles they encountered in their tourism practice, and the ben sustainable intelligence are positively related with Pro-environmental
efits and incentives that motivated them to engage in wetland tourism. tourism behaviors. Both predictor variables (βSI→PETB = 0.487, t =
6
Table 2
Goodness-of-fit indices.
χ2 S–B χ 2 df Normed S–B χ 2 NFI NNFI CFI RMSEA
Measurement model 1578.96 893.417 667 1.339 0.910 0.959 0.981 0.038
Structural model 1706.85 983.528 711 1.383 0.902 0.961 0.971 0.041
Suggested value ≤3 ≥0.9 ≥0.9 ≥0.9 ≤0.08
4.271, p < 0.01; βEE→PETB = 0.213, t = 2.161, p < 0.01) exerted a positive funds, imperfect infrastructure, and non-standard tourism management.
influence on pro-environmental tourism behavior. Thus, both H1 and H2 However, 82% of the sample expressed confidence in handling these
were supported. challenges due to their strong commitment to environmentalism.
In addition, the following predictor variables also exerted positive Through semi-interview, the majority of respondents asserted that the
influence on tourists’ desire (DE): attitude (AT) (βAT→DE = 0.165, t = main differences between wetland tourism and traditional mass tourism
2.170, p < 0.05), subjective norm (SN) (βSN→DE = 0.239, t = 3.495, p < lie in their emphasis on environmental protection and sustainable
0.01), positive anticipated emotion (PAE) (βPAE→DE = 0.462, t = 5.350, p tourism.
< 0.01), Negative anticipated emotion (NAE) (βNAE→DE = 0.146, t =
1.519, p < 0.05), pro-environmentally tourism behaviors (PETB) 4.2.2. Reasons for wetland tourism
(βEFTB→DE = 0.135, t = 3.156, p < 0.01), and frequency of past behavior Reasons refers to the incentives that stimulate tourists to visit the
(FPB) (βFPB→DE = 0.119, t = 3.620, p < 0.05), supporting H3, H4, H5, H7, wetland park. Participants’ responses encompass a wide range of
H8 and H9. However, only one predictor variable, that is PBC (βPBC→DE incentive factors, including sustainable ecology, resource conservation,
= -0.073, t = − 1.598) was found not significantly in relation with environmental protection, regional economic development, experi
tourists’ desire to revisit the wetland parks, that is to say, H6 was encing natural resources, broadening perspectives, engaging in physical
rejected. exercise, fostering harmony with nature, and establishing a connection
Besides, other predictors related to behavior intention (BI) were also with nature.
tested. PBC (βPBC→BI = 0.193, t = 2.970, p < 0.01), Desire (DE) (βDE→BI = The most frequently mentioned sub-theme was environmental ben
0.738, t = 9.179, p < 0.01), Frequency of past behavior (FPB) (βFPB→BI = efits, in other word, desire to protect the environment. In specific, 56 out
0.161, t = 0.918, p < 0.01) were all proved positively significant in of 60 participants have mentioned the benefits and advantages brought
predicting tourists Behavior intention to revisit the wetland sites, Thus by wetland pro-environmental behavior, such as Preserve biodiversity,
both H10, H11 and H12 were supported. environmental protection, natural resource conservation, and sustain
In order to describe the change of dependent variable resulting from able development. As one middle-aged tourist stated “I feel very grati
one-unit change of an independent variable, total effect on each fied while plants thrive because of our love, and the cleaner
dependent variable was also conducted in this study. Seen from Table 6, environment along with the presence of delightful plants, serves as our
desire (DE) was proved to be the most powerful antecedent in predicting motivation”, this statement indicated that desire and positive antici
BI, with the largest total impact (0.738). Followed by FPB (0.249), PAE pated emotions (PAE) indeed have positive influence on tourists’ revisit
(0.219), SN (0.186), PBC (0.145), AT (0.135), PETB (0.104), SI (0.043) intention.
and EE (0.029). While evaluating the effect of Predicting DE, with the The second sub-theme was interpersonal benefits. More than half (43
largest total impact (0.462), PAE was considered as the most powerful out of 60) also noted that relatives and friends also play a critical role in
antecedent in predicting DE, followed by SN (0.239), AT (0.165), PETB shaping their desire and revisiting intention. As one elderly participant
(0.135), FPB (0.119), SI (0.061) and EE (0.035). In terms of assessing commented, “In addition to caring for the environment, pro-
PETB, SI (0.487) was a more significant factor than EE (0.213). environmental tourism behavior also enables partners to show greater
concern for other team members than ever before. This, in turn, con
tributes to a comfortable travel atmosphere and ultimately leads to
4.2. Qualitative phase
harmony and stronger interpersonal relationships”. As to the reasons, as
one respondent noted, China is a society of collectivism, citizens are
The survey of open-ended questionnaire in qualitative phase was
expected to engage in good deeds with their partners, which also serves
grounded on the outcomes of initial quantitative research. The analysis
as a means of enhancing personal relationships. This statement supports
of the eight questions was done by thematic coding. Themes were
that subjective norms (SN) were positive predictor of tourists’ revisit
identified by reading each participant’s response to the open-ended
intention.
questions and generated inductively from the raw information. Based
The third subtheme was individual benefits, in specific, individual
on participants’ response, together with the research questions, the
demand for understanding biodiversity, mastering environment-related
following three subjects were identified: wetland tourism, reasons for
knowledge and acquiring basic wilderness survival skills. 41 out of 60
wetland tourism, and factors for revisit.
participants cited that wetland parks provide an ideal platform for ed
ucation on the relationship between humans and nature and for pro
4.2.1. Wetland tourism
moting sustainable living.
Majority of respondents stated that wetland tourism is mainly about
pro-environment tourism, which refers to individual travel behaviors
4.2.3. Factors for revisit
including protecting wildlife’s, reducing resource waste, visiting green
The third theme of qualitative analysis was attributes of revisiting.
hotels and restaurants, etc. And based on the content analysis of re
Based on content analysis of respondents’ comments, two interesting
spondents’ comments, their environmental-related activities may
findings emerged. Firstly, expressions such as desire for pro-
include Garbage classification, water save, flowers and plants caring,
environmental tourism, happiness, relaxation, and sightseeing were
electrical energy saving, recycling, and sustainable transportation and
mentioned by more than 83% of respondents as contributing factors to
so on. Additionally, 32 female participants mentioned that the wide
their intention to revisit. Additionally, previous travel experiences
spread expansion of wetland parks has provided a new platform for pro-
played an important role in shaping tourists’ intention to revisit. 45 out
environmental tourism behavior, and these parks actively engage in
of 60 participants mentioned that their previous tourism experiences
environmental protection advocacy.
enriched their understanding of environmental protection and provided
As to the challenges of wetland tourism, respondents frequently
guidance for future actions.
mentioned challenges such as inconvenient transportation, insufficient
7
Table 3 Table 3 (continued )

Results of confirmatory factor analysis. Variables and measurement items Factor t-value Cronbach’s
Variables and measurement items Factor t-value Cronbach’s loadings α
loadings α
Factor 8: Perceived behavioral control 0.878
Factor 1: environmental empathy (EE) 0.893 (PBC)
I imagine how I would feel if I were the 0.923 18.031 I am confident that if I want, I can visit the 0.787 16.469
suffering animals and plants Wetland ecotourism destination.
I get involved with the feelings of the 0.931 19.603 I am capable of attending the Wetland 0.913 24.501
suffering animals and plants ecotourism destination.
I can very easily put myself in the place of 0.856 22.514 I have enough resources (money) to visit 0.827 15.231
the suffering animals and plants the Wetland ecotourism destination
I have tender, concerned feelings for the 0.849 18.918 I have enough time to visit the Wetland 0.779 17.118
suffering animals and plants ecotourism destination.
I feel the pain the suffering animals and 0.901 19.023 Factor 9: Desire (DE) 0.898
plants are experiencing I would like to revisit the Wetland 0.879 20.671
Factor 2: Sustainable intelligence (SI) 0.892 ecotourism destination.
I think that activity for the sustainability of 0.846 17.415 I want to have fun when I revisit the 0.859 20.011
Wetland ecotourism destination is Wetland ecotourism destination.
important I hope to revisit the Wetland ecotourism 0.892 20.793
I want to take action for sustainability 0.901 18.601 destination.
while sightseeing in Wetland park. I want to experience an unforgettable 0.853 21.204
I am willing to pay for Wetland park to 0.813 19.95 memory when I revisit the Wetland
become a sustainable tourist destination. ecotourism destination.
I try to understand Wetland park as a 0.913 17.955 Factor 10: Behavioral intention for 0.924
sustainable tourist destination. revisit (BI)
Factor 3: Pro-environmental tourism 0.901 I will make an effort to revisit the Wetland 0.814 21.159
behavior （ PETB）） ecotourism destination in the near
I comply with relevant instructions not to 0.913 17.026 future.
destroy wetland park environment. I have an intention to revisit the Wetland 0.856 20.113
When I see garbage in Wetland park, I put 0.893 20.368 ecotourism destination.
it in the trash can. I am willing to revisit the Wetland 0.882 20.701
I try to convince partners to protect the 0.899 19.163 ecotourism destination.
natural environment in Wetland park I am willing to spend time and money to 0.869 22.501
I try not to disrupt the fauna and flora of 0.921 16.849 revisit the Wetland ecotourism
Wetland park during my visit. destination.
Factor 4: Attitude (AT) 0.916
Note: All standardized factor loadings are significant at p < 0.001.
I think visiting the Wetland ecotourism 0.929 16.815
destination is a positive behavior.
I think visiting the Wetland ecotourism 0.898 22.396 Secondly, more than 60% of the respondents (n = 37) highlighted the
destination is a valuable behavior. importance of sustainable intelligence and environmental empathy.
I think visiting the Wetland ecotourism 0.889 20.098
destination is a beneficial behavior.
Sustainable intelligence was described as “an inherent capacity for
I think visiting the Wetland ecotourism 0.859 17.893 conducting a certain type of tourist pro-environmental behavior, it fo
destination is a necessary behavior. cuses on the tourists’ ability to apply knowledge and experience for
Factor 5: Subjective norm (SN) 0.925 sustainable tourism. Environmental empathy, on the other hand,
Most people who are important to me 0.883 22.522
referred to the emotional and psychological connection between
agree with that I visit the Wetland
ecotourism destination. humans and nature, serving as a foundation for pro-environmental
Most people who are important to me 0.899 23.025 tourism behavior. Sustainable intelligence was cited frequently more
support that I visit the Wetland for it can assist the tourists to overcome the destination sustainability
ecotourism destination. challenges and adapt their behavior, motivation, and expectations
Most people who are important to me 0.901 21.608
understand that I visit the Wetland
responsively and sensibly. In fact, from the perspective of personal at
ecotourism destination. tributes, self-efficacy plays a critical important role, for instance, the
Most people who are important to me 0.845 19.658 sustainable intelligence is the foundation of participating
recommend that I visit the Wetland environmental-protection related activities. 32 out of 60 participants
ecotourism destination.
indicated that the higher their level of sustainable intelligence, the more
Factor 6: Positive anticipated emotion 0.929
(PAE) likely they were to adopt pro-environmental behaviors. One respondent
If I revisit the Wetland ecotourism 0.887 18.541 noted that they would have much stronger stimulus for pro-
destination, I will be excited. environmental tourism behavior through the foundation of sustainable
If I revisit the Wetland ecotourism 0.898 21.461 intelligence. Another elderly tourist claimed that the sustainable intel
destination, I will be glad.
If I revisit the Wetland ecotourism 0.901 24.321
ligence and environmental empathy were enhanced by the interaction
destination, I will be satisfied. between human and Wetland Park and finally improve tourists’ pro-
If I revisit the Wetland ecotourism 0.903 24.011 environmental behavior. Furthermore, sustainable intelligence has
destination, I will be happy. stronger influence on tourism behavior, as it is the intrinsic qualification
Factor 7: Negative anticipated emotion 0.951
and competence for conducting pro-environmental behavior. Thus, only
(NAE)
If I can’t revisit the Wetland ecotourism 0.899 23.599 environmental empathy was not enough, and tourists should master
destination, I will be angry. some techniques and skills for pro-environmental tourism. This outcome
If I can’t revisit the Wetland ecotourism 0.917 26.039 is consistent with quantitively finding, which revealed that sustainable
destination, I will be disappointed. intelligence had a greater impact on tourist behavior than environ
If I can’t revisit the Wetland ecotourism 0.926 25.253
destination, I will be worried.
mental empathy.
If I can’t revisit the Wetland ecotourism 0.931 28.213
destination, I will be sad.
8
Table 4
Results of the measurement model.
Constructs EE SI PEB AT SN PAE NAE PBC DE BI
EE 1.000
SI 0.675 1.000
(0.586)
PETB 0.369 0.316 1.000
(0.112) (0.216)
AT 0.194 0.192 0.546 1.000
(0.037) (0.036) (0.298)
SN 0.168 0.147 0.383 0.636 1.000
(0.028) (0.021) (0.146) (0.404)
PAE 0.072 0.042 0.363 0.553 0.534 1.000
(0.005) (0.002) (0.131) (0.305) (0.285)
NAE 0.305 0.411 0.401 0.493 0.365 0.173 1.000
(0.117) (0.175) (0.168) (0.259) (0.133) (0.039)
PBC 0.591 0.653 0.294 0.298 0.319 0.311 0.375 1.000
(0.351) (0.404) (0.104) (0.102) (0.092) (0.088) (0.151)
DE 0.469 0.432 0.695 0.714 0.754 0.382 0.352 0.372 1.000
(0.201) (0.189) (0.481) (0.503) (0.619) (0.151) (0.135) (0.147)
BI 0.449 0.422 0.628 0.663 0.771 0.496 0.433 0.392 0.781a 1.000
(0.217) (0.186) (0.394) (0.481) (0.602) (0.254) (0.188) (0.163) (0.664)
Cronbach’s 0.893 0.892 0.901 0.916 0.925 0.929 0.951 0.878 0.898 0.924
alpha
CR 0.901 0.886 0.921 0.932 0.928 0.961 0.889 0.912 0.925 0.931
AVE 0.785 0.767 0.689 0.789 0.853 0.753 0.849 0.821 0.799 0.746
Note 1. a: Highest correlations between pairs of constructs; 2. The numbers in the parenthesis indicate squared correlation among latent constructs; 3. All correlations
aresignificant at p < 0.01; 4. Correlation coefficients are estimates from EQS; 5. CR = composite reliability; AVE = average variance extracted; 6. FPB (frequency of past
behavior) was not included in the measurement model because it was a single indicator. 6. EE = Environmental Empathy; SI=Sustainable Intelligence; PETB=Pro-
environmental Tourism Behavior; AT = Attitude; SN = Subjective Norm; PBC=Perceived Behavioral Control; PAE = Positive Anticipated Emotion; NAE= Negative
Anticipated Emotion; DE = Desire; BI= Behavioral Intention.
Table 5
Comparison between MGB and EMGB.
χ2 S–B χ 2 df Normed S–B χ2 NFI NNFI CFI RMSEA R2 for DE R2 for BI
MGB 1189.47 601.329 367 1.638 0.925 0.964 0.949 0.051 0.719 0.701
EMGB 1895.31 1102.896 749 1.472 0.905 0.965 0.951 0.045 0.738 0.710
Suggested value ≤3 ≥0.9 ≥0.9 ≥0.9 ≤0.08
Note: DE = desires; BI = behavioral intention.
4.3. Summary sustainable intelligence and pro-environmental behavior, into the orig
inal MGB.
In summary, six constructs, namely attitude (AT), subjective norms Through quantitative analysis, the Structured equitation modeling
(SN), positive anticipated emotions (PAE), negative anticipated emo findings demonstrated that(1) attitude, subject norms, positive/negative
tions (NAE), perceived environmental tourism benefits (PETB), and anticipated emotions were all proved to have significantly positive in
future pro-environmental behavior (FPB), played an important and fluence in predicting desire (DE), this finding was consistent with ma
positive role in shaping tourists’ desire to revisit wetland sites. Perceived jority of previous studies (Kim et al., 2012; Yim and Byon, 2020;
behavioral control (PBC) and desire to engage (DE) were significant Perugini and Bagozzi, 2001; Meng and Choi, 2016; Lee et al., 2012); (2)
antecedents in predicting tourists’ behavioral intentions to revisit the The FPB, frequency of past behavior was found to have a positive in
sites. Moreover, this construct, PETB was found to be a significant fluence on both desire and revisit intentions, this finding was also
positive and direct predictor of desire., which had an indirect impact on consistent with most previous studies (Han and Yoon, 2015; Yim and
tourists’ behavior intentions. This result finally demonstrated that visi Byon, 2020; Chiu and Cho, 2022); (3) Desire have a positive influence on
tors’ pro-environmental tourism behaviors have an influence on their revisit intention, and it is proved to be the strongest indicator predicting
desires, as well as the aforementioned antecedents, which have been re-visit intention behavior(Chen, 2013; Song et al., 2012; Meng and
tested in the MGB. Table 7 summarizes the research hypotheses. Choi, 2016); (4) PBC (perceived behavioral control) was proved to be
positive related with behavior intention, which was also supported by
5. Discussion, conclusion and implications previous studies(Lee et al., 2012; Meng and Choi, 2016). and (5) EE
(Environmental empathy) and SI (sustainable intelligence) all have a
5.1. Discussion and conclusion positive impact on tourists’ pro-environmental behavior (PETB). Addi
tionally, both EE and SI were proved to have significant and positive
With the continuous development of wetland parks in China, a indirect influence on desire and revisit behavioral intention. Further
growing number of researches have been conducted, however few re more, SI was found to have a higher indirect effect on desire and
searches have been conducted to holistically investigate the factors behavioral intention than EE. Generally, this research indicated that the
influencing wetland tourists’ revisit intention. To address this gap, this proposed MGB antecedents were important factors in predicting tour
research conducted a deeper understanding of tourists’ revisit intention ist’s intention to revisit wetland park.
by analyzing original antecedents of MGB model, and considering the However, no significant relationship was found between perceived
context of sustainable tourism, it also incorporating three important behavioral control (PBC) and desire (DE). PBC was found to be insig
environmental-related antecedents, environmental empathy, nificant related with desire, but positive significant with revisit-
9
addition, both PAE and NAE were found to have indirect influence on
revisit intention, indicating that the role of emotion state would not be
neglected in predicting behavioral intention (Lee et al., 2012).
Fourth, our results indicated that DE (0.738), FPB (0.249) and PAE
(0.219) had greater total impact on tourists’ revisit intention. In previ
ous studies employing the MGB (e.g., Perugini and Bagozzi, 2001; Song
et al., 2012; Taylor et al., 2009), desire was one of the predominant
variables explaining tourists’ decision-making processes. Furthermore,
in a wetland park tourism context, FPB and PAE also played a major role
in predicting revisiting intention. In other words, frequency of past
behavior, and the positive anticipated emotions had a greater role in
revisit intention than the original key variables in MGB. This finding is
consistent with Han and Ryu (2012) study concerning restaurant cus
tomers’ re-buying decision-making behavior.
5.2. Theoretical implication
This study presents new findings in the field of wetland tourists

decision-making process. Firstly, this research indicated that MGB is an
enhanced model of traditional TPB by incorporating three components:
anticipated emotions, desire and frequency of past behavior (Perugini
and Bagozzi, 2001). In specific, desire was identified as an important key
variable as a consequence of attitude, subject norms, positive and
negative anticipated emotions, and frequency of past behavior, and also
Table 7
Summary of hypotheses.
Hypotheses Result
Fig. 2. Findings from structural equation model (N = 353).
H1. Environmental empathy has a positive influence on pro- Supported
environmental tourism behaviors during wetland tourism.
intention. That is to say, tourists’ resource and capacities (i.e., time, H2. Sustainable intelligence has a positive influence on pro- Supported
money) exerted a strong influence on tourists’ revisit intention, not environmental tourism behaviors during wetland tourism.
H3. Pro-environmental tourism behaviors have a positive influence on Supported
through desire. This insignificant relationship was inconsistent with desire for wetland tourism.
previous reports (e.g., Lee et al., 2012; Meng and Choi, 2016; Perugini H4. Attitudes have a positive influence on desire for wetland tourism. Supported
and Bagozzi, 2001). Whereas This finding was also consistent with H5. Subjective norms have a positive influence on desire for wetland Supported
previous studies (Song et al., 2012). As PBC has long been known as an tourism.
H6. Perceived behavior control has a positive influence on desire for Rejected
important antecedent to both DE and BI, this inconsistency demon
wetland tourism.
strated that PBC may include certain inner factors (intelligence and H7. Positive anticipated emotion has a positive influence on desire for Supported
knowledge) and external issues (time and money) hindering the for wetland tourism.
mation of desire for wetland sustainable tourism. H8. Negative anticipated emotion has a positive influence on desire for Supported
Significant indirect relations among the variables were also found in wetland tourism.
H9. Past behavior has a positive influence on desire for wetland Supported
this model. Firstly, SI and EE influenced desire through PETB, and
tourism.
behavior intention through PETB and desire. That is, a tourist who own H10. Past behavior has a positive influence on intention for revisiting Supported
high level of sustainability intelligence and environmental empathy the wetland park.
tend to have a significant favorable attitude toward wetland, which in H11. Desire has a positive influence on intention for revisiting the Supported
wetland park.
turn resulting in higher possibility to revisit this wetland park (Lee et al.,
H12. Perceived behavioral control has a positive influence on Supported
2012). secondly, AT, SN, PAE, NAE, and FPB were found to have critical behavioral intention for revisiting the wetland park.
indirect influence on behavioral intention, mediated by desire. In
Table 6
Results of the structural equation modeling.
Direct effect Indirect effect Total effect
PETB DE BI PETB DE BI PETB DE BI

EE 0.213* – – 0.035* 0.029* 0.213* 0.035* 0.029*
SI 0.487** – – 0.051* 0.043* 0.487** 0.061* 0.043*
PETB – 0.135** – – – 0.104** – 0.135** 0.104**
AT – 0.165* – – – 0.135* – 0.165* 0.135*
SN – 0.239** – – – 0.186** – 0.239** 0.186**
PAE – 0.462** – – – 0.219** – 0.462** 0.219**
NAE – 0.146 – – – 0.112 – 0.061 0.112
PBC – − 0.073 0.193 – – − 0.048 – − 0.073 0.145**
DE – – 0.738** – – – – – 0.738**
FPB – 0.119* 0.161* – – 0.088** – 0.119* 0.249**
*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01.

Note: EE = Environmental Empathy; SI=Sustainable Intelligence; PETB=Pro-environmental Tourism Behavior; AT = Attitude; SN = Subjective Norm; PBC=Perceived
Behavioral Control; PAE = Positive Anticipated Emotion; NAE= Negative Anticipated Emotion; DE = Desire; BI= Behavioral Intention.
10
as an antecedent of intention in predicting tourists’ revisit intention recreational activities such as hiking, boat rafting, Walking, jogging,
behavior under the MGB framework. These positive relationships among picnicking and wildlife viewing. And tourists’ past visitation has an
the variables offer valuable insights for wetland management based on important positive influence on their desire and revisit intention. These
the individual characteristics of tourists. findings reveal that tourists’ past visit experience with these leisure
Secondly, this research initiatively developed an EMGB model within activities would form strong desire and intention for revisit. thus, the
the field of wetland research. And this research confirms the significant wetland managers should develop a variety of recreational activities in
direct and indirect relationship among various variables in predicting wetland park, which could evoke memory and foster strong place
tourists’ revisit behavior by incorporating three key variables. It offers a attachment to the destination sites. For instance, fishing, hunting,
comprehensive perspective on the significant relationships among swimming, boating, and camping should also be developed and peri
various variables and contributes to a deeper understanding of the odically promoted to the target market.
existing literature on tourists’ decision-making processes. Lastly, the research findings indicate that desire not only has a highly
Thirdly, this research highlights the important role of environmental significant positive influence on tourists’ intention to revisit, but also
empathy together with sustainable intelligence in predicting tourists’ serves as a critical mediator between attitude, subjective norm, antici
revisit behavior. The SEM analysis revealed that both environmental pated emotions, and behavioral intention. The finding will assist
empathy and sustainable intelligence are crucial factors for wetland wetland practitioners to recognize the importance of desire in wetland-
tourists, as they shape pro-environmental attitudes and desires while tourists’ decision-making process. Therefore, wetland managers should
improving their decision-making efficiency (Meng and Choi, 2016; Lee advertise environmental-friendly pictures and beautiful image of the
et al., 2012). This study suggests that environmental empathy and sus wetland to the public. Social media platforms including WeChat, weibo
tainable intelligence should be regarded as significant additional vari and Tiktok could be adopted to reach a broad audience, particularly the
ables in tourists’ decision-making processes. Thus, this study makes a younger generation, and stimulate their desire to visit. Furthermore,
significant theoretical contribution as the first attempt to develop an managers should offer a variety of recreational activities, pro-
EMGB model by integrating sustainability issues into the MGB environmental programs, and educational courses to create a lasting
framework. impression in tourists’ minds and ultimately stimulate their desire to
Fourthly, this study employed a sample of tourists visiting wetland revisit.
parks, which are considered the primary target market for sustainable
tourism. Limited research has focused on this particular group of tour 5.4. Limitations
ists, and this study expands upon previous literature by providing a
description of their tourism consumption profile and leisure decision- This study has several research limitations that could be addressed in
making process. This includes examining their pro-environmental con future studies Firstly, the results of this study may not be generalizable
sumption attitudes, behaviors, and psychological preferences. Hence, to other nature-based tourist destinations due to the limited data
this study specifically focuses on describing and researching this collected from only six wetland parks in Chongqing, China. Hence, it is
distinctive interest group, thereby contributing to the existing literature recommended to conduct additional research using the EMGB in other
on tourists’ decision-making processes within the context of wetland nature-based tourist destinations to generalize the findings. Considering
tourism. the rapid expansion of wetland parks, cross-regional studies in diverse
geographical locations would enhance external validity. Secondly, this
5.3. Managerial implications study successfully extended the original MGB in a wetland-based setting
by incorporating eco-friendly tourism constructs. future researchers
The findings of this study indicate that it is essential for wetland should consider including additional important variables that were not
researchers and practitioners to recognize the significant role of envi accounted for in this model to explain the process of tourists’ intention
ronmental empathy (EE) and sustainable intelligence (SI) as important formation Therefore, future studies should incorporate additional crit
predictors in understanding the decision-making process of wetland ical constructs to gain a clearer understanding of tourists’ decision-
tourists. Specifically, it was found that both EE and SI have a positive making process regarding eco-friendly tourism.
influence on visitors’ engagement in pro-environmental tourism
behavior, which subsequently affects their desire and intention to Author contribution
revisit. Therefore, practitioners should focus their marketing strategies
on improving and enhancing their reputation for providing environ G.C. Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Data curation,
mentally conscious and eco-friendly experiences, thereby promoting an Writing – original draft preparation, All authors have read and agreed to
image of environmental protection. In specific, promoting the environ the published version of the manuscript. N.R. Conceptualization, Soft
mentally friendly and sustainable aspects of tourism products to the ware, All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the
target market, organizing pro-environmental activities, and imple manuscript. M.Z, Methodology, Writing – original draft preparation, All
menting environmental protection training programs can enhance authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manu
tourists’ environmental awareness and ultimately influence their deci script, S.L, Validation, Writing – review & editing, All authors have read
sion to revisit wetland parks … and agreed to the published version of the manuscript, B.Y, Validation,
Secondly, given that both environmental empathy and sustainable Formal analysis, Writing – review & editing, All authors have read and
intelligence contribute to the development of tourists’ pro- agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
environmental behavior, it is important to focus on strategies to
enhance tourists’ environmental consciousness. Wetland Tourism Funding
practitioners should provide tourists with various environmental re
sources, educational materials to increase tourists’ knowledge of envi This research was supported by the Social Organization Project of
ronmental protection and sustainable tourism. That is to say, regular Chongqing Federation of Social Sciences (No.2021SZ24), Science and
training program should be established to increase tourists’ environ Technology Research Program of Chongqing Municipal Education
mental awareness, these environmental courses should be available both Commission (No. KJQN202101213), and Humanities and Social Sci
online and offline, and the purpose of them is to raise public awareness ences Research Program of Chongqing Municipal Education Commission
of environmental tourism activities and ultimately increase their (Nos. 22SKGH338 and 22SKGH336), Graduate Education and Teaching
intention to revisit. Reform Research Program of Chongqing Municipal Education Com
Thirdly, this study found that participants visited wetland mainly for mission (No.yjg223131), and Higher Education Teaching Reform
11
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Journal of Cleaner Production 419 (2023) 138288

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Cleaner Production

The effects of environmental empathy and sustainable intelligence on

1. Introduction on wetland mainly focused on park planning and construction, Land

Table 1 Additionally, their understanding of the differences between wetland

Table 3 Table 3 (continued )

Note: DE = desires; BI = behavioral intention.

5.2. Theoretical implication

This study presents new findings in the field of wetland tourists

PETB DE BI PETB DE BI PETB DE BI

*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01.

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Wetland

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Wetland

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

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Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

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Wetland

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Journal of Cleaner Production 419 (2023) 138288

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Cleaner Production

The effects of environmental empathy and sustainable intelligence on

1. Introduction on wetland mainly focused on park planning and construction, Land­

Table 1 Additionally, their understanding of the differences between wetland

Table 3 Table 3 (continued )

Note: DE = desires; BI = behavioral intention.

5.2. Theoretical implication

This study presents new findings in the field of wetland tourists

PETB DE BI PETB DE BI PETB DE BI

*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01.

You might also like

1. Introduction on wetland mainly focused on park planning and construction, Land