Rader System

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Government Autonomous College

ANGUL

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the thesis entitled “RADAR” submitted by

Master Ranjit Mahalik Roll No. 15PHY044 in partial

fulfillment of the requirements for the Bachelor's degree in

Physics at the Government Autonomous College Angul is an

authentic work carried out by him under my supervision and

guidance.

Signature of the Supervisor


Govt. College []
DECLARATION

I do hereby declare that the project entitled "RADAR" is submitted


to Department of Physics, Government Autonomous College, Angul
for the partial fulfillment of the requirements of the Bachelor's
degree in Physics is carried out by me under the Guidance and
Supervision of Dr. B. K. Sahoo (Department of Physics).

Date:
Place: Submitted By: Ranjit Mahalik
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness to


Dr. B. K. Sahoo Department of Physics, Government Autonomous
College Angul, for introducing the present topic and for his
guidance, constructive criticism and valuable suggestions
throughout this project work. My sincere thanks to all my friends
who have patiently extended all sorts of help and assistance for
accomplishing this undertaking.

Date:
Ranjit Mahalik
Roll NO: 15PHY044
Department of Physics
Government Autonomous College
Angul – 759122
ABSTRACT

Radar is a system that uses electromagnetic waves to identify the range,


altitude, direction or speed of both moving and fix objects such as aircraft,
ships, motor vehicles, weather formations, and terrain.
The term RADAR was coined in 1941 as an acronym for Radio
Detection And Ranging. A radar system has a transmitter that emits either
microwaves or radio waves that are reflected by the target and detected by a
receiver, typically in the same location as the transmitter. Although the signal
returned is very weak, the signal can be amplified. Radar can detect static or
mobile objects or target and is the most effective method for guiding a pilot
with regard to his location in space and also for warning the approach of an
enemy plane for similar purposes. Lidar is advanced type of Radar which uses
visible light from laser. Radar has the disadvantage of time and that is it can
take two seconds to get the lock.
CONTENTS
1. Introduction
2. History
3. Principle of radar
4. Parts of radar
5. Classification
i. Continuous-wave radar
ii. Doppler effect
6. Pulsar radar system
7. Radar signal processing
8. Application
i. Civilian
ii. military
9. Advantages & disadvantages
10. Conclusion
BASICS OF RADAR SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION:
Radar is a system that uses electromagnetic waves to identify the range,
altitude, direction, or speed of both moving and fixed objects such as
aircraft, ships, motor vehicles, weather formations, and terrain.

The term RADAR was coined in 1941 as an acronym for Radio Detection and
Ranging .A radar system has a transmitter that emits either microwaves or
radio waves that are reflected by the target and detected by a receiver, typically
in the same location as the transmitter. Although the signal returned is usually
very weak, the signal can be amplified. Radar can detect static or mobile
objects or targets and is the most effective method for guiding a pilot with
regard to his location in space and also for warning the approach of an enemy
plane for similar purposes.
HISTORY:
 1904 - Christian Hulsmeyer demonstrated detection of a ship in dense
fog.
 1917 - Nikola Tesla first established principle for the first primitive radar
units.
 Hestated, “by their (standing electromagnetic waves) use we may
produce at will, from a sending station, an electrical effect in any
particular region of the globe; we may determine the relative position or
course of a moving object, such as a vessel at sea, the distance traversed
by the same, or its speed.”
 1934 - American Dr. Robert M. Page tested the first mono pulse radar.
 1934 - Soviet military engineer P.K.Oschepkov produced an
experimental apparatus RAPID.
 1935 - British Robert Watson-Watt demonstrated to his superiors the
capabilities of a working prototype.
THIS IS THE PICTORIAL VIEW OF ALL THE
COMPONENTS OF A RADAR SYSTEM.
ALL THE COMPONENTS HAS BEEN ASSIGNED IN A
DEFINITE MANNER.
PRINCIPLE OF RADAR:
The basis of the radar principle is that if an electromagnetic woven
counters sudden changes in conductivity σ, permittivity ε or permeability µ
in the medium, a part of the electromagnetic energy gets absorbed by the
second medium and is reradiated. The significant change in atomic density
between the object and what’s surrounding it will usually scatter radar
(radio) waves.

This is particularly true for electrically conductive materials, such as metal


and carbon fiber, making radar particularly well suited to the detection
of aircraft and ships. Electromagnetic radiation travels in empty space at a
speed of 2.998 x108 metres per second, and in air only slightly less rapidly.
This speed is denoted by the letter c.

RADAR EQUATION:
The amount of power Pre returning to the receiving antenna is given by the
radar equation:

Where,
 Pt= transmitter power
 Gt= gain of the transmitting antenna
 Ar= effective aperture (area) of the receiving antenna
 σ = radar cross section, or scattering coefficient, of the target
 F = pattern propagation factor
 Rt= distance from the transmitter to the target
 Rr= distance from the target to the receiver. In the common case where the
transmitter and the receiver are at the same location,
 Rt=Rr and the term Rt²Rr² can be replaced by R4,

Where R is the range.

This yields:

MAXIMUM RADAR RANGE (Rmax):


Maximum radar range is the distance beyond which the target cannot
be detected. It occurs when the received echo signal power
just equals the minimum detectable signal (Smin).

PERIPHERALS OF RADAR:
1. AN T E N N A S
2. DU P L E X E R
3. RADIO FR E Q U E N C Y SU B S Y S T E M
4. DIGITAL WA V E F O R M GE N E R A T O R
5. F R E Q U E N C Y S Y N T H E S I Z E R S O S C I L L A T O R S
6. MI X E R
7. PO W E R AM P L I F I E R
8. TRANSMITTER SU B S Y S T E M
9. LOW NOISE AM P L I F I E R
10.RE C E I V E R SU B S Y S T E M
11.SIGNAL PR O C E S S I N G /DATA PR O C E S S I N G /CO N T R O L
SU B S Y S T E M S
12.AN T E N N A POSITIONING SY S T E M
13.PO W E R SY S T E M

CLASSIFICATION:
Radar system can be broadly classified into two basic categories:-
1. Continuous wave (CW) / Doppler Radars
2. Pulsed Radar

CONTINUOUS-WAVE RADAR:
A continuous– Wave Radar transmits a continuous wave signal and
is generally useful in Doppler radars which utilizes the Doppler
Effect. If there is any relative motion between the radar and the
target, the shift in carrier frequency (Doppler Shift) of the reflected
wave becomes amea sure of the target’s relative velocity and may
be used to distinguish moving targets from stationary targets. The
Doppler Effect can be experienced while standing near a train track.

A change in frequency (pitch) of the train whistle occurs as the train


approaches and then moves away. There are also radars that combine both of
these effects. Radar using the Doppler Effect principle is known as a Doppler
radar which is useful for navigation over Land Sea through aircraft or ship.

Relation to Doppler- Effect:


PULSED RADAR SYSTEM:
A radar system is composed of many different subsystems. The main
subsystems were discussed in previous sections. In a pulsed radar system,
there is a portion of time devoted to transmission and another portion of time
devoted to reception.

The transmission time is called the pulse width. A pulse is transmitted at


regular intervals. The repetition interval is called the pulse repetition interval
(PRI). During transmission, the transmitter produces a waveform. This is
passed to the RF system, through which the waveform is transmitted into the
medium of propagation. When the waveform reaches a target, it is reflected
back towards the radar. By then, the radar system should be in reception
mode. At this time, the reflected echo is intercepted by the RF system. The
echo is then passed to the receiver, which passes it on to the signal processor.
After signal processing, the data processor displays data for the operator,
through the HMI. Power and Control are provided to each of the subsystems
as necessary. The antenna is generally reposition after a certain number of
pulse transmissions. A schematic of the radar system is shown in Figure.

RADAR SIGNAL PROCESSING:


DISTANCE MEASUREMENT:
One way to measure the distance to an object is to transmit a short pulse of
radio signal, and measure the time it takes for the reflection to return. Since
radio waves travel at the speed of light (300,000,000 meters per second),
accurate distance measurement requires high-performance electronics .In most
cases, the receiver does not detect the return while the signal is being
transmitted. Through the use of a device called a duplexer, the radar switches
between transmitting and receiving at a pre-determined rate. The minimum
range is calculated by measuring the length of the pulse multiplied by the speed
of light, divided by two. In order to detect closer targets one must use a shorter
pulse length.

APPLICATIONS:
CIVILIAN APPLICATION:
1. Radar altimeters for determining the height of plane above ground.
2. Radar blind lander for aiding aircraft to land under poor visibility, at
night, under adverse weather condition etc.
3. Radar blind lander for aiding aircraft to land under poor visibility, at
night, under adverse weather condition etc.
4. Police radar for directing and detecting speeding vehicles.
5. Radars for determining the speed of moving target, (e.g. the speed of a
cricket ball being bowled) automobiles, shells, guided missiles etc.
MILITARY APPLICATION:
1. Detection and ranging of enemy target even at night.
2. Aiming guns at aircraft and ships.
3. Bombing ships, aircraft or cities even during overcast or at night.
4. Early warning regarding approaching aircraft or ships.
5. Directing guided missiles.
6. Searching for submarines, land masses and buoys.
ADVANTAGES OF RADAR:
 Radar furnishes high penetration capability through any type of weather
condition and it works in the day and night.
 Radar can be availed in a number of waves.
 It can help find out following parameters of the objects or target Angular
position, Location of target, velocity of Target.
 Radar possesses the stationary mode, moving mode, and two direction
modes.
 The beam spreader by the radar can incorporate many targets.
 Radar signal can penetrate and see through insulators.

DISADVANTGES OF RADAR:
 Radar has the disadvantage of time and that is it can take two seconds to
get the lock.
 The large targets that are close to radar can saturate the receiver.
 The hand-held modulation can falsify readings.
 It has many interference sources.
 It cannot recognize color of the targets.

CONCLUSION:
 RADAR is used to find velocity, range and position of the object.
 Advantage of the RADAR is that it provide superior penetration
capability through any type of weather condition.
 Lidar is advanced type of Radar which uses visible light from laser.

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