Agricultural Mechanisatio1 (1) 1

AGRICULTURAL MECHANISATION AND FARM MACHINERY
Agricultural mechanization is the application of power or mechanical aids to all types of agriculture
operations making farming less dependent on physical labour.
Mechanization in broad sense includes the manufacture, distribution and operation of all types of tools,
implements and machines for agriculture land development. Further more it includes operations such as
land preparation; spraying to control pests and using machines; processing of crops and animal products.
Benefits of Agricultural Mechanization
1 It helps to increase agriculture output by increasing the amount land under cultivation.
2 It helps farmers to do jobs which would be impossible to do by hand e.g. uprooting big trees,
ploughing in dry weather etc.
3 Releases human labour to be used in farm operations that cannot be mechanized
4 It ensures timely farm operations, e.g. quick seed bed preparation leads to early planting and
harvesting.
5 It discourages land fragmentation which is uneconomical for mechanization.
6 It encourages quality production e.g. products harvested mechanically are more uniform than those
done by hand
7 Eases problem of labour shortage during farm work since one machine can do work for many
people.
8 It is faster hence saves time for other job on the farm.
9 It helps to reduce human drudgery by enabling farmers to do difficult and unpleasant jobs more
easily hence making agriculture dignified and attractive profession.
10 Allows better combination of enterprises through saving time for different operation.
11 Encourages proper planning and management of the farm.
Limitations of Agricultural Mechanization

1 Most farmers have small plots which make it uneconomical to mechanize
2 Farmers lack adequate capital to purchase or have machinery.
3 There is always free/cheap human labour from family members; therefore many farmers would not
go for machines.
4 It may lead to over production which eventually leads to lowering of market prices.
5 It requires skilled man power i.e. there are few people who can operate and maintain machinery.
6 Clearing land by machines exposes soil to effects of rain water and thus soil erosion.
Maditrwoth Cosmas maditcosmas@gmail.com Page 1
7 Some farm operation such as coffee picking is not easily mechanized.
8 Some areas are hilly and mechanization cannot work properly.
9 Some farmers are very conservative and cannot adopt mechanization.
10 It decreases job opportunity for the masses which leads to unemployment.
11 Encourages quick farming which compromises careful farming leading to poor yields.
Factors limiting mechanization
 Unavailability of machines/tractors for use.
 High costs for hire of machines and use
 Inadequate money to purchase machines.
 Inadequate skills to operate machines that could have been used in mechanization.
 High maintenance costs for agriculture machines
 Poor land tenure system which discourages use of machines.
 Tall vegetation which impedes machine movement
 Lack of enough demonstration centers where machines are tested before adoption.
 availability of excess cheap human labour in the community
 Land fragmentation which discourages use of machines
Factors limiting use of draught animals

 Heavy/sticky soils making it difficult to work by animals
 Absence of work animals that can provide the needed power
 Prevalence of pests and diseases
 Inadequate advisory/extension services on use of animals
 Topography-Hills and steepy areas do not easily encourage animal power
 Lack of capital for purchase of animals and Ox-ploughs.
 Nature of crops grown-broadcasting does not easily allow mechanization
 lack of enough grazing land for animals
 presence animal pests like tsetse flies that discourage rearing of animals
Factors that encourage agriculture mechanization

1 Extension service; farmers needed to be educated about machines and their importance in
agriculture mechanization.
2 Land tenure system; mechanization requires large piece of land for it to be economical.
3 Cost of machine; Cheaper and simple machines are needed that are affordable to the farmer.
4 Formation of cooperatives/Farmers organisation; this encourages farmers to own machines as a
group which is relatively cheap.
5 Flexibility of machine; farmers will prefer a machine that performs more than one ob to reduce
costs that would have been handled on other machines.
6 Presence of engineering workshop; These are important in repairing machines and giving advice to
farmers on machines
7 Availability of loans and subsidies; these will make it easy for farmers to obtain expensive
machines.
Steps taken towards agricultural mechanization

1 Need to educate farmer as the importance of mechanization
2 Large areas of land are needed to make mechanization economical.
3 provide loans to farmers that can be used in purchasing machinery
4 develop simple and less expensive machinery for use
5 provide machines that are suitable for the prevailing environmental conditions
6 encourage farmers to own and operate machinery collectively to reduce individual costs
7 the process of mechanization should be gradual beginning with areas that are economically viable
8 agricultural engineering workshops should be provided in districts to handle farm machinery
9 taxes on farm machinery should be reduced so that it becomes affordable
Qn. Explain the factors that have favoured the use of ox-ploughs/ animal power in Teso region
Levels of Agriculture Mechanization in Uganda
The size of the farm and the kind of agriculture production on it determines the extent of mechanization on
the farm. There are three levels to the application of mechanization;
1st level
1 This level involves the use of hand tools e.g. pangas, hoes, slashers, wheel barrows etc. It is a
subsistence level of agriculture production.
The problem facing farmers at this level it’s the low output i.e. yields are very low.
The following factors have contributed to the continuous use of hand tools or persistence of level
one in agriculture.
i) Peasant farmers and other low income earners who are interested in farming cannot afford
to buy machinery
ii) High prices and taxation imposed by government on farm machines making it unaffordable.
iii) Land tenure system like land fragmentations do not justify the use of such sophisticated
machines.
iv) Farmers are conservative i.e. they are unwilling to adopt new methods of technology.
v) Farmers lack the skills and training to handle modern machines.
vi) Illiteracy has hindered effective advertisement and demonstration of use of machines to
farmers.
vii) Availability of cheap human labour making it uneconomical to use machines.
The need to move to level 2 is justified by;

1. Increase in demand for food as human population increases
2. Reductions in family labour as children go to school under free primary and
secondary education
3. Introduction of new farming techniques like row planting that may require a more
powerful source of power
4. Availability of enough grazing land for animals
5. Increased profits in agriculture availing capital required for use
2nd Level
This involves the use of animal power, particularly where land and other facilities are available.
This involves the use of animals like oxen, horses, donkeys, camels and buffaloes. Special harnesses and
yokes are used to clutch various equipment to the animals.
Animals generally have the capacity to be over loaded however for a short period of time. They provide
good traction/grip even in difficult conditions.
The output available from farm animals depends on;
i) Feed intake
This naturally affects power output; normally animals are in their poorest condition after dry season.
Soon after that their conditions change when the rain starts and that’s when their load should be
increased
ii) Animal health

Sick animals are always weak hence cannot carry out work as expected
iii) Breed of the animal
The breed of the animal should be chosen such that it’s adapted to harsh environmental conditions
such as high temperatures; Long drought seasons; therefore local breeds are preferable to exotic
breeds.
iv) Load of work available; this strains animals making it less efficient at work
v) Training given
Training can also yield better performance. Its said that donkeys are easier to train for farm than bulls.
vi) Yoke used for hitching
The influence of the yoke on power output is quite significant. A good yoke should be able to cover
animals adequately that are hitched together.
vii) Type of animal; big animals like cattle may provide more power than the small animals
viii) environmental conditions; working under harsh conditions may reduce the amount of power provided
by animals
Advantages of using Animal power

i) It does not required skilled workers as compared to the engine power.
ii) It can transport heavier loads than hand power.
iii) Animals can operate well in land fragmentation areas.
iv) Initial cost of buying and maintaining animals and their implements are lower than that of tractors.
v) A fairly large area of land can be cultivated.
vi) animal power is faster than hand labour
vii) They have good traction ability in any area hence increase in efficiency
viii) Animals can work and survive well in harsh climatic conditions.
ix) Animals are more reliable than human power
Disadvantages;
i) A big piece of land is required in grazing the animals
ii) Animals cannot manage to plough very hard and dry soil.
iii) The amount of work done depends on the health of the animals.
iv) Performance decreases with increase in hours worked
v) Animals need training and farmers must have experience of animal husbandry
vi) In cultures that doesn’t permit use of animal power, the power potentials is not exploited e.g. in
Ankole where animals are treasured
vii) Animal output is reduced by environmental factors such as high temperatures, excessive rainfall.
viii) animal parasites like tsetse flies may limit use of animals in some areas
3rd Level
In order to increase production and efficiency and reduce hand labour a good number of farmers have
changed from the previous two levels to engine power production

Advantages
i) It saves the farmer hand labour which is expensive
ii) Increases efficiency and ensures timely farm operations
iii) Machines can work continuously without suffering from fatigue
iv) Machines are more economical for large areas in the long run
v) Big areas of land can be cleared.
vi) They produce quality work
Disadvantages
i) They require skilled man power to operate
ii) They have very high initial and maintenance cost
iii) They may create unemployment.
iv) they produce fumes that pollute the environment
v) may require a lot of skill to be operated
vi) maintenance costs are high
vii) they can destroy soil structure exposing soil to erosion
Factors considered before selecting machinery and equipment for use

1. Nature of work; every machine is made for a particular purpose which it must do
2. Financial status of the farmer; some machines are too expensive for the farmers hence cannot be
purchased
3. Type power used; machines using electricity may not be used where power is not available
4. Topography; hilly place may not favour use of machines like tractors due to steepness of land
5. Skills of the farmer; highly skilled farmers can use a number of machines and equipment.
6. Flexibility of a machine; machines that can perform more than one type of work are more
economical to use
7. Adaptability of the machine to different environmental conditions
8. Level of production; large machines are required for a high level of production due to their
power production
9. Efficiency of the machine at doing the work to be done
SOURCES OF POWER ON THE FARM

Power is the major driving element in mechanization it’s needed on the farm for a variety of operations
which maybe mobile or stationary.
Mobile operations include transportation of produce, field operations like ploughing, weeding etc
Stationary operation includes pumping water, extracting oil, drying, threshing etc
Common power sources on the farm include human power, animal, wind, solar, electric, hydro, biogas, fuel
power, thermal power and engine power, nuclear power
WIND POWER
Its power provided by wind and can be used in doing light farm work like;
Pumping water, winnowing crop produce and generating electricity.
Advantages
 It’s a cheap source of power since it is free
 Wind is free
 does not pollute environment
 Can be used sustainably
 Clean source of power.
Disadvantages
 Has high initial cost for purchasing and installing a wind mill
 Wind is unreliable/unpredictable
 Wind cannot be controlled
 Its power is limited to stationary work
HUMAN POWER/HAND POWER

This is also known as human power i.e. it is a power produced by human beings. It’s the main source of
power on a farm using simple machines, tools and implement.
Advantages
 Has low initial capital hence sustainable for peasant farmers
 Very flexible i.e. can be used for a number of farm operations
 Can perform work in the absence of a farmer in the field
 Human labour is readily available in Low Developing Countries
 Cannot be limited by land tenure system and size of land
 Poses no pollution threats to the environment
 Family and causal labour can provide man power
Disadvantages
 It’s slow in operation
 Cannot cope with large amount of work
 Efficiency declines with increase in number of hours worked
 Performance is influenced by health; maturity etc
 It’s expensive in the long run.
 Does not provide uniform work hence less efficient.
NB: The extent to which human power can be used as a source of power depends on the degree of
mechanization e.g. some parts of the world where mechanization is high man acts as a control device but
where mechanization is low man acts as source of power
SOLAR POWER
Its power got through harvesting the sun’s energy by special devices. It can be used in; drying farms
produce, pumping water, lighting and on farm fences.
Advantages
 Has low maintenance costs
 Does not pollute the environment
 Light energy is freely produced by nature and cannot be exhausted
 Produce clean power for farm jobs.
Disadvantage
 Light may be unpredictable since it depends on weather
 Has high initial cost for buying and installing the materials for trapping light.
 May not be used in performing heavy work in farm like grinding grains
Qn. Describe the factors that affect the use of ox cultivation (animal Power in Uganda).
ENGINE POWER
This comes from engines sparked by gasses from burning fuel like kerosene, petrol, diesel and coal. It can
also come from steam of boiling water heated by burning fuel such as fire wood and coal.
The engine is fitted with a piston which converts kinetic energy of the gasses from burning fuel to useful
mechanic energy that drives machines like grinders, millers, tractors etc.
Engines can perform the following functions on the farm
1. Drive the tractor to carry out a number of operations like ploughing, mowing, harrowing etc.
2. Provide transport on the farm by pulling a trailer
3. Operate a water pump for farm water
4. Drive a grinding mill
5. Operate a milking machine
6. Drive a generator that produces power
7. Drive grass cutters
8. Drive crop sprayers and harvesters
Types of engines
1 External Combustion engine power; this is where the burning of fuel is done out side the
combustion chamber e.g. in a steam engine
2 Internal combustion engine power; this is where the burning of fuel is inside a combustion
chamber.
Internal combustion engines are of two types namely; 4 stroke engine and 2 stroke engine. Both
use either diesel or petrol as a source of fuel.
Differences between a 2 stroke and 4 stroke engines
4 stroke engine 2 stroke engine
1 Gives one power stroke in four Power stroke takes place in every two
strokes i.e. in 2 revolutions of the strokes i.e. one power stroke for a
crankshaft revolution of the crankshaft
2 Due to more idle strokes and non Engine has more uniform as every time the
uniform load on the crankshaft, a piston comes down it is power stroke hence
heavier flywheel is required a light flywheel is required
3 Engine is heavy since it has more Engine is light since has less parts
parts
4 Engines are more expensive since Engine is cheap since has less parts
they have more parts
5 Engine produces more power since Engine produces less power since fuel is
fuel is burnt completely not burnt completely
6 Uses less fuel due to reduced Uses more fuel due to increased wastage
wastage
7 Engine produces less noise some of Produces more noise due to absence of
it is absorbed by water jacket water jacket to absorb excess noise
8 Produces less smoke due to Produces more smoke due to incomplete
complete combustion of fuel fuel combustion
9 Engine is big hence occupies more Engine is small hence occupies less space
space in the vehicle
10 Consumes less oil as it gets recycled Uses more oil since there is no recycling
in the engine
11 It has valves that allow in fuel air It has ports that allow in fuel air mixture
mixture or air

Advantages of using internal combustion engine
 Its faster ands saves time and labour
 It can work continuously without fatigue unlike man and animals.
 It enables farm operations to be achieved in time.
 It’s economical in the long run.
Disadvantages
 It requires skilled man power to operate, maintain and prepare.
 It needs high initial capital
 It’s expensive to maintain, prepare and buy spare parts.
 It depends on petrol, diesel and oil which are expensive.
The principle source of mechanical power on a farm is the engine which gives power to the tractor.
TRACTOR
A tractor is versatile machine since it provides power for many entities for both mobile and stationary jobs,
these include;
 Provides a pull from the rear for machines e.g. ploughs and tractors.
 Provides a push at the front for equipment
 Provides a drive to the PTO shaft (power take off) for machines such as mower and grinders etc.
 It provides hydraulic power to a three point linkage for lifting equipment
 It provides a means of transport.
Parts of an engine
COMPONENTS OF AN ENGINE

Components of the combustion engine and their function
Engine block; it’s the foundation block on which all components are directly or indirectly attached.
Cylinder; it is the nucleolus of all activities but principally its for receiving and burning the fuel.
Connecting rod; it transmits power to the crankshaft and assists in changing the up and down ward motion
of the piston to rotary motion of the crankshaft
Piston; it receives power from burning gasses to move down wards taking power to the connecting rod and
crankshaft
Functions of a piston
 Mix air and fuel for those with combustion chamber on top
 Transmits power produced in power stoke to crankshaft.
 Pushes exhaust gases out during exhaust stoke
 Works as a guide for upper part of connecting rod.
 Carries compression rings which seal the combustion chamber from sump.
Crankshaft; this is responsible for converting the up and down movement of pistons into rotary motion a
usable form of power.
Cylinder head; this covers the top of the cylinders and houses other components such as a spark plug,
injector nozzles and valves
Inlet valve; it allows in fuel air mixture or air into the cylinder,
Exhaust valve expels the burnt gases.
Gasket; its used to make a gas and water tight seal between the cylinder head and the cylinder or oil sump
and engine block.
Gudgeon pin/piston pin’ it attaches the piston to the connecting rod.
Crank case; It covers the bottom of the cylinder and holds the lubricating oil and other components like
crankshaft
Combustion chamber; this is where the actual combustion of fuel/air mixture takes place.
Camshaft; it’s a pump on which the cans are mooned on. It enables the valves to open only once per
cylinder. The can shaft is driven at half the crank shaft space
Cams; these are mounted on the camshaft to control opening and closing of the valves which must
coincide with particular movement of the pistons.
Piston rings
 Seals the combustion chamber and does not allow gases to escape to the sump (pressure ring)
 Carries away heat from piston to cylinder wall (pressure ring)
 Lubricate cylinder walls (oil ring)
 scrap oil from cylinder wall and return it to the sump (oil ring)
 Resist high pressure and high temperature (pressure ring)
The valves are always working together with the movement of the piston. The timing gears also drive the
injector pump that injects diesel into the combustion chamber.
Fly wheel; this one is fitted onto the crankshaft just to absorb power during the power stock. It is a heavy
wheel that runs by its inertia during the idle stroke
It maintains the speed of the crankshaft
Piston rod; transmits power from the piston head to the crankshaft
Engine Terminology
1. Bore
It’s the diameter of the cylinder
2. Stroke
It’s the maximum length of travel of the piston from one extreme position to the other in one direction.
3. Top dead centre (TDC)

It’s the highest point a piston can move towards the cylinder head.
4. Bottom dead centre (BDC)

It’s the lowest point a piston can move towards the crank case.
5. Piston displacement
It’s the volume displaced or covered by the piston when it moves from TDC to BDC
6. Clearance volume (CV)

It is the space/volume between top of the piston and the engine cylinder head when the piston is at the
top dead centre
7. Compression ratio
Is the ratio of total cylinder volume to clearance volume
8. Total cylinder volume

This is the volume designated by the sum of the piston displacement and clearance volume (PF fCV)
TYPES OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
There are two types of internal combustion engines namely;
1 Spark ignition (petrol) engines.
2 Compression ignition (diesel) engines.
Petrol Engines
These engines are equipped with a device for ingination called the spark plug which produces an electric
spark to ignite the compressed gases and fuel in the cylinder. Most of to day’s petrol engines have a
carburetor which atomizes fuel and mixes both air and fuel. It then injects the mixture into the cylinder
but others that do not have the carburetor but inject fuels directly into the cylinder for ignition.
Diesel Engines
In diesel engines, ignition is produced by the heat of compressed air in the cylinders where fuel is mixed
with compressed air unlike in the petrol engine where by air and fuel is mixed in the carburetor.
Difference between Petrol and Diesel ingination
Petrol Diesel
Use petrol as fuel Uses diesel as fuel
Fuel is ignited by a spark from the spark Fuel is ignited by hot compressed air
plug
Has a carburetor to mix air and fuel Has an injector pump to drive fuel into the
cylinder.
Has a spark plug Has an injector nozzle
Has low compression ration of Has a high compression ratio of 14:1 - 20:1
5:1-8:1
Air and fuel meet first meet in the Air and fuel first meet in the cylinder (air
carburetor goes 1st then followed by fuel)
Produces less smoke Produces more smoke
Petrol engine produces less noise Produces more noise
A petrol engine is light in weight and is Heavy in weight and suited for heavy
suitable for light work work.
Petrol engine consumes fuel very fast per Diesel engine consumes less fuel per unit
minute work done work done
Petrol is too expensive to purchase but More expensive to purchase but

expensive to maintain maintenance cost is low
KINDS (MODELS) OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Depending on the number of cylinders the engine has there are two kinds;
1 Two stroke cycle engines
2 Four stroke cycle engines
2 Stroke cycle engines

This is an engine in which all the events/strokes are completed in two strokes of the piston. It combines
induction and compression, power and exhaust strokes
Induction and compression (1st stroke)
 The piston moves up
 Exhaust and transfer ports are closed
 Inlet port is opened
 Fuel air mixture is compressed in the combustion chamber
 Fresh supply of fuel air mixture and oil is allowed into the crank case
 At the end of the stroke, fuel air mixture is ignited
Power exhaust stroke (2nd stroke)
 Inlet port is closed by the piston moving upwards
 Fresh fuel air mixture is trapped in the crank case
 Exhaust and transfer ports are opened
 Exhaust gases are expelled through the exhaust port

2 STROKE POWER CYCLE
Fou
r
stro
ke
cycl
e
engi
nes
All
engi
nes
with
4
stro
kes
2 STROKE ENGINE CYCLE
hav
e
the following
a) Intake (Induction) stroke
b) Compression stroke
c) Power / ignition stroke
d) Exhaust stroke
a) Intake (Induction) stroke

Petrol engine
 The air fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder through the inlet valve
 The piston moves down the bottom dead centre as initiated by the movement of the crank
shaft.
 At this time the exhaust valve is closed.
Diesel engine
 The air is drawn into the cylinder through the inlet valve

 The piston moves down the bottom dead centre as initiated by the movement of the crank
shaft.
 At this time the exhaust valve is closed.
b) Compression stroke
Petrol engine
 The piston moves up to compress fuel air mixture
 Inlet and exhaust valves are closed
Diesel engine
 The piston moves up to compress air
c) Power
Petrol engine
 A spark is introduced into the cylinder by the spark plug to ignite compressed fuel air
mixture
 Burnt gases expand and force the piston down wards
Diesel engine
 A jet of diesel is introduced into the cylinder by the injector nozzle to be ignited by hot
compressed air
 Burnt gases expand and force the piston down wards
d) Exhaust
For diesel and petrol engines
 Exhaust valve is opened to allow exhaust gasses out
 Inlet valve is closed
 Piston moves up to expel burnt gasses

Advantages
of using a 4
stroke engine
i) They
produc
e a lot
of
power
and
therefo
A FOUR- STROKE ENGINE
re do heavy work.
ii) They are efficient in oil and fuel utilization
iii) Exhaust gasses are sufficiently expelled from the cylinder reducing pollution
iv) They are efficiently cooled with water
v) They have heavier crank that absorbs the vibration of the engine.
vi) They perform a wide range of farm operations.
Disadvantages
i) Initial costs buying the engine are very high
ii) They are very expensive to maintain
iii) They need very skilled operators and support services e.g. servicing, repairing and installing
spares
iv) Their use is limited to flat areas
Advantages of a two stroke engine

i) They are cheap to buy and easy to maintain
ii) They use little fuel
iii) They do small jobs which cannot be done by 4 stroke engines
iv) They can be used in a wide range of farm land e.g. in hilly areas.
Disadvantages
i) They produce low power therefore cannot do heavy work.
ii) They are insufficient in oil and fuel utilization.
iii) They are mainly air cooled thus limited in size.
iv) There are slow and cannot satisfactory operate under fluctuating loads
Firing order
This is the order/sequence in which the power stroke occurs in a multi cylinder engine. The order of
cylinders firing minimizes stress on the crankshaft. A 4 cylinder engine would have any of the following
firming orders. 1,2,3,4 or 1,3,4,2, and 1,2,4,3
Compression ratio
Not all air in the combustion chamber is compressed but some remains. The ration of the total air in the
cylinder and that which is compressed is called compression ratio.
In petrol engines it ranges from 5:1- 8:1 and in diesel engines 14:1-20:1. Diesel engines are therefore more
efficient and economical that petrol engines.
ENGINE SYSTEMS
Internal combustion engines have a number of interrelated functions each of which have to work
efficiently. The engine systems of a tractor include ;
 Air and fuel system.
 Cooling system
 Lubrication system
 Electrical system
 Transmission system
1. THE AIR AND FUEL SYSTEM

The commonest fuels used in farm engines are petrol and diesel. Diesel has almost replaced other petrol
engine as the power unit of the farm tractor .why; diesel has high power output compared to petrol.
Although the diesel engine is more expensive to buy and maintain the advantages of compression ignition
will quickly compensate this high costs.

A) Fuel system in a petrol engine
The main function

PETROL of the fuel system is to store and supply the engine with clean fuel in correct ratio over a
FUEL SYSTEM
wide range of engine speed and load.
The fuel air ratio is normally 14:6:1 it’s for every one part of petrol of air. But by native it contains more
than a part of petrol in 14:6 parts of air, therefore it’s called a rich mixture.
The carburetor
This performs two main factors;

i) It maintains fuel air mixture under all operational conditions.
ii) It breaks the fuel dropouts into fine mist to be carried into the cylinder by a stream of air. This is
called atomization.
Diagram of a carburettor

CARBURETTOR
Working of a carburettor in petrol fuel system
 During the inlet stroke, a fuel air mixture is drawn into the cylinder.
 The petrol leaves the fuel tank through the fuel inlet pipe situated at the base of the tank.
 It’s then filtered by the fuel filter and enters the float chambers by way of the needle valve or fuel
intake valve on the carburettor.
 The float has the function of maintaining a constant level of fuel in the float chamber.
 From the bottom of the float chamber, fuel is fed through a jet discharge tube/ nozzle to the
venturi.
 When the engine is running the downward movement of the piston in the induction stroke causes
suction pressure in the cylinders.
 The result is that air rushes in and passes through the choke valve to the venturi which mixes fuel
with the air.
 The fuel air mixture which is in vapour form enters the cylinder through the throttle / butter fly
valve.
 The choke valve (strangler) controls the air supply to the carburettor and is normally closed when
starting the engine to enrich the fuel mixture.

 The throttle/butterfly valve helps to adjust the quantity of fuel air mixture going to the combustion
chamber hence controlling the speed and power generated by the engine. This valve in turn is
connected to the accelerator.
FUEL SYSTEM IN THE DIESEL ENGINE.
Description
The fuel flows
from the tank
situated above
the engine that
acts as storage.
The fuel tap
should always
be left open to
prevent an air
DIESEL FUEL SYSTEM lock forming

in the system.
The flow of
diesel from the tank may be by gravity or by lift pump. All petrol engines in a tractor usually rely on
gravity flow to the engine but in the case of diesel engine by use of lift pump provides fuel at a constant
pressure to the injector pump
The lift pump is operated by the means cams on the camshaft so that it pumps continuously as long as the
engine is running.
Priming lever
This is a manually controlled button which is used to supply fuel when starting the engine or when
removing an air lock.
Fuel filter
Some tractors have two filters for cleaning the fuel as it moves from the fuel tank to the inject plump.

Injector Pump
This is a very important and expensive part of the diesel engine. It must deliver fuel accurately and in small
quantities to the injector nozzles. it atomizes diesel fuel
Injectors/ injector nozzles

Their work is to inject into the cylinder small quantities of fuel. The amount of fuel injected controls the
engines speed.
Leak off pipe

This returns any over flow of fuel back to the tank for recirculation.
Governor
It controls the speed of a diesel engine by regulating fuel supply once the speed is beyond a certain level.
This will prevent damages and also helps to maintain speed for any particular machine that the engine may
be driving.
Maintenance of fuel systems;

i) Fuel Filters need regular replacement for every service
ii) here try to follow manufactures instructions during use
iii) The sediment bowl should be cleaned regularly to remove dirt
iv) Bleed the system to get rid of trapped air /air lock for diesel engines
v) Ensure that the fuel tank cap is tightly placed to avoid spillage of fuel
vi) Tighten the pipes of injector and fuel delivery tube to reduce fuel loss
vii) Use the correct type of fuel for the engine always
viii) Always use clean fuel from a reliable source so that the system is not blocked
ix) Seal off all the leakages in the system to reduce fuel loss
x) The injector pump or carburettor should be cleaned regularly by removing dirt
Air supply system

a) The air supply system is similar in both petrol and diesel engines. Clean filtered air is drawn into
the cylinder during the induction stroke.
b) During the course of operation, tractors and other machines used for farm work suck in quite a lot
of air which may contain a large proportion of dirt.

c) Whether an engine uses petrol or diesel as fuel, an air cleaner is an essential component of a
complete fuel system.
d) An air cleaner does its job of preventing dust, dirt and other foreign particles from entering the
engine.
e) Air must be cleaned because dust, sand particles and other similar materials can cause rapid wear
of valves, pistons, cylinders and all rings
f) There are also rapid build up of carbon in the combustion chamber and on the valves. This carbon
will glow red hot thus affecting the running of the engine.
g) Two types of air cleaners are sued and both types are capable of removing up to 95% of the harmful
particles from the air that enters the engine.
a) Wet type/oil bath air cleaner

This type is very popular because it can be fully cleaned and serviced regularly moreover cheaply
because only new oil is needed during servicing.
WET AIR CLEANER

Description/ mechanism of operation
i. The dirt laden (heavy) air enters the pre cleaner where it meets the vanes that cause swirling.
ii. The swirling helps to throw out the dust particles through the dust ejection slots on top of the pre-
cleaner. These particles may include leaves, insect and other big particles.
iii. Air passes rapidly down the stack/ central pipe to the oil bowl/cup/canister container carrying the
lighter dirt.
iv. Much of the lighter dirt gets stuck in the oil bath as air passes through it
v. From the oil bath, air passes through the wire gauze (filter element) which traps any dirt that may
have escaped the oil bath
vi. Apart from the cleaning effect, the filter element dries the air and prevents any oil from reaching the
engine.
vii. Finally, clean air goes through the outlet to the engine cylinders.
Care and service of the oil bath air cleaner

1. Under normal working conditions the oil bath cleaner should be checked weekly.
2. If there is more than 1/2 cm of dust in the oil bath then it should be cleaned out and refilled
with fresh clean oil.
3. If a tractor is working in very dirty or dusty conditions then the oil bath should be checked
daily for the thickness of dirt.
4. Periodically the wire mesh should be thoroughly washed in paraffin to remove trapped dirt.
5. Use the recommended type of oil for the bath that is able to trap dirt
6. Sediment bowl should be washed regularly to remove dirt
b) Dry type Air cleaner
This type does not contain an oil bath but a replaceable element made of wash paper material.
This must be changed when it becomes dogged with dirt. But the changing interval will depend on
the conditions in which the tractor is operating.
Some tractors have a visual check monitor fitted on the engine induction system to warn the driver
when the filter is becoming clogged. It can be cleaned by tapping it gently with the palm of the
hand or by blowing compressed air through it in a normal air flow direction.
Mechanism of operation
1. An air current is created when the tractor is in motion
2. air is drawn into the dry air cleaner
3. the dry paper on the cleaner removes dirt from air
4. the air current inside the container is forced to swirl
5. air enters the dry paper filter
6. dust particles are filtered out by the paper
7. clean air passes through the manifold to the combustion chambers
Maintenance of dry air filter

 Regularly blow out dust and dirt using compressed pressure
 Do not wet the paper with water
THE COOLING SYSTEM

This system gets rid off excess heat produced in the engine. A lot of heat is produced in a tractor when fuel
is burnt to be turned into a useful work. Most is passed out with exhaust gasses and the remaining is
reduced by the cooling system.
Importance of the cooling system

i) It removes excess heat thus preventing over heating of the engine.
ii) Reduces damage to the engine i.e. engine cracking.
iii) It controls the temperature of the engine within specific range for its proper operation.
Problems of engine overheating

i) It leads to expansion of engine parts thus distorting the shape which leads to gas leakage, loss of
power, valve burning and even cracking of the cylinder head (engine knock).
ii) There is high fuel consumption
iii) It leads to pre ignition i.e. some of the parts of the cylinder surface may become hot enough to
ignite the fuel reducing fuel efficiency.
iv) It leads to dilution and contamination of lubricating oil.
v) can cause burning of the engine
TYPES OF COOLING SYSTEMS

There are two types of cooling systems.
1 Combined water and air cooling system.
2 Air cooling system.
Most machines are water cooled especially heavy machinery only few are air cooled.

Combined Water and air cooling system;
It uses cool water to saturate round the engines while air takes away excess heat from the hot water. Water
as a coolant has the following advantages;
i) It absorbs heat at a reasonable rate.
ii) It saturates freely at a big range of temperatures because of having a low freezing point.
iii) It’s readily available every where.
However, water can cause rusting of the radiator parts more especially the water jackets
The major components of this system are radiator fins, H2O hoses, cap, water pump/ impeller, water
jackets, and fan and thermostat.
WORKING OF THE COMBINED WATER AND AIR COOLING SYSTEM
i) When
the
engine
is
started
by a
starter
motor
a lot
of
heat is
produ
ced
and this must be transferred to the water jackets surrounding the cylinders. Combined air an
ii) Cool water flows from the bottom tank of the radiator with the help of the water pump, through the
bottom hose pipe into the water jackets in the engine and circulates with in the engine block.
iii) As it circulates, it absorbs heat produced in the engine block and its temperature rises
iv) When water is heated, it becomes lighter and begins to rise up to the top of the radiator
v) Rising hot water is replaced by cool water from the radiator being pumped into the water jackets by
water pump
vi) The hot water comes into contact with the thermostat which regulates the temperature of water in
the engine between (50-90)0
vii) when the engine is cold, the thermostat valve closes and prevents water circulation into the head
tank of the radiator;
viii) When the temperature runs to 900C the thermostat valve opens and allows water to go back to the
radiator through the top hose pipe for further cooling.
ix) As the heated water flows to the bottom of the radiator, it is cooled by an air current being blown
through the fins by the fan and the cycle continues again.
Components and their functions

i) Radiator
Water returning from the water jacket is cooled here by use of conventional current. The tubes in
the radiator increase the cooling surface.
ii) Water jackets
This is the area around engine cylinders in which the water circulates. It’s connected to the radiator
through the bottom and top hose pipes
iii) Water pump
Pumps cool water from the bottom tank to the engine cylinders
iv) Fan
Sucks cool air from the out side over the radiator fins to cool hot water
v) Thermostat
It’s an automatic device which regulate engine temperature by controlling circulation of water in
the water jackets
vi) Temperature gauge
It indicates to the driver engine temperature so as to avoid overheating of the engine.
vii) Fins
They increase the surface area for cooling of water in the radiator
Adaptation of the radiator to its factions

1 It has fins which provide large surface area for cooling of water
2 It has thin pipes/tubes for easy movement of water from the top horse pipe to the bottom.
3 Its made of copper which is a good conductor of heat
4 It has a fun which drives away the heat using air it blows.
5 it has a water pump that pumps cool water into the water jackets
6 it has a drain tap used to get rid of dirty water in the radiator

Maintenance of water cooling system
i) Fill the radiator always with clean water before starting a day’s work.
ii) Repair any linkages in the radiator to reduce water loss
iii) Remove all rubbish from the radiator fins that may reduce cooling surface.
iv) Remove dirty water from the radiator through the drain tap and should be cleaned thoroughly after
60 hours of work.
v) A radiator cap should be firmly secured to prevent water spillage
vi) Ensure that the fan belt is not broken for proper function
vii) Check the tension of the fan belt i.e. it should neither be too loose nor too tight which can lead to
poor performance.
viii) Water pump should be greased periodically for efficiency
ix) Hose pipes should be tight to reduce water loss through leakages
x) The thermostat should be checked to ensure it’s in good condition.
Advantages of using a combined air and water cooling system

 Water takes heat away quickly since its in direct contact with cylinder walls
 Water circulates freely between freezing and boiling points
 Water jackets damps down sound of engine
 Engine working temperature can be controlled
 Engine with water cooled system can be fitted in any position of the vehicle
Disadvantage
 Radiator increase the dead weight of the vehicle
 Water boils and evaporates early at 1000C
 Radiator fitted infront of the vehicle increases air resistance hence slowing down speed
 Water corrodes metal parts in the cooling system
 Overheating of the engine may result knocking due to carelessness
 Warming up of the engine may be slow leading to cold running which accelerates sludge formation
 Water frees at zero degrees which is a disadvantages in temperate regions
Causes of overheating in engines

 Leaking radiators
 Leaking water pump
 Choked or leaking hose pipe
 Leaking head tank
 Loose fun belt which fails to blow air for cooling water
 Chocked radiator fins
 Rusty water jackets
 Defective thermostat
 Low engine oil level
 Choked air cleaner
Air cooling system

It uses air to circulate round the engine block while carrying away excess heat.
It is used mainly on small engines like water pumps, motor cycle, sprayers etc.
The cylinder end is provided with fins through which heat is lost to the surrounding air.

Characteristics of air cooling engines
 They have a fan and blade usually fitted on the fly wheel to assist in are circulation over the fins
 They are light in weight because they do not need radiator, H2O jackets, hoses etc.
 They are of simple construction.
Problems of air cooled engines

 They get hot quickly and use heavy lubricating oils
 It’s impossible for them to get adequate cooling under all conditions.
Maintenance
 Remove rubbish and dirt from the fins
 Check the tension of the fun belt
LUBRICATING SYSTEM
Is a system that reduces friction as well as wear and tear of rubbing parts.
Functions of a lubricating system

 It reduces friction by establishing a film of lubricating oil between the moving parts.
 It acts as a cleaning agent i.e. washes off all dirt, soot and dust from metal surfaces.
 It acts as a sealing agent i.e. seals the piston rings and cylinder walls preventing loss of compression.
 It acts as hydraulic fluid.
 It’s a cooling agent i.e. carries away heat from working surfaces.
 Prevents rusting of metals.
 Reduces noise as engine parts move against each other.
Classification of lubricating oil
Lubricants are classified according to thickness or viscosity. Viscosity is the measure of ability of
lubricants to flow at various temperatures. The classification is based on a numbering system adopted by
USA society of automobile engineers (S.A.E).
The numbering system is such that S.A.E10, S.A.E20, S.A.E30 and S.A.E40 are used for fast moving parts of
an engine higher number i.e. S.A.E50, S.A.E60, S.A.E70, S.A.E90, and S.A.E140 are for transmission gears
where the parts move slowly. Lower numbers indicate lower viscosity oils suitable in cold areas whereas
higher numbers suitable for hot areas.
Detergent oils
Certain oils contain additives designed to prevent formation of carbon inside an engine. Such oils are called
HD (heavy Duty) and these are usually recommended for diesel engines. If non detergent oil has been used
in an engine, care has to be taken before switching to a detergent type of oil as the carbon that may be
washed out by the detergent oils may clog the oil ways and filters.
Flush the engine with special flashing oil before switching from a non detergent to a detergent type of oil.
Grease
This is a semi solid combination of petroleum products and soap. Grease is applied through the grease
nipples by means of a cylinder pressure greasing gun.

Properties of a good Lubricant
1 Low viscosity i.e. should have low ability to flow at either high or low temperatures
2 High flash points

This is the point at which explosion occurs when a enough vapour has been given off by oil after
which the vapour ignites
3 Ability to pour
This is the lowest temperature at which oil will flow freely i.e. low pour point is required
4 Good body
Should be thick enough to prevent contact between two moving parts
5 Good film strength i.e. should be able to resist pressure.
6 Detergents quality
It should have a substance which have cleaning properties
7 Oiliness
It should be smooth and slippery.
Sources of oil contamination

 Dust which passes the air cleaner and crank case breather
 Products of combustion like water and carbon
 Products of compression e.g. acids on metallic parts.
 Unburnt fuel due to uncompleted combustion.
 Metallic particles as a result of engine wear and tear
 Moisture produced as a result of condensation
 Acids which are formed when oil decomposes.
Changing engine oil

Procedures
i) Clean the area around the dipstick, withdraw the dipstick from the sump and clean it with white
paper.
ii) Replace the dipstick in the position, withdraw it again.
iii) Hold it almost horizontally and take the reading at the level to find out the oil level in the sump.
iv) If the level is at a low mark, more oil should be added.
v) Examine the conditions of oil and if the oil has become very dark or thick it is necessary to drain
the sump and replace the oil.
LUBRICATION SYSTEMS
1 Flash system
2 Internal force feed
3 Oil mist system
Oil Mist system

This is known as petrol lubrication and is specifically used for small 2 stroke cycle engine. The system
involves mixing oil with petrol in proportions of 16:1.
Lubrication occurs as part of engine operations. The cranks case of this type of engine must be drained
periodically to prevent build up of oil in order to lower the difficulties involved in starting the engine.

Flash system
The lubricating oil is splashed over the moving parts by an extension (tube) on the big end bearing cap of
the crankshaft. the system does not have an oil pumps
Force feed lubrication system;
a) Most
moder
n
tractors
use the
system
and the
main
compo
nents
include
oil
pump,
FORCED FEED LUBRICATION SYSTEM
oil filter, oil strainer and oil ways.
b) Oil which is stored in the oil sump is drawn by the oil pump through the strainer and than pumped
to the oil ways and other bearing surfaces such as crankshaft, cylinders, camshaft values and
pistons.
c) It circulates around the engine through the oil ways under pressure maintained by the oil pump that
derives power from the camshaft
d) After circulating around the engine, it drips back into the sump and the cycle continues
e) Continuous circulation make the oil dirty reduces in volume. This can be checked using a dip stick
that is inserted in the oil sump
Functions of the main parts

1 Oil sump
It stores oil
2 Strainer
Ensures that clean oil is taken by the oil pump by removing dirt
3 Oil pump
This is driven by the camshaft and ensures oil is distributed to all parts of the engine.
4 Oil filter
Ensures oil is cleaned again before it’s supplied to bearing and oil ways.
5 Oil ways
These are pathways that assist in the distribution of oil to all different parts of the engine.
Maintenance
1 Check the level of the oil with a dipstick daily. If it is below the recommended level fill it up to the
mark of the dipstick.
2 Change engine oil periodically according to manufactures instructions
3 Use the correct grade of oil for the engine.
4 Change the oil filter at every change of oil.
5 Clean the crank case breather as directed by the manufactures.
6 Drain the oil when it’s still hot to avoid it sticking on the walls of the sump.
7 Avoid using contaminated or old oil in the engine
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM:
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
This is a system that provides

electric current for igniting fuel air mixture in a petrol engine. It also provides current for lighting tractor
indicators etc.
The major parts of the electrical systems include the following;

 voltage control box
 Battery
 Starter motor
 Ignition switch
 Induction oil
 Spark plugs
 Connecting wires
 Dynamo
 distributor
Battery; it’s made up of bakelite; it has the following components; lead plates, concentrated sulphuric acid,
terminals, vent holes and
distilled water.
Functions
1 It stores electricity (6-12V)
2 It provides current used for igniting fuel mixture in a petrol engine.
3 It provides current for lighting in vehicles.
Care and maintenance of the battery

i) Check and if necessary correct the level of the electrolyte if it is low add distilled H 2O up to
required level.

ii) Ensure that the battery is firmly secure (fixed) onto the tractor to prevent splashing of the
electrolyte due to the engine vibrations.
iii) Keep the casing and terminals of the battery clean and dry by using petroleum jelly and a wire
brush to clean.
iv) Keep the ventilation holes free from blockage allow easy escape of gases from the battery.
v) Grease terminals to avoid corrosion.
vi) Empty the battery and Keep it up side down when not in use.
vii) Place the battery on an insulator or wood but not directly on the ground to avoid power loss once
out side the tractor.
viii) Replace all the acid with new conc acid when power reduces.
ix) Never bring naked flame near the battery
x) Battery cable should remain clipped up with chassis since loose cables may get their insulation
peeled off due to engine vibrations
Sparking device
The major sparking device is the spark plug. It’s made up of special alloys of steel, chromium and nickel.
Chromium is important in that it allows the spark plug to withstand high temperature.
SPARK PLUG
Functions
It provides a spark necessary for ignition of compressed fuel/ air mixture in petrol engines

Ignition in a petrol engine takes place with aid of a spark plug. It’s always fixed on the combustion
chamber. A spark plug has electrodes between which a spark is transmitted. One electrode is on the body of
the spark plug and it’s earthed
The second one which receives high voltage is in the centre of the spark plug, its connection passes
through a direct resistant insulator.
A spark plug has an open air gap of 0.0012-0.1cm between two electrodes. It’s across the gap that the spark
developed is able to jump.
There are two ways in which fuel can be ignited especially in petrol engines.
1 Magneto-ignition; it occurs in small engines e.g. motor cycles. It generates power by
rotating a magnet around a stationary wiring. This creates current due to magnetic influx
It is this current which is supplied to the spark for ignition of compressed fuel air mixture
2 Battery ignition; it occurs in big petrol engines and the battery is the sole source of current
for ignition
Description
1 When the ignition switch is turned on and the engine is turned over by the starter motor.
2 Current from the battery flows to the primary circuit creating magnetic field in the primary
windings of the induction coil.
3 When the contact breaker point is interrupted or is opened by the cam it causes the primary circuit
to break.
4 This induces a high voltage (7000-10,000) V. in the secondary circuit / winding.
5 The current flaws through heavily insulated wires to distributor head via the rotor arm which
supplies it to each spark plug.
6 The high voltage creates a spark across the plug units and the mixture in the cylinder is ignited.
7 The engine then starts to run.
Summary of electrical system
Parts Function Maintenance

Battery Stores electricity - Keep terminals clean on top
up electrolyte.
- Secure it firmly.
Induction oil Steps up voltage from 12v-10,000v - Keep it clean
- Secure the connections
tightly.
Distributor - Activates induction oil - Keep the top clean

- Distributes electric current to - Lubricate under rotor arm
each sparkplug at correct every 100hrs of work.
time - Adjust contacts every 3
days
Sparkplug - Provides a spark to the - Clean points at spark
ignition chamber terminals using wire brush.
- Reset the gaps regularly.
-
Starter motor - Uses electricity from the - Keep it tightly fixed.
battery to turn the fly wheel - Fit new carbon bushes.
which starts the engine. - Clean the armature
Dynamo/generator - Generates electricity for - Lubricate the bearing using
recharging the battery grease every 100 hours of
work.
- Check tightness of the fan
belt within every 200hrs of
operation.
Voltage control box / - Adjust the charge from - Keep wires clean and
cut out generator to battery and tightly fixed.
disconnect it when the engine
is not working
Contact breaker point - Stops Ensure it is properly fixed

- Interrupt the flaw of current
from primary to secondary
circuit to raise voltage
TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
It is the system that transfers power from the engine to rear wheels so that
the structure can move or perform some work.

Components of the transmission system include; clutch, gearbox, differential, tyres on the wheels, PTO
(Power Take Off shaft)
1. Clutch
It is a device used
to connect or
disconnect the
source of power to
the rest of the
transmission
system. It consists
of a disc-clutch
plate. The clutch
plate is aligned on
both sides with
friction surfaces
and drives other plates when in engaged position. When not engaged, the clutch plate is disengaged
from other plates and no transfer of power takes place.
Factions
i) It connects or disconnects the engine from the rest of the transmission system.
ii) It helps to provide power to the PTO
iii) It helps the operator of the tractor to take off gradually and smoothly.
iv) It allows the engine motion to be disconnected and connected to the differential and the gear
box.
v) It helps the tractor to be stopped without stopping the engine.
2. Gear Box
i) It allows for selection of different speeds to the differential and the rear wheals.
ii) Helps the driver to select forward or reverse gear to suit a given operation.
iii) It enables power from the engines to be moved easily and applied to the work that the driver
may be doing.
iv) It enables the driver to stop the vehicle without suddenly stopping the engine.
3. Differential
i) It changes the direction of the drive to right angles when power is transmitted to rear
wheels.
ii) It adjusts the speed of the engine so that the operation works at a lower speed than the
engine speed.
iii) It enables each of the rear wheels to travel at a different speed when turning a corner.
4. Wheels and tyres

i) They enable the tractor to move forward or backward so that it can do useful work.
ii) Tyres allow maximum possible grip (traction) because they have a large surface area.
5. PTO
i) It is the part which permits tapping of power from the tractor engine to drive other machines
like pumps, mowers and thrusters
ii) It’s a shaft found at the rear of the tractor body which provides power out from the tractor
for driving stationary machines.
iii) It is an extension of the shaft in the gear box.
iv) It’s operated by a separate clutch to make it independent in that it can be disengaged without
affecting the forward motion.
Other transmission accessories include breaks, belt pullies, hydraullic system, and these works together
with the system.

Breaks
These are basically safety features although on a tractor they can be used for turning a wheel but the most
common types are; disc breaks; breaks on a tractor operate independently of each wheel.
Tractor tyres and wheels

Important features of the rear tyres.
i) They are generally larger and wider in diameter.
ii) Bars on tyres are arranged in a V pattern to improve grip and self cleaning property.
Important features of front tyres
iii) They are generally narrow and smaller in diameter
iv) The tyres are thin.
v) They have a continuous band of rubber around the tyre to be able to support the weight.
Problems of under inflation (low pressure)

i) Damages the body of the tyre.
ii) It tends to crack on the tyre wall.
iii) reduces the tractor speed
iv) wastes fuel
Problems of over inflation

i) Tyre punctures can easily occur
ii) Loss of traction (grip)
Ways of improving traction

i) Ballasting the tyres (by adding water and pumping in pressure)
ii) Use of metallic wheels this increases grip.
iii) Twining of tyres (use double tyres)
iv) Adding weights (heavy metal bars on the tractor) to increase stability by lowering the centre of
gravity
v) Reducing pressure of the tyres
vi) Using 4wheel drive.
vii) using flat tyres with high grip
viii) using tyres with big treads
Factors that reduce the life span of a tractor tyre

i) Over or under inflating the tyres.
ii) Driving over the sharp objects like nails, glasses and sharp stones exposing tube resulting into
loss of pressure.
iii) Over loading of the tractor beyond their capacity of the tyres
iv) Pouring less corrosive chemicals on tyres like paraffin, acids.
v) Careless driving through abrupt breaking and sliding over glasses that may cause tearing.
vi) Increased/long hrs of operation increasing wear and tear of tyres.
vii) Nature of the surface on which they are driven. Driving on rough surface increases wearing out
of the tyres.
viii) Quality of the tyres i.e. poor quality tyres wears out faster as they are made from poor quality
material unlike those of good quality.
Daily Serving points of the tractor
i) Make sure the fuel tank is filled with the correct fuel reduce time wastage during work as a
result of refilling.
ii) Check the level of water in the radiator and fill with clean water if necessary.
iii) Check on the tension of the fan belt and if not tight, it should be tightened for efficiency in the
cooling system.
iv) Clean fuel filter bowl to remove dirt.
v) Check on the level of oil using a dipstick and add fresh oil if necessary.
vi) Check on the battery to know the strength of electrolyte
vii) Grease all greasing points using a greasing gun
viii) Make sure that the tyres have the correct pressure.
ix) Check on nuts and bolts and ensure that are tight prevent accidents.
x) Run the tractor to check on break system and hydraulics before work.
xi) Check on the oil level in air cleaner and top up if necessary.
TILLAGE IMPLEMENTS
Tillage refers to cultivation (Ploughing) of soil
Reasons for initial tillage (primary tillage)

i) Provides a good seed bed for proper seed germination and growth.
ii) To provide sufficient depth of soil for good water percolation and retention.
iii) To destroy insect pest, eggs and their breeding places
iv) Control soil erosion as there is more water infiltration
v) To kill weeds that is already in the field.
vi) It breaks the hard soil surface to encourage proper establishment of the crops.
Types of tillage implements

There are two types i.e. primary and secondary tillage implements.
Primary tillage implements

These are mainly implements used for opening up land through bush clearing and first ploughing.
They are usually heavy and deep cultivating implements. They include disc ploughs, tractor mould board
ploughs, ox-mould board plough subsoilers, rotary cultivators and chisel ploughs.
Disc plough
Functions of parts
1 Beam;
It supports the whole implement and provides attachment unit for all parts of the plough.
2 Disc;
They are connected to the beam by disc hangers and they cut, turn and invert furrow slice.
3 Disc hangers;
They support the discs and provide room for disc bearings
4 Bearings;
They facilitate the rotary motor of discs
5 Scrappers
They keep the discs clean by scraping soil that sticks on them. They also help in inverting furrow
slices.
6 Furrow wheel;
Balances the plough in a steady condition during ploughing, it also determines the level of ploughing.
7 Cross shaft;
This is for attaching the plough to the tractor.
8 Top link bracket
Together with the cross shaft mount the plough on to the tractor
Hitching a disc plough on a three point linkage of the tractor

1. Start the engine of the tractor so that it can be moved near the implement and ensure that the
hydraulic system is working
2. Reverse the tractor so that the linkage arms on the tractor are aligned correctly with the disc
plough top link
3. Fix the left linkage point of the implement on to the attachment arm of the tractor
4. Fix the top linkage point of the implement on the tractor
5. Lastly, fix the right linkage on to the tractor
6. Use the adjustment gear to lower or raise the right linkage on the tractor so that it is well
aligned with the implement
7. Fix bolts and nuts and tighten it using the required spanner
8. Carry out proper adjustments of the discs for proper ploughing in depth and width
Advantages of using a disc plough

i) Its faster at doing work
ii) Its discs ride over obstacles without damage due to their rolling action.
iii) It can be used in hard dry soils which are too difficult for the mould board ploughs.
iv) It works well in both light and sticky oils.
v) It has low maintenance cost especially replacement of parts because most parts take long to be
worn-out.
vi) It has a poor ability to cover trash, which is a good condition for soil and water conservation.
vii) It requires less tractor pull power as compared to mould board ploughs.
viii) It has got a heavy beam which allows for deep ploughing.

Disadvantages
i) Does not cover trash properly which call for secondary cultivation increasing costs for
cultivation.
ii) Leaves the land or field rough calling for second ploughing.
iii) It’s heavier than the mould board ploughs thus requiring a high HP (horse power) tractor.
NB: Disc ploughs are used for

i) Deep ploughing
ii) Opening virgin land
iii) Construction in water conservation practices.
iv) Cultivation of loose soils
Care and maintenance

i) Lubricate the bearing regularly to facilitate proper rolling of the discs
ii) Check regularly and tighten loose bolts and nuts to reduce loss of parts.
iii) Clean the discs every after work to reduce rusting.
iv) Repair damaged parts and replace worn out ones regularly to reduce further damage and
improve efficiency.
v) Smear the implement with oil to prevent rusting when not in use.
Reasons for poor disc plough penetration / ploughing

i) Bluntness of the cutting edge
ii) Low Weight of the implement that cannot plough deep.
iii) Poor adjustment of furrow wheel will not facilitate good cutting depth.
iv) Inefficient hydraulic system which fails to lower the plough properly
v) poor hitching of the implement making it difficult to achieve deep ploughing
vi) driving the implement faster so that it cannot easily achieve the required level of ploughing
vii) poor adjustments of the discs before ploughing reducing width and depth of ploughing
viii) faulty disc scrappers that fail to remove soil and trash on the discs for efficiency
ix) use of low power tractors that may fail to provide adequate pull for the implement during work
a) Tractor Mould board plough

Comparison between a mould board plough and disc plough
Disc Mould board
- Has disc that can rotate during - Has a rigid mould board that cannot rotate
ploughing
- Cuts, inverts and buries trash completely
- Disc cuts furrow slice but does not
bury trash completely - Very rigid hence cannot ride over buried
obstacles therefore can easily break
- Can ride over buried obstacles hence
cannot be easily broken. - Cannot easily work in heavy and sticky
clay soils.
- Can operate well in heavy sticky
soils. - Does not plough easily in places with a lot
of trash.
- Can plough places with a lot of trash.
- High maintenance cost due to frequent
- Has low maintenances costs since the sharpening and repairing shares.
disc blades are durable and do not
require sharpening. - Requires more tractor power for pulling
the implement.
- Requires less tractor pull for the
implement. - Produces a fairly smooth field that may not
require secondary cultivation.
- Produce a rough field that requires
secondary cultivation.
b) Ox Mould Board plough (ox-drawn)

1 Beam;
It holds other parts of the plough.
2 Mould board;
Inverts the furrow slices and covers the vegetative materials
3 Share;
It cuts the furrow slices and passes it to the mould board.
4 Land side;
Presses against the furrow wall to separate furrow slices from un ploughed land and make the
plough stable during ploughing.
5 Frog;
It connects all parts of the mould board plough to the main frame.
6 Disc coulter;(for tractor mould board)

It’s a disc mounted above the plough. It makes a vertical cut separating the furrow slice from the
unploughed land..
7 Land wheel (depth wheel);

It helps to regulate the depth of ploughing and enables the operator to gauge a furrow slice within a
reasonable distance from the previous furrow line.
8 Depth rod;
It is used for Adjusting width and depth of operation.
9 Hake;
It provides an attachment on the beam for fixing the parts of the plough which are adjusted before
and during ploughing.
10 Link;
It’s for linking the plough onto chain pulled by oxen.
11 Handle braces;
They stabilize the plough.
Advantages of mould board plough

i) It completely inverts the soil bringing up fresh soil to the surface.
ii) Planting can be done after first ploughing without the need for secondary cultivation.
iii) It buries surface trash completely.
iv) The furrows do not have deep depressions.
v) The depths of the furrows are uniformly the same.
vi) Its lighter than the disc plough
vii) It can be used for inter row weeding.
Disadvantages
i) It cannot work in areas with obstacles since it be easily damaged.
ii) It is rigid hence can break easily.
iii) It cannot work in hard and waxy soils.
iv) It can easily create a hard soil pan due to uniform depth of ploughing.
v) It has a high maintenance costs than a disc plough.
Maintenance of a mould board ploughs

i) Check on the conditions of the shares and tighten as required.
ii) Lubricate all moving parts e.g. land wheel.
iii) Clear the plough off soil and vegetation after work.
iv) At the end of ploughing session wash the mould board, shares and other soil touching surfaces
and coat it with grease to prevent rusting.
v) Repair the damaged and replace worn out parts.
vi) regularly sharpen the shears for efficiency
TERMS USED IN PLOUGHING

i) Back furrow, these are raised ridges left behind after ploughing.
ii) Furrow wall, it’s a wall separating the cultivated area from uncultivated land.
iii) Dead furrow; It’s an open trench left after ploughing.
iv) Furrow slice; It’s the soil that is cut , lifted and inverted by the plough
CHISEL PLOUGH AND SUBSOILER

These are deep tillage implements that are able to stir the top soil and sub soil without bringing the soil to
the surface.
They are imported in that;

i) They break hard pans in topsoil.
ii) Facilitate breaking up deep rooted weeds.
iii) They improve drainage and aeration of the soil.
A chisel plough is a tool with rigid tines points covered by shove like points at the end. These at times are
strong to withstand the stress when they are working at a depth and in hard soil conditions.
One disadvantage with a chisel plough is that it requires a lot of power to pull. Also the soil tilth produced
is rough.
Maintenance of chisel ploughs

1. Replace points on tines if they are blunt
2. Clean the implement by removing soil after work
3. Make sure the tine have the right curvature
4. Make sure the springs on the tines have the right tension
5. Paint the implement with waste oil to prevent rusting
6. Replace broken parts immediately to prevent further damage
7. Moving parts should be greased to control friction
ROTAVATORS /ROTARY CULTIVATOR:

A rotavator consists of a series of L-shaped blades moulded on a horizontal shaft. The L-shaped blades
rotate while cutting the soil.
The implement receives power from the tractor power take off shaft.
A rotor drive has a cushioning device that prevents direct damage to the implement in case the blades hit
any obstacles.
It has an adjustable rear shield that protects the operator from flying stones and debris. The soil cut is
thrown against the shield and cut downed to a fine tilt.
Shattering of soil also depends on the speed of the tractor; the higher the speed the more soil is broken.
Parts of the implement
1. Gear box; It houses gears that get power from the engine from the tractor through the power take
off shaft.
2. Chains casing; it contains chains and chain lubricating oil. The chain is moved for transmitting
power from gear box through a connecting shaft to the rotor where the L-shaped blades are
attached.
3. Rotor; this provides attachment for L-shaped blades and rotates with the blades
4. Blades; they are used for cutting and throwing up the soil. The direction to throw is usually upwards
or backwards.
5. Hood; It is used as a shield to protect machine operators from flying stones.
Maintenance of a Ratavator
i) Keep correct level of oil in the chain casting and gear box.
ii) Replace warn out blades.
iii) Ensure that the rotavator shaft is covered
iv) The forward speed should be related to the type of seed bed required.
Merits of using rotavators

1. Provides a fine tilth one operation good for small seeds
2. Cuts vegetative material and mixes it with soil thoroughly
3. It can incorporate manures and pesticides into soil
4. Can improve soil aeration
Problems associated with the use rotavators

1. Continuous use in the same area leads to destruction of soil structure
2. May cut rhizomes into tiny parts that may produce more weeds
3. Blades wear out quickly increasing maintenance costs
4. It requires very powerful tractors to provide power

SECONDARY TILLAGE IMPLEMENTS
These are implements used for subsequent seed bed after primary cultivation.
Objects of secondary cultivation

i) To break soil clods to obtain a firm tilth
ii) To turn vegetative material and crop residues and mix it with soil.
iii) To control weeds they may have come up after primary cultivation
iv) To improve soil aeration
v) To control pest by destroying their habitats
vi) To cover broadcasted seeds.
vii) Facilitate application of fertilizers by mixing it with soil.
viii) To level and firm top soil surface for easy planting.
ix) To provide a conducive environment through which air and moisture accumulates and
promote germination.
Examples of secondary tillage implements

1 Disc harrow
- Single action
- Double action
- Offset action
2 Spring-Tined harrow
3 Zigzag harrow
4 chain harrow
5 spike toothed harrow
Disc harrow
i) The most commonly used.
ii) They have smooth and matched edges
iii) Easy to maintain and can work in poor soil conditions
iv) Disc harrow are composed of two or more sets (gangs) of disc mounted on a horizontal shaft
v) Each disc is separated from the nearby disc by a spacer.
Parts of a disc harrow

1 Discs; round smoothed edged or notched concave blade. Notched discs work where there is a lot
of trash to be cut. Notched discs are mounted on the fore gang and rear gang.
2 Leveling gear; it levels the implement so that it can work at a good depth.
3 Harrow boxes; it provides attachment of the implement to the tractor.
4 Weight boxes; they provide added weight to assist the implement to penetrate deeper especially
in hard ground.
5 Disc gang; it is a set of disc harrows set in a shaft varying from 13-15. The setting of the gangs
can be done manually or by hydraulic
6 Scrappers; they keep the implement clear of soil which sticks on discs.

Uses of disc harrows
i) They chop up vegetative matter on the surface of soil by ploughing.
ii) They are used for final seed bed preparation after ploughing.
iii) They run over a seed bed in dry season to control weeds.
iv) They cover up broadcasted seed on seed beds.
Penetration of the disc harrow depends;

1 On the angle of the disc gang; the wider the angle the deeper the penetration.
2 Adjustment of the top link; the longer the top link the more the disc gang penetrates deeper; the
front gang is raised and vise versa when the top link is too short.
3 Weight of the disc harrow; heavier harrows penetrate deeper.
4 Size of the discs; bigger disc may penetrate deeper
5 Soil conditions i.e. hardness, moisture or argument. Amount of trash on the ground.
6 Speed of harrowing; the faster the speed the slower it penetrates.
Maintenance of a disc harrow,

i) Lubricate and grease nipples and bearings.
ii) Repair or replace damaged or worn out plates.
iii) Tighten all bolts and nuts before and after work.
iv) Oil and grease the implement after the working season to prevent rusting.
Advantages of a disc harrow

i) Produces good seed bed in good ploughing conditions
ii) It works top soil without bringing vegetation to the top surface.
iii) works well in heavy soils
iv) has a good compacting cutting effect on soil
v) good for preparing arable land where deep cultivation is not required
vi) can prepare a good seed bed in one operation reducing loss of soil moisture
Disadvantages of a disc harrow

i) It multiplies the weed population of rhizomatous weeds e.g. coach grass, spear grass by cutting
rhizomes into small parts.
ii) can destroy soil structure
iii) they are very expensive to buy
iv) maintenance costs are very high
PLANTERS
They are also called row crop planters
There are three types of planters
1 Drill type planters
2 Hill drop Planters
3 Check row
Row crop planters are designed to plant seeds in row far enough to permit other management practices of
the crop. They can be used for planting crops like Sorghum, Soya beans, cotton etc.
Features of a good row planter

i) It should be able to handle a wide range of seed bed
ii) Should be able to handle a wide range of seeds.
iii) It should be able to plant seeds at a uniform depth and width
iv) It should be able to plant seeds of the same quantity but not depending on the amount of seeds
in the seed hoper / box.
v) It should be able to work at a reasonable speed without damaging the seed.
Operation
i) The opening of furrows is done by a furrow opener.
ii) Metering of seeds and fertilizers is done by seed metering and fertilizers metering unit
respectively. This ensures correct seed rate and fertilizer application.
iii) Seeds are placed to the ground through the delivery tube.
iv) A press wheel ensures proper coverage of the seeds with soil.
Harvesting & processing implements

Crop harvesting refers to the collection of crop in a crude form from the field. It could involve cutting with
a knife or lifting for the case of cassava and other root crops.

FARM STRUCTURES
Farm structure refers to a facility constructed on a farm for storing farm produce, tools or
equipments, housing animals, human beings and handling animals for various treatments.
Examples of farm structures include;
 Fences
 Farm buildings such as farmer’s house of residence, crop stores, poultry houses, zero
grazing structures.
 Animal handling structures such as: -Plunge dips, Spray races, Crushes, Fences
 Water storage structures like tanks.
 Farm roads
 Irrigation structures like over head tanks sprinkler irrigation structures and dams
 Dairy units
 Zero-grazing units
 Poultry houses
 Rabbitry
 Fish ponds
 Bee hives
 Silos
 Green houses
 Pig stys
 Nurseries
FENCES
A fence is an enclosed piece of land that forms an effective barrier to livestock movement and
excludes intruders from the farm.
BENEFITS/IMPORTANCES OF FENCES OR FENCING LAND

 Fences facilitate rotational grazing; fences can be used to divide the grazing land into
paddock and this allows the farmer to practice rotational grazing.
 Fences help in controlling ticks and other internal parasites like liver flukes, tape worms.
Double fencing eliminates/prevents ticks movement to the farm, because the area between
the double fence is kept free of vegetation making it very difficult for ticks to cross over.
 Fences minimize spread of disease by restricting wondering animals from other farms.
 Fences enable grouping of animals according to their ages which makes feeding more easy.
 Fences help to avoid land disputes since they establish a farm boundary which gives clear
demarcation of farmer’s land.
 Fences enable mixed farming to be practiced easily.
 Fences improve security of the farmer i.e. offer protection to the farmer and his properties
by keeping away thieves and tress passers/intruders.
 Fences reduce labour requirements on the farm i.e. animals can be left to graze on their own
on the farm.
 Fences improve on the beauty of the farm hence make them attractive.
 Fences enables farmers to diversity their farming activities. E.g. when the farm is well
fenced, the farmer can be able to carry out very many enterprises i.e. grow crops, rear
animals, fish farming, e.t.c
 Fences allow separation of animals for different specific reasons. e.g. Isolating sick ones
for disease control, parasite control, calving, mating, etc, according to sex, age, type.
 Live fences serves as wind breakers to guard against the harsh effects of strong winds on
farm crops, animals and the soil.
 Fences safe guard water points, they protect areas around water points from being
overgrazed and trampled upon by the animals.
 Fences help to control inbreeding on the farm.
DISADVANTAGES OF FENCES/PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH FENCING LAND.
1. Fences encourage land fragmentation which makes use of machines difficult on the farm.
2. Fences deny animals chances of feeding freely to find the best feeds
3. Fencing requires a lot of capital per unit area
4. Fencing requires skilled labour to erect e.g. barbed wire fence, wooven wire fence
5. Fences like hedge fences harbor dangerous organisms like snakes.
6. Some fences e.g. shrubs like lantana are poisonous to animals.
Types of fences
Fences are usually classified according to the materials used to construct them. I.e.
 Dead fences
 Live fences
a) Live fences
These comprise of electric fences, trees and shrubs. Live fences are also collectively called
Hedge fence.
Plants commonly used as hedges include:-
 Euphorbia spp
 Cypress spp
 Acacia spp
 Tick berry
 Ficus spp
 Sisal (Agave spp)
 Prickly pear cactus (Opuntia spp)
 Kiel apple
 Bougaine villae
 Mauritius thorn.
Some of these plants used as live fences have the following features:-
 They have sharp protruding structures e.g. thorns.
 Some Species have an irritating smell while others are poisonous to animals.
 Others produce latex.
N.B. These features make them some what repellant to animals and intruders.
Advantages of hedge fence
 Live fences are cheap to establish.
 Hedges act as wind breakers when fully established.
 When well trimmed, hedge plants, make the farm look beautiful.
 Hedges require less maintenance once established.
 Hedge fence gives a permanent demarcation to settle land disputes.
 Hedges act as a source of fire wood/fuel.
Disadvantages of hedge fences
 They take long to establish and make an effective fence.
 Gaps may occur when the hedge plants die.
 If the plants used are thorny, they can injure animals
 They can also act as hide out for vermines, thieves and wild animals, snakes etc.
 Hedge plants compete with crops for nutrients.
 Hedge plants require regular trimming because they have continuous growth.
 Some species of hedges are poisonous to livestock e.g. Ficus Spp, Lantana, Euphorbia, etc
Electric fence.
This type of fence is movable and widely used on dairy and beef farms. Electric fences are used
where strip grazing is practiced. They are constructed using metallic posts, insulators, electric
wires and a source of electricity e.g. Battery.
A piece of land is fenced with an electric wire and current is passed through the wire such that
when the animal comes near the wire it receives a small stock enough to make it run away.
Normally this electric fence is used on a temporally basis but not permanent basis.
Structure of an electric fence
Advantages of electric fence.

 Can be easily moved from one location to the next as required.
 They do not need a lot of labour to construct.
 They restrain animal movement very well.
Disadvantages of electric fences
 They require regular inspection and maintenance which makes them expensive.
 They are only applicable under highly productive enterprises.
b) Dead fences
These are made of non-living materials which include:-
Wires, Blocks, Stones, Bricks.
i. Wooden fence made of wooden treated timber posts, poles and tree branches.
Advantages of using wooden fence.
 Cheap to construct especially in areas where wood is readily available.
 They are effective in restraining small animals such as goats, sheep, etc.
Disadvantages of wooden fence.
 Not durable especially when untreated.
 Require frequent repair and replacement
 Animals can easily break the fence.
ii. Trench fence.
Here trenches are dug along the boundaries of the farm. These trenches should be dug deep
and wide enough to prevent animals from jumping over.
Advantages of Trench fence.
They are very effective in preventing animals from straying.
Disadvantages of Trench fence.

 Requires a lot of labour to dig the trenches
 Livestock and people may fall into the trench and get injured especially when vegetation
over grows and covers them up.
 Trenches can trap water during the rainy season which acts as breeding grounds for
parasites.
 Trenches occupy plenty of land that would otherwise support grazeable vegetation with a
boundaries of trenches are bound to collapse inside, which makes it easy for animals to
cross over them.
iii. Wall/stone fences.
Constructed using stones, concrete or clay bricks held together by mortar.
Advantages of stone fences.
 Act as wind breaker
 They are durable
 They offer full security as it is not easy for livestock to go through them.
 Low maintenance costs
Disadvantages of stone fences

 The cost of construction is high
 Their construction requires skilled labour.
iv. Wire fences
The components of wire fence are posts, wire and staples.
They are 3 groups namely:-
 Woven wire fence
 Plain wire fence
 Barbed wire fence
a) Woven wire fence / chain link
A plain gauge wire is woven into different patterns to make a sheet of wire mesh or net. It is
some times referred as chicken wire or wire mesh or chain link.
It is not common on small scale farms for its very expensive.
It is used for enclosing poultry and pigsty run as well as fencing stone like rabbits, sheep
and goats.
ASSIGNMENT 1
Draw a structure of a wooven wire fence
b) Plain wire fence.
This fence is the regular gauge wire without barbs. It’s not commonly used on many farms
but rather used in combination with barbed wire in single strands. Plain wire fences are only
used for quiet animals (animals with a mild temperament)
Advantages of using plain wires.
Effective in restraining small sized animals e.g. goats
They do not cause injures on animals skin like barbed wire fences.
Disadvantages of plain wire
When used alone, they are not effective in restraining animals
c) Barbed wire fence
This type of fence is made of ordinary gauge wire with barbs on it located 8-15cm apart it
is also made of tight stretched wire supported on upright posts in the ground.
The wire is fixed on the poles by means of stapples (U-nails)
N.B Barbs discourage any animal attempts to jump over or find its way through the fence.
However this creates damage on the hide and skins of the stubborn animals.
Structure of barbed wire fence
Components of a barbed wire fence

 Dropper
 Strainer posts/ corner/king post
 Standard post
 U-nails
Advantages of barbed wires fences
 They are very effective in controlling movement of large animals such as cattle, Donkeys
Disadvantages of barbed wire fence
 Barbs can easily cause damage to hides leading to loss of quality.
 Wounds inflicted on animals can as entry points for disease causing organisms.
 They are not effective in restraining small animals such as pigs, sheep and goats
Procedures of erecting the barbed wire fence.
 Clear the land where the fence line is to pass to a width of about 2m to allow ample working
space.
 Use pegs to set the position of posts in a straight line either by sighting or else a guide rope
or cord.
 Using a sisal rope/string, establish straight line between adjacent pegs along which posts
holes are to be dug.
 Using the recommended spacing, mark out the spots where post holes are to be dug.(spacing
of posts depends on the type of livestock to be confined)
 Using the hole digger or post auger, dig holes to a depth of 90 cm for king posts and 60-
75cm for intermediate posts.
 Erect the strain posts and support them with struts.
 Unroll the barbed wire from one corner post to the other beginning with the lower strand of
wire.
 Fix the end of the to one corner posts.
 Move to the other corner post in the direction of the unrolled wire.
 Using the wire strainer, stretch the wire to the required tension.
 Attach the wire to the post using staples.
 Then erect the intermediate posts, making sure that they are all contact with the strand of
wire already installed.
 Finally install the remaining strands of wire until the fence is complete
Tools used to construct a barbed wire fence include;
1. Post hole digger/earth auger.
Is used to dig holes ranging from 15-40cm in diameter depending on soil conditions.
2. Fencing pliers/ tin snip
Used to cut wires
3. Wire strainer
Used to stretch or tighten the wires so that they do not sag or give way when pulled a part.
4. Rammer.
Used to ram soil around the post so that it holds the post firmly in the upright position.
5. Claw hammer
Used to hit and drive staples into the poles/ posts.
6. Had saw.
This is used to cut down posts to the required length.
7. Tape measure
It is used to measure the distance between posts and wire strands so that they can be
correctly spaced.
8. Sisal string
It is used to ensure that the fence is straight.
9. Staples /U-nail
These are used to attach the wire on to the posts
The major components of barbed wire fences
i. Strainer posts/king post
These are large posts fixed at the corners and gates to take strain of the wire. Strainers are
2.4m long and 16-18cm in diameter.
ii. Struts.
Are also called supporters and are used to support strainer / king post. They are 2.4m long .
iii. Standard posts.
These are used to hold wires between one corner and another. They pull the wire in both
direction and so there is a less strain of them. Standards are 1.8m long and 5-15cm in
diameter.
iv. Dropper.
They do not touch the ground. They are placed in between the standards which keeps the
wires in position when being pushed apart by animals. Droppers help to stop the wires from
sagging.
Fencing calculations.
Formulae
i. No. of posts = Perimeter +1
Spacing
ii. No. of Rolls of barbed wire = Perimeter x No. of Strands

Length of 1 roll
iii. No. of staples = No. of Poles x No. of strands
Example I
A farmer wants to construct a 3-strand barbed wire fence on a rectangular piece of land measuring
800 by 500m.
Given that the length of 1 roll of barbed wire is 400cm and that the spacing between I post to
another is 5m.
Calculate
i. No. of Posts.
ii. No. of Rolls of barbed wire
iii. No. of staples.
Solution
No. of Post = Perimeter
Spacing
But perimeter = 2(L+W)

Rectangular land
Land
500m
800m
Perimeter = 2 (800+500) P = 2 (800 + 500)
But L = 800m =2 (1300)
W = 500m Perimeter = 2600m
Spacing = 5m
= 2600m
5m
No. of Rolls= perimeter x No. of Strands = 520 posts
Length of 1 roll = perimeter = 2600m
Length of 1 roll of barbed wire = 400m
No. of strand = 3
No. of Rolls = 2600 x 3
400
= 26 x3
4
= 19.5
= 20 Rolls of wire
No. of staples = posts x No. strands

Posts = 520 posts
No. of strands = 03 strands
No. of staples = 520 x 3 = 1560 staples.
Exercises (1)
1. Mr. Mukasa is a livestock farmer in Nkoko village where he would like make a fence as
shown below.
 Size of land 260 by 70m
 Fence with 5 strand of wire
 1 Roll of wire 200m long
 Distance between the fencing posts 8m.
 Cost of fencing wire = 125,000 per roll
 Cost of staples = 4500 per kg
 1 Post costs 1800
Calculate;
i. No. of posts
ii. No. of Roll of wire
iii. No. of kg of staples to use if 1 kg of staples contains 15 staples.
iv. Total of cost of fencing materials to be used
Exercise II
Your school farm has leased a piece of land measuring 500m by 300m. You are required to fence
the perimeter using wooden poles and 48 strands of barbed wire. The poles are spaced 50m apart.
A roll of wire measures 600m. a gate is 5m wide to be provided:-
a) Outline the criterion followed when erecting a wire fence of such kind.
b) Calculate;
i. The No. of posts required.
ii. The No. of Rolls of wire needed
iii. The No. of staples to be used.
Exercise III
A farmer has a rectangular piece of land measuring 2000m by 900m around which a 3 strand
perimeter barbed wire fence is to be constructed. Given that the length of 1 roll of fencing wire is
560m spacing between the fencing posts is 8m with 4 gates provided.
Calculate;
i. No. of posts required.
ii. No. of Rolls of wire to be used.
iii. No. of kg of staples if 1 kg contains 10 staples
b) Calculate the total cost of;
i. Fencing wire if 1 roll of fencing wire costs 90,000
ii. Staples if 1 kg of staples cost 6,000
Treatment of fencing posts.
Posts for fence construction are usually treated with chemicals and protected against fungi and
insects before being used.
Methods used when treating/preserving wooden posts are:-
 Vacuum / pressure method
 Sap displacement / end diffusion method
 Soaking method i.e. hot soaking method and Cold soaking method.
 Surface painting / spraying.

Examples of chemical used for treating wood/ wood preservatives include:-
1. Pentachlorophenol
2. Old engine oil kills weevils and other insects.
3. Tributyl /tin oxide
4. CuSO4
5. Dieldrine (16% of 10ml) Termites

6. Arsenic pentoxide
7. Sodium dichromate fungi
8. Tar
9. Creosote Weather
10. tarnex

a) pressure / vacuum treatments
Here freshly cut poles are peeled and packed into sealed cylinders where chemicals are
forced into them under very high pressure.
Procedure.
 Poles are obtained from the source
 Poles are peeled to remove the back and cut into desired sizes.
 Poles are immersed in chemical preservatives like creosote in cylinder.
 Poles immersed in preservative in cylinder and covered.
 Chemical is forced into poles under very high pressure.
 Poles are removed, chemical drips off and taken for use.
b) Sap displacement /end diffusion method.
Here poles are immersed in preservative for a given time and later removed and inserted
upside down to enable complete coverage of the chemical.
Procedure.
 Freshly cut poles are obtained from the source
 Poles are cut into desirable sizes and peeled to remove the bark
 Poles are inserted into freshly prepared preservative for about 4-6 days.
 The sap in the poles evaporating up wards /diffuses up wards and is replaced by the
preservatives.
 After 4-6days, poles are inserted upside down to enable the complete coverage by the
preservative.
 After the poles are removed and taken for use.
c) Hot soaking method,
Poles are cut; the back stripped off and then submerged in a tank containing the
preservative. The container/ tank is then heated for about 2 hours until the preservative is
about to boil. The chemical with posts still immersed and is allowed to cool which makes
wood cells to expand and take in the preservative.
Question 1 Describe the procedure followed when preserving wood using Hot and Cold
soaking methods.
a) Describe the steps followed when carrying out of surface painting
d) Cold soaking method

Posts are cut and backs striped off. Posts are then immersed in a preservative for a few days
to allow the preservative to be drawn up into the conducting tubes of wood. Poles are
removed and left to drip dry
Surface painting
Is where wood is painted /brushed with appropriate preservatives?
Guiding questions,
1. Explain why it is important to construct fence on the farm/

b. Describe various types fences found at the farm.
c. Name the tools which a farmer should have in order to make a barbed wire fence.
2. Describe how each of the following method of wood preservation is done.
i. sap displacement method.
ii. Pressure / vacuum method.
3. Describe the procedure followed when erecting a hedge fence on the farm.
4. Mention 5 precautions farmers should consider when seasoning wood at the farm.
Wood seasoning
Seasoning is the removal /reduction of moisture from wood.
Reasons for wood seasoning.
 Prevents /reduce wrapping of wood due to uneven expansion of wood.
 Prevents decay/ rotting of woods.
 Seasoning improves durability and strength of wood
Precautions taken when seasoning wood/ timber.

 Provide a shade over wood to keep off rain and sun shine.
 Heap the stances above the ground so as to avoid absorption of moisture and allow an
circulation.
 Piles of wood should be separated by wooden rods called stickers to allow passage of air
into the stance.
 Supports and stickers should be spaced close together to avoid wrapping of wood.
 Piles of timber should be as much as possible be parallel to the ground to avoid bending
Animal handling structures.

These are structures used by farmers to carry out routine livestock farm operations. They make it
easy for farmers to handle and perform certain operations on farm animals.
They include;
 The plunge dip
 Spray race
 The crush
a) The Crush
Is a structure used to restrain farm animals when carrying out management operations on
them?
It is made used timber poles or steel poles.
Structure of a crush (draw from lib)
The length of a crush depends on the number of animals a farmer would like to handle at
once. It constructed in such a way that it is narrow at the bottom and wider at the top.
N.B It should be narrow enough to prevent animals from turning once it has entered the
crush.
Uses of the crush.
The following operations can be carried out in the crush.
 Dehorning animals.
 Used for dewaming/drenching the animals for spraying and hand dressing of ticks/
parasites.
 Used for artificial insemination.
 Carrying out pregnancy diagnosis to find out if cows are pregnant.
 For applying identification markers on animals e.g. Ear tagging, Tattooing and
branding
 Vaccination against diseases.
 For trimming hooves of animals that have grown out of shape.
 Injecting sick animals with drugs.
 For clinical examination to find out if on animal is sick e.g. Taking body
temperature.

 For taking blood samples from animals for nursing animals especially stubborn
cows.
Advantages of a crush.
 Can be used to serve / carry out a variety of farm operations unlike the dip, spray.
 It is cheap to construct especially when wood is used.
 It is easy to use / does not require skilled labour.
Disadvantages.
 Can not be used to handle very many animals at once.
 It is not durable especially if wood is not well preserved./treated.
Procedure.
Procedure of hand spraying of animals: use BBBRH for correct procedure
b) Spray race.
Is a farm structure designed to control external parasites like ticks, mites and biting flies on
animals?
It is an enclosed space in which animals are exposed to spray delivered at high pressure
through a system of well arranged nozzles/
In a spray race, animals walk through a confined area/race where pipes with nozzles at
certain intervals and angles are fitted.
In the spray race, the acaricide (chemically)is pumped from the sump/reservoir and is forced
to more along pipes at a high pressure.
 The spray chemical / acaricide emerge through nozzles which break it down into small
droplets.
 The spray race is operated by use of power, diesel or petrol fuel or power take off shaft
of tractor.
 The animals are allowed to walk through the race towards the drainage race in a liquid
and fully covered with the acaricide.
 The discharged acaricide /used acaricide that drips from animals body drains back to the
reservoir via filter pipes and is recirculated by the pump through the system
Stock management at the spray race / precaution taken when using spray race.
 Cattle / animals should be arranged in a single file as they enter the race.
 Animals should lift their tails as they go through the race so that the under tail wetting
takes places.
 Young calves being sprayed for the 1st time can be encouraged to go through the race in
a group.
 When adult cattle are being sprayed for the 1st time, they should be run through the race
once or twice without being sprayed to accustom them to it.
 After spraying the remaining quantity of dirty spry wash should be pumped out into a
fenced off pit and the unit should be cleaned thoroughly.
Advantages of using a spray race.
 It is cheaper to install than a dip talk.
 It uses a small quantity of acaricide
 The farmer is able to change the type of acaricide at every spraying without the expense
of having to refill a large capacity farm.
 Many animals can be sprayed in a short time.
 Less labour is needed to operate a spry race e.g. one person can switch on and then drive
the animals through the spray race.
 It can also be used to spray small animals such as goats and sheep.
 It can be used on calves and pregnant cows that are about to deliver since it causes fewer
disturbances on to animals.
 Fresh acaricide is used always. This ensures good quality and effectiveness of the spray
wash.
 It reduces wastage of acaricide.
 There is less risks of accidents during spraying than dips.
Disadvantages of spray race use.
 Nozzles can easily be blacked by dust in the spray even during wet season
 There are possibilities of certain parts of the animal’s body not being covered by
acaricide.
 Requires technical skills to operate the spray race
 It requires a reliable source of power to run the pump at the required speed.
 It is only economical with a very large herd.
The cattle Dip (Plunge dip)
This is a structure constructed basically for tick control. Here animals are totally submerged in the
acaricide in the dip take.
There are 2 types of dips
 Machakos dip - for small animals
 Plunge dip - cattle
Capacity of most dips is 14000-22000 liters.
Structure of Dip diagram here
Functions of the components of the Dip (Features of Dip talk)

1) Collecting yard:
This is where animals gather before the dipping process.
2) Entrance race:
It is a narrow passage that allows animals to move to the foot bath in a line
3) Foot bath:
Is a depression located in the entrance race and contains water to wash the hooves of animals
before they enter the dip talk.
4) Swim bath/ Dip tank
Holds the dip wash in which the animals swim its side should be raised above the ground to
prevent spilling of acaricide as animals jump into dip tank
5) Exit ramp
This enables animals to climb out of the swim bath.
6) Drainage race.
This holds animals as they leave the swim bath so that the excess dip wash can drip off their
bodies and return to the swim bath.
7) The Roof;
To reduce excessive evaporation of water from dip wash due to the sun’s heat and to
prevent dilution of dip wash by rain water.
8) Waste pit / soak a way pit;
Is a pit where sediments from the farm are damped?
9) Splash Wall.
To allow acaricide to get back to the swim bath especially after splashing to the walls /roof.
10) Jump.
Where animals jump to the swim bath
Procedure of dipping animals
 Assemble the animals in the collecting yard.
 Allow the animals to drink water before dipping starts.
 Check the level and concentration of the dip wash and replenish if necessary.
 Fill up the foot bath with clean water.
 Open the pipe that returns the dip wash from the drainage race to the tank
 Animals are allowed / forced to move through the entrance race in a single file and move
into the swim bath where they are completely immersed in the dip wash.
 Animals then walk out of the swim bath using the exit ramp.
 They are held in the drainage race so that excess dip wash drains off their bodies.
 The 1st 10-20 animals to be dipped should be dipped again as they could have passed
through the dip wash before it was well mixed.
 The animals are allowed to leave the drainage race.
Qtn Explain the factors considered when selecting the site for a dip tank
Precautions that should be taken before and after dipping.

 Animals should be watered first, should be given water for drinking as thirsty animals
are likely to take the acaricide.
 Dipping should be done in the morning of a bright sunny day.
 Pregnant animals should not be dipped to avoid collapsing in the swim bath.
 Sick animals should not be dipped
 Do not dip on a rainy day because the acaricide can be washed off.
 Ensure the footbath is filled with water before dipping starts to avoid contaminating dip.
 Ensure the concentration of acaricide this should be done through replenishing
 Ensure uniform mixing of acaricide by running 5-7 animals before dipping.
Factors that may change / alter the concentration of the dip wash.
 Excess fouling and sedimentation
 Flooding
 Evaporation
 Leaking through poor construction / on poor soil
 Inefficient stirring / agitation.
 Prolonged use of dip wash
 Leaking roof leading to dilution of acaricide
 Weak concentration of acaricide
 Improper mixing of acaricide
Advantages of using the dip tank.
 Many animals dipped on a single day
 Dip wash can be used a number of times before it is discarded / used for so long
 The animals are fully covered by the dip wash which effectively control ticks on their
bodies
 If well maintained, it is durable and can serve for many years.
 Require little labour to use
 It requires less technique skills to use than the spray race
 Spoilage of chemicals / acaricide is minimal
 It is cheaper to run in the long run.
Disadvantages of using dip tank
 Initial capital of installation is quite high for small scale farmers to afford
 Require some skilled labour to use e.g. When detecting construction and level after
dipping
 Animals can get injured especially when level of dip wash falls below the lowest
recommended level.
 It can not be used on claves, pregnant cows and sick animals.
 Dip wash can poison animals if poorly diluted or may not be effective if it is too dilute
 It is labour intensive and time consuming to empty and refill it.
 Diseases such as floor rot, foot and mouth can be introduced in the dip wash which
affects other animals.
 It is not economical for farmers with few animals.
FARM BUILDINGS
These are important structures commonly found on farms
Examples of farm buildings:-
 Crop stores
 Farmers residential house
 Green house
 Farm offices
 Pigsty
 Calf pens
 Rabbit hatch
Benefits / importance of farm buildings.
 They provide comfort to humans and animals by acting as places of reluctance
 They protect animals from bad weather and attack by parasites and wild animals
 They are used to store farm produce / products e.g. maize grains, hides and skins
 They protect farm machinery from bad weather elements like sun, wind, rain.
 Farm buildings enables farmers to spend less on labour e.g. by reducing labour needed
in drying of crop products.
 Farm buildings can be used in crop production to grow crops that can not withstand
weather conditions e.g. green houses for planting roses,
 They protect vulnerable livestock e.g. poultry rabbits against thieves and predators
which reduce stress and out puts.
 Some are used as office for management of farms hence increases efficiency.
 Farm buildings increase the quantity of farm produce e.g. yellow bananas and some
other products are harvested in raw form and ripen in stores.
 They help to store farm produce when market prices are low so that they can sell when
prices are high.
 Farm buildings increase real estate value of the farm.
Siting farm buildings.
(Selecting a suitable site for farm buildings)
Farm buildings should be sited in strategic areas if they have to play their beneficial roles. The
factors considered include;
1) Accessibility
Farm buildings should be sited close to main road. This enables farmer to transport farm
produce to the market and bring in farm inputs from the market.
2) Location
Should be sited in the center of the farm, this facilitates easy supervision of the whole farm
since all parts of the farm are equally accessible to the farmer.
3) Topography
Be located on high ground to avoid dampness especially during wet season to prevent
sinking of the foundation.
4) Soil type
Be sited on least productive areas of the farm (infertile soils) while production areas should
be reserved for crop production.
5) Drainage
Site should be well drained to prevent water logging. The site should be gently sloping for
safe disposal of water after it has rained because they favour breeding of parasites.
6) Water supply
Should be sited where there’s easy access to a reliable source of water, e.g. tap, well for use
at farm.
7) Power supply
Where possible farm buildings should be sited near the source of power for easy processing
of farm produce before being sold.
8) Security
Buildings for vulnerable/sensitive enterprises like rabbits, birds etc should be sited near
farmer’s house of residence for easy supervision.
9) Orientation
Such that high noon sunrays should not directly hit into the building.
The best site should be in such a way that day scotching winds/sunrays should not be
allowed into the building because they affect the feeding activities and cause stress to birds.
10) Panorama
The view of the surrounding area should be pleasant to the observer.
11) Future expansion
Since the farm is expected to keep growing and expanding, space should be left and
reserved a side for future expansion.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN PLANNING AND DESIGNING FARM

BUILDING.
 Purpose/use of the building e.g. design of crop shore should be different from that of
the rabbit hatch or green house due to its intended use.
 Construction and maintenance cost.
Farmer should use the materials depending on his income e.g. farmer cannot plan
using expensive building materials like tiles when his limited cash.
 Surrounding environment
E.g. in areas where there are strong winds, some walls in animal house should be
raised up to roof.
 Available constructional materials.
It’s cheaper to use readily available materials than to transport them from far away.
 Risks and uncertainties
E.g. outbreak of fire, thefts of produce for possibilities of fire outbreak, and an
emergency door should be included.
 Availability of labour for construction work.
It’s important for the labour to consider whether there’s skilled labour to build using
certain materials e.g. tiles, concrete etc.
 Possibilities for future expansion.
Consider possibilities for future adjustment on the buildings e.g. expanding it or
modifying it so that it can be used for another.
FACTORS TOCONSIDER WHEN LAYING OUT FARM BUILDING
 Relationship of building s to others.
Buildings with closely related functions should be sited near each other to maximize
planning efficiency.
 Flexibility of the building.
Buildings should be constructed in such a way that they can be able to serve many purposes.
E.g. Using a cattle barn as a milking parlour.
 Possibilities for future expansion
An allowance of land should be left around each building so that in case of need to expand
the enterprise, other buildings that are already set up are not demolished.
 Fire risks
Inflammable substance such as fuel, hay can catch fir easily and cause a lot of destruction.
Therefore stores for such materials should be constructed at a reasonable distance away
from other buildings.
 Air pollution
Certain enterprises like poultry and piggery that are likely to produce a lot of foul smell or
bad odour should be sited down wind and at a distance away from farm offices and
residential houses.
 Building materials
Farmer has to select the most suitable materials depending on the kind of building to be
erected and for how long it is intended to serve.
BUILDING MATERIALS
1. WOOD
In construction work, wood may be used as timber for poles, risks, rafters and trusses,
making floors, ceilings, Furniture and facial boards, doors, windows etc.
Advantages of using wood ass building materials
o Wood is locally available in many parts of Uganda
o Wood is cheap to buy than concrete plastic.
o Wood is easy to shape into various forms using simple tools/does not require specials skills.
o Wood is a poor conductor of heat and electricity.
o Wood can easily withstand shock and vibrators.
o Wood is easy to construct and dismantle.
o Wood is durable when properly treated.
o Wood is versatile i.e. can serve very many purposes.
o Wood is light material compared to metals.
o Wood has a good appearance.
Disadvantages of using wood

o Wood easily burns if not well protected from fire
o Wood is not strong like metals/concrete and can easily break if subjected to very heavy
tasks/loads.
o Wood can easily be eaten by termites.

o Wood is susceptible to bad weather if not treated.
o Wood takes long to grow and become ready for use.
o Wood can easily develop some defects and can easily crack.
QTN. Give reasons why wood is considered to be a versatile material of construction at

the farm?
2. CONCRETE
This is a mixture of sand, cement, aggregate and water in various proportions depending on
the strength and type of work to be done.
Concrete is used for making blocks for building, for joining blocks, bricks and stones.
TABLE SHOWING TYPICAL CONCRETE MIXTURES
GRAD TYPE OF CEME SAND AGGREGA USE OF CONCRETE

E CONCRETE NT TE MIXTURE
1. STRONG 1 part 1½ 3 parts Columns, walls, floors
2. STARDARD 1 part 2 parts 4 parts Foundation, floor, ceilings
3. MEDIUM 1 part 2 ½ parts 5 parts Foundations
4. LEAN 1 part 3 parts 6 parts Foundation and thick walls
NB
The greater the proportion of cement the stronger the concrete
- When mixing concrete, make sure that each aggregate is covered by cement.
- The strength of concrete will also depend on the methods of curing/covering hence
concrete should not be exposed to the sun directly.
- Although concrete is strong in compression, it is weak in tension and therefore it must
be reinforced with iron bars or steel rods which takes tensional forces.
3. BLOCKS
They are made of sand, concrete, murrum or sun dried clay or anti hill soils.
They may be molded by use of simple wooden moulds or by sophiscated moulds made
of Galvanized steel.
4. Bricks
A brick is hard /well shaped pieces of barked clay/anti hill earth
Procedure of making Bricks
 Vegetation cover and a thin layer of top soil are scrapped off to expose clay.
 Clay, anti hill earth is mixed with water is worked well / pressed well to remove excess
water.
 The materials are then left to ferment for a number of days in order for organic matter to
decompose and form proper bonds with soil.

 It is then molded or shaped by putting it in a brick mould
 The brick should be dried under a shade to avoid cracking
 The bricks are then burnt in a brick kiln until they turn red to their strength and
durability.
 Bricks are used for construction of walls and foundations.
5. Plastics
These are used in internal fitting such as water pipes, electricity pipes and fillers for insulations
Advantages of plastics
 It is a good insulator i.e. used in electric fitting
 It is cheap compared to mortar
 It is resistant to attack by weather conditions insects, fungi
 It requires no special treatment
 They are light in weight and size
 They do not rust
6. mortar
Is the mixture of sand, and cement with water usually with a ration of 4:1.
Mortar is used to bind brick together during construction.
Mortar is used for plastering walls and finishing floors
7. Metals.
Used in form of bars, metallic poles, pillars pipes steel rods for reinforcing concrete,
Core netting etc depending on the purpose of the building
8. Earth / soil
Commonly used on peasant farm houses in the farm. It is used to make foundations and
walls used to make mud blocks and bricks. However, houses made of these materials are
not permanent but can last longer if walls are coated with cement, sand and mortar,
9. Stones
These are used to put up permanent structures especially to make their foundation, floors
and walls stones are cheap to use but expensive if they are not locally available.
10. Thatch
Used for roofing instead of corrugated iron sheets or tiles
Parts of Typical Building –draw the structure of the farm building
a) Foundation
Should be erected on well drained area to avoid sinking the building.
Foundation should be firm and is made using stoves, concrete and Damp proof course
Procedures of making the foundation.
 Measure the site using a measuring tape, string and pegs
 Clear a way the surface vegetation.
 Dig the site to the required depth i.e. 35cm wide and not less than 50cm deep
 Remove all the organic matter until you reach sub soil
 Mark the foundation with pegs in the ground
 Use the spirit level to check horizontal level of excreted area of the foundation.
 Throw broken stones, bricks into the excreted site
 Pour concrete on top into the site to make hard core start at one end
 Ram gently to avoid concrete from coming out
 Lay final thin layers of concrete to the level which provides good surface
 Allow it to set
 If the building is for livestock allow rough finish
 A damp proof course (DPC) is inserted 15cm above the ground level. This is to reduce
water movement by capillarity into the wall
b) Wall structure
The wall should be constructed in such away that it supports all vertical loads
c) Roof structure
Made by timber, blocks, metals and grass
Features of the roof

 Trusses.
These support the thatching material
 Cross tie
Is the base of trusses?
 Rafters
These are attached to the base to form a triangular structure
 Struts
These are nailed diagonally onto the truss for attachment of the roofing materials
 Rafter batten / fascial board
Holds the rafter in position
NB. If the roof is to be made of grass or tiles, the rise or pitch should be high to lead the
water run off easily and so increase the durability of the roof.
Structural requirements of farm building
a) Features of a good live stock house
 Floor made of concrete so that it is easy to clean and gently sloping so that urine can
drain off easily
 It should have a roof to protect the animals from rain and sunshine.
 Walls should be high enough to protect animals from scotching winds and violent rains
 Walls should be strong, plastered to seal off crevices that can act as living places for
parasites
 Animals house should be large enough in order to accommodate the animals
 A large space should be left between the wall tops and the roof for good ventilation
 Should have enough light system in order for animals to see each other which makes
them active
 Should have feed trough where water is put for feeding by animals
 Should have water trough where water is put for draining by animals
 Should have an adjacent store where the equipments such as feeds, drugs equipments are
kept
b) Features of a good crop store
 Should have leak proof to avoid rain and sunshine from destroying crop produce
 Should have smooth walls to prevent movement of pests on the walls where pests can
not hide.
 Should have strong lockable doors
 Should have strong foundation raised to prevent/avoid dampness
 Should be well ventilated to allow easy air circulation
 Should have an supervisions floor for easy cleaning
 Should be in close proximity to released structures
 Should be large enough with races / stalls to accommodate the produce
 Should have pillars and posts that care rat guards or deflectors to prevent rodents from
destroying the crop produce
 Should be well fitted with racks so that crops should not directly be placed on the
ground
Assignment 4:
a) Outline the characteristics of:-
i a good crop store
ii a good calf pen
b) Explain the considerations put in place before choosing a site for a building at the farm
c) What do you understand by farm lay out
d) What do you consider when planning a lay out of a farm?
FARM WATER SUPPLY

Water is essential for the smooth running of farm activities. Crop, livestock and humans can not
survive without water
Importance of water on the farm
 Water is used for drinking both man and livestock
 Water is used for mixing feeds like when feeding sows with maize brand, it is 1st mixed
with water
 Water is solvent for mixing various solutions suspensions or even emulsions of farm
chemicals e.g. pesticides, acaricide etc.
 Water acts as a coolant because the evaporation of water from a source leads to
dispersion of latent heat of vaporization.
 Water is used for aquaculture/fish farming is carried out in ponds with water.
 Water is used for irrigation especially in drought periods to enable plants meet their
water needs.
 Water is used as a source of power directly as a water mill for grinding cereals or
conversion of hydro electric power.
 Water can also be used for washing around houses, floors, walls etc.
 Water is used for cleaning of utensils, farm tools and equipments.
 Water is used for preserving perishable farm products such as vegetables, fruits etc.
 Water is used for cooling farm machinery e.g. tractors, transport vehicles and millers.
Problems associated with water on the farm.

 Loss of soil fertility as a result of washing a way of the fertile top soil/soil erosion and
leaching.
 Stagnant water can act as a breeding place for parasites e.g. liver flukes and bilhazia
worms and some vectors of disease causing organisms like mosquitoes and snails.
 Contaminated water can be a carrier of human disease such as typhoid and cholera.
 When water is excessive in the soil, it interferes with plant growth and development.
 Useful soil living organisms e.g. Nitrogen fixers and decomposers cannot live in water
logged areas/soils because such areas lack air that is needed for respiration.
 Some livestock at the farm may drown in water bodies e.g. ponds, wells that are deep.
However, water shortage on the farm may be due to:

 Inadequate supply of water to the farm
 Deforestation which increases soil erosion, filtration of water bodies that in turn interfere
with the water cycle.
 Drainage e.g. sinking of boreholes which lower the water table.
 Pollution of water sources which may make water unsafe for farm purposes.
Sources of water at the farm

Water may be obtained at the farm from:-
 Natural precipitation/rainfall
 Surface water bodies like streams, rivers, lakes, ponds and swamps.
 Underground water sources- when it rains, water sinks into the soil, soon meets an
impervious layer of soil/roc k it accumulates there, forming underground water.
 Underground water can be obtained from the soil through:-
 Springs
 Boreholes/wells
 Dams
 Weirs
Water storage
 Water storage on the farm is necessary in order to keep it safe from contamination, avoid
water wastages, to use it during time of shortages especially during the dry seasons.
Water can be stored in the following ways:-
a) By trapping rain water
 Farmers can trap rain water from roofs of farm buildings and store it in containers,
drums, barrels, tanks and reservoirs.
1. Reservoirs
These are open water storage structure are made to trap and retain runoff water
from roofs, compounds etc.
2. Valley dams
These are open water storage structures that are dug up to trap and runoff water
from a catchment area.
3. Drums, barrels
4. Tanks draw diagrams of:
(i) Roof tanks -
(ii) Under ground tank
(iii) Overhead tank
Is usually made of galvanized steel to prevent rusting and is usually raised off the ground to
ease water floor out of the tank due to gravity.
Water is pumped in through the tap of the tank under gravity. There’s usually an overflow pipe
to allow excess water to flow out of the tank.
(iv) Valley tank

Made with a silt trap from the pond a long its flour from the streams or along an overflow of
rain. Silt trap prevents excess sedimentation of the stream.
(v)Earth dam
A dam is a well/bank built to keep back or reduce water flow and store much water.
(vi) Weir
Is a structural device designed to raise the water level of a stream or river to a point above
which water begins to flow?
A weir may be made from loose stones or logs held together by a wire net.
Vertical section of an earth dam
FARM WATER TREATMENT

They include:-
 Boiling: - This kills germs especially if the water is to be drunk by the farmer should be
boiled to avoid water borne diseases.
 Filtration:-
Filtering removes foreign materials. This can be done using sand filter.
 Storing water for long periods of time:-
This enables and allows sediments to settle at bottom while clean water can be decanted into
another container.
Storing water for so long helps to kill some germs and parasites like Bilhazia worms and
liver flukes.
 Addition of chemicals:-
Chemicals such as chlorine, sodium hypochlorite are used to kill bacterial and snails to
control liver flukes.
 Exposing water to sunlight:-
Ultra violet rays in sunlight can kill germs in water when the water is left to stand in an
open container such as a trough.
Maintenance of water supply to the farm

 The area around the water sources should be kept under grass cover to protect if from
erosion. This is because the grasses trap soil that would otherwise be carried into the water
source and silt it up.
 Water sources such as wells, ponds and springs should be fenced to keep animal a way
and avoid contamination of water.
 Water tanks, walls, pipes and all supporting structures associated with water supply
should be kept clean.
 Ponds must be desilted when necessary and water vegetation be removed.
 Grass planted around water sources should be kept short by slashing from time to time.
 Overhead tanks, roof tanks should be covered to avoid contamination from annual
droppings dead annuals and dirt from winds.
 Drainage channels should be dug around water sources to carry away dirty water.
 Ensuring that pumps and pipelines functions properly by regularly servicing them. E.g.
Tank leakages should be repaired as they lead to wastage of water.
GUIDING QUESTIONS
1a) Explain why water is of great importance on a farm
b) State the problems that are likely to be caused by water on a farm.
2a) Outline the sources of water used on the farm
b) How can water intend for latter use be stored on the farm.
c) Outline the mentainance requirements of water storage container.
3a) Describe how river water can be used in irrigating crop fields
Suggest the benefits of irrigation.

AGRICULTURE ECONOMICS HAND OUT
Agriculture economics;
This is the study of how best to produce crops and animals to get maximum returns while using scarce
resources. The resources needed in production are land, labour, capital, time and management.
Production
It’s the creation of goods and services in order to satisfy man’s needs.
Factors of production
This is an aggregate of free gifts of nature, human capacity and all sorts of man made aids that help in
production. The factors of production include; land, labour, capital, time and entrepreneurship/
management.
LAND
Anything provided by nature under or over the earth’s surface. Land can lead to development in several
ways:-
1. Its where farm buildings are constructed.
2. It’s a source of minerals used in manufacture of farm tools
3. It provides soil used in agriculture for crop growing
4. It can provide fuel in form of fire wood.
5. It’s a source of all raw materials used in production
6. It can be taxed to provide revenue for the government
7. It can be mortgaged for loans.
Land tenure
These are rules and conditions governing the ownership and use of land in a specific area.
Forms of land tenure
1. Private ownership / free hold/ land lordship/ individual ownership.
2. State ownership
3. Communal ownership
4. Lease hold
5. Co-operative land tenure.

Private land ownership
This is where an individual puts a claim on a piece of land as his personal property by getting a title deed
after registering it with government.
Advantages
1. Land owner can mortgage the land for a loan since he has a title deed.
2. The owner can use the land the way he likes for development.
3. Land consolidation and planning becomes easy since what is owned by the farmer is known
including the value.
4. It avoids land disputes since the land is well demarcated.
5. It acts as an incentive to farmers to improve the land since they have security of tenure.
6. The land owner can sell the land or part of it easily incase of financial constraints.
7. It safeguards against the position of the local community if land is in short supply.
Disadvantages
1. Tenants can easily be made landless when the owner sells the land in their absence.
2. It encourages Hoarding of land incase of absentee land lord.
3. It may lead to political upraising against land lords who have tough rules on land usage.
State ownership
This is where land owned by the state on behalf of the citizens. People can be evicted from the land
anytime without compensation when government wants to use the land.
Advantages:
1. It allows fast decision making in the use of land by the state.
2. It encourages large investments on land by government like plantations, factories etc.
3. Government can rent out land to raise revenue for development
Disadvantages
1. People have no security over the land occupied since they can be evicted any time.
2. Government can fail to utilize the land efficiently by awarding it to political allies.
3. It can be a source of political un-rest when people are sent away from government land.
Communal ownership
This is where land is owned by the community that can be a tribe, clan or religious sect.
Characteristics of communal land ownership
1. Its common in the pastoral communities of East Africa
2. Land is neither bought nor sold.
3. Every member of the community has a right to use land
4. Land is allocated to individuals by community leaders or village elders.
Advantages
1. Every member of the community has access to land irrespective of his social and economic
background.
2. There is efficient use of land since abandoned land can be given to members of the community.
3. Each person can cultivate or graze on the communal land with no restriction.

4. There are no cases of landlessness.
Disadvantages
1. It doesn’t give any incentives for improvement of land by the farmer.
2. There is a tendency of over stocking and over grazing leading to erosion.
3. Its difficult for a farmer to use the land to get a loan since he has no title deed as an individual.
4. Increasing population leads to land fragmentation which reduces agriculture production.
5. Continuous cropping may lead to destruction of soil structure.
6. Its difficult to improve livestock since controlled breeding is hard to practice on such land due to
communal grazing.
7. Pest and disease control is very difficult since farmers are difficult to mobilize under such a system.
Lease hold
Here land is given to the tenant by the state or the landlord for a specific period
of time like 49years, 99 years and 999years.
Advantages
1. The tenant has security of tenure therefore can use land for development without fear
2. The tenant can use the title secured to acquire a loan for development.
3. The tenant can rent out the land to get extra income.
4. It minimizes land disputes because of proper land demarcation
5. It encourages the growing of perennial crops with a long lease period.
6. The tenant is encouraged to carryout land conservation measures.
.Co-operative land tenure
This is where land is owned by individuals who organize themselves into a
Co-operative.
Advantages
1. The land is used efficiently for productive purposes.
2. The co-operative organization can use the land as security to acquire a loan
3. Group ownership of land is a source of security.
4. There is collective work on the land which leads to high production.
5. Members can share profits and losses that are made.
Disadvantages
1. Individuals cannot easily get loans for production
2. Decision making is difficult as far as usage of land is concerned.
LAND REFORMS
This is an organized action designed to improve the structure of land tenure and
use.
Examples of land reforms
1. Land consolidation
2. Land registration
3. Land re-distribution

4. Settlement and resettlement schemes.
Objectives of land reform
1. Achieving high levels of land output through security, incentives and investments.
2. Achieving flexibility of farming patterns to meet changing natural market demand.
3. Increasing productivity of both land and labour.
4. Achieving effective utilization of national land resources which can include settlement of people on
un used land and introduction of irrigation.
5. Encouraging production for the market through large scale production as opposed to subsistence
6. Encouraging conservation and improvement of land by preserving forests and wetlands.
7. Reducing land conflicts in a population through land registration
Settlement and resettlement schemes

Settlement; first time establishment on land which was previously undeveloped
Resettlement; planned and controlled population transfer from one area to another
Reasons for setting up
1. To ease population pressure by removing people from highly populated places to those with sparse
population.
2. To prevent pest and disease attack by removing people from places infested with tsetse flies.
3. Increase land for agricultural production by removing less productive people from the land.
4. To facilitate mechanization by availing more land to farmers.
5. To settle the land less people who may become a problem within the population.
6. To resettle displaced people who might have been displaced by natural calamities and political
insurgencies.
7. To encourage self employment to people after being given land.
8. To resettle unemployed people so as to reduce rural-urban migration and unemployment.
9. To carryout research in agriculture activities in resettlement schemes.
10. Train youth in improved methods of farming so as to improve their welfare.
Land registration
This is where a farmer comes to an agreement with government over the ownership and use of land through
the acquisition of land title deed.
Importance:
1. The land owner has security of tenure hence can develop the land.
2. He can use the land title as security to obtain loans.
3. Land owner can easily rent out land to get extra income.
4. It minimizes land disputes because of proper land demarcation
5. It encourages land development through establishment of perennial crops
6. Land owner is encouraged to carryout soil conservation measures in order to protect his land.
7. It is easy to sale or transfer the ownership of land.
Land consolidation

This is the pooling of small pieces of land to form a large and more productive land when put together
under one management.
Steps in land consolidation
1. Establish land ownership
2. Measurement of the plot to be consolidated in order to establish their size.
3. Describing the nature of the fragment
4. Valuing the fragments to be consolidated
5. Recording each fragment of land for further consideration
6. Issuing of the title for the consolidated land or fragments.
Advantages
1. Saves time that could have been wasted moving from plot to plot during farm operations.
2. Makes supervision of farm operations easy and less costly since they are in one place.
3. It encourages mechanization on a farm since the land is big enough which makes the practice
economical.
4. Agricultural production is increased due to large scale production.
5. It’s easier to provide extension services on the consolidated land.
6. Theft of farm produce is reduced due to improved supervision.
7. Transport costs of the produce from the garden are reduced since all products are in one place.
8. It’s easier to control pests and diseases on the farm since the big portion of land is under one
management.
9. It’s easier to carry out soil and water conservation measures.
Disadvantages
1. It may make people land less.
2. It may cause political unrest among the population as people lose land during consolidation
3. It’s a very costly exercise since each fragment is of a different value.
LAND FRAGMENTATION
This is where agricultural farm land is split into small plots in different places belonging to one farmer.
Causes of land fragmentation
1. An increasing population in the country making land to be scarce
2. Traditional system of land inheritance where sons share the fathers’ land upon his death.
3. Limited income among the farmers which forces them to buy small affordable plots.
4. Farming systems like shifting cultivation which allows farmers to move from place to place.
5. polygamy which forces the family head to own pieces of land in different places
6. communal land ownership where people divide up land continuously amongst them selves
Effects of land fragmentation
1. It’s difficult to supervise all plots effectively leading to loss of produce.
2. A lot of time is wasted in moving from plot to plot.
3. Farm planning is difficult due to the small size of the fragments.
4. It encourages low agriculture production due to subsistence production.

5. Theft of farm produce is common due to reduced supervision.
6. Agricultural mechanization is difficult due to the small size of the plots which are scattered.
7. It’s difficult to offer agricultural extension services on such scattered plots.
8. It’s difficult to carry out soil conservation measures due to the distance involved.
9. Pest and disease control on the fragments is difficult.
10. It’s difficult to control grazing since farmers have small plots that are prone to overstocking and
overgrazing.
Mention ways of land acquisition in Uganda
CAPITAL
It’s a stock of assets which are meant for the production of other assets.
Types of capital
1. Fixed capital / Real capital
This includes land, building, fences, and machines, Tools, livestock and crops in the garden. Fixed capital
stays in the business for a long time
2. Working capital
This is money or materials used in day to day running of the farm business e.g. fertilizers, fuel, seed etc.
3. Private capital These are assets owned by individuals

4. Social capital These are assets that are owned by the state on behalf of the citizens e.g. roads,
schools, hospitals, government farms etc.
AGRICULTURE CREDIT
This is money or resources which farmers borrow from various institutions or individuals to improve their
production and development.
Importance of agriculture credit.
1. It allows farmers to finance profitable activities on the farm.
2. It encourages the farmer to develop a sense of saving.
3. It increases capital development on the farm in form of buildings, fences etc.
4. It allows a farmer to finance big investments beyond his income.
5. It encourages better farming techniques in agriculture through the use of improved breeds and
varieties
6. It can lead to improvement of the standard of living amongst farmers.
Sources of agriculture credit.
1. Commercial banks like stanbic, DFCU
2. Co-operative organizations like BCU
3. Individual money lenders like baypot.
4. Farmers organizations i.e. Uganda National Farmers Federation (UNAFF)
5. International bodies like International Fund for Agriculture Development, Food and Agriculture
Organization, International Monitory fund.
6. Development banks like UDB, EADB.
7. Marketing board e.g. Uganda Tea Board

8. Government through various bodies like central bank
MEASURES THAT ENSURE EFFECTIVENESS OF AGRICULTURE CREDIT
1. Provision of extension services / education to farmers on how to use loans.
2. Improvement of loan supervision to ensure prompt payment.
3. Improving loan recovery programme by encouraging part repayment over a period of time.
4. Improving staff training for effective co-ordination with farmers.
5. Provide farmers with inputs at fair prices so that they can earn profits for easy repayment of the loans.
6. Provide farmers with loans in kind like fertilizers, pesticides, improved seeds etc.
7. Organize marketing of farmers’ produce at fair prices so that farmers can get profit early to pay back
credit.
8. Give loans to farmers in time or at the correct time to reduce risks.
9. Give adequate grace period to allow loan payment to take place easily.
10. Charge fair interest rates that can be met by the farmers.
11. Help farmers to identify viable projects for investment.
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH LOAN REPAYMENT
1. High interest rates which may be difficult to be met by a farmer to pay during loan repayment.
2. Short grace period which doesn’t allow the farmer to realize the borrowed money.
3. Risks and uncertainties that cause severe losses to farmers making it hard to pay back loans.
4. Poor loan supervision among the loan providers giving room for defection.
5. Credit unworthiness of some farmers who may not want to pay back the loan.
6. Death of the farmer leaving no body to pay back the loan.
7. Political interference where a farmer may take the loan advanced to be a political payment or reward.
8. Inadequate knowledge of a farmer on how to use loans effectively
Types of agricultural credit
Short term credit- this given for a period of 1 to 2 years and can be used to purchase inputs like fertilizers,
seeds, pesticides feeds and employing casual labour
Medium term credit- this is give for a period of 2-5 years and can be used for building farm structures and
purchasing machinery
Long term credit- this can be given for a period of 20 years and can be used for financing long term
projects like purchase of livestock and erecting buildings
LABOUR
This is human effort both manual and intellectual directed towards the process of production.
Classification of labour
Labour can be classified as;
a) Skilled labour.
This is where people perform jobs in which they have training e.g. teachers teaching and doctors treating
b) Semiskilled.
This is where a person performs a particular job where he has no training but has some knowledge about it.
c) Unskilled labour This is labour provided by people who are not trained at all in such a field.

d) Family labour
This is labour provided by family members like children and wives in agriculture work.
Efficiency of labour
This is the measure of output per person per hour / time
It’s affected by
1. Education / training ease ways of doing work.
2. Health; poor health reduces labour efficiency
3. Incentives i.e. attractions to work e.g. salary.
4. Climatic conditions; poor climate reduces efficiency of labour
5. Supervision; poor supervision reduces efficiency
6. Organizations of people for work; poor organization reduces efficiency
7 Experience of the workers; low experience reduces efficiency
8 Provision of good tools for work; lack of tools for use during work reduces efficiency
LABOUR FORCE
This refers to economically active people between 15-65yrs of age excluding students, house wives and
disabled.
Labour supply.
This is the number of hours worked per period of time.
Factors affecting labour supply.
1. Health conditions of the workers.
2. Motivation in terms of salaries and allowances.
3. Working conditions.
4. Population size a high population leads to provision of more Labour e.g. china
5. Retirement age, a high retirement age guarantees a high labour supply.
6. Immigration which increases labour supply
7 Emigration which decreases labour supply as workers leave a place
8. Labour mobility, a high labour mobility leads to high labour supply.
9. Working time, as number of working time increases supply of labour also increases.
10. Strength of trade unions. These can reduce the number of people employed to maintain the wage
by fixing a high minimum wage.
Labour mobility
This is the ease with which labour can move from one place to another (geographical mobility) or from one
job to another (occupation mobility)
Factors affecting labour mobility
1. Limitations in skills; it’s hard for a sweeper to do doctors work.
2. Time required for training; along training period reduces the rate at which such people can join
that occupation.
3. Racial differences; in some countries certain jobs are reserved for a particular race.

4. Trade unions; workers can we collective effort to bargain for higher wages and reduce entry of
others in employment.
5. Transport; poor transport resists movement of people from place to place.
6. Security; poor security can affect the acquisition of jobs in particular areas.
MANAGEMENT / ENTREPRENEURSHIP
An entrepreneur is a person who undertakes the task and risk of organizing other factors of production so
as to earn profits. The reward for the entrepreneur is profit or loss depending on performance of the
business.
Management; the art and science of organizing and operating a farm business or this is the organization of
factors of production by minimizing costs and maximizing profit.
Functions of a manager
1. Purchasing farm inputs
2. Mobilizing resources for the farm
3. Combining factors of production to earn profits
4. Bearing risks and uncertainties of the farm
5. Organizing and supervising factor inputs like labour
6. Making final decision in the farm business to foster growth
7. To event new ideas that are useful for development
8. To find market for farm produce and sale it
9. Keep up-to-date farm records for reference purposes
10. To motivate labour at the farm for better performance
11. To coordinate and plan farm activities as required
Factors that determine the farmers’ choice of an enterprise
i. Climate; good climate favours crop and animal production more especially where farmers have to depend on
nature
ii. Soil factors; in agriculture, good soils are necessary for crop production
iii. Pests and diseases; their presence limits agriculture since they attack crops and animals leading to losses
iv. Farmer’s interests; this influences their zeal for work of a particular nature and level of production
v. Market; whatever farmers produce must be taken to the market for sale. Good market encourages farmers to
venture in an enterprise
vi. Social and religious factor; Moslem cannot invest in pig enterprise since their religion bars them from that
practice.
vii. Government policy; government can prohibit some enterprise which may discourage farmers from such
work e.g. production of tobacco.
viii. farmers’ experience and skill in an enterprise
ix. level of capital needed in investment
x. availability of power needed in production
Production efficiency-this is the measure of the farmer’s ability to use low costs to obtain maximum output in
quality and quantity.
Efficiency standard-this is a mathematical formulae that a farmer uses to assess his success or failure in business
Types of efficiency standards
Partial efficiency standards – it’s a measure of the efficiency of carrying out a particular farm enterprise. It
can be carried out in two ways

a) Yield index – the percentage ratio of actual yield to expected yield i.e yield index = actual yield ×
100
Expected yield
b) System index – the percentage yield index between two different farms under comparison
Economic efficiency-measure of the economic contribution of each factor used in p[production with an aim of
establishing maximum average output per unit input.
Technical efficiency-this measures the ability of a factor of production to perform its job properly within the
required time to contribute effectively to economic returns of a business.
Improving farm efficiency
 proper weed control
 proper pest and disease control
 use of improved breeds and varieties
 mechanization of farm activities
 careful planning
 proper crop spacing
 use of manures and fertilizers
 early planting
 supplementary feeding of livestock
 proper record management
Farm planning and budgeting
Farm planning is the designing of a careful arrangement through setting objectives and defining means and
procedure of achieving the objectives set.
Process of decision making
Problem recognition
Collection of information
Analyzing alternatives
Making a decision
Taking action
Forms of planning
1) Simple planning- this involves budgeting for cash received and expenses while ignoring minor expenses
2) Intermediate planning-this is full budgeting for input-output ,receipts ,investments and credits
3) Advanced planning-involves intermediate planning, budgeting for receipts, expenditure, borrowing and
repayment on an annual basis
4) Informal planning-these are plans mentally borne without anything written
5) Partial planning- this is where a section of the farm is planned leaving the other part
Importance of farm planning
a. A farmer can set targets of how much produce he expects to get

b. Enables allocation of scarce resources in relation to costs and markets
c. Allows the farmer to fully control the farm other than being controlled
d. Guides the farmer in choosing the enterprise to maximize profits
e. Enables a farmer to separate items for sale, saving and domestic use
f. Enables the farmer to assess the progress of the farm towards the set goals
g. Allows the farmer to focus ahead to see the future of the farm
h. Allows the farmer to perfume farm duties on time
i. Allows a farmer to identify reasons for his success
Aims of planning
i. To achieve maximum revenue returns
ii. Identify least cost combinations
iii. Determine nature of weakness in the use of resources
iv. Indicate the most profitable combination
Methods of planning
1. Comparison between different farms
2. Budgeting using elementary economics
3. Linear programming using computers
Methods of increasing profits in Agriculture

1. choosing correct business with less risks and uncertainties
2. Selling produce when prices are high i.e. having good storage facilities
3. Timely planting of crops so as to benefit from the high prices that are offered at the beginning of the harvesting
season.
4. Use of better techniques of production i.e. improved seeds, good breeds.
5. Processing agriculture products so as to add value hence more profits.
6. Advertising your produce so that buyers are aware
7. Grading the produce to allow fair prices for each product.
8. Packing of the produce so as to reduce transport costs and increase the profit margin.
9. Proper control of pests and diseases i.e. increase quality.
10. Proper allocation of resources to avoid over spending and under spending.
Economics basic principles
These explain fundamental economic problems of man and they are;
Scarcity – this means that all commodities are relatively less than people’s desires for them
- Scarce goods are called economic goods
- Abundant goods are called free goods
Choice -Taking of the right decision.
Opportunity cost; It’s the value of the alternative foregone in making a decision e.g. if you forego buying
a car and build a house. The cost of the car is the opportunity cost.
Opportunity cost, curve / production possibility.

- It’s a locus of points showing the combinations of commodities that may be produced when all
resources are fully utilized..
 Economic growth
This is the shift of the production possibility frontier curve outwards (to right)
Coffee OC
Od
Maize
It shows an increase in resource and hence an increase in commodities produced.

Economic system
This refers to the organization of ownership, allocation and distribution of resources in an economy.

- Free enterprise economy (unplanned / competitive / capitalization ) ‘Laissez faire” leave us
alone (French) – All resources are owned by private individuals who are free to take all
decisions.
- Centrally planned economy / planned / command economy / socialism. All resources are owned
by the state on behalf of the citizens. The extreme of socialism is communism
- Mixed economy; It’s where some resources are owned by government and others by individuals.
NB: In practice, there is no pure capitalization or socialism
.
PRICE THEORY
Market An arrangement in which buyers and sellers negotiate the exchange of a well defined commodity
TYPES OF MARKET
a. Competitive market- This is a market where there is perfect competition i.e. many sellers, free
entry and exit, perfect knowledge, Non government regulation, profit and utility maximization.
b. Imperfect market -There is limited competitions in this market.
c. Commodity market -where goods and services are traded
d. Factor market -where factors of production are traded.
e. Controlled market Where authorities exert a degree of control e.g. by fixing prices, setting quotas,
etc.
f. Spot market It’s where the commodity or a currency is traded for immediate delivery.
g. Future market Where contracts for delivery at some future date are traded.
DETERMINATION OF PRICES IN MARKET

 Haggling
It refers to the bargaining process taking place between one buyer and one seller. The process of
bargaining continues until the buyer and the seller agree on the same price.
 Fixing by treaties
Here buyers and sellers come together to fix the price of a commodity. The price can be revised by
amending the treaty.
 Sales auction
Takes place between one seller and many buyers where buyer competes for the commodity by fixing
high prices. Commodity is taken by one who pays the highest price.
 Forces of demand and supply. These two act to form an equilibrium or market price
 Retail price maintenance; here manufacturers provide retail recommended price inscribe on the
commodities
 Fixing prices by government; here a maximum price is set by the government to reduce exploitation
of the sellers and buyers
 Contract agreement; here a supplier agrees with the consumer on the price before commencement of
the business
 cartel; producers agree on the price of their product
Equilibrium Price
In the process of buying and selling (demand and supply ) there comes a time when quantity supplied is
equal to quantity demanded i.e. demand = supply. Such a price is called the equilibrium price e.g.
Price(shs) Demand (Kg) Supply (Kg)

200 12 4
300 10 6
400 08 08
500 06 10
600 04 12

DETERMINATION OF PRICE USING DEMAND AND SUPPLY
i. In a competitive market, prices are determined by price mechanism i.e. forces of demand and
supply
ii. If supply increases (excess supply) at constant demand, price falls
iii. Increase in demand at constant supply will lead to increase in prices
iv. At equilibrium, demand is equal to supply
v. At low prices, demand is high and supply is low
vi. When equilibrium price is stable for some time, it is called the normal price or natural price.
vii. Equilibrium price is the market price where what is brought to market is bought without leaving
excess.
viii. Excess demand implies a shortage of supply/ low supply
DEMAND
The desire backed by the ability and willingness to have the commodity desired.
Effective demand - it’s the actual buying of the commodity.

Quantity demanded - This refers to the amount of a commodity buyers are willing and able to
purchase in the market at various prices for period of time
Demand schedule -Data expressing the quantity of goods buyers are willing to buy at various prices.
Demand for maize flour in Naalya market
Price (shs) Quantity (Kg) demanded

1000 20
900 40
800 60
700 80
600 100
500 140

Demand Curve
Law of demand
The law of demand states that the higher the price, the lower the quantity demanded and vice versa.
Cateris paribus (Keeping other factors constant)
Factors influencing market demand for agriculture products
 Price; When the price falls, consumers buy more because they leave substitutes and buy more of the
cheaper commodity i.e. more consumers join market to buy cheap commodity.
 Price of other commodities e.g. substitutes and complements.
a) Substitutes are two commodities that can be used to satisfy the same demand e.g. Beans and peas –
increase in price for beans will lead to low demand for bean and high demand for peas supposing their
price is constant.
b) Complementary Commodities are jointly demanded e.g. petrol and cars, shoe polish and shoes.
Increase in demand for cars will lead to an increase in demand for petrol.
 Incomes - consumers with higher income buy more than the poor hence command a high demand
 Size of population; Increase in population increases demand for commodities more especially
necessities.
 Population composition in terms of age and sex; A population full of aged people is less productive
hence has a low purchasing power and demand
 Tastes and preferences ;If people lose taste for one commodity in preference for another then
demand for such commodity will be low.
 Future expectation; when prices are expected to rise in future due to anticipated shortage, buyers will
buy more and stock increasing demand at that time.
 Change in savings; a family wishing to increase savings will reduce consumption expenditure
lowering demand.
 Advertisement; Increasing advertisement will increase the awareness of such a commodity hence
increased demand.
 Taxation; increased taxes on goods by government increases the prices hence reduced demand.
 Inflation ;A lot of money in circulation increases the demand as there is a lot of money to spend yet
the commodities are limited.
 Depreciation Depreciated goods are not on high demand e.g. old hoes are not highly demanded
since cannot do the best job.
 Taboos Some communities and religions forbid consumption of certain items e.g. pork by Moslems
and Seventh Day Adventist. this lowers demand for such items in the community
 State of the economy; A booming economy will experience a high demand for commodities as people
have money to spend.

Types of demand
Joint / complementary demand. Demand for commodities that are used together such that increase in
demand for one increases demand for the other e.g. demand for fuel and cars
Competitive demand This refers to the demand for commodities which serve almost the same
purpose such increase in demand for one reduces the demand for another e.g. block and bricks, beans
and peas , coffee and tea.
Composite Demand Demand for a commodity which serves several uses such that its total demand is
got by adding up quality demanded of it by those several uses.
Derived demand
This refers to demand for a commodity not for its own sake but as a result of demand for another e.g.
demand for factors of production is derived from demand for commodities which such factors of
production are used to make.
Independent demand
Demand for a commodity does not affect the demand for other commodities
PRODUCT COMBINATION
Competitive products; products that compete for the same resource during production like crops and
livestock using the same land. Increase in area of crop cultivation will reduce grazing land available for
livestock production hence less animals produced.
Joint products; products produced from a single line of production like meat and hides or skins. Increase
in meat production increases supply of hides or skins
Complementary products; products that support each other in the line of production like pasture legumes
and grasses, livestock and crops in mixed farming
Supplementary products; two products that have no effect on the output of the other like keeping dairy
cattle and pigs in the court yard
INPUT COMBINATIONS
Diminishing rate of substitution; two inputs substitute each other as one may be used more than the other
to effect the same change
Varying rate of substitution; two inputs can form a combination to give the best results once mixed in
different ratios
.
Elasticity of Demand
This refers to the degree of responsiveness of change in quantity demanded to a change in factors which
influence quantity demanded like price , income and price of other commodities.
Price elasticity of demand -this is the measure of responsiveness of change in quantity demanded to
changes in the commodity’s own price.
ED = % ∆Quantity demanded
% ∆Price

E.g. when the price of maize was100shs/kg, quantity demanded was 1000kg when the price was increased
to 200shs / Kg quality demanded was 400kg.
ED = % ∆ in demand 1000 – 400 x 100% 600 = 60

1000 10
% ∆ Price = 200 – 100 x 100 = 100

100
ED = 60 = 0.6
100
Interpretation of price elasticity of demand

- Perfectly or completely inelastic – when price Ed is zero. Quantity demanded does not respond to
changes in price at all.
-
D
Price
P2
P1
Quantity demanded
- Inelastic demand Ed is greater than zero but less than 1 – smaller change in quantity demand
resulting from a change of price .
- Elastic demand Ed is greater than 1 but less than infinity. Here % change in quantity is greater
than change in price.
Price
D
P2
P1
D
Q2 Q1 Quantity
Unit elasticity of demand

This is when price elasticity of demand is equal to one i.e. quantity demanded changes exactly as
price change.
Perfectly elastic; When price elasticity is equal to infinity meaning that buyers are prepared to buy
all they can at below the same price and not at all slightly higher
Determinants of price elasticity of demand

 Availability of substitutes
Commodity with many substitutes has elastic demand since consumers shift from it when cost is
increased.
 Degree of necessity Price tends to be inelastic since they indispensable e.g. when the
price of salt increases the quantity demanded is the same. Luxuries have elastic demand.
 Consumers income
When consumers are of low income (poor) Ed. Tends to be elastic as price increase it reduces their
demand since they cannot afford.
 Cost of the commodity If a commodity takes a small fraction of the consumer’s income, its demand
tends to be price inelastic e.g. match box, salt.
 Habit in use of the commodity This makes the demand to be inelastic e.g. Demand for alcohol and
cigarettes, drugs may not be affected easily by change in price for the addicts.
 Durability of the commodity Durable commodities like radios, cars have low price elasticity of
demand. Even when price is lowered, one cannot buy one if he / she has one.
 Price expectation
If prices are expected to increase in future, demand will be inelastic as people would buy and stock and
vice versa.
 Several uses of the commodity A commodity with several uses (composite) has elastic demand for
example Electricity when price is increased people use less of it.
 Time lag Consumers take time to respond to price changes. Elasticity tends to be Inelastic in
the short run and elastic in the long run.
 Time of the year Towards and during public holidays, demands tends to be inelastic since
even when the price is increased people still buy more
 Consumers ignorance Consumers may buy commodities a high price when they don’t know
where such commodities or their substitutes are sold.
SUPPLY THOERY
Quantity supplied -the amount of a commodity producers are willing to bring to
the market at various prices per period of time.
SUPPLY SCHEDULE
Price (shs) Quantity supplied (Kg)
200 50
300 100
400 150
500 200
600 250
800 350
Supply Curve
Law of supply
The higher, the price, the higher the quantity supplied and vice versa ceteris paribus.
Determinants of quantity supplied for agricultural products
Price; According to the law of supply, the higher the price, the higher the Quantity supplied.
Weather For agriculture products, good weather with adequate rainfall and a sunny Harvesting period is
necessary for high yields and high supply.
Technology of production
Farmers using tractors and other machines in production produce more than those using traditional
implements like panga hence higher supply.
Managerial efficiency
A well organized farm enterprise yields more than a poorly organized one since activities are done on time
and as required.
Costs of production
If the costs of inputs like fertilizers and seeds are low then it’s easy for farmers to buy them and
produce more increasing supply.
Number of sellers / producers

If many sellers bring more produce to the market then supply will be high.
Government policy
If the government levies a high tax on a particular good more especially agriculture inputs , then this
automatically increases the price of such a good and will reduce supply of agriculture products due to
increased costs of production.
Transport
Improved and efficient transport facilities facilitates the delivery of farm produce to the market increasing
supply.

Prices of other (substitutes) products,
Increase in the price of one will increase the demand for the product whose price has not been increased
Political stability -
Enough security will encourage production hence increasing supply of products to the market.
Aims of producers
If a producer’s objective is to produce large quantities of a product for the market then this will increase
production.
Future price expectation

If the prices are expected to increase in future, suppliers will hoard / store the product for the future
good prices reducing supply.
Availability of factors of production

When the prices for labour, land and capital are low then it becomes more profitable to produce more for
the market increasing supply.
Demand
High demand for any commodity calls for increased production and supply as well and low demand calls
for low supply.
Gestation period
This refers to the period of maturity. If the gestation period of a commodity is short the production /
supply can be increased in the shortest time possible.
ELASTICITY OF SUPPLY (ES)

Price ES – is the measure of responsiveness of changes in the quantity supplied due to relative changes in
price of the good.
ES = % ∆ in quality
% ∆ in price
Types of ES
Perfectly / completely inelastic - Elasticity of supply is = 0 (zero)
S
Price
P2
P1
Change in price has
O no effect on supply
Q1
Inelastic
ES is greater than Zero but less than one (1) i.e. %age change in Price is greater than %age changes
in quality supplied.
Price
Quantity supplied
Unit elasticity of supply

This is when ES is equal to 1. Percentage change in quantity is equal to percentage change in price.
Price
Quantity supplied
Perfectly elastic
When at or above a curtain price suppliers supply all they can but nothing below that price
Elastic supply
Elasticity of supply is greater than 1 but less than infinity.i.e.Percentage change in quantity is greater than
percentage change in price
Factors influencing price elasticity of supply
Nature of product
Durable commodities have high Es since they can be stored for a long time as compared to perishables.
Gestation period
When a commodity has a short gestation period its elasticity of supply is higher than that with a long
gestations period since take a short period to change.
Time
In a short time the Es of supply is small but can be big in the long run. For instance it takes some
time for suppliers to get used to the new price after a change.
Method of production (technology)

Products produced with sample technology have a high elasticity of supply because they can easily be
produced when the price increases.

Government policy
Elasticity of supply may be low when government restricts importation of certain commodities.
Ease of entry of new firms in the market

When new firms are restricted from entering the market supply is likely to be inelastic /low.
Price expectations
When producers expect prices to change, the price ES will be low until they are fully sure of the new
price.
Factor mobility
When factors of production are easily reallocated from one line of production to another, elasticity of
supply is high and vice versa.
Characteristics of agricultural products

i. They are perishable
ii. They are bulky
iii. They are seasonal in production
iv. They have inelastic demand
v. They have synthetic substitutes
vi. They are of mixed quality
vii. They have a long gestation period
Problems of marketing Agriculture products

a. Divergence of production; it’s difficult to plan exactly what to produce and get the same quantity
due to the many risks an uncertainties involved.
b. Inelastic demand ; agriculture products have inelastic demand since even when prices are
lowered the demand doesn’t change distinctly.
c. Perishability - most agriculture products are perishable therefore difficult to store hence need
exposure very fast.
d. Availability of synthetic substitutes; this has replaced a number of products like sisal, cotton
rubber
e. Seasonality of production –;products like crops have specific periods in which they are
production therefore scarce at planting and abundant at harvesting
f. Bulkiness agricultural products weigh much in relation to their value. This makes the transportation
of such products more difficult and costly.
g. Mixed quality; agriculture products are always a mixture which calls for sorting
h. Price fluctuation; this affects farmers income more especially where prices reduce
i. High taxation; this reduces the profit margin for the farmers
j. Long gestation; this make change in supply at short notice difficult
k. Poor roads; this makes transportation of produce to the market difficult and costly.
l. Large number of small scale produce; these make control of production difficult hence farmer
cannot get better prices
m. Insecurity; this will impede movement of products to the market due to fear for robbery and
destruction of property.
MARKETING AGENCIES, INSTITUTIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS.

These are bodies involved in one or more marketing functions
a. Itinerant traders- These move from place to place buying agriculture produce of various types from
farmers.
b. Processors- these are individuals or organizations who undertake the task of processing agriculture
product into a usable form to satisfy consumers.
c. Wholesalers- these buy in bulk from manufacturers and sell to small sellers (retailers).
d. Retailers- these buy from wholesalers and rarely from producers selling to consumers.
e. Brokers- these bring the sellers and buyers together without the broker handling the actual good
f. Commission agents- they receive goods and sell them on behalf of their principles for a cost
(commission).
g. Cooperatives.
h. Marketing boards.
Marketing functions.
These are essential and recognizable activities which are performed in the marketing process
.
They include the following;-
1. Buying-this involves purchasing in small amounts for producers and bulking up the commodity.
2. Assembling- this is where commodities are pooled up into large quantities ready for the next
operations.
3. Transport- it’s the movement of goods from the place of production to the centers of consumption or
demand.
4. Selling- this is the presentation of the commodity in an acceptable and attractive manner.
5. Storage-it involves storing products to reduce loss in value as most of the agriculture products are
perishable.
6. Processing- it’s the changing of the products from raw form to a more acceptable form to increase
value.
7. Grading- it’s the sorting up of products in a uniform way especially quality wise.
8. Standardization- measurements are applied more especially quantitatively for easy pricing.
9. Financing- the process of turning raw materials into finished goods requires money resource to finance
it.
10. Risk bearing- in between buying and selling, a number of risks are encountered like theft, fire, e.t.c.
11. Collecting and analyzing market information- efficient marketing depends on the availability of market
information like prices, taxes, risks, e.t.c.
Importance of processing agricultural produce
 adds value to produce hence good prices at selling
 increases the shelf life of produce/reduces perishability
 increases the number of products from a single item hence profit margin
 makes an item more suitable for consumption/improves quality of products
 reduces the bulkiness of items making transportation and packing easy
 creates avenues for increased youth employment in processing units
Importance of grading
 makes pricing of products easy and reasonable
 makes distribution of products more effective
 proper grading increases profit making
 it minimizes spoilage of produce by separating the spoilt produce out
 facilitates buying and selling due to reduced inspection
Importance of packaging
 it reduces bulkiness of produce
 reduces adulteration of produce
 controls spoilage of produce from the environmental factors
 makes handling of produce easy
 may assist in advertisement of produce
 may aid branding of produce
Importance of prices in Agriculture
1. They indicate to the farmer what commodity to produce.

2. Prices determine the level of output.
3. They act as a guide to economic activity and allocation of scarce resources.
4. Prices allocate the workers to the right jobs where they are most efficient.
5. Prices coordinate consumption levels of agricultural produce through forces of demand and supply.
6. Prices reward the factors of production and leave freedom of choice among producers and
consumers.
7. They enhance better and efficient methods of production more especially when prices of a certain
commodity increase.
CAUSES OF PRICE FLACTUATION IN AGRICULTURE
a. Risks and uncertainties; these are cardinal bottle necks in agriculture since they greatly affect the
quality and quantity of production on farms
b. Climate; the production of crop and animals is affected by rainfall, temperature
c. Most agriculture products are perishable and therefore difficult to store hence must be sold
soon after harvesting.
d. Agriculture products; have inelastic demand so that excess production is difficult to absorb while
maintaining price.
e. There is divergence between planned and actual output which at times is less than planned and at
times, more than planned.
f. Seasonality of production more especially crop products that are excess during harvesting period
and scarce at planting.
g. Stiff competition from synthetics like polyethene plastics and other petroleum products for rubber
and sisal.
h. Long gestation period ; when prices for the products are high, producers plan to produce more
which takes a long time before production is realized.
i. Bulkiness; most agriculture products are bulky which makes transportation difficult from places of
plenty to scarcity.
j. Agricultural products form a small part of manufactured production hence the excess supply
cannot be absorbed in the manufacturing industry.
k. Large number of producers ;this makes it very difficult to plan and make actual productions
giving room to peasant to sell at any price.
l. Protectionism by developed nations.; It’s difficult to export surplus agricultural products to
developed countries because of heavy regulations and tariffs imposed on agricultural imports.
m. Low level of industrialization ; Most LDC’s don’t process their agricultural products to final
products which reduces the value of such items.
n. Changing technologies; more technologies are being discovered which use less raw materials
like cloth made of polyester and less cotton. This reduces the demand for agriculture products.
EFFECTS OF PRICE FLUCTUATIONS ON FARMERS
 Lead to fluctuations of farmers’ incomes and hence low standard of living.

 Revenue for government from agriculture products declines when prices are low affecting the country’s
development.
 Employment in agricultural sector fluctuates with fluctuating prices.
 Foreign exchange earning for the state fluctuates affecting Balance of payments (B.O.P.)
 Makes planning by governments and farmers difficult because of uncertain future income.
 The county experiences balance of payment problem and unfavorable terms of trade when prices
are low.
 Agriculture mechanization becomes difficult because of low income.
 Makes farm budgeting and planning very difficult due to unstable incomes
REDUCING PRICE FLUCTUATIONS
1. Fixing prices by government i.e. maximum or minimum price legislation so that the sellers are not
exploited over price.
2. Diversification which means growing many types of crop and rearing animals which guards against
total loss.
3. Improving storage facilities more especially for the Perishables so that supply can be regulated to
meet demand.
4. Increase research so that good quality crops resistant to drought and pests, short gestation
period are grown to reduce risks.
5. Processing of agriculture products like cotton and coffee before being sold to increase their
shelf life and value for higher prices.
6. Improving technology in agriculture production through the use of irrigation, fertilization etc. This
increases production and reduces scarcity.
7. International commodity agreements -these fix quotas and prices for both buyers and sellers of
commodities to reduce exploitation.
8. Improving transport so that products can be moved to places where there is shortage to control
price fluctuations.
9. Price support -here farmers sale their commodities at market price and present their receipts for
government to top up to a realistic price.
10. Buffer stocks -Here the surplus during plenty is bought by marketing boards and sold during scarcity.
11. Forming farmers’ organizations and commodity agreements to negotiate for better prices.
12. Barter trade -this helps in disposing off the surplus, but there are problems of transport.
13. Fixing quotas for farmers so that over production is checked that can result into reduced prices.
Question; Show how the cob-web theory can be used in explaining price fluctuation in agriculture
AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
Agricultural development is the transformation of agriculture from traditional subsistence farming to
commercial or business orientated agriculture or Is the transformation of agriculture from low
productivity to higher productivity i.e. Increasing output per unit input.
Role of Agriculture in development

 Agriculture requires less capital than industrialization and it can be carried out by people of all levels.
 It’s a sole source of food for the growing rural and certain population.
 Agriculture requires less skilled labour as compared to industrialization.
 It’s a good source of capital for the development of on the sectors in LDCs like industry.
 Agriculture provides market for industrial products like fertilizers, drugs, implements.
 Agriculture provides employment to many people in LDC e.g. 80% of Ugandans are employed directly
and indirectly in Agriculture (2002 population census).
 Agriculture products constitutes 85% of export earning for Uganda therefore a good source of foreign
exchange.
 It’s a source of income for the rural poor used in buying other items.
 It produces raw material for industries like cotton, vanilla, hides, skins etc.
 It provides labour as people will more from rural areas to cities for employment in industries.
LIMITATION OF AGRICULTURE DEVELOPMENT
a. Lack of land both in quality and quantity -as the population increase the quality and quantity of land
declines due to exhaustion and land fragmentation.
b. Lack of capital -In Uganda today 38% of the population is below the Poverty line therefore cannot
purchase inputs needed in agriculture production.
c. Poor infrastructure -There is problem poor roads which impedes the movement of many products to
the market from the places of production.
d. Lack of skilled labour - a defective education system which emphasis theory and does not prepare
products to work in rural areas discourages agricultural development.
e. Inadequate extension services - Most farmers do not have enough knowledge as regards
to agricultural production since extension services are inadequate.
f. Limited market-information about available market is still lacking and the fact that most rural
dwellers are all engaged in agricultural there is no body to buy from others
g. Risks and uncertain - agricultural products have a lot of risks and uncertainties which limit their
production leading to a lot of price fluctuation.
h. Poor pricing policies - Farmers are scattered and most of them are subsistence producers. This
makes it difficult for such producers to bargain for better prices in the market.
i. Political instabilities -this insecurity has discouraged agricultural production as farmers are always
in the run more especially in places with wars.
j. Social factors- some farmers are very conservative and will resist any development put forward by
authorities.
POLICY RECOMMENDATION FOR AGRICULTURE DEVELOPMENT.

 Cooperative development-government should change her policy on cooperatives so the development
of these bodies can take place as before.
 Manpower for agriculture development- training of researchers in agriculture and making the subject
compulsory at primary is another step forward that will increase manpower,
 Land policy-reforms that agitate for the redistribution of land and correcting land ownership is yet
another step forward in developing agriculture.
 Credit policy-micro finance organizations should be encouraged to lend money to the peasants even
when they have no security.
 Technology development-better breed s of both crops and animals should be availed to the farmers to
increase their production. Machines should also be used in production.
 Extension education-farmer need to be taught about new methods farming and equip them with other
necessary skills through education.
 Development of infrastructure-better roads and other communication channel are needed more
especially in the marketing agriculture products.
 Marketing and pricing policy-government should support the prices of agriculture products through
subsidizing inputs or price support for the products.
 Processing of agriculture products-more investment is needed in setting up agro-processing
industries so that the products produced are of a higher value.
 Taxation policy-after abolition of taxes on agriculture exports, the government should remove taxes on
imported agriculture inputs like fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, e.t.c.
 Fund allocation-government should allocate more funds towards agriculture development in the
budget since the sector employs more than 80% of the population.
 Political stability this is very crucial in the development of any nation. Place where instability sill
looms have lagged behind in development.
 Transformation of society-traditions that hinder development should be discarded through
compulsory primary education and adult learning.
 Agriculture research; this will increase production through the invention of highly productive breeds
of animal and crop varieties.
Mention the role played by agriculture research stations in agriculture production.

a. improve existing crop varieties to suit environment
b. develop new breeds of animals and crop varieties
c. testing new technologies of production
d. comparing performance of different varieties and breeds
e. finding the best method of controlling pests and diseases
f. carrying out soil sampling for different fields
g. developing new farming tools and equipment
h. testing and evaluating the performance of chemicals
problems faced by research stations
i. lack of enough qualified research scientists
ii. limited funding to research stations by government
iii. varying soil and climatic conditions in the different regions of Uganda
iv. poor remuneration to researchers forcing many to leave research
v. low numbers of research stations for the whole country
vi. poor infrastructure at research centres making work difficult
vii. ignorance amongst farmers on use of improved technology
viii. changing climatic conditions in the world
FARM MANAGEMENT.
Farm records.-
Farming is business and involves many activities. The farmer must keep concise and clear records so as not
to forget the many things done.
Importance of farm records.

1. They clearly show the success of a farmer by revealing the profit and losses made in a specified time.
2. They stipulate the physical performance of the different enterprises on the farm like poultry, piggery,
dairy, e.t.c.
3. Records help in decision making regards the future of the farm enterprise.
4. Records can be used as a reference when a farmer wants to get loans from financial institutions
5. They can be a guide in comparing different farm enterprises and performance of farms with in a region.
6. Tax assessment can be done basing on farm records which leads to accurate assessment.
7. With the use of records, the sharing of dividends in cooperatives is made easy.
8. They help a farmer in drawing up plans in terms of organizing rotations, formulating policies and
selecting farm enterprises.
9. Records can be used in animal breeding especially pedigree selection where the history of the animals’
relatives is crucial.
10. Records are very important in solving disputes more especially at the death of senior member of the
family and any other organization.
11. To have good inventory of farm property that can reduce the chances of property loss.
12. Proper assessment of labour on the farm can be done basing on the records like master roll.
CATEGORIES OF FARM RECORDS

These are of two categories; Production records and farm accounts

Production records include; these include; labour, crop production and animal production records.
Animal production records; feeding, breeding, health, birth, death and milk production records
Farm accounts include; these include; financial documents, financial books and financial statements.
Financial documents are invoices, receipts, delivery notes, purchase order and statements
i. Invoice this is issued to the farmer when he orders for farm inputs and it shows the quantity, price
and cost of delivered goods.
ii. Receipt; it’s a financial document issued by the seller to the buyer as a proof that the items bought
have been paid for.
iii. Delivery note; its is prepared by the seller to the buyer showing the items included in the order and
supplied to the buyer.
iv. Purchase order; this is prepared by the buyer to the seller on the goods he wants to obtain
v. Statement ; this is a bill showing details of various orders over a period of time after receiving
several supplies
vi.
Financial books are inventories and cash books.
i. Inventory ; this is where a farmer records everything he owns on the farm
ii. Cash book; this shows the receipts and expenses on the farm over a specified period
Financial statements; These are budgets, trading account, profit and loss account and balance sheet
Budget
This is a financial statement outlining the anticipated farm revenue and expenditure for the forth coming
financial period.
Types of budgets
i. Partial budget- this is financial statement outlining the anticipated revenue and expenditure for an
enterprise or a part of the whole farm in forth coming financial period.
ii. Complete budget- this is financial statement outlining the anticipated revenue and expenditure for
the whole farm in the forth coming financial period.
Importance of farm budgeting
a. Enable the farmer to achieve the set farm objectives

b. Acts as a guide for the farmer in executing financial decision
c. Motivates the farmer to work hard to achieve the set goals for the budget
d. Helps a farmer in forecasting profits and losses i.e. estimating profitability of the farm
e. Used in decision making when comparing enterprises
f. Helps a farmer to control production on the farm
g. Helps the farmer in making effective changes in the organization
h. Helps the farmer in estimating the required resources in terms of labor, capital, e.t.c.
i. Guides and helps a farmer in soliciting for funds to run the farm
j. Can be used as a reference during future planning
Procedure of making a budget
a. State the objectives of the farming business so that the budget can answer such objectives
b. List all the enterprises found on the farm
c. List all the available resources that can be used in production
d. List the anticipated profit and their source
e. Calculate the fixed costs in the next trading year or period
f. Work out the costs that would occur in the year’s business directly as a result of changes
g. Calculate the opportunity cost of any input so as to make the right decision
h. Consider the difference between total credit and total debit as the change in the net income
Points considered in budgeting

a) Least combination of the factors used on the farm
b) Farmer’s expectations through time
c) Opportunity cost for factors of production
Important information in budgeting
a. Results from research stations-these can show the expected production of an enterprise
b. Data on input-output relationships i.e. production function
c. Cost of input and output information so as to forecast losses and profits
d. Farm records on operations of the farm
Constraints in budgeting
a) Failure to see or identify supplementary or complementary enterprises

b) Inadequate knowledge about budgeting
c) Inadequate technical information needed in budgeting
d) Bias in choosing enterprises instead of aiming at optimizing profits
e) Inadequate market information on prices of inputs and outputs
f) Price fluctuations in agriculture that make anticipations to be unachievable
Profit and loss account-this is a financial statement drawn by the farmer to find out the net profit of
his farm business. Net profit = gross profit - fixed costs.
Gross profit is the difference between total revenue and variable expenses i.e Gross Profit = Total
Revenue – Variable expenses.
Example. Given the following information, draw up a profit and account to find the Net profit or loss as at
31st July 2009
Fertilizer purchase- 200,000
Heifer sales 1,500,000
Milk sales- 400,000.
Crop sales- 700,000
Seed purchase- 180,000.
Depreciation 200,000
Closing valuation- 1,800,000.
Salary 1,000,000
Opening valuation- 750,000.
Rent 300,000
Feed purchase- 150,000
Interest on loan 200,000
Casual labour- 150,000
Drug purchase- 10,000

Profit and loss account as at 31st July 2009
Purchases and Expenses Cost Sales and Receipts Cost

Fertilizer purchase Heifer sales
200,000 1,500,000
Seed purchase Crop sales
180,000 700,000
Feed Milk
150,000 400,000
Drug Eggs
10,000 350,000
Casual labour Closing valuation
150,000 1,800,000
Opening valuation
750,000
Salary 1,000,000
200,000
Depreciation
300,000
Rent
Interest on loan 200,000
TOTAL EXPENSES AND 3,140,000

PURCHASES
Net profit
1,610,000
TOTAL
4,750,000 4,750,000
Closing valuation- this is the value of assets a farm has at the end of a financial period
e.g. feeds in store.
Opening valuation-. This is the value of assets a farm has at the beginning of a financial
period e.g. feeds in store
BALANCE SHEET
This is a financial statement produced at the end of a financial year showing the assets
and liabilities of a farm. A farmer draws up a balance sheet to find out the Net profit or
loss.
Example. Given the following information about kuluse’s farm, draw a balance sheet for
the year of 2004.
Cattle value 700,000.
Bank overdraft 1,000,000 Value of tractor 2,000,000
Value of crops 1,500,000 Depreciation of buildings 700,000
Maditrwoth Cosmas maditcosmass@gmail.com Page 107
Closing valuation 2,500,000 Salary 3,000,000
Hotel bookings 800,000 Interest on loan 80,000
Milk sales 1,000,000 Debts payable 100,000.
Opening valuation 2,020,00
Balance sheet for kuluse’s farm as at 31st December 2004
Liabilities Cost Assets Cost

Bank Overdraft Crop value
1,000,000 1,500,000
Depreciation Tractor value
700,000 2,000,000
Debts payable Cattle value
100,000 700,000
Interest on loan Milk Sales
80,000 1,000,000
Salary Hotel booking
3,000,000 800,000
Opening valuation Closing valuation
2,020,000 2,500,000
Total liabilities
6,900,000
Net Capital
1,600,000
TOTAL
8,500,000 8,500,000
Assets; this is money or items that belong to the business

Types of assets
a. Fixed/long term/non current/permanent assets; these stay in the business for a

long time while being used e.g. land, farm machinery, buildings, furniture,
fixtures and fittings.
b. Current/short term/liquid assets; these are assets that can be easily converted
into cash e.g. stock (meat, milk, eggs, crop produce, feeds, e.t.c.), cash at bank,
cash at hand, prepaid expenses, e.t.c.
Liability; this is a claim against the farm by outsiders

Types of liabilities
a. Current liabilities; these are claims that must be paid in a short time not
exceeding a year e.g. rent, wages, bank overdraft, creditors, e.t.c.
b. Long term liabilities; these are claims that must be paid within a long period of
time exceeding a year e.g. capital shares, development loan, treasury bills and
bonds.
COSTS OF PRODUCTION
1. Fixed costs / overhead costs / Un avoidable costs.
These are expenses that a farmer has to meet whether in production or not. They include;
Interest on loans, rent, depreciation, salaries for permanent workers.
2. Variable costs / prime costs.
These are expenses that depend on the level of output or vary with out put e.g. costs for
inputs (pesticides, seeds), wages for casual workers increase with output.
3. Implicit cost. These are expenses that are indirect or non cash costs of owned
resources e.g. own labour, family labour etc. They are valued using their opportunity
cost.
N.B. They are not included in the calculations of profits of the farm of accounting.
4. Explicit costs
These are direct costs paid for resources bought or hired.
5. Opportunity cost This is a cost for the best alternative foregone in making a decision
e.g. if a farmer foregoes poultry farming and takes on dairy then the opportunity cost
is that one for poultry.
6. Total variable cost (TVC)
This is the total of the cost of all variable resources used in production (price X quantity)
7. Total fixed cost
This is the value of all the direct cost of fixed resources used in production. Its constant
at all levels of output.
8. Total costs It’s the sum of all the fixed and variable costs at each level of output i.e
total cost will = total variable cost + total fixed cost.
9. Average variable cost It’s the amount spent on variable inputs per unit of output.
I.e. AVC = TVC
Y (Out put)
10. Average fixed cost. It’s the cost of the fixed resources per unit of output.
AFC = TFC
Y (Out put)
11. Average total cost
It’s the total cost of all resources (Fixed and variable) per unit of out put
i.e. ATC = AVC + AFC

Y (Out put)
12. Marginal cost
This is the change in total cost resulting from a change in one unit of output i.e. it’s the
cost of producing an additional unit of output.
13. Marginal product.
This is output created by using one additional unit of a factor of production.
14. Normal cost; cost of production converted into monetary terms e.g. wage for workers.
As production increases, cost of production increase.
15. Real cost; real pain and sacrifice of labour given by labour in the process of
production.
16. Reduced cost; this is money saved when carrying out farm activities e.g. transporting
milk to the market and eggs on the same truck save transport costs for one of the products
17. Added cost; these are expenses as a result of investment in a field e.g. construction of
a farm building may involve expenses of clearing obstacles from the site
18. Added receipts; money got by a farmer unexpectedly.
COST OUTPUT RELATIONSHIPS
Production function
This is a mathematical relationship between input and output
1. Total product, TP
This refers to the total output resulting from all the factors of production (both fixed and
variable)
2. Average product AP
This is the output per unit of variable factors.
An example of r/s between output and inputs.
Fixed factors Quantity of Total maize Marginal Average

(land) fertilizers used TP output product (MP) product (AP)
(input)x (Kg) Y y/x
1 1 8 8 8
1 2 18 10 9
1 3 30 12 10
1 4 38 8 9.5
1 5 44 6 8.8
1 6 48 4 8
1 7 48 0 6.9

1 8 46 -2 5.7
1 9 42 -4 5.5
Stage 1: Irrational stage / increasing returns

 Production is not yet maximum
 Increase in variable input increases output.
 Most farmers in Uganda operate at this stage since they have little knowledge about
maximization of profits or lack capital.
 This relationship doesn’t continue for long because the soil becomes over saturated
with fertilizers causing harmful effects.
 Marginal product increases more than average product
 When average product is maximum, its equal to marginal product

Stage 2: Decreasing returns / rational stage
 The total product increases but at a decreasing rate

 Marginal product decreases until it reaches zero at the end of the region.
 A farmer operating in this region with proper advice from qualified staff would
benefit much.
 This type of production function is the most common type in agriculture production.
 Average product decreases throughout the region
 Decision to increase or decrease variable factor should come at the end of the stage
where marginal product is zero
Stage 3: Region of no returns / irrational

 It starts when marginal product is zero
 It’s an irrational region and this situation can arise as a result of using too much
fertilizers in this case.
 Advice is that the farmer should not over use variable inputs but seek advice from
extension staff.
Recommendations about input use
 More imports must be added until stage 2 is reached because the physical efficiency
measured by average products increases throughout stage 1.
 Even if the inputs is free, it should not be used in stage 3
Law of diminishing returns:

As you add more and more successive units of a variable factor to a fixed factor while
holding other factors constant (ceteris paribus), total production increases but beyond
a certain point (point of inflection / bliss point) the resulting increase will become
smaller and smaller.
RISKS AND UNCERTAINITIES

A risk is an avoidable and unforeseeable circumstance or hazard that affects the outcome
of an investment and can be measured in an empirical and quantitative manner. Since
the risks are measurable, they can be insured against.

Uncertainty, this is unforeseeable and unavoidable circumstances or hazard that affects
the outcome of an investment but cannot be measured in an empirical and quantitative
manner hence cannot be insured against.
Examples of risks
1. Change in weather or bad weather which causes destruction to crops, building and
animals.
2. Pest and diseases.
This can cause losses in both plants and animals.
3. Fire outbreak
This can cause destruction to property and life.
4. Theft
This can be of farm produce and machinery yet it’s hard to predict when it will
happen.
5. Strikes of workers.
Some of the strikes are very destructive and lead to loss of property and life at the
extreme cases.
6. Ill health
The farmer, members of his family, all the workers can fall sick which can greatly
affect the production level of the farm.
7. Low crop yields.
This may be caused by many factors like poor soils, natural hazards, pests and
diseases, poor management etc.
8. Death of the farmer. This is unpredictable and may be a source of management
problems on the farm.
Guarding against risks.

1. Insurance.
This is the most common method of guarding against risks where the farmer
insures his property with an insurance company against risks. The company can
compensate the loss once it occurs as prior agreed
2. Building owners’ equity.
This is where a farmer saves some money that can be used in case there is a risk
(net worth)
3. Input rationing.

Here a farmer uses less than optimum quantities of inputs to save on the amount
spent on input.
Improving storage facilities i.e. one can lead produce and sale later
4. choosing an enterprise with less or limited risks hence helping a farmer to easily
escape risks.
5. Diversification.
This is where a farmer engages in more than one enterprise so that incase one fails
the other may succeed and compensate the loss made.
6. Production flexibility
This is where a farmer invests inflexible enterprises that easily allow a change e.g
keeping duo purpose breeds of cattle and poultry.
UNCERTAINTIES
Examples
1. Price fluctuations
It’s very difficult to know when the prices will fluctuate and the loss which will
come out of this is extremely difficult to calculate.
2. Change in demand.
The demand for agricultural products keep on changing yet the loss as a result of
this is difficult to measure.
3. Change in technology.
Because of rapid technological changes, machinery and farm techniques quickly
become outdated.
4. Change in government policies.
The government may reduce prices of commodities by covering taxes and vise
versa.
5. Bleach of contract
This can happen anytime without notice and may cause immeasurable loss
depending on the commodities.
6. Unavailability of labour.
This may happen during planting and harvesting time yet the losses in causes it’s
immeasurable. This change in labour supply is due to a number of factors
affecting it.
7. Unavailability of agriculture inputs.

The supply of such inputs is affected by a number of factors therefore their
scarcity once experienced can cause uncertainty.
Control of uncertainties
1. producing on contract
2. building owners equity
3. diversification
4. Input rationing to guard against loss as a result of price fluctuation.
5. Flexibility i.e. easily change from one type of production to another
6. Improving storage facilities.
7. Adding value of agriculture products through processing.
SPECIALIZATION
This is where one engages in the production of one item where he can feature best.
Forms of specialization
1. specialization by craft
This is where families specialize in different activities like farming, iron smith, witch
craft etc.
2. Specialization by process
This is where every stage of production in a factory or an industry is carried out by a
different person.
3. Regional specialization
This is where each region produces the best it can and the changes it with what it can’t
produce.
4. International Specialization
This is where each country produces what it can do best and exchanges it with what is
produced by other countries.
Advantages of specialization
1. Its time saving
There is no wastage of time in moving from job to job or training for different jobs.
2. High efficiency in production since the workers gains a lot of experience and skills in
doing one type of work.
3. It enables the farmers to exploit their natural talents by concentrating on the work
they can do best.
4. It encourages the use of machines at various production levels which increases
production.

5. Regional and international specialization enables countries to exploit their natural
resources and get what they cannot produce.
6. It encourages farms to employ specialists at different stages of production leading to
efficiency.
7. It increases production which helps farmers to gain from the economy scale.
Disadvantages
1. Large scale production may be limited by a low market for the produce.
2. It may lead to unemployment incase of change in technology and fashion.
3. It may lead to over dependence incase of international specialization
4. It may lead to boredom to repetition of the same work.
5. It encourages the use of specialized machines which cannot serve more-than one
purpose.
6. It encourages loss of craftsmanship since workers depend on machines to do the
work.
DIVERSIFICATION
In Agriculture, diversification is the raising of the variety of crops or animals as opposed
to one enterprise.
Advantages
1. Resources are effectively utilized in the production process
2. It reduces risks that are associated in producing one type of crop or animal.
3. It increases a variety of products produced in a country.
4. It encourages the participation of many people in the production process to produce
the different goods.
5. It reduces over dependence on products from one place or country.
Disadvantages
1. The practice is limited by inadequate capital to engage in different enterprises.
2. Limited market for a variety of products may affect diversification
3. Limited farm implements may discourage diversification
4. Its very difficult to carry out research on a variety of crops and animals to increase
their production.
5. Climate may not favour the production of various products.
6. It encourages subsistence farming which is less profitable.
CO-OPERATIVES

This is a registered organization of people who decide to work together for mutual
economic benefits.
Types of co-operatives:
1. Transport co-operatives
These deal with the transport of produce either for the members or for profit from other
organizations e.g. Uganda Co-operative transport union.
2. Credit savings co-operatives.
These deal with savings of member’s money and provision of small loans e.g. Uganda
Women Credit and trust fund.
3. Consumer Co-operative
These stock and sell commodities to members at subsidized prices and can also give
financial assistance to members.
4. Producer co-operatives.
These are concerned with the marketing of the farmer /members produce e.g. the former
Busoga grower’s co-operative union, Masaka co-operative union.
5. Trade and craft co-operatives.
These are mainly concerned with building and construction work.
Principles of co—operatives
These are the basic guidelines on which the formation and day to day running of co-
operatives is based.
1. Open and voluntary membership.
All people are free to join or leave the co-operative without hindrance or restriction of
any kind.
2. Democracy
Co-operatives are run on democratic principles even when elections are held for the
leaders i.e. one man one vote.
3. Interest and profit.
The rate of return on borrowed capital should be low since the organization is not a profit
making one.
4. Capital shares
The financial capital for co-operatives is raised through the selling of shares to the
members.
5. Co-operation

Co-operatives must work together with other co-operative organizations in order to learn
from each other.
6. Neutrality
Co-operatives must be neutral in politics, religion or any other bias that can affect their
operation.
7. Promotion of members
All promotions to places of high responsibility must be based on merit.
8. Education
Co-operatives must promote education for their members in order to reduce the rate of
illiteracy and also increase the skills needed in running of the co-operative.
9. Continuous expansion
A co-operative must have continuous expansion in terms of members and physical
facilities i.e. building machinery.
10. Share of dividends
There is share of dividends after calculating how much members have contributed to the
co-operatives.
Importance of co-operatives
a. Can prove loans to members for development
b. Bring together many farmers to achieve large scale farming
c. Promote education and training for member to achieve high levels of management
d. Provide market for farmers produce by buying commodities from farmers
e. Store farmers produce before selling reducing risks to farmers
f. Can provide employment to members as accountant and managers
g. Can provide transport for produce from farms to the market
h. Can provide inputs to farmers at subsidized prices to increase profits
i. Some produce can process produce to add value before selling
j. Co-operatives can mobilize prices for agricultural products by buying produce
during periods of abundant supply and selling it at times of scarcity.
k. They can increase investments for the members by buying buildings, estates,
factories on behalf of the co-operators.
l. They eliminate wasteful competition and exploitation of farmers by middle men
hence increasing the farmer’s profit margins.
m. They increase the bargaining power of members in the market and protect the
weak ones.

Problems of co-operatives
1. Inadequate skills of management amongst farmers which makes them incompetent in
organizing co-operatives.
2. Inadequate funds to finance the work for co-operatives which limit the investments
and expansion of the co-operatives.
3. Embezzlement and corruption by managers has reduced the growth of most
co-peratives in Uganda.
4. Inadequate transport; some co-operatives do not have trucks that can easily transport
produce to places where there is enough market.
5. Shortage of storage facilities; most co-operatives in rural areas do not have enough
stores with facilities like freezers that can help in storing produce.
6. Fluctuating prices for agriculture produce; the fluctuation in prices more especially at
the world market has affected the income for co-operatives hence their operations
hindered.
7. High risks and uncertainties in agriculture; these reduce the profit margin for
cooperatives which greatly discourages the farmers.
8. Political interference; some politicians in government have influenced the decision in
co-operatives which greatly affects their performance.
9. Political Instabilities; in places where there is insurgency it’s been very difficult for
co-operatives to operate.
10. Dishonesty of members who refuse o pay back the loans or sale their produce to other
co-operatives.
11. A high competition from private sector which has affected the amounts of profits that
can be made.
Solutions
1. More centers for training managers should be set up to equip managers with skills.
2. Co-operatives should access loans from banks and other lending institutions incase of
lack of funds.
3. Constant auditing should be done so that the managers are made to be more
accountable to the loses made hence reduce embezzlement.
4. Self discipline of politicians should be encouraged to reduce political interference in
cooperatives.

5. Government should support co-operatives by operating the price stabilization funds
incase of low prices.
6. Members borrowing money from co-operatives should present security in order to
reduce defaulting.
7. Government should maintain political stability in all parts of the country
8. Agricultural insurance facility should be adopted to help cooperatives overcome risks
9. Agro processing should be encouraged in rural areas by setting up factories to add
value to produce
10. Rural road network should be improved to make transportation of produce easy
MARKETING BOARDS.
These are public bodies set up by government to assist farmers in the production,
processing and marketing of agriculture products.
Specific aims of marketing boards.

1. To help farmers in order to produce high quality agriculture products.
2. To provide essential storage facilities for agricultural products
3. To assist farmers by improving efficiency in marketing processes to reduce
competition amongst them.
4. To ensure steady supply of agricultural goods to the final consumers and processors.
5. To set and guarantee prices for the goods produced by farmers.
Types of marketing boards.

1. produce marketing boards
2. Specialized industry boards.
3. advisory boards
4. Monopoly export boards.
Examples of marketing boards in Uganda
1. Coffee marketing board
2. Lint Marketing Board
3. Produce Marketing Board
4. Diary Board
5. Uganda Tea Growers co-operation

Functions of marketing boards.
1. They buy produce from farmers in large quantities at fair prices.
2. They advice government when fixing prices for agricultural produce
3. They collect agriculture products from farmers and transport them to the market.
4. They ensure that produce from farmers is of high quality to meet the market
standards.
5. Marketing boards can store agriculture produce on behalf of the farmer more
especially during periods of surplus when prices are low.
6. they can offer credit to farmers in form of loans and inputs
7. Marketing boards can finance research in the development of best quality agriculture
products.
8. They can control production by fixing quarters or limitations licenses to producers.
9. They can sale produce to local processors or export it to the world market.
10. Marketing boards can enforce quarantine measures against pest and diseases within a
particular area.
11. They can also disseminate research information to the farmers in villages.
12. Marketing boards can also invest money in public services like housing projects,
hospitals etc.
Problems of marketing boards.
1. political interference
Politicians through government interfere with activities of marketing boards by
influencing management and acquisition of financial support.
2. Smuggling
This introduces cheap products on the market therefore reducing profits margins for
marketing boards.
3. Price fixing
Marketing boards fix prices before harvesting and sometimes surplus production may
come with problems of purchase.
4. Inadequate storage facilities that can cause losses to the boards hence low
development.
5. Excessive production
Production in agriculture depends on weather hence favourable conditions cause over
production leading to low market prices.
6. Delayed payment of farmers
This discourages farmers from selling their produce to marketing boards.

7. Poor road network in rural areas makes transportation of agriculture products more
expensive and difficult for the marketing boards.
8. Loan defaulting
Some farmers fail to pay back the loan given to them by marketing boards which affects
the performance of the marketing boards.
9. competition with private individual which may reduce profits for marketing boards

Agricultural Mechanisatio1 (1) 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Agricultural Mechanisatio1 (1) 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Agricultural Mechanisatio1 (1) 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

AGRICULTURAL MECHANISATION AND FARM MACHINERY

Benefits of Agricultural Mechanization

Limitations of Agricultural Mechanization

Factors limiting use of draught animals

Factors that encourage agriculture mechanization

Steps taken towards agricultural mechanization

The need to move to level 2 is justified by;

ii) Animal health

Advantages of using Animal power

Maditrwoth Cosmas maditcosmas@gmail.com Page 5

Factors considered before selecting machinery and equipment for use

SOURCES OF POWER ON THE FARM

HUMAN POWER/HAND POWER

Maditrwoth Cosmas maditcosmas@gmail.com Page 9

Maditrwoth Cosmas maditcosmas@gmail.com Page 10

3. Top dead centre (TDC)

4. Bottom dead centre (BDC)

6. Clearance volume (CV)

8. Total cylinder volume

Difference between Petrol and Diesel ingination

Maditrwoth Cosmas maditcosmas@gmail.com Page 13

KINDS (MODELS) OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

2 Stroke cycle engines

Maditrwoth Cosmas maditcosmas@gmail.com Page 14

a) Intake (Induction) stroke

Maditrwoth Cosmas maditcosmas@gmail.com Page 15

Maditrwoth Cosmas maditcosmas@gmail.com Page 16

Advantages of a two stroke engine

1. THE AIR AND FUEL SYSTEM

Maditrwoth Cosmas maditcosmas@gmail.com Page 18

The main function

wide range of engine speed and load.

This performs two main factors;

Maditrwoth Cosmas maditcosmas@gmail.com Page 19

Working of a carburettor in petrol fuel system

Maditrwoth Cosmas maditcosmas@gmail.com Page 20

FUEL SYSTEM IN THE DIESEL ENGINE.

DIESEL FUEL SYSTEM lock forming

Maditrwoth Cosmas maditcosmas@gmail.com Page 21

Injectors/ injector nozzles

Leak off pipe

Maintenance of fuel systems;

Air supply system

Maditrwoth Cosmas maditcosmas@gmail.com Page 22

a) Wet type/oil bath air cleaner

WET AIR CLEANER

Maditrwoth Cosmas maditcosmas@gmail.com Page 23

Care and service of the oil bath air cleaner

Maintenance of dry air filter

THE COOLING SYSTEM

Importance of the cooling system

Problems of engine overheating

TYPES OF COOLING SYSTEMS

Maditrwoth Cosmas maditcosmas@gmail.com Page 25

WORKING OF THE COMBINED WATER AND AIR COOLING SYSTEM

Components and their functions

Adaptation of the radiator to its factions

Maditrwoth Cosmas maditcosmas@gmail.com Page 28

Advantages of using a combined air and water cooling system