1 s2.0 S2214289423002016 Main

Food Packaging and Shelf Life 40 (2023) 101224
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Food Packaging and Shelf Life

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fpsl
Pectin as a biopolymer source for packaging films using a circular economy

approach: Origins, extraction, structure and films properties
Ian P. Butler a, b, *, Russell A. Banta a, b, Andrey A. Tyuftin a, Justin Holmes b, Shivani Pathania c,
Joe Kerry a
a
Food Packaging Group, School of Food & Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
b
Environmental Research InstitUte, Lee Road, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
c
Teagasc, Ashtown Food Research Centre, Ashtown, Dublin 15, Ireland
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: The world currently faces a looming crisis, with both energy production and packaging manufacturing inextri
Pectin cably tied to the availability of oil. No biomaterial exists with sufficient universal properties to replace synthetic
Structure plastics. To date, research into renewable materials has remained largely focused on a select few biopolymers.
Properties
Current research into the next generation biomaterials focuses on existing, sustainable, waste streams as a source
Application
of renewable polymers. Pectin, the focus of this current review, is a relatively cheap, widely available poly
Packaging
Circular economy saccharide, usually extracted from apple pomace and fruit extracts. While widely employed in food products as a
hydrocolloid, pectin has still not been widely investigated as a potential packaging material. In this review, the
structure of pectin and its extraction are outlined, and the future of pectin within the compostable packaging
field is established. The ramifications of failing to address the correct environmental measures and achieve a
balanced carbon cycle are unavoidable. Identifying and utilizing what is currently described as waste or under-
utilised, yet sustainable, materials which could reduce our dependence on oil is crucial. The established position
of pectin in the food industry, and its processability on a commercial scale, give pectin significant advantage over
alternative biopolymer materials for potential use in food packaging applications.
1. Introduction produce plastics. Plastic packing lifetimes are hundreds of times longer
than that of the foodstuff it protects. Additionally, core issues exist such
Synthetic plastics are predominantly produced using petroleum as; 1) plastic packaging being destroyed during use; 2) the inability to
(which is finite and non-renewable) (Tokiwa et al., 2009). While many recycle certain plastics, co-extrusions, laminates; 3) lack of consumer
plastics may be recycled in theory, in practise, contamination arising engagement in recycling; 4) the unpleasant appearance, odour, and taste
from disposal of plastic by food waste prevents the cost-effective recy of plastic alternatives 5) the cost associated with newly developed sus
cling of these materials. An unsustainable amount of recyclable plastic at tainable packaging sources, and the lack of governmental and legislative
the end of its life-cycle ends up in the landfills, the environment, or support for their development, 6) early poor evidence of recycled plastic
incinerated for energy and disposal (Song et al., 2009). By 2040, it is stability in new packaging structures. Critical items (water, food, med
estimated that plastic pollution will triple in our oceans. With 85% of icine, etc.) rely primarily on plastic packaging for protection during
marine litter comprising of plastic. This means that 23–37 million metric transport and long-term storage, primarily owing to its cost, light
tons of plastic will be added to the ocean annually (United Nations, weight, and versatility. Without renewable alternatives, many industries
2021). As of 2014, the economic burden accrued by marine ecosystems will not be able to support the increased demand for vital products into
was $13 billion (United Nations, 2014). By 2050, the world population the future and, this will being particularly so for products moving over
is estimated to reach 9.7 billion (United Nations, 2019). A growing extended distribution chains.
population, and subsequent growth of the food packaging industry, has Human activities are undeniably the main driving force for the
put the issue of sustainability to the forefront of minds worldwide. current climate crisis, as detailed by the latest Intergovernmental Panel
Society heavily relies on a non-renewable, finite resource (oil) to on Climate Change (IPCC) report. A growing population is resulting in
* Correspondence to: Food packaging group, FNS, University College Cork, College Road, Cork, Ireland.
E-mail address: Joe.Kerry@ucc.ie (I.P. Butler).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fpsl.2023.101224
Received 21 September 2022; Received in revised form 9 November 2023; Accepted 19 November 2023
Available online 3 December 2023
2214-2894/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
I.P. Butler et al. Food Packaging and Shelf Life 40 (2023) 101224
an exponential increase in these numbers. Currently, the land and ocean streams not only adds value to waste materials (by creating additional
retain 56% of CO2 emissions annually generated by human activities revenue streams), but also reduces food waste generated during food
(Masson-Delmotte et al., 2021). By finding ways to repurpose waste, the processing and consumption. As edible films can be produced using
environmental damage of current technologies can be limited and waste pectin extract sourced from existing waste streams, it is an ideal
as a phenomenon eliminated. Finding alternative uses for candidate for further investigation.
biomass-derived food waste streams, such as Apple Pomace (A.P.) and The increase of research into environmentally-conscious packaging
fruit extracts as simple examples, is a crucial step in moving processing reflects the shift expected of the packaging sector by society at large.
as a whole to a more sustainable operation and forming more sustain Overall, work in this field hopes to shift the production of short-shelf-life
able, circular economy. products from exhaustible and environmentally-unfriendly polymers, to
While polysaccharides such as cellulose, starch, and chitosan have more sustainable, environmentally-friendly alternatives. In short,
been extensively investigated as biodegradable packaging materials, disposable food packaging that far outlives the item it serves but in a
pectin remains underutilised. Considering pectin’s low cost, availability, functional and aesthetic manner should be derived from renewable
film forming properties, and the large quantity produced from waste waste streams, with a lifespan appropriate to its purpose. Therefore, the
annually, this is surprising. In combination with its widespread use in objective of this review is to evaluate pectin as a potential bio-sourced
the food industry, pectin’s film forming properties make it a promising polymer to produce renewable, environmentally-friendly packaging,
candidate for future material development. Irrespective of the poly aligned with the circular economy concept.
saccharide being used to produce biodegradable packaging, it is clear to
see that research into next generation packaging systems involves pro 2. Literature methodology
ducing polymers and textiles from arising agricultural wastes. Achieving
this is vital to attaining a greener and more circular economy. Pectin is The initial research for this review surrounded circular economy
typical extracted from citrus peels, apple pomace, and sugar beet pulp. concepts, and how plastic food packaging is negatively impacting the
Abundantly present in the cell wall and middle lamella of plant sources, environment. Global organisations such as the UN provide up to date
pectin is a heteropolysaccharide containing an α-1–4 linked D-gal statistics regarding these issues. After clarifying and understanding the
acturonic acid (GalA) rich backbone. Pectin can further be subdivided current environmental challenges that face the food packaging industry
into three separate domains which will be looked at in detail later in this as a whole, the biopolymer in question, pectin, was researched to
review: homogalacturonan (HG), rhamnogalacturonan I (RG-I), and determine potential sources, extraction techniques, and overall suit
rhamnogalacturonan II (RG-II) (Cui et al., 2021). ability to a circular economy initiative. The apple processing industry
While synthetic plastics present numerous short-term benefits, was quickly identified as being an abundant waste stream for pectin due
pollution due to their incineration makes plastics the 2nd largest to its waste disposal of A.P. post juicing and belt rejection processes.
contributor to greenhouse gases. In the U.S., this results in approxi Given the high percentage of pectin present in A.P., typically between
mately $13 billion in financial damage every year (Sid et al., 2021). In 10% and 15% (Vidović et al., 2020), this waste stream is an ideal
Europe, 38% of plastic production is for use in the packaging sector candidate for implementation into a sustainable food packaging project.
(Hahladakis et al., 2018). The use phase for 60% of plastics circulating in The Science Direct database was then utilised to evaluate the recent
society today is between 1 and 50 years (Plastics Europe, 2020). Plastics research and use of pectin in this field. After uncovering the surprising
are comprised of various reactive, toxic chemicals, and can accumulate underutilisation of pectin, research was quickly directed to displaying
in the upper trophic levels, resulting in their consumption by humans (in how this natural biopolymer is currently extracted by industry and how
the form of microplastic contaminants). The burning of municipal these methods can subsequently be improved to achieve an overall
plastic waste can release halogens (Rajmohan et al., 2019), carbon ‘greener’, environmentally friendly process that can replicate and better
monoxide, and heavy metals (Cheng et al., 2020). The replacement of current techniques. Maríc et al., 2018, was one of the papers originally
polyethylene (PE), polystyrene (PS), and polypropylene (PP), along with selected to gain a well-rounded insight into this topic. From here pec
several other petroleum-based plastics, is a primary focus of polymer tin’s structure, extraction processes, film forming capabilities and suit
chemists. This is due to each plastic’s individual contribution to envi ability were established. An overall conclusion in relation to this topic
ronmental pollution, due to inadequate disposal and treatment of food was subsequently formed from the in depth study of relevant literature.
packaging (Zhang et al., 2021). Several health issues (including cardiac
malfunction, respiratory issues, damage to the liver and kidneys, nausea, 3. The current and future state of packaging
vomiting, as well as reproductive problems) have been linked to the
inadequate disposal of PS alone (Rajmohan et al., 2019). 3.1. Plastic usage and waste
There are two main classifications of biopolymer food packaging.
The first is compostable packaging, manufactured with specific biodeg Many concerns held by consumers in relation to products that use
radation and composability properties in mind (i.e., solubility of the synthetic plastics include; health and toxicity issues caused by their;
material, composability of the material at different temperatures and fabrication, use, and disposal; their non-biodegradable nature; and their
humidity, etc.) (Tyuftin & Kerry, 2021). The second type of food pack utilisation of finite oil resources (Carvalho & Conte Junior, 2020).
aging, edible films, are comprised of edible biopolymers which may be Non-renewable materials accounts for as much as 95–99% of all plastic
consumed with the food product it packages. These biopolymers are materials being produced by petrochemical industries. The inability of
either wrapped around the food product or deposited on top of the microbes to degrade these plastics results in serious environmental
product as a thin film coating. In food items, these materials prevent damage (Seenuvasan et al., 2021). The carbon cycle is currently in a
lipid migration, and provide resistance to moisture (Chakravartula et al., state of mass imbalance. This imbalance stems from the rate of con
2019). Unlike traditional packaging, food products encased in these sumption of finite synthetic polymer sources being far greater than the
edible films produce no packaging waste. Proteins (e.g., collagen, rate of replenishment of finite oil sources (Kijchavengkul & Auras,
gelatin), and polysaccharides (e.g., alginate, starch, various gums and 2008). In 2010, global petrochemical-based plastic production exceeded
chitosan) are typically employed in edible films and packaging. As these 250 million tonnes. A total of 100 million tonnes of plastic was produced
packaging forms are all derived from food sources, there is a limited pool for the packaging industry, while only 125,000 tonnes of biobased
of materials to choose from, curtailing the development of edible films to plastic packaging material was produced (Robertson, 2013). This is less
some degree. To meet the anticipated demand for edible films, existing than 0.5% of the current plastic market, and 0.125% of the packaging
waste sources of generally regarded as safe (GRAS) index biopolymers market. This large disparity between the production of synthetic plastic
needs to be examined. Producing novel polymers from such waste packaging and that made of biodegradable materials has a negative
2
environmental impact. their use, while minimising the generation of waste’(Eurostat, 2021).
Synthetic plastics can take 400-years to break down when placed in According to the United Nations (UN), global food waste is as large as
landfills. Plastic accumulation has led to serious environmental issues, 14%, with loss in the fruit and vegetables sector as producing up to 20%
providing the incentive to research alternative, compostable packaging waste (United Nations, 2022). Approximately 30% of the food produced
(Sason & Nussinovitch, 2021). The production of packaging materials worldwide occurs as a loss at some level within the food supply chain
around the world is increasing at an annual rate of 8%. Ninety percent of (Oliveira et al., 2021; Santagata et al., 2021). BREXIT, the COVID-19
plastic accumulation occurs in the environment with only synthetic pandemic, instability in the oil market, and recent conflicts around the
plastics having a recycling rate of less than 5% (Beikzadeh et al., 2020). world, has only added to the strain on the industry due to the disruption
Unless more robust recycling methods are used to improve the amount of supply chains, and the closure of many businesses worldwide. Global
of plastic recycled, products designed to degrade at end-of-life must be food losses have compounding effects on the environment, and the
employed to reduce our environmental impact. An additional factor to economy (Santagata et al., 2021). The over-simplified solution to this
consider is the development of a material designed to complete a specific problem is to reduce food losses and food waste, which can be achieved
task is much simpler than the design of a recycling infrastructure through the adoption of a truly circular economy. The Food and Agri
capable of dealing with a large variety of synthetic plastics, often blends, culture Organization of The UN defines food loss as ‘the decrease in the
contaminated with food waste. This has led researchers to investigate a quantity or quality of food resulting from decisions and actions by food
wider variety of biopolymers, to replace existing packaging which can suppliers in the chain, excluding retailers, food service providers, and
be composted within food wastes without food separation from plastics. consumers’. Food waste differs from that, defined as ‘the decrease in the
Only a few, select biopolymers have been researched for their ap quantity or quality of food resulting from decisions and actions by re
plications in packaging to date (Fig. 1). Due to their hydrophilic nature, tailers, food service providers, and consumers’(FAO, 2022). For the
often “clever chemistry” is employed to improve the properties of these purposes of this review, food waste will be defined as the loss of food at
materials. While these processes use materials sourced from renewable any point from production to consumption.
streams, modifications to improve the biopolymers properties often Throughout a food products lifecycle, food can become waste at any
render the material unsuitable for reintegration into the carbon life point. Biopolymers are a common waste found in both the agricultural
cycle, as with these improvements comes longer degradation times and and food sector. The large volume of food waste, such as apple pomace
industrial by-products. These “renewable” materials can be as costly to (AP), produced by industrial scale apple juicing for soft beverage and
the environment upon disposal as the plastics “green” materials target to cider manufacture can be separated into 2 categories; 1) the loss of apple
replace. through bruising or spoilage, that are declared as ‘belt rejected’ and; 2)
A.P. that is discarded after juice extraction. The production of AP from
apple beverage processing is a clear example of a bioprocessing waste
3.2. Bio-based circular economy stream. In cider processing, AP is by far the most abundant by-product.
Asturias (Spain) is one of the largest global producers of cider. Bian
A circular economy is described by the European Commission as ‘an nually, approx. 12,000 tons of AP is produced per 45,000 tons of apples
economy that. (Calvete-Torre et al., 2021). Though biodegradable, the high-water
aims to maintain the value of products, materials and resources for as content of the disposed AP causes various environmental pollution
long as possible by returning them into the product cycle at the end of
Fig. 1. : Publications corresponding to packaging materials over a period of 21 years. From SCOPUS database for years 2000–2021 (
Source: https://www.scopus.com/).
3
concerns due to high chemical- and bio-chemical oxygen demand. The a highly concentrated source of pectin, the dry weight of AP accounting
repurposing of pectin to produce renewable textiles would alleviate for 10 − 15% pectin (Vidović et al., 2020).
pollution caused by the disposal of both plastic and AP (Shalini & Gupta, Pectin is a heteropolysaccharide, found abundantly in nature as a key
2010). structural component in plant cell walls. Pectin is a major by-product of
Given AP’s high perishability, it must be dried before storage. While the fruit and vegetable processing industry, used in many food products
it may have promising film forming properties, the high evaporation (including jams and candies). Pectin is obtained on an industrial level
temperature of water means this can be an energy-intensive or time- through various extraction techniques, from either AP or citrus peels
costly step. This may be some of the reasons for the limited develop (Espitia et al., 2014). Due to pectin’s low cost, wide availability,
ment of pectin technologies from AP. AP is typically used for; pectin biodegradability, non-toxicity, and biocompatibility (Lei et al., 2019),
extraction; livestock feed; food products; fuel purposes; and biotrans pectin has recently gained attention as a new potential material in the
formation (Barreira et al., 2019). Considering all of the above, it is formation of edible films, in particular (Fig. 1).
evident that the repurposing and upcycling of waste AP would be highly As it can be seen from Fig. 1, while pectin is an extensively used
beneficial in both creating a greener, more circular economy, while polymer in the food industry in relation to jams and confectionary
taking an underutilised waste product and turning it into a valuable products, it is surprisingly underutilised in the food packaging sector.
resource. With the somewhat exponential rise in biodegradable packaging
research in the past decade (A), it should be expected that a versatile and
3.2.1. Biodegradability of pectin-based products abundant biopolymer such as pectin would follow this trend. However,
In order to achieve a truly circular economy using the above this has not been the case (B). Nevertheless, recently the global market
mentioned waste stream, the final product must be of a biodegradable for pectin has seen significant increases.
and compostable nature. Therefore, pectin products must be shown to be Throughout the global hydrocolloids market, pectin has become an
capable of this. To date, a large amount of the knowledge gained sur increasingly popular functional ingredient in many areas, including
rounding pectin’s breakdown has been garnered through oral delivery as edible packaging (Marić et al., 2018). Globally, in 2020, an estimated
pectin is commonly used carrier of drugs and other compounds in the value of $2659.59 million was invested in the edible films and coating
medical field. Pectin’s hydrophilic nature and ability to function in market, forecast to undergo a compound annual growth rate of 7.64%
harsh environments (such as the stomach) make it an ideal candidate in from 2022 to 2027. At 230 million metric tons per year, plastic con
this field. Pectin has also been implemented in wound healing as a result sumption today is almost forty-six times higher than in the 1950′s
of being non-toxic, high availability, low cost, and generally being rec (Mordor Intelligence, 2021). In 2019, the estimated market value of
ognised as safe (GRAS) (Martau et al., 2019). However, at time of pectin was valued at approximately $1.0 billion, forecast to undergo
writing, very few studies have been undertaken to determine the com growth of 6.5% annually until 2025 (Markets and Markets, 2019).
postability conditions required for the biodegradation of pectin film
s/edible films. Ren et al., 2022, displayed the biodegradation of 4.2. Pectin polymer structure
pectin-based films incorporated with biodegradable polyvinyl alcohol,
glycerol, and calcium propionate. Results showed that biodegradation Pectin is a structural component in plant cell walls and is one of
occurred in the fixed range of 28 ± 0.5 ℃ and 50 ± 2% RH. Large Earth’s most abundant polysaccharides. As previously pointed out, this
amounts of microorganisms were detected after two weeks on natural polymer is typically obtained from plant and fruit sources (Shafie et al.,
soil, followed by significant biodegradation at three weeks, finally 2020). Pectin is easily biodegradable, and largely water soluble (Dash
leading to complete biodegradation at five weeks. This study indicates et al., 2019). Structurally, pectin may be considered as block copolymers
the large biodegradation potential of pectin-based films on natural soil consisting of two polymers, a homopolymer (Block A) and a hetero
(Ren et al., 2022). However, more comprehensive research must be polymer (Block B) (Fig. 2). Each block has unique chemistries which
carried out to determine the exact conditions required for the com contribute overall to pectin’s physiochemically characteristics. Block A,
postability of pure pectin films to determine how environmentally Homogalacturonan (HG), is a linear, homopolymer backbone, consisting
friendly this process is. of galacturonic acid (GalA) units. This block of pectin is known as the
‘smooth’ region because of its linear appearance. Block B, Rhamnoga
4. Pectin lacturonan I (RGI), is a heteropolymer, consisting of a repeating GalA
and rhamnose disaccharide backbone. This block of pectin is referred to
4.1. Pectin: sources and market as the ‘hairy’ region due to its branched appearance (M. Chen & Lahaye,
2021). A total of 65% of the total structure of pectin exists as consecutive
Over the past decade, there has been a considerable increase in GalA with neutral monosaccharide side chains (Cho et al., 2019). These
research regarding the production of biodegradable packaging, partic GalA units are linked at positions O-1 and O-4 (Mohnen, 2008). Pectin’s
ularly if they can be produced from existing waste streams. Within this structure can be seen to have slight variations, depending on a number
field, pectin (a polysaccharide) has been a largely neglected. Given of factors, including; source; metabolic development stages of the fruit;
pectin’s abundance as a waste product and its similarity in chemical growth environment; and extraction procedures. It has been notably
terms to sodium alginate (a biopolymer capable of forming films and challenging for researchers to examine pectin’s full structure. However,
membranes on an industrial scale), this is surprising. The need to each domain within pectin has been extensively examined (Round et al.,
identify alternative uses for renewable waste streams, such as pectin, has 2010).
never been more urgent, considering recent global warming concerns. A HG is the most prominent pectinous domain. It’s backbone, a ho
dramatic change in lifestyle within the coming decades is unavoidable if mopolymer (i.e. a repeating monosaccharide α-1,4-linked-D- GalA),
society continues to fail at addressing problems of climate change. makes up approx. 50–70% of primary cell wall pectin (Shafie et al.,
From production to consumption worldwide, approx. 33% of all food 2020). Of all pectic domains, HG is the most detailed and understood
produced for human consumption is disposed of as waste (Boiteau & (Figure 2). RG-I is a heteropolymer, and accounts for 20–35% of pectin.
Pingali, 2023). Annually, total global edible food waste is responsible for It consists of a repeating GalA and rhamnose disaccharide backbone.
1.3 billion tonnes of ‘primary product equivalents’ (Arshadi et al., This backbone is accompanied by neutral side chains which are attached
2016). Vegetables and fruits are responsible for 14.8% of all food waste at the O-4 position and occasionally attached at the O-3 position of
(Baiano, 2014). A significant producer of food waste is the apple pro α-L-Rhap backbone units (Willats et al., 2001). Rhamnogalacturonan II
cessing industry, disposing of 25% of all apples harvested. AP accounted (RG-II) is largely referred to as having the most complex structure of all
for 3600 kilotons of biomass worldwide in 2010 (Cho et al., 2019). AP is pectin domains. It consists of a homogalacturonan backbone, aligned
4
Fig 2. (A, left) Details characteristics and physicochemical properties of smooth pectin (i.e., pectin missing RG-I domain. (B, right). Details characteristics and
physicochemical properties of hairy pectin (i.e., containing RG-I).
with several side chains composed of Rha, and other neutral sugars (2–6 pH) while not requiring the presence of sugar (Hosseini et al.,
(Marić et al., 2018). Despite the similarities in their naming, RG-II and 2016).
RG-I do not have related structures (Willats et al., 2001). RG-II accounts Pectin production from AP accounts for approximately 14% of all
for roughly 10% of pectin, and typically is present in plant walls as RG-II pectin production around the globe (Morales-Contreras et al., 2020).
dimers. Pectin’s composition is largely determined by the source from which it
As mentioned previously, different domains in pectin are often was isolated, and purification conditions. Differentiations in pectin’s
referred to as having a ‘hairy’, or ‘smooth’, appearance. The smooth chemical structure typically results from the polygalacturonic acid
region of pectin is composed of HG, while the hairy region of pectin’s backbone having esterified groups being distributed differently. Pectin’s
structure consists of RG-I, RG-II, and xylogalacturonan (XG) (Celus et al., that are extracted from apple sources can have at least 80% esterifica
2018; Mao et al., 2019). These hairy regions have high probiotic po tion, and therefore can form a highly viscous gels (Dranca et al., 2020a).
tential, making pectin a good candidate for edible film technologies. However, these polymers are exposed to pectinolytic enzymes after
Therefore, during the extraction process of pectin, high recovery of these apple processing, which causes their quick depolymerisation and
regions is widely regarded as being more important than the recovery of de-esterification in AP. Therefore, the drying of AP immediately
smooth regions (Shivamathi et al., 2019). following pressing is crucial to limit these deteriorative processes
Pectin’s main application in the food industry stems from the texture (Barreira et al., 2019).
and mechanical properties it possesses, making it invaluable for con
fectionary products (jams and jellies). Other such applications include
4.3. Pectin extraction
desserts, bakery, and dairy products (Reichembach & Lúcia de Oliveira
Petkowicz, 2021). The thickening and gelling properties of pectin are
4.3.1. Generalities
largely influenced by the degree of esterification (DE), degree of
Extraction technique, and the source from which it is extracted,
methylation (DM), and the GalA content. The DE of pectin may be
largely determine the quality and yield of pectin. Preforming extraction
defined as the total percentage of carboxyl groups that are esterified
procedures at the commercial conditions listed above requires the usage
with methanol (Marić et al., 2018). Alternatively, the DE has been
of harsh chemicals. This creates harmful wastewater and requires high
defined as being the percentage of esterified GalA, out of the total GalA
energy inputs, leading to several environmental problems (Shivamathi
residues, and usually represents the degree of methylation (DM) (Mu
et al., 2019). Harsh acids such as HCl, lactic acid, and nitric acid give
et al., 2017). On extraction from the cell wall, the conditions by which
good extraction results and high yields of insoluble pectin that has been
the extraction takes place have a big influence on the DM of pectin
tightly bound to the plant cell matrix. Alternatively, sodium hydroxide,
(Reichembach & Lúcia de Oliveira Petkowicz, 2021).
or enzymes, may be used to extract pectin (Sandarani, 2017). However,
Pectin isolates can be divided into two groups based on their degrees
the negative environmental implications of using acids, along with the
of methylation: high methoxyl pectin’s (HMP) and low methoxyl pec
emergence of greener techniques, have led to shifts in the techniques
tin’s (LMP). HMP’s have a DM that is ≥ 50% while LMP’s will have a DM
used to extract pectin. Additionally, pectin extracted using such acids
that is < 50% (Chan & Choo, 2013). Contrasting physio-chemical
would not hold the right to be supplied as clean labelled ingredients.
properties result from differences in the molecular structure of HMP
This further encourages the search for greener, environmentally
and LMP, producing materials with different processing requirements.
friendly, and sustainable alternatives.
HMP will have the capability of forming a gel within an acid-based
system (pH 2.0–3.5), with high concentrations of sugar, or sorbitol, of
4.3.2. Pectin extraction studies
between 55% and 75%. LMP will form a gel over a wider pH range
After apples have been juiced, waste pomace is dried (typically air-
5
dried) at elevated temperatures. This dry pomace is ground into a flour Extractions at these elevated temperatures also produce less viscous
(which consists of high surface area AP particles). Pectin is extracted pectin solutions, indicating a pectin extract with a lower molecular
from this flour using acidic treatment (< pH 3). This process usually weight and less “hairs”(Basanta et al., 2012). Similarly, extracting pectin
takes place at elevated temperatures (60–100 ◦ C), under continuous from cocoa husks using citric acid (2.5 pH) at elevated temperatures
agitation, for extended periods of time (0.5–6 hrs) (Koubala et al., 2008). improved pectin yield from 3.58% to 5.66% (for 50 ◦ C and 95 ◦ C ex
Pectin is then precipitated (using a crosslinking agent or non-solvent) tractions, respectively). These results were compared against tradition
and filtered. The filtrate is then washed to remove contaminants ally used HCl at the same temperatures and pH ranges, where the highest
(Fig. 3). Harsh extraction treatment can result in damaged pectin and a yield achieved was 5.23%. The increase in yield is attributed to the
reduced yield. Obtaining high quantities of undamaged pectin using higher temperature being capable of more efficiently solubilising pectin
green extraction techniques is essential, if pectin is to be adopted as a present in the cell wall. Again, increasing the extraction time from 1.5 to
replacement to petrochemically derived packaging and conform to a 3.0 hrs increased pectin yields, from 5.66% to 7.62% (Chan & Choo,
circular economy approach. 2013).
Conventional extraction (using HCl) results in; the loss of volatile Similar results have been noted with the extraction of pectin from
compounds; environmental damage; and the degradation of many sugar beet pulp. When comparing organic acids (citric, malic, and lactic
valuable compounds within AP (such as flavonoids). More recently, use acid), regardless of the acid used, pectin yield was approx. 7% greater at
of green organic acids for food extractions, such as citric, acetic, and pH 1.5 than at pH 2.0. It was concluded that the pH of the solvent plays a
malic acid have increased in utilisation (Cho et al., 2019; Ma et al., 2013; pivotal role in cell lysis, releasing pectin into solution for extraction.
Marić et al., 2018). The use of these greener solvents over traditional Again, increasing extraction time from 1 to 2 hrs had a similar effect,
HCl lowers hydrolysing capacity during extraction, resulting in lower increasing pectin yield by approximately 4%. Overall, citric acid (the
depolymerisation values in extracted pectin. Gentler extractions also best performing organic acid) achieves similar extraction yields to HCl
prevent the degradation of valuable flavonoids during the wash stage, (17.2% and 18%, respectively). These results positively promote the
allowing for waste generated during extraction to be recovered and upscaling of organic acid extraction of pectin in the future (Ma et al.,
resold. 2013).
Microwave-assisted- extractions (MAE) have been employed for Similar research has confirmed that organic acids (malic, citric, and
pectin extraction from AP due to the poorer efficiency of other extrac tartaric) could be used effectively for pectin extraction from AP waste.
tion methods [e.g., Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) and Enzyme- At both low (0.1 M) and high (1.0 M) organic acid concentrations pectin
assisted extraction (EAE)] (Dranca et al., 2020b). While MAE yields yield was comparable to HCl extraction. The highest preforming organic
may be similar to solvent extraction, MAE offers far superior extraction acid was tartaric acid (1.0 M), yielding 6.2% pectin isolate compared to
times. Solvent extraction performed using citric acid (1.5–2.5 pH, HCl (6.4%). These results demonstrated that pectin can be extracted
70–90 ◦ C) and MAE (280–560 W) produced similar yields under opti with greener solvents without compromising pectin yield. This is vital,
mum conditions (pH 1.5, 38.91% and 38.06% yield, respectively). as any reduction in yield at an industrial scale would result in additional
However, MAE offers extraction times 80-times faster (90 s) than solvent waste and revenue loss. Pectin obtained using organic acids had a larger
extraction alone (120 min). Pectin yield increased with increasing sol molecular weight (mw) than pectin extracted using HCl. The use of low
vent extraction temperatures, lower pH values, or MAE operating power concentration organic acids is a viable solution to the pollution and
levels (Dranca et al., 2021). environmental damage caused by employing mineral acids commer
Elevated extraction temperatures produce superior pectin yields, cially (Cho et al., 2019). As discussed earlier, the quality of the pectin
with room temperature extractions achieving far lower yields than ex (“hairiness”, mw, methoxyl and ester content) relies heavily upon the
tractions using boiling water (12% and 33–38%, respectively). extraction procedure. Therefore, avoiding solvents which reduce the mw
Fig. 3. Pectin processing and extraction from apple waste source. Apples are harvested from orchard, with approx. 25% lost due to belt rejection. (1) Apples are
juiced, producing apple pomace. Pomace is dried and ground to produce high surface particles, suitable for pectin extraction. Pectin “flour” is treated with an acidic
solvent (mineral, organic, etc.), at an elevated temperature (60 – 100 ◦ C) for several hours (0.5 – 6 hr) under agitation. Waste pomace after pectin extraction is
removed waste is removed through filtering or centrifugation, and the pectin precipitated via using a non-solvent (2). Precipitated pectin is then washed to remove
extraneous compounds (contaminants, flavonoids, residual acid, etc), and subsequently dried for storage. (3) Pectin textiles are produced, which may be used as
compostable feed for agriculture.
6
of pectin via depolymerisation, thus removing pectin “hairs”, is vital of edible films (X. Chen et al., 2020). However, if phase separation takes
when considering pectin as a packaging material. place in an un-controlled manner, it can result in defective film forma
Cui et al., 2021, outlined common extraction techniques for pectin tions, which can have a negative effect on a films mechanical and barrier
from apple sources and identified the advantages and disadvantages of properties.
using such methods (Fig. 4).
5.2. Pectin film forming conditions

5. Pectin-based film formation
Pectin will have different physiochemical properties depending on

5.1. Phase separation
plant source and extraction conditions employed. Therefore, it is un
derstandable that different pectin’s will have different film forming
Before outlining the conditions necessary for pectin to form compact,
capabilities.
cohesive films, the phenomenon that is phase separation must be out
HMP’s form gels when the water activity is lowered, requiring
lined to understand film formation. Films that consist of two or more
> 55% (w/v) co-solutes for HMP to form a physical gel (Munarin et al.,
components within a matrix, undergo phase separation. This process
2012). This usually involves the addition of sucrose at low pH values
plays a key role in the formation of such films. Obtaining a detailed
(<3.5 pH). Cross-linking occurs between two or more pectin molecules,
understanding of phase separation allows for the creation of edible films
and forms junction zones throughout the gelation process (Fig. 5). The
that will possess the required properties of a food packaging system. As
bonds that stabilise these zones are ones of weak interactions, such as
outlined by Petersson, Lorén & Stading, 2005, in a solution that consists
hydrogen and hydrophobic bonds. These connections typically occur
of two polymers, three outcomes can unfold; (1) a homogenous phase;
between polar and non-polar methyl esterified groups. The gels that are
(2) the solution is split into two phases due to the polymers separating;
formed during the HMP’s gelation process are thermally-reversible.
(3) association of both polymers, leading to precipitation or gelation.
In contrast, negatively charged LMP’s form gels through divalent
In the early stages of phase separation, it can largely be described as
cation bridging (e.g. employing Ca2+) through electrostatic interactions,
the solution undergoing a continuous change in the composition of
over a wide pH range (2.0–6.0 pH). Sucrose is not required to be present.
phases. While this change is happening, the spacing of the morphology
LMP gelation process follows an ‘egg-box’ conformation as shown in
of the phases stays constant (Reich & Cohen, 1981). The occurrence of
Fig. 5. The higher the pH of the LMP solution, the more Ca2+ is required
phase separation within polymer blend solutions, is a result of the un
for crosslinking (J. Visser A.G.J. Voragen, 2009). Gelation in LMP’s is
diluted mixture being above the glass transition temperature of the
influenced by several factors. While some factors are intrinsic (such as
system. Alternatively, this can be because of the evaporation of the
pectin structure, chain lengths, number of side chains, distribution of
solvent from solution. This process can lead to several different mor
methyl esters, acetylation, and amidation), other controllable factors are
phologies within the film structure. Bi-continuous structures can form,
extrinsic (such as pH, pectin content, temperature, calcium ion content,
or island and holes may appear. These structural changes come from
and sugar content (Fraeye et al., 2010; Galus & Lenart, 2013).
alterations in composition, mw, the thickness of the film, solvent
Higher mw pectin’s will typically form gels with compact networks.
changes, or external factors (Xue et al., 2012). Nucleation and growth,
These networks exhibit high levels of viscosity and mechanical strength.
along with spinodal decomposition are two different processes associ
Pectin’s that have a mw of < 10 kDa will not possess strong, compact
ated with the phase separation in mixed biopolymer systems (Lorén &
structures due to a lack of Ca-binding sites (Cao et al., 2020).
Hermansson, 2000). Through the control of these processes, it is possible
Using a low pectin concentration increases the chances of ionic
to alter film structure and properties to best suit the desired application
bonds forming within a single chain, inhibiting interchain binding and
Fig. 4. acid vs base vs enzyme extraction techniques of pectin from fruit sources.(Cui et al.,; 2021).
7
Fig. 5. : Schematic representation of the “egg-box” model for junction zone formation in pectin-calcium gels. 58,63.
preventing pectin network formation. Increasing pectin’s concentration 2007). The film may be cast as a single layer or as a laminate (Hoagland
promotes the gelling process by providing a sufficiently dense mesh of & Parris). Film deposition thickness controls many of a film’s properties
junction zones (Fraeye et al., 2010). (mechanical, barrier, optical, etc.). WVP of pectin films can be optimized
further through careful consideration of casting conditions. Casting thick
5.3. Film casting procedure films of linear branched pectin (with small branch sizes) encourage large
amounts of plasticizer (water) to bind to pectin. This lubrication reduces
Carbohydrate polymers have been widely researched as possible pectin-pectin chain interactions, increasing the interpolymer spacing in
candidates for the formation of compostable, edible films (Dash et al., the pectin network. This allows the uptake of more water. Thin films
2019; Espitia et al., 2014; Pirsa, 2020; Shafie et al., 2020; Shih & Zhao, containing the highly branched source of pectin display tight intermo
2021). Lab-scale film production (Fig. 6) is typically determined by a lecular bonding between pectin chains. Close association between pectin
five-step process; 1) solubilisation; 2) casting; 3) solvent evaporation; 4) chains leaves little room for plasticizer or water to enter the pectin
film formation and; 5) drying (Suhag et al., 2020). matrix, resulting in thinner films with less WVP (Shafie et al., 2020).
1) Solubilization: Biopolymers (which are hydrophilic, i.e., bind 3) Solvent Evaporation: Biopolymer solvent is removed.
and retains water) are often dissolved in aqueous buffers. (i.e., non- Biopolymer film production often encounters challenges here. Solvent
volatile solvent with slow evaporation rate) for dissolution and casting evaporation must be carried out in a controlled environment (i.e.,
(Figure 6–1) (Jeya Jeevahan et al., 2020; Velaga et al., 2018). Additives temperature and humidity), to prevent unwanted microstructural for
such as plasticizers or crosslinkers may be used to improve a films mation (Figure 6–3). As aqueous solvents require longer drying times
property and promote network formation (Hoagland & Parris, 1981). than organic solvents, biopolymer film formation is a lengthy process (L.
2) Casting: Biopolymer solutions are cast on materials hydrophobic Z. Wang et al., 2007). Elevated temperatures may be used to improve
enough to promote delamination (film removal) but not solution dew film formation time, though if implemented, add additional costs to film
etting, which can negatively affect film formation (L. Z. Wang et al., production due to higher energy costs (Cai et al., 2020). This increase in
Fig. 6. : Lab casting method for the formation of films.
8
energy use can negate the environmental benefit of using an aqueous poor thermal, mechanical, and moisture barrier properties, pectin is
solvent (L. Z. Wang et al., 2007). Finally, biopolymer solution drying usually blended with other compounds to modify its characteristics.
times increase with increasing ambient humidity. This increased drying Previously described crosslinking agents (Fig. 5) may be used during/
time results in slower film production. Longer drying times also allow for after film formation to improve the mechanical properties of pectin
longer periods of biopolymer phase growth after its phase separation based technologies. Like most biopolymer-based materials, pectin ma
from water, which ultimately controls a films morphology, and thus, it’s terials are typically mechanically inferior to petrochemically derived
mechanical and barrier properties. plastics. To address pectin’s poor mechanical properties, pectin based
4) Film Formation: Cast biopolymer is either 1) submerged in non- materials may be crosslinked during/after production using previously
solvent to promote phase inversion or 2) dried until biopolymer tran described methods.
sitions from liquid to solid phase.
5) Drying: Film is removed from substrate after drying. 6. Pectin films properties
Being aware of the film forming components used in a blend, and the
5.4. Industrial method of pectin film production
different properties each possess is vital in order to create a homogenous
and visually attractive film that retains all the attributes required for
Edible films are typically formed through solvent casting (wet pro
food packaging, such as; low water vapor permeability, high tensile
cess) or extrusion (dry process) (Suhag et al., 2020). Casting (a wet
strength and so on. Pectin may be blended with; plasticizers; cross-
technique) is typically employed for bench and pilot-scale processes,
linking agents; or other (bio)polymers which possess qualities pectin
while extrusion (dry) is a commercial-scale process that is widely used in
does not have (Gao et al., 2019). Pectin films, when used both alone in
food packaging manufacturing industries (Suhag et al., 2020). However,
pure form or in blends produce very different materials characteristi
there are very few studies to date on the extrusion process of pectin’s
cally, physically and behaviourally (Table 1). While pectin possesses
and blends to form films (de Oliveira Begali et al., 2021). One of the
numerous beneficial properties when it comes to film manufacture, it
more attractive production methods of biopolymer film casting is
also has some limitations such as its high hydrophilicity. To overcome
continuous casting (Fig. 7). Film forming solutions are cast onto a
this particular problem, pectin is often incorporated into a composite or
conveyor belt that is fed into a drying chamber. Here, the solvent is
blend so as to obtain the necessary properties which it lacks. Pectin of
evaporated off and reclaimed. The solution phase inverts on the belt and
fers a strong, rigid, yet highly permeable and brittle film. Addition of
is subsequently removed. This allows for wet film techniques to be used
plasticisers like glycerol or alternative polymers such as pullulan help
on an industrial scale, while gaining several benefits over extrusion such
overcome such limitations.
as; accessibility to a variety of solvents, quicker casting, and faster
Plasticizers achieve this by lessening the interactions that take place
drying times. This method can produce a continuous film, unlike most
between polymers within the film. From this addition, more flexible,
lab-scale casting techniques (Cai et al., 2020).
processable films are formed (Suhag et al., 2020). By definition, a
Pectin is well situated currently to take advantage of such
plasticizer is “a substantially non-volatile, high boiling, non-separating
manufacturing techniques. It has an established, safe history of use in
substance, which when added to another material, changes the phys
the food industry. Greener methods are emerging thereby allowing for
ical and/or mechanical properties of that material”. Several plasticizers
processing techniques transferable to textile manufacturing (such as
(namely sorbitol, glycerol, and water) are used. These substances in
forming gels and films). These films have a well understood chemistry.
crease the interpolymer spacing and reduce internal hydrogen bonding
In biopolymer film production, it is unlikely that the chosen biopolymer
(Maftoonazad et al., 2007). The use of plasticizers, like polyols, is a
used will possess all the necessary qualities to produce a well-rounded
common method of improving barrier and mechanical properties in
product, and that will satisfy all the technical and aesthetic packaging
conventional plastic films (Gouveia et al., 2019).
requirements. Films produced from neat pectin are hydrophilic and
It is worth mentioning that while the use of plasticizers is a common
brittle, and employed alone, are unsuitable as a food packaging system
method of pectin films obtaining additional properties that pure pectin
(Nešić et al., 2017). At room temperature, pectin films are glassy in
films lack, other functional ingredients can be added to the film forming
nature. Therefore, after solvent evaporation, cracks or curling of the film
solution to overcome various limitations or challenges also. Wang et al.,
may occur (Šešlija et al., 2018). To prevent the formation of films with
Fig. 7. Continuous film casting method.
9
Table 1
Pure pectin and pectin blend film properties.
Film’s composition pH T,0C of the RH at Film’s properties
solutions drying
Thickness, WVP, unit Solubility in Moisture Transparency Elongation,
%
mm water, % Content, % %
Pectin 5% (w/v) solution ( 3 48 40–50 0.18 1.16− 9 (g/m s 65 – 75 2–7 Low N/A
Mehraj & Sistla, 2022) Pa)
5% (w/v) pectin, 30% w/v N/A 40 N/A 0.131 1.02 (g/Pa.h. 72.5 25.94 Low 7.15
glycerol (Sood & Saini, 2022) m) × 10− 12
Pectin/glycerol 3 48 40–50 0.212 1.85E− 9 (g/m s 100 2–7 Low N/A
(P:G = 5.00:1.26 w/w) ( Pa)
Mehraj & Sistla, 2022)
LMP (1% w/v), Glycerol (50% 3.81 35 50 0.0686 8.02 g/ 90.85 13.8 g water/ Transparent N/A
w/w), Calcium Chloride (m·s·Pa) g dry matter
(20 mg/g pectin), ( × 10− 9 content
Brion-Espinoza et al., 2021)
LMP 1% (w/v), glycerol (50% w/ 3.23 35 50 0.0491 9.43 g/ 86.63 9.75 g water/ Faint brown colour N/A
w), CaCl2 (680 µg/mL) (m·s·Pa) g dry matter
Peptides from pepsin × 10− 9 content
hydrolysis (Brion-Espinoza
et al., 2021)
Pectin/Pullulan (50:50 w/w) ( N/A 50 50 0.0571 1.22 × 10− 9 g. N/A N/A Transparency 3.1
Priyadarshi et al., 2021) m/m2. Pa.s increased with
decreasing pectin
content
Pectin/agar/Zinc Sulphide nano N/A 95 50 0.0656 0.54 × 10− 9 g. N/A N/A High 9.9
petals m/m2. Pa.s
(ZnSNP 2.0 wt% based on
polymers) (Roy & Rhim, 2021)
2022 (Q. Wang et al., 2022), conducted an up-to-date review of some of Due to pectin’s hydrophilicity, storage of pectin-based films at high
the active ingredients that may be added to biodegradable packaging humidity can result in the adsorption of water molecules, compromising
systems and how these ingredients can be released from the film matrix the film’s barrier properties. An effective way of combatting this prob
in a controlled manner. Antioxidants, nutrients, antimicrobials, and lem is blending pectin films with hydrophobic compounds or cross
enzymes are examples of active ingredients that have commonly been linking agents. SiO2 nanoparticles have significantly reduced WVP
used in food packaging to gain extra functionality and increase shelf-life values when blended with pectin (30–60% reduction). When compared
of foodstuffs. against controls, the WVP of orange-derived pectin films incorporated
Blending biopolymers, such as chitosan for example, can improve with SiO2 nanoparticles decreased by 14–80%. WVP values for mango
water vapour permeability (WVP) and tensile strength when added to fruit pectin films was reduced by 6–40%, following the incorporation of
pectin for film manufacturing. Cast films employing the ratio of pectin: silicon nanoparticles (Spatafora Salazar et al., 2019). Notably, both
chitosan of 1:1 and 1:2 showed improved WVP properties, which is sources of pectin produced films with WVP that was reduced by different
crucial for use in food packaging films. A blend ratio of 2:1 pectin:chi amounts using SiO2 particles.
tosan produced films with the highest tensile strength (6.49 MPa), As described earlier in this review, pectin’s structure is composed of
compared to neat pectin and chitosan films which possessed tensile different domains, often characterised as ‘hairy’ and ‘smooth’ regions
strength values of 1.22 MPa and 3.63 MPa, respectively. The optimal (Figure 2). Given how the branched nature of different pectic sub
blending ratio of these two polymers was determined to be 1:1. This was stances influences the barrier properties of films, the extraction and
attributed to favourable electrostatic interactions occurring between purification of the ‘hairy’ regions is favourable. These pectin domains
pectin and chitosan chains (Younis & Zhao, 2019). Pectin from waste AP offer a more cohesive and compact network, which will work against
may also be blended with miscible polymers [e.g., polyvinylpyrrolidone WVP.
(PVP)] to improve film properties (Nešić et al., 2017). By incorporating
60 wt% PVP, pectin film, WVP is lowered by 58%, while producing films 6.2. Mechanical properties of pectin-based films
exhibiting far superior tensile strengths, 130% higher (16.7 MPa) than
plasticized pectin films (7.2 MPa). Films blended with PVP were also As pectin confers high mechanical and adhesion properties in plant
thermally stable to 200 ◦ C. cell walls, it is not surprising that it has considerable potential to be the
main component of a packaging film forming solution (Sood & Saini,
6.1. Water vapor permeability (WVP) of pectin-based films 2022). Typically, mechanical properties are associated with a film’s
tensile strength and elongation at break (ε = (ΔL/L) x 100, measured in
Strong interactions between water vapor and pectin resulting from percentage). Both properties are largely influenced by the density of
hydrogen bonding, and large differences in chemical potential at the air- inter-molecular networks (i.e., changing pectin’s distribution within the
biopolymer interface, drive the movement of water from zones of high- biopolymer network). Lower tensile strength and greater elongation at
water vapour concentration to regions of low concentration (Bertuzzi break values are usually associated with films constructed of pure
et al., 2007). When the driving force is high [at a high relative humidity pectin. These films are brittle in nature and can easily be destroyed at
(RH) (64.9–92.0%)] WVP is greater. At low RH values (22.5–64.9%), any point from production to storage, certainly unsuitable for packaging
there is a decrease in WVP. At low ambient RH, biopolymeric films applications. This is typical of most polysaccharides, as without the
contain less water, thereby lowering any plasticizing effect. At high RH, addition of a plasticiser, they are brittle (Matta & Bertola, 2020).
more water is absorbed and this “loosens” (plasticizes) the polymer Therefore, it is often necessary to incorporate other biopolymers, or
matrix, increasing interpolymeric spacing, further allowing even more plasticisers, into pectin films to create films with properties that neat
water to permeate the film, which in turn continues to plasticize the film pectin films do not possess (Huang et al., 2021). Plasticizers (usually
(Alves et al., 2011). small molecules) can be used to modify three-dimensional structures of
10
polymers by; 1) increasing chain mobility and; 2) reducing attractive indeed other biopolymer sources, be truly realised.
intermolecular forces (Matta & Bertola, 2020). The food industry has laid the foundation for most transferable
In pure pectin films, increasing the pectin concentration from 1.5% knowledge (to the polymer sector) regarding the processing of pectin in
to 3.5% increased tensile strength from 8.9 N to 21.6 N. This increase is the formation of many confectionary products. Pectin is poised to take
attributable to a rise in pectin-pectin chain interactions, creating a advantage of current industrial-scale manufacturing techniques (Fig. 7).
compact network. When plasticizers such as glycerol are added to the Knowledge obtained by the food industry regarding the processing of
formulation, the tensile force of the pectin film can decrease from 24.3 N pectin puts it ahead of other biopolymers currently under investigation.
to 14.8–15.1 N. This is largely believed to be due to the decrease in the All this indicates that while pectin has yet to mature into a viable
number of intermolecular cross-links between pectin chains (Galus & commercial material, it has a very promising future.
Uchański, & Lenart, 2013).
Crosslinking (reduction of interchain distance by forming bonds CRediT authorship contribution statement
between polymer chains, (Fig. 5) of LMP can be achieved using divalent
cations (Ca2+). Unmodified, pectin produces films with high water sol Ian Butler: Writing, Methodology, Investigation. Russell Banta:
ubility (63.66%), high water permeability (0.15 g m/m2 sec Pa), and Supervision, Data curation, Visualization, Resources, Project adminis
low tensile strength (153 KPa). Crosslinking with CaCl2 improved pectin tration, Writing – review & editing. Shivani Pathania: Funding acqui
film water solubility (59.82%), WVP (0.13 ng m/m2 sec Pa), and tensile sition. Joe Kerry: Supervision, Project administration, Writing – review
strength (193 KPa) (Kang et al., 2005). Polymer blending is used to & editing, Funding acquisition.
produce a film product with physical, chemical, and biological proper
ties greater than the sum of its parts (Younis & Zhao, 2019). Declaration of Competing Interest
When the tensile force is decreased on addition of plasticizer, the
elongation at break values increases. This essentially means that the film The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
has become more flexible and elastic and that the force that is required interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
to break the film decreases. It has been demonstrated that films that are the work reported in this paper.
made solely of polymeric substances, with the absence of a plasticizer,
tend to be brittle in nature (Galus & Uchański, & Lenart, 2013); (Bayarri Data Availability
et al., 2014); (Hassan et al., 2021); (Ciriminna et al., 2020); (Minzanova
et al., 2018); (Ciriminna et al., 2020); (Hassan et al., 2021); (Espitia, Du, No data was used for the research described in the article.
et al., 2014); (Cai et al., 2020); (Jovanović et al., 2021); (Hassan et al.,
2021). Acknowledgements
7. Conclusion This research received funds from the Food Institutional Research
Measure (FIRM), grant number 2019R428, administered by the
Current manufacturing methods cannot continue indefinitely. With Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine.
governmental and societal pressure increasing, the food industry is
actively moving in a more sustainable direction. Food products are References
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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Food Packaging and Shelf Life

Pectin as a biopolymer source for packaging films using a circular economy

5.2. Pectin film forming conditions

Pectin will have different physiochemical properties depending on

Fig. 6. : Lab casting method for the formation of films.

Fig. 7. Continuous film casting method.

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