[Cover – drawing 1 (water well and man)]

GROUNDWATER SECURITY
IN YEMEN
Role and Responsibilities of Local Communities
in Conserving Groundwater
Documentary study on models of traditional
irrigation systems & methods of water
harvesting in Hadramout & Shabwah
governorates
Dr. Frank van Steenbergen
Dr. Omar A. Bamaga
Dr. Adel M. Al-Weshali

1
Dr. Frank van Steenbergen
MetaMeta Research, Paardskerkhofweg 14, 5223 AJ, ‘s-Hertogenbosch, The Netherlands,
E-mail: fvansteenbergen@metameta.nl, 0031 73 6238206

Dr. Omar A. Bamaga

Water and Environment Centre, University of Sana’a
E-mail: oabamaga1@yahoo.com

Dr. Adel M. Al-Weshali

E-mail: drweshali@yahoo.com
Acknowledgement

This paper was prepared with support of the Embassy of the Kingdom
of The Netherlands in Sana’a as part of the project ‘Supported
audio-visual and printed policy documents on accountability in local
groundwater management in Yemen’
3
 1. INTRODUCTION

This paper describes current groundwater use in mountain districts in Al Baida, Amran and Shabwah
Yemen. It focuses on two aspects: local management Governorates (Social Development Fund 2007).
of groundwater by farmers themselves and the link
between local management and the 2002 Water Law The groundwater boom in itself is a source of
and other legislation. With respect to groundwater insecurity. There is no unified nation-wide data base on
security the paper particularly asks the question: who is groundwater water levels and abstraction, but where
accountable to whom? water balances have been estimated, the scales are out
of kilter. Most dramatic the water balance for Sana’a
The development of groundwater use in Yemen has Basin estimates abstraction to be five times the amount
been rapid and unprecedented in time and place. of recharge – 270 Mm3 against 51 Mm3 (Earth
According to Al-Eryani et al (2011) groundwater- Science Systems 2005). In other parts of the country
irrigated agriculture increased from 37,000 ha in the disequilibrium is less severe but nevertheless
1970 to 400,000 ha in 2005. This is the equivalent worrying: 34 Mm3 against 18 Mm3 in Wadi Ahwar
of a third of the national cropped area. Most of this is (Hydrosult 2008) and 235 Mms against 115 Mm3 in
under high value crops: fruit, vegetables and qat, often Hadramawt (Komex 2002). More telling than these
mixed with timber and firewoodtrees. The groundwater studies is the evidence in the real world. GARWSP
boom has kept the rural economy vibrant. Agricultural reports that it is becoming increasingly difficult to drill
employment increased by 25% between 1970 - 1996. a successful wells for the national rural water supply
whereas agricultural net value of output quadrupled program: the number of failed drillings stands at more
(Al-Eryani et al. 2011). than 40%. Falling water tables are reported from
each Governerate. Severe disaster spots are found
Farmers in the irrigated areas are the ‘haves’. along the coast in Tihama – where reduced supplies of
Elsewhere in rural Yemen, food insecurity persists. surface water and overuse of groundwater have caused
It is even on the rise. According to the World Food some coastal villages to fall prey sand dune formation.
Program/ VAM (2010) 7 million people or 35% of the Because of shortages, urban water delivery in several
population are undernourished. A categorization of major cities provided at ever larger time intervals. Then
those most vulnerable is: rural and rain-dependent Hales (2010) quotes Government of Yemen estimates,
farmers: growing unirrigated wheat and qat, with that violence accompanying land and water disputes
4 limited diversity in income sources, a large number of results in the deaths of some 4,000 people each year.
dependents, and generally far away from main facilities.
The extremely poor districts (with more than 70% of The paper is based on documentation of a number of
the population classified as poor) are rain-dependent cases of local management, undertaken in the period
November 2010-February 2011. These cases were
identified in a number of ways – but mainly through
informal networks. One remarkable point was that it
was relatively easy to identify examples, especially in
the highland districts – suggesting that local regulation
of groundwater is not at all exceptional. The message
is that in many areas farmers have responded to the
risk of falling groundwater tables and in some cases
deteriorating quality that followed the intense exploitation
of groundwater. In the coastal areas – where groundwater
overuse issues are in places equally severe – there
appeared to be less examples of local management,
probably to the larger complexity of the water systems
(conjunctive use of spate irrigation and groundwater)
and larger aquifer systems.

5
 2. CASES OF GROUNDWATER LOCAL MANAGEMENT

The intense use of groundwater in arid environment Management Project, Abyan Water Management Project
and the falling groundwater tables triggered several and under different activities of NGO’s such as Care
government and donor responses: the enactment of or Triangle. The best estimate is that 700 WUAs were
the Water Law; the creation of Water Users Associations formed – often registered under Law 39/ 1998 or Law
(WUAs) in investment projects, particularly since 2000 12001/ on Cooperative Societies and Associations. This
and the implementation of programs aiming to introduce arrangement was not entirely appropriate, as it defines
efficient irrigation techniques. Substantial effort has also the WUAs as membership organizations for agricultural
gone into creating awareness on groundwater overuse. improvement – entitled to certain privileges – but not as
local management bodies. The status of the 700 WUAs
The Water Law was accepted by the House of formed in the last decade is unknown and an inventory
Representatives in July 2002. The Law is a major would be important. Anecdotal evidence suggests that
watershed in that it marked the beginning of the idea many WUAs have withered after the intensive engagement
that groundwater is no longer for everybody to take. The in the concerned project was over.
Law describes a well licensing procedure – applicable for
wells extending beyond 60 meters depth. The National The seemingly lackluster performance of the irrigation-
Water Resources Authority established in 1995 and its based WUAs may be contrasted with the relatively good
branch offices established later in some (not all) of the performance of water committees that were set up in
Governerates are the regulator in this respect. The Water drinking water programs. A total of 108 communities
Law also contains the basis for setting up new organizations with water supply projects were surveyed in 2007 in
in water management: Water Basin Committees, Water Dhamar and Hodeidah Governerate (IOB 2008). The
Zone Committees (for parts of the basins) and Water survey found that in 81% of these communities the
Users Associations as well as federations and unions of committees were still functioning, proportionally more in
WUAs. The Water Law does not describe the power and Hodeidah. In most cases though the larger assembly is
procedures for these new bodies, but it refers to a bylaw dormant, the core group of community members meets
that is to be developed later. regularly – involving pump operators, technical persons,
meter readers and administrators. In two-third of the
This did not prevent the development of irrigation- committees there had been elections or replacement of
based WUAs in a large number of programs, such as leadership. Committee chairmen were paid in 40% of
the Irrigation Improvement Project, the EU Food Security the cases. There were no female committee members,
Program, the Land and Soil Conservation Project, the however.
6 Groundwater and Soil Conservation Project, the Sana’a
Basin Water Management Project, the Community Water As was to be expected the functionality of the drinking
water systems was strongly related to the functioning of extraction from the aquifers dried up springs and shallow
the committee. Intriguingly the relation was not one to wells. Many communities have sought to prevent further
one. Among the 108 cases systems were operative in harm to existing users, for instance by norms restricting
89% of the communities with a functioning committee well spacing and banning export of water from their area
and 70% were operative in communities without a by tankers. In other cases farmers closed disputed wells,
functioning committee. The committee members received invested in groundwater recharge or connected separate
general support in institution building, but in pump wells by a shared network of pipelines, allowing water
operation and repairs committee members are largely to travel from one area to the other. In some cases the
self-trained or acquired skills elsewhere. All in all of the agricultural wells were also doubled up as sources of
108 sampled systems 85% was operational – which is domestic water supply and private village pipe networks
good by international standards. There is a large capacity were developed.
to self organize in rural Yemen and the technical services
for operating tubewells are amply available.

The responses to falling water tables have not been

limited to formal institutions only, rather the opposite.
In a substantial number of communities local informal
rules have been developed among water users to
regulate the use of groundwater locally. A list of cases
of local groundwater management that were identified
in the documentation and from other sources is given
in Table 1. It appears that since 2000 two new trends
have emerged. First is that where earlier local conflicts
on groundwater development were exceptional, they
became more common– see also above. Whereas
Lichtenthaeller (2003) for instance observed that in spite
of falling groundwater tables there were no conflicts on
water in Amran in 2000, in Lichtenthaeller (2010) he
describes that protests and blockages are common in
Amran by the late 2010’s. Second is either triggered by
conflict or heightened awareness in many areas farmers 7
have come to local rules and regulations. Increased
 Table 1: Cases of local groundwater management

Place Type of local rule

1 Hejraht al-Asham, Jabal al-Sharq- Dhamar Restrict well drilling

2 Wadi Areesha, Nahem, Sana’a Restrict well drilling, ban on tankers, well depth

3 Khrabat Muhyab, Bani Matar, Sana’a Restrict well drilling, well spacing

4 Qarwa Beshar, Jahanah, Khawlan, Sana’a Restrict well drilling

5 Hijrat al-Muntasir, Amran Ban on new drilling

Restrict well drilling, recharge weirs in wadi bed, well
6 Wadi Qarada, Bani Hushaish, Sana’a
sharing
7 Wadi Akarem, Dhamar Restrict deep drilling in the main wadi

8 Bani Garban, al-Kafr District, Ibb Protection zone

9 Al-Gawaref, Ibb Ban on qat irrigation

10 Wa’alah, Amran Ban on water transport by tankers

11 Bait Sarhan and Alhamrmaly, Amran Ban on water transport by tankers

12 Al Ma’akhad, Amran Ban on water transport by tankers

13 Qa’a Al-Shams, Amran Ban on water transport by tankers

14 Bani Maymoun, Amran Tankers only within village

15 Wadi Dhelaa, Hamdan, Sana’a Well spacing, well sharing, dam development

16 Wadi Al Zabaira in Qadas, Al Mawasit District, Taiz Restrict/ban well drilling, closing disputed wells
8 Closure disputed wells, agreement on reservoir
17 Al Aroosi, Mehan, Sana’a
operation
 18 Al Mashra, Damar Ban on drilling
New agricultural wells only if they serve drinking water
19 Wadi Al-Har, Anss, Dhamar
too
Joint WUA to regulate new well development,
20 Mawia, Taiz
replacement of qat in some area
Well distance, blocking out well development in sensitive
21 Al-sinah, Almaafer, Taiz areas, permission by NWRA only with consent of the
cooperative
22 Wadi Sana’ah, Dhamar Spring protection – zoning; distance rule

23 Hejrat al-a’asham, Jabal Al-sharq, Dhamar Protection zone

Ban on new wells, non-well owners to share in existing
24 Al-Wahda, Al-Maafir, Taiz
wells
Preventing new shallow development by referring cases
25 Zubera, Wadi Siham, Hodeidah
to Local Council and NWRA

Sources: field documentation, van Steenbergen (2006), Ward and Al-Alauqi (2008), Bruns and Taha (2009), Bonzanigo
and Borgia (2009) and Lichtenthaeller (2010 - 2011)

In the following pages a number of recently documented cases are described in more detail. In annex 1 other cases are
summarized.

9
 Wadi Qarada, Bani Hushaish, Sana’a 130 members. The WUAs regulate and monitor the
drilling of wells. The way it works is that if in the area
One example of local management of groundwater of the Al Qarada WUA unlicensed drilling is about to
concerns Qarada in Sana’a Basin. Qarada is a tributary start a complaint will be lodged to the government by
of the Wadi El Sir. The short terms floods in the wadi are the Al Asharaf WUA. This is done to preserve harmony in
diverted to spate irrigate the land but more importantly the area of Al Qarada. The reverse process is initiated if
they recharge the shallow aquifers. Grapes – in different unlicensed drilling is planned in Al Asharaf.
varieties - are the almost exclusive crop in the area.
Because the area is open, it is prone to frost and growing Recharge in the area greatly improved after the
qat is no option. construction of 47 stone checkdams in the riverbed
under the Sana’a Basin Water Management Project.
There are over 100 wells in the area – typically these are These structure slow down the speed of the floods – and
300 meter apart. Up to 2002 / 3 well drilling continued increase the infiltration rate. The speed of the water
unabated – with a fifteen meter decline a year till the moreover ensures that sediment is still removed. The
water table reached 320 meters in 2008 the threat of investment in the structures including the stone bank
sulphur and fluoride levels increasing with increased protection amounted to USD 1 M. A comparison of
depth. In anticipation of the new Water Law additional these type of structure with recharge dams – indicate that
wells were developed that were subsequently covered they are significantly more effective in recharging local
and are not yet used. aquifers – particularly in comparison with large dams
(Alderwish and Alderwish 2009).
The production of the wells over the years also dropped
to less than 50%. For a long time the answer to water There are several plans to improve water use in the area.
scarcity was to invest in new and deepened shared wells One plan is to promote drip irrigation but use a storage
rather than in shared conveyance networks. The cost of tank to create enough pressure. The development of drip
developing a well is considerable however – and can systems suitable for the wide-rooted crops is a special
go up to YR 40 M. Part of the resistance to investing in challenge. There are also request for better support in
modernized irrigation systems was the skepticism – partly marketing and extension: grapes suffer from pest attacks
well founded – on the usefulness of drip systems, as these but there is no effective extension. Also there is concern
would not work with the widely spread out root system of that the grapes may suffer from import of raisin from
the old grape plants. other countries.

In 2003 two WUAs were established for the area – Al

Qarada and Al Ashraf. This was triggered by the Sana’a
Basin Water Management Project that also worked
10 on creating awareness and increasing the interest for
improved irrigation systems. Membership grew over the
years: Al Qarada started with 70 members but now has
Khrabat Muhyab, Bani Matar, Sana’a Wadi Dhelaa, Hamdan, Sana’a
The main water source of the Khrabat Muhyab area is the Wadi Dhelaa is located at relatively close proximity to
run-off from Jebel Mountains. The run-off feeds springs Sana’a and has a long history of irrigated agriculture.
and the aquifers. Over the years farmers have moved The area is supplied surface water from the four kilometer
to groundwater irrigation, typically pumping water from Matba tributary of the Wadi Dhelaa and used to supplied
150 to 180 meter deep. The wells – if only because of both by surface flows from the river bed and by ancient
their cost – are shared by many families. A typical well qanats or horizontal wells. Sabean inscriptions inside the
may have seventeen shares and ownership is between tunnel of the qanats suggest that they were developed at
2530- families. least two thousand years ago. Over the years the tunnel
was gradually deepened to keep up with fluctuating
Following a violent conflict in a nearby area over the water tables. Land levels also increased over time– with
sharing of water from a dam that was to be build by the sediment from the adjacent hills causing land levels to
government farmers decided to regulate the use of water rise. Fifty years ago dugwells were developed – initially
in their area. The establishment of the WUA – called operated by animals but as water tables became deeper
‘Belad Albustan’ was triggered by seeing the conflict and the wells were deepened diesel pumps were increasingly
hardship arising from overuse of groundwater in nearby resorted to. At this time grapes, apricots and maize were
areas. It was not set up by any project but created at the the main crop – mixed with qat and fuel wood.
initiative of concerned farmers.
As the qanat ran dry from 1982 onwards and as shallow
The WUA initially regulated the seven wells in Khrabat wells started to fail around 1990 farmers shifted over to
Muhyab village. Minimum rules were set on the distance deep wells – boring over the years up to 300 meter – with
between wells that irrigate 53 ha (12000 lebnah) under water tables between 150 to 200 meters. The transition
fruits and staple crops (not qat). Wells were to be at to deep wells coincided with a transition to growing qat
least five hundred meters apart – but dependent on the and fuel wood trees mainly – as the deep wells required
location the distance can be even larger. The minimum a higher value crop. In Dhelaa five wells have been
distance to a spring for instance is 2000 meter. developed – all under shared ownership. Ownership in
the wells is divided in shares – corresponding to half days
Whereas the WUA initially covered seven wells in two water supplies (contingent on availability of high voltage
villages its usefulness was recognized and it now covers electricity). The shares, which can amount to sixteen per
the area of 58 wells in eight villages. The membership well, may be owned by more than family. This can bring
went up from 80 to several hundred. The development of well ownership up to thirty families per well. All wells are
new wells in the area is not allowed unless a clear need shared and families have shares in more than one well.
for a new well (rather than getting water from an existing Moreover, the five wells in Dhelaa are connected through
well) is proven and the minimum distance is observed. a pipeline system. This makes it possible to irrigate the 11
Improved irrigation techniques are relatively exceptional entire area from different wells and to compensate for
in the area and there appears to be a good scope for the temporary breakdown of one deep well by sourcing
improving water management on this front too.
 water from another well. In Dhelaa a minimum distance but other wells are stable. The seeming balance is also
on new wells has been imposed as well. This used to be attributed to the construction of a recharge dam at Al
500 meters from an existing well - but has now increased Merbaha – one of the two tributaries of Wadi Dhelaa. The
to 700 meter. work was initiated by the sheikh family – who invested YR
6 M (USD 30,000) in the construction of dam at the end
Within these distances it is not allowed to develop a new of the 1990’s. The dam was subsequently upgraded in
well – but one can always buy water from one of the 2002 to a 25 meter high structure with a sand core and
existing wells. Because all landowners are interconnected rip rap covering at a cost of YR 150 M. The dam is over
and because everybody has a share in at least one well, dimensioned – even in the recent wet year it has not filled
enforcement of this rule has not been unproblematic. for more than a third of its capacity. The dam however
Farmers in Dhelaa came to the regulated and shared is reportedly successfully contributing to recharge in the
system after seeing the severe decline in groundwater in area. In fact the reservoir is also positioned on top of the
nearby Shamlan where many wells were developed in a mother well of the qanat though the tunnel system has
very short timeframe. The rule was introduced gradually been disconnected in this area.
– under the leadership in this case of the local sheikh
family. If there would be a conflict in the local regulations
then the local council, security forces or members of Wadi Areesha, Nahem, Sana’a
parliament could be called upon. In fact, if there are
conflicts it is on the joint running of the shared wells: who Wadi Areesha is located about 70 km east of Sana’a. In
is first, how to compensate for power outages and how to this region attempts to discover deep groundwater have
pay for the cost of maintenance and repairs. been failed. However, the area still has sufficient shallow
groundwater and carefully guards it. Sana’a Basin Water
The wells in Dhelaa are not only used for agriculture Management Project implemented some activities in the
but they are used for drinking water supply as well. The area which mainly aimed to improve water use efficiency,
community has in fact built up their own water supply groundwater recharge and supporting WUA. Wadi
system from the same wells. Special pipes connect to Areesha dam is the most important water structure in the
different sections of the small town. This developed over area, which was basically initiated to improve recharge
the years. The wells were initially for irrigation mainly to the mainly shallow wells in the area. Until 25 years
– but were next connected to the mosques and then to ago, shallow groundwater was available at 5070- m
individual households and public water points. YR 2000/ below ground level. In 1995, the community, decided to
month (nearly USD 10) is paid per month for a house construct Areesha dam hoping that water will re-appear
connection. in wells located downstream. The dam was rehabilitated
in 2008 with support of SBWM Project. Now all wells are
The water table has more or less stabilized, More or less located around the reservoir, from which water is pumped
12 – because some wells still need to be deepened – but very to the fields through pipes- upto 4 km long. The WUA of
modestly. The main drinking water well for instance has Areesha dam undertakes operation and maintenance of
to be deepened with six meter over the last three years the dam. There are a number of rules were agreed upon.
Here is in fact a ban on drilling well too deep – with activities. The cooperative society owns three wells. Water
the upper limit set at 200 meters, however, there is no is pumped to four elevated tanks, perched on top of the
restriction on the distance between wells. Another local mountain, and then distributed to homes via a network
rule is a strict ban on direct water withdrawals from the of pipelines. 1900 homes are subscribed to the network.
reservoir and on selling water outside the area. Tankers The water is provided for drinking and domestic purposes
are not allowed into the area – neither to collect water only: it is prohibited to use water for agriculture. Al-sinah
from the shallow wells nor from the dam reservoir. The cooperation association has few remarkable features
investment in wells and pipelines is collective, with groups that earmark it as an outstanding example of local water
consisting of 1520- farmers. management:

Al-sinah, Almaafer, Taiz • democratic structure - management is elected every

three years with an elaborate structure of twelve
Al-sinah area is located in wadi Al-asloom, Almaafer election assemblies. There is no traditional local
District, Taiz Governorate. This is 30 km west of Taiz. leader. The preference is for people of high integrity.
The area consists of 12 groups of villages with a total There are no big social and income differences in the
population of approximately 18000 (2004 census). It community and education is widespread even among
is well-known for its cooperative society. The story of women.
cooperative society dates back to the end of 1960s, when
the community decided to establish this organization to • conditional partnership with public agencies. the Al-
nurse water and electricity projects but also to facilitate sinah cooperation association systematically liaises
education and health improvements. Al-sinah and its with public agencies and has sought specific support
cooperative society stand out as a single example of for parts of ita investment program where public
long-term institionalized local development and resource agencies had the right thing to offer. However, the
management. association has refrained to be automatically involved
in projects (Ward and Al-Alauqi 2008)
Al-sinah basin contains 35 agricultural bore wells, owned
by farmers either individually or shared. Most of these wells The association also plays a role in local groundwater
were developed in the 1970s. The average depth of wells management. Within the area a distance between wells
is 260 m, but the water table is found at 96 m. However, in the range of 500 meter is observed. One striking
the water table is declining continuously: a decline of 6 example of the application of this rule was in the mid
m was observed in the year 2010. Groundwater is used 1990s, when well drilling n the neighboring hamlet
for irrigation of a number of cash crops mainly qat and threatened the sustainability of the Al-Sinah water supply
vegetables. No modern irrigation systems are in use, well field. The association bought up some scattered
except for conveyance pipes for delivering water to the fields in this neighboring hamlet, then drilled wells there
plots. – and subsequently capped the wells. Because local 13
people respect the «500 meters between wells» rule, the
Water and electricity are the cooperative society’s main capped wells prevented any other water development in
 the area and the Al-Sinah water supply was protected Alkadarah, Qadas, Taiz
(Ward and Al-Alauqi 2008).
Alkadarah consists of a number of villages and isolated
The Al-sinah association also works together with the homes scattered over several mountains and valleys.
Taiz branch of the National Water Resources Authority Agricultural lands are located in the lower section of
(NWRA). NWRA is not issuing any well drilling permit the valleys or on the mountains as terraces. Due to the
without consulting the association and obtaining a geology of the area, no deep groundwater is found in
written consent from the association. Since two years Alkadarah. Shallow groundwater is available in some of
no more well bore well drilling permits are issued. The the valleys, but yields are low and unreliable. Rain-fed
association is trying to affirm this rule by declaring the farming of sorghum and vegetables predominates. The
area as a protected zone. A study has been completed shallow groundwater is used for qat irrigation.
and now is considered for approval by NWRA. Neither
are farmers are not allowed to dig open shallow wells The main concern is that drinking water is under threat.
without obtaining consent from the association. Traditionally the community depended on shallow dug
wells, springs or cisterns to fetch their domestic and
Al-sinah is hence a case of local and central regulation drinking water needs. The communities decided in the
reinforcing each others. Two years ago NWRA issued 1980s to construct drinking water networks entirely by their
a well drilling permit to farmers without consulting the own resources. They formed committees for managing
association. The association objected against the drilling. water projects and four projects were implemented.
The disputed well was located outside the Al-sinah basin The water project at Hanhan, Bani Mansoor is one of
but at a 1000 m distance from a well owned by the these projects. It was constructed in 1982. The project
Association. However, NWRA gave an undertaking that committee drilled the well, constructed the water tank
the new well would not have a negative effects on the Al- and pipelines. Later, the Hanhan system was merged
sinah well. In case if any interference, the new well would with another water system, the Wadi Aljannat project.
be closed and handed over to the Al-sinah association. The latter facility was supplied by two wells. However,
due to low well production, water is provided to homes
Further to boost groundwater recharge, the al- once every three days. The depth of the ranges between
Sinah association is working with the Social Fund 5090- meter. A standard rate of 200 YR per cum is
for Development on the construction of a dam. The collected form subscribers. A third system, Algobua-
association has obtained the required land with its own Aldho’uf project, was also established in 1982, but was
resources. In addition the association is working with abandoned for a long time due to differences between
local councils to maintain and rehabilitate traditional stakeholders.
cisterns and ponds.
A few village clusters in Alkadarah still do not have
14 to piped water supply. Some of these approached the
Algobua and Aldho’uf project committee to allow the
drilling of new well. The response was guarded for fear
that this new well may affect the water resource negatively. Hejrat al-a’asham, Jabal Al-sharq,
Negotiation and mediation between the two parties is in Dhamar
progress. The Algobua and Aldho’uf project committee
earlier is prevented the drilling new agricultural wells in Jabal Al-sharq consists of many small valleys and
their valley, on the basis that the 10 private wells which mountains that mark the beginning of the western
already exist are enough. mountainous slopes. The area is located about 20 km
north of Al-sharq town, Dhamar Governorate, and
includes historical villages and castles.
Wadi Sana’ah, Dhamar
Wadi Alwa’ad has relatively flat lands that were covered
Wadi Sana’ah is located 15 km west of Dhamar city. The with coffee plantations in past. Now, qat is the dominant
catchment area of the wadi consists a part of Ga’a Jahran crop in addition to sorghum, corn and some vegetables,
plateau. A number of old dams existed in the area, and but all crops are rainfed. Shallow dug wells are the
remains of some of them are still in place, for example main source for groundwater. Only few wells have water
Al-dheeb dam and Al-gash’goosh dam. Wadi Sana’ah throughout the year, especially wells that are located in
is characterized by fertile soil and good availability the downstream of the wadi. The water table of shallow
of groundwater. Variety of crops can be grown in the wells is at 1015- m. Some of these open well are common
plateau but not qat: frost formation prevents this. Wells “waqaf” and are used for drinking water supply. An open
density in the plateau is comparatively low, with only 12 well called “alnazool” is believed to be 500 years old and
wells at distances varying between 500 to 1000 m. The has water throughout the year. However, the springs are
depth of wells varies between 25 – 220 m, with most of the preferred source for drinking water in the area. The
wells having a depth between 70120- m. The farmers yield of the springs varies in time and locations. Some
respect the 500 m rule, which is also the norm adopted springs can be found only in the rainy season. At one
by the NWRA branch in Dhamar for resolving disputes of the most yielding spring, a 20 l container was filled
between farmers. in about 14 min. Villagers will queue day and night for
getting their share. As in many other places, springs are
Wadi Sana’ah contains many springs, but several springs
regarded as sacred common property which should be
disappeared after the earthquake that hit Dhamar area
preserved. No well drilling is allowed nearby springs.
in 1982. Only few springs are still perennial; most only
appear in the summer. The location of springs is identified New plantation of coffee was noticed in the area, which
by the light blue color of soil (called sa’a), indicating that indicates that coffee plants still can compete with qat.
it was frequently logged by water. To protect the springs, Some of these new plantations replaced old coffee trees
the farmers do not allow the drilling of tube wells in the - which require more water, as it has been said.
wadi. However, shallow dug wells (at a depth of 24-
meter) are permitted. 15
 3. LESSONS

There are several conclusions to be drawn response – as in the case of Hijrat-al-Muntasir. They are
preferable to the default situation where wells continue to
from these cases: be developed unabatedly and the ‘race to the bottom’ is
First, Investment in groundwater is surprisingly collective. unchecked.
This is different from the perception that groundwater is Fourth, the Water Law and the licensing procedures
the behold of individual large farmers. Wells in many imbedded in it are important – though not necessarily in
cases are shared between a large number of shareholders a direct way. The Water Law is generally taken serious:
– not the property of a single person. In some cases wells testimony of this is that in several areas in Bani Husheish
are connected by a shared pipeline. In several cases – farmers had new wells developed prior to the enactment
Alkadarah, Al-sinah, Dhelaa there has been collective of the Water Law, then closed and hid these wells, so
investment in community drinking water supply. they could be utilized some time in the future. The fact
that wells in principle need to be licensed signaled that
Second, there is a high level of local management in groundwater is no longer an open access resource and
several cases – often introduced rather recently. The local restrictions should apply. This has given impetus and
rules consist of measures such as well spacing, closure strength to local groundwater management. Invoking
of disputed wells, zoning and bans on sales to water the licensing procedures under the Water Law is one
tankers. There is often considerable community effort to of the instruments in local water management – as the
improve groundwater recharge. Table 2 (page18) is a case of Al Qarada shows. From the Sana’a Basin Water
list of different local regulations. A common denominator Management Project there are examples of villages
of these local regulations is their visibility. Consequently pressuring local councils and the National Water Resources
it is easy to observe for everybody whether rules are Authority to more effectively regulate and license. In an
applied or not and no special organizations is required essentially tribal society this demand for regulation –
to enforce. local and central - is remarkable. In Al-sinah the local
cooperative cooperated with NWRA by recommending
Third, local management is in some cases encouraged by wells to be licensed. There is mutual reinforcement in
projects – such as the awareness and social mobilization several cases of local rule and national law, effectively
activities under the Sana’a Basin Water Management having rural pluralism in action. A remarkable strategy of
Project or the Groundwater and Soil Conservation enforcing the licensing of drilling is from Qarada – where
Project. In other cases communities come together after cases are not raised among close neighbours but where
16 having seen disaster striking nearby areas or after having an outside WUA is expected to make the case – so as to
been faced with conflicts occurring in their own area. avoid conflict between close neighbours. The same point
In general such conflicts are ‘functional’: they trigger a has been made in other interviews where WUA members
preferred a subbasin group to do the sensitive work of Sixth, the local rules and regulations concerns a broad
regulating goundwater use within member communities. range of measures – location and depth of wells,
There seemed to be a need for an effective second or recharge measures, management of reservoirs and in
third party to avoid direct conflict. some exceptional cases cropping bans. Their impact
can be high and they are an important component in
Fifth, where local groundwater management is in place, managing local water resources. It is in fact hard to see
the initiative may be taken by a local sheikh, or aqil, how groundwater use in Yemen can be regulated without
by another respected leader or by a WUA, as in Wadi it being built on a foundation of local acceptance and
Al Zabaira or cooperative as in Al-sinah. There may initiative.
be many sources of local leadership – not necessarily
the traditional sheikh. In Khrabat farmers themselves Seventh, not in all cases has local management been
established a WUA and this WUA subsequently attracted able to reverse the tide. In Qarada and Al-sinah depletion
more members. Some rules may be explicit and are was slowed down but not stopped. Farmers operate
managed by local organizations, but other rules exist on the basis of accepted practices and best guesses in
as norms and expected practices and do not require a making. Providing information to the water users that
specific organization to support them. matter most.
Water Users Associations have also been created under a
large number of projects. In some cases this has triggered
local initiative towards better groundwater management;
in other cases local rules were in place and the WUA did
not add value or maybe even be at variance – as in Wadi
Dhelaa. The main message is that WUAs are not the
only route to promote local groundwater management,
but that they can play a long lasting role if properly
encouraged. This is for instance part of the mandate of
the Union of Water Users Associations – that coordinates
with the activities of 120 active WUAs. There is a need
to support these long lasting roles. Now engagement
between Government and WUA end with project closure
and also WUA are often established in anticipation of
getting access to government or donor support (see for 17
instance Bonzanigo and Borgia 2009).
 Table 2. Monitoring groundwater: visibility of rules
and implications for local management

Visibility Groundwater
no Means of monitoring Implication for intervention
of rules management rule
Presence of drilling rig, moratorium Potential to empower & support local
1 High Drilling new wells
on new wells controls, improve formal enforcement
Deepening or
Presence of drilling rig, existing well,
2 replacing existing “People have to live.” Hard to stop
and irrigation
wells
3 Spacing of wells 500 meters apart Avoiding harm, already practiced
Selling water to Forbidding export, requiring formal Avoiding harm, local priority, some
4
tankers water rights and approval examples of restrictions
Abstraction for Hauled by people or donkeys, piped Priority for drinking, right of thirst, local
5
domestic water use can be metered regulation to protect sources
Ban bananas, alfalfa, or other crops (Potentially :) Waste, harm, denying
6 Crop type
with high water demand? water. Few examples so far.
Productive use of resources,
7 Crop area Limits on expansion equity, agreements not to expand,
enforcement
8 Conveyance Canal or pipes Incentives for saving. Avoiding waste
Flood, furrow, basin, sprinkler,
9 Delivery Incentives for saving. Avoiding waste
bubbler, drip
Duration of
10 Moderate Hours, seasons Avoiding waste, community interests
irrigation

18 11 Fuel consumption Liters of diesel Cost, fuel price subsidies

 Runoff, weeds, non-beneficial Waste, productivity, hard to measure
12 Excess irrigation
evapotranspiration precisely, can estimate and inform
Providing water to
13 Pipes, water flows Hard to restrict
neighbours
Community
Consultation and consensus by
14 approval of well Increasing community control
community & local council
drilling
Government
Licenses. Uncertain quality of Need for participation and
15 approval of well
procedures and analysis. transparency
drilling
Depth to water Can map and graph systematically to
16 Meters from surface
table inform communities
17 Well recovery rate Hours to restore level Can analyze and inform
Many existing examples. Can analyze
18 Aquifer recharge Terracing, check dams, basins
technically and inform.
Requires meter, hard to control,
18 Low Quantity abstracted m3
vulnerable to manipulation
Impact on other Drying up nearby wells or springs, Often hard to prove, complicated to
20
wells and springs cone of depression measure, sometimes obvious
Aquifer Can assess from local experience, Can
21 Lateral flow, meters per unit of time
transmissivity analyze technically and inform
Aquifer storage Can assess from local experience, Can
22 m3 of water per m3
capacity analyze technically and inform

Source: Taher et al (2011)

19
 4. CONCLUSION: WHO IS ACCOUNTABLE TO WHOM?

The central question in this paper was: in groundwater First step is to promote local groundwater management
security who is accountable to whom? It appears that on the basis of good practices – preferably from farmer
at least in several areas that there are mechanisms to farmer and from community to community mode. This
whereby water users are accountable to one another. has been done before and consists of bringing different
There are a substantial number of cases where farmers communities together, exchanging ideas and creating
have established local rules to regulate groundwater use mild competition. Some institutional mechanisms in
and well development. The arrangements vary. In some place to do this – the Union of Water Users Associations
cases this was by mutual understanding and commonly for instance. This Union is now national but can also be
accepted norms; in some other cases farmers created organized at basin level – would be a suitable launching
their own organization to do so. In a few cases WUA pad for a farmer movement. The impression is that local
created by projects served to catalyze restriction in regulation is more common in the highland areas than
groundwater use. Though not directly enforced, the fact it in coastal zones – though overuse problems are severe
that there is a Water Law and a regulating body – NWRA there too. Management is more complicated as the
and its branch offices – has strengthened the hand of environment is conjunctive and aquifer less easily even
local initiatives. In some cases the relation goes further: so defined – it is important to build on few examples in
in Al-sinah the cooperative society is consulted before this areas too.
drilling licenses are issued. In other areas water users
have made arrangement Second step , which is related to the first one, is to
make sure the basic information is available for farmers
Local ground water management is hence an essential to understand local hydrogeology and groundwater
building block of groundwater security. It is hard to see – availability. Over the years a large number of studies have
given the local autonomy in Yemeni society and the sheer been undertaken – some concerning the entire country
number of wells - how the groundwater development (such as the WRAY Project), some dealing with a specific
and use can be regulated – unless it is grounded in local basin or sub basin. In spite of the often substantial effort
management. This is also acknowledged: it is the first gone into the data collection analysis, the results are
principle in the recent Sana’a Declaration for a Yemeni never shared with those most immediately concerned.
Partnership, endorsed by the Cabinet in 2011. The new The recommendation is to ‘harvest the low hanging fruit’
bylaw to the Water Law makes the same point – in its and communicate the information that is there in formats
article 6 for instance. that create a better understanding.
There is a need to go beyond good principles, however, Third step is to strengthen linkages between water users
20 and to strengthen local groundwater management at and Local Councils and the Branch Offices of NWRA.
scale. Several steps and adjustment would go a long This happened in the Sana’a Basin Water Management
way: Project – with good results – and is happening elsewhere
too, but should be systematically out scaled. There is new bylaw tof he Water Law – long awaited but only
a long history of local councils acting as an arbitrator very recently finalized - provides openings. Clause 13
of last resort in case of water issues – and this can be for instance describes the advisory function of the WUAs
further strengthened. Similarly NWRA has catalyzed local to NWRA. Clause 14 provides for WUA – provided
management in a number of places, though in other they represent two-thirds of the water users – to make
cases it has also sometimes bypassed it (see annex 1). In mandatory rules. Clauses 74 and 75 makes the 500
Amran there is a systematic effort to strengthen the role of meter distance rule (actually based on the harim rule
Local Councils in water management – including training from early Islamic legislation) and spring protection
of Local Councils in basic social and management skills. zones compulsory. There is ambiguity however on who
More of such acitivities – linked in with decentralization is doing what and some clauses appear one-way: clause
support programmes – should be taken up. 13 describes a main function of the WUA as ‘to assist
NWRA in implementing water rules through dealing
Fourth step is to combine the promotion of local with a single community based organization’. This does
groundwater management with promoting agricultural injustice to self organizing power of local communities
productivity. Ward and Naif (2011) quoting figures from and their accountability for their own sustainable future.
NWRA make the point that there is a considerable yield
gap still. The actual crop yields for main crops irrigated It is important not to equate local groundwater
crops is only 20 to 40% of the optimum. The largest gap management with WUA formation and assume that local
is for alfafa (19% of optimum), followed by qat (27%). groundwater management can only be channelized
For grapes, banana, oranges and mango the yield is through formal WUAs. The examples in this paper show
respectively 40%, 42%, 46% and 51% of the optimum. In otherwise. Another pitfall to be avoided is to see WUAs
addition there is much to gain in the post harvest handling. as extension of higher water authorities only. There is
Even more basic: in many areas faced with declining strong fundament for local groundwater management –
groundwater tables, even basic field water management with users accountable to one another - and the need to
practices – such as leveling – are not in place. In other more systematically nurture it – so that it complements all
words there is a large slack in the system – making it other actions groundwater security in Yemen.
possible to sustain and increase yields, while reducing
water consumption under better local management.
Fifth step is to streamline groundwater management
in different water-related programs – the drinking water
programs , irrigation efficiency and watershed programs.
Under all these investments Water User Groups, Water 21
User Association or Water Committees are formed –
creating the basis for discussing local management. The
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 Annex 1
Local groundwater management:cases described in other sources

Wadi Al Zabaira, Al Mawasit, Taiz One farmer in Al Dhuniab made an attempt to drill a
2 m diameter hand dug well with reinforced concrete
In Wadi Al Zabaira in Qadas, Al Mawasit District, rings with a depth of 25 m in a location 200 m away
Taiz Governorate of Yemen, local committees already from the water source of the drinking water scheme.
existed but they increased their agenda so as to include Well development took place within the confines of the
groundwater management and address the issue of courtyard. It was done at night, when villagers were away
water security (van Steenbergen 2006). Drinking water to nearby towns. The covert operation was discovered in
management committees were established in Al Dhuniab the end, however. A joint meeting was organized with
and Kareefah, in 1992 and 1994. This was done as part of all leading villagers. The meeting concluded that a large
a large rural drinking water program. In both settlements representation should visit the site and meet the farmer to
village networks were constructed, supplied from 30 m ask him to backfill the newly developed well. This social
deep dugwells. The committees in both Al Dhuniab and pressure and the argument that no precedents should be
Kareefah developed an impressive track record in the allowed was effective and the newly developed well was
management of their ru- ral water supply system. Their closed.
boards were systematically re-elected and business rules
regularly updated. Revenues are kept and maintained in The enforcement of a local ban on additional wells
secured special accounts with interest rates. This enabled in Kareefah was even more intriguing. In Kareefah
the water committee to reduce the water tariff for the one local farmer was about to get an official permit
local poor. In addition, public centers such as schools, to develop a well from the National Water Resource
mosques, and health centers are connected free of Authority (NWRA) under the provisions of the national
charge. Official bills are issued for all other connections. water law. This greatly alarmed the Kareefah drinking
Since the completion of the schemes, water has been water management committee, that suspected that any
available 24 h a day and occasional breakdowns have additional well in this area would jeopardize the drinking
been solved in a timely manner. water system on which all livelihoods depended. The
chairman of the Kareefah committee cajoled the local
These committees are a source of pride and have branch of the National Water Resource Committee by
substantial goodwill. Though they were set to manage phone and through visits. He argued with the Authority not
the drinking water systems, the committees in both Al to even give a well permit to himself, if he ever requested,
Dhuniab and Kareefah extended their scope of activities even though he was one of the largest land owners. This
to include the sustainable protection of the groundwater anecdote had the important effect in Kareefah of a social
24 resource. In Al Dhunaib, the project water committee leader ‘leading by example’ and clearly putting public
issued a rule that no well could be drilled within 1 km interest above individual interest. The fear in Kareefah
from the drinking water source. moreover was that—whatever the criteria for awarding
official well permits—once one farmer succeeded in
drilling an irrigation well, many farmers would follow in the wells. They agreed to prevent any well from selling
and the source of drinking water would be threatened water to tankers and prevent tankers to transport water
sooner or later. outside the area. So they made a petition (Markoum)
signed by every well owner and sheik, to establish a new
The two committees of Al Dhuniab and Kareefah also regulation. This was approved by the local authority. The
teamed up when the General Authority for Rural Water fine of 50,000YR is to be paid to the local authority as a
Supply Projects (GARWSP) planned a borewell for a penalty for the breaking of Al-Markoum. The community
neighbouring village within a kilometre distance of the agreed with the Sheiks, who the violators belong to, to
existing surface water source of one of the water schemes. report the violators to their Sheiks to make the necessary
The committee recommended GARWSP to develop a judgment against them, and to prevent them from coming
shallow dug well instead. Unfortunately, the rural water back to transport water outside the area. This agreement
authority went ahead and drilled a borehole of more has prevented any conflicts between the different tribes
than 200 m deep, yet without finding groundwater. in the area.

Source: van Steenbergen (2006) The community got very involved in implementing Al-
Markoum. The result is that no more tankers are coming
to the area for qat irrigation. They have agreed also to
Wa’alah, Amran not stop small tankers who supply water for drinking. The
outcome is that the water levels stabilized in the area and
Several WUGs in Amran basin have been established in no significant drop was seen.
the past few years by GSCP with the help of GTZ. The
WUGs have started working towards the conservation of
the depleted aquifers. The communities felt that they have Hijrat al-Muntasir, Amran
to do something against the misuse of groundwater.
Like in many other parts of Amran, in Hijrat al-Muntasir
Wa’alah WUG had been established in 2006. There were the cultivation of qat has been on a meteoric rise, bringing
about 15 wells working day and night to supply water to a fragile wealth in a remote rural area (Lichtenthaeller
tankers for transport to other areas for drinking and qat 2010). The cultivation of qat was enabled as elsewhere
irrigation. The community realized that water levels in by deep wells but these were prone to failure. This was
their wells were getting lower and lower which caused partly compensated by purchasing water tankers from
them either to invest in drilling new wells or deepening nearby villages – in particular al-Qarin. With water tables
their recent wells. They got together and discussed the 25
falling in al-Qarin itself, however, the village issued an
situation and realized that the transport of water outside official local decree (marqoum) signed by village elders
the area is the main reason for the drop of the water levels forbidding the sale and trade from their wells to outsiders.
 As the ban in al-Qarin came into effect, qat farmers in vegetables and other crops that are irrigated from springs.
Hijrat al-Muntasir made on more effort to develop a After the earthquake, most of the springs fade away and
well. the area faced water shortages. Several shallow wells
and two deep (failed) were drilled to overcome the water
This met fierce resistance from the other villagers, who shortages and irrigate the vegetables. However this has
were very concerned about the effect of yet another well cost the farmers more money which was not covering
on the spring that is the main drinking water source of the the input costs of the vegetables. Therefore, they have
seven hundred inhabitants. The conflict was brought to the changed to cultivate qat which earns a lot of money.
attention of the Deputy Governor of Amran and chairman They know that qat takes a lot of water, but they have no
of the Amran Basin Water Management Committee. choice since it is the main source of income.
Following the dispute the drilling was stopped and also
investment in local sanitation facilities was initiated under
a project of the Social Fund for Development. The ban Wadi Akarem, Dhamar
on new wells unfortunately did not prevent the spring
from drying. This wadi is shared by two influential Sheiks. One of them
is leading Bani Umar and the other one Abo Yabes. Both
Source: Lichtenthaeller (2010) have rights to the Wadi Akarem and tried to drill deep
wells to irrigate their qat plantations. Disputes concerned
who should drill wells (more than 150m deep) in the
Wadi Al-Har, Anss, Dhamar wadi. To prevent any conflict, the two tycoons agreed
verbally that no deep wells be drilled in the main wadi.
The area is located in Anss district. The main character Such agreement have been adopted by farmers and
of the area is the water scarcity and the qat plantations. become a doctrine. The agreement added that deep well
People are aware of the problem since drilling of wells can be drilled at the outskirt of the main wadi and can be
is costing a lot of money. In addition is the failure of used for qat plantation as well as for water supply. The
finding groundwater. People are striving very hard to agreement also allows farmers to drill shallow wells in
collect water for drinking and for household use. This the main wadi (3050-m). Farmers are happy about this
is in addition to the need to irrigate the qat plantations agreement since it settles the dispute which might result
which are the main income source. They agree (verbally) in unrest in the area. Farmers are depending on qat as
amongst them that there is no objection against anybody the main source of income and don’t want to shift to
drilling a deep well for agriculture as long as the well will other crops unless they would provide the same income.
supply drinking water to the nearby communities. They
suggested that the priority is for drinking as along as the
owner is able to drill a well and bear the relevant costs.
Most wells are drilled without licensing.
26
In the past before 1982, the area was cultivating
Mawia, Taiz Bani Garban, Al Kafr, Ibb
Mawia district is an important area for qat cultivation Bani Garban is located in Al-Kafr district. RWSSP has
in Taiz. Wells became dry in some parts of the area, handed the water supply project to the WUO in 2003
which resulted in outmigration by farmers, exporting the when it started working. In the same site where the water
experience of qat plantation to nearby areas of Taiz such supply well is located, there is an agricultural well drilled
as Warazan causing the same water problem. in an earlier time.
Other farmers in the area tried to drill more wells and The idea came from NWRA during the starting period
deepen their own wells, in order to overcome the water of the project to make the wadi as a protection zone to
scarcity problem and increase water productivity to cover preserve the water and use it only for the water supply
the increased expansion of qat plantations. The farmers project. So NWRA established the protection zone aiming
approached NWRA to obtain licenses. NWRA suggested at preventing drilling of new agricultural wells. The
that licenses will be provided if farmers are organized community was very happy about the protection zone and
into WUOs served by the representative wells. Farmers worked very hard to implement the decision of NWRA.
agreed to that suggestions and organized themselves
to about 26 WUOs. Most of the board of members The dilemma started in the beginning of 2009 where
of these WUOs are headed by the well owners who NWRA provide a license to drill a well in the protection
influence the decisions in the board. The WUOs tried to zone to irrigate qat, which contradicts the earlier decision
make arrangements related to water distributions and of NWRA to make the area as a protection zone. The
conservations such as: community is striving very hard not allow any new drilling
If the area under the WUO has several wells and there is and has several letters supporting them from the minister
a need to increase well productivity, it suggests the well of MWE, the parliament, RWSSP and other authorities.
to be deepened and used by the beneficiaries under the They even had support from the president.
WUO. If the water is not enough to cover the requirements
of the farmers, the WUO may deepen or drill a new well.
This means that water distribution amongst farmers will
be scheduled and allocations will be set accordingly with
cost of 15002000-YR/hr. Some WUOs are paying back
¼ the harvest to the WUO (well owner!). Some farmers
argue that such system may affect the productivity of qat
plantations since they will not receive enough water.
Suhail-AlGranee WUO has prevented the plantation of
new qat trees and introduced mango trees (500 trees) so 27
that in the long run there will be another alternative for
qat.
 Al-Gawaref, Ibb 2008 with help from the Community Water Management
Project branch in Taiz and registered according to the
This project was handed over to the WUO by RWSSP in Water Law and the law regulating voluntary organizations
2006. The WUO has obtained a similar protection zone in the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare. Total
decision from NWRA resembling Bani Garban WUO. membership is now about 370 farmers, formed into a
However this association has failed to prevent new number of component water groups. The association is
drilling and a new well was drilled in the protection zone financed by membership fees and from the Community
area with license from NWRA. Both areas suffer from Water Management Project.
water shortages and the communities completely agreed
to prevent any use of the water for irrigating qat. Activities have comprised primarily irrigation improvement,
capacity building and some local self-regulation. The
Source: Bruns and Taha (2009) association obtained from the Groundwater and Soil
Conservation Project three irrigation networks for
demonstration on members’ farms and 15 irrigation
Zuberia, Wadi Siham, Hodeidah systems at the subsidized project prices. In the area of
capacity building, the association has followed various
Zuberia is located in the command area of Wadi Siham, training programs in management, accounting and
one of the larger spate areas in the Tihama. In the last water conservation. They have begun to install meters
decades a large number of shallow wells developed on their wells, and have been trained in monitoring of
providing supplementary irrigation for horticultura crops. abstractions and in improved irrigation methods.
Although in principle the recharge from the spate system
is substantial over use of groundwater has occurred One practical achievement has been that the association
and water tables have declined. Encouraged by NWRA has been able in the few short months it has existed
the community of Zuberia started to discuss the local to stop drilling in their area. The association reported
management of groundwater and the development of the violations to NWRA, and the drilling was stopped.
several new wells was stopped. The community brings Now drilling even by permit is absent in their area. The
the cases to NWRA and the Local Council as it feels it lack association has decided that they “have enough wells”
the authority to enforce some restrictions on its own. and they agreed among themselves to make water
available to the members but not to allow any transfer
Source: Bonzanigo and Borgia (2009) of water to other areas except for drinking purpose.
Nonetheless, the process was not perfect: the association
complained of the lack of cooperation from the local
Al-Wahda, Al-Maafir, Taiz council and the security authorities when they were trying
to stop the drilling.
The Al-Wahda Water User Association is in the Bani
28 Khawlan area in the district of Al- Maafir in Taiz Source: Ward and Al-Aulaqi (2008)
governorate. The association was established in January
Annex 2:
Excerpts from Water Law Bylaw, approved by the Cabinet of Ministers in 2011

Article 2: Article 9:
(Definitions) WUAs/WUGs: assembly of water users who
organize their efforts with the purpose for participation any type organization of community participation should
in water resources management and contribution in abide to the following principles:
finance, management, maintenance and operation of
water and irrigation projects and structures. − The command area of the organization is the water
basin regardless of the administrative districts in the
Article 4: area.
groundwater resources and surface water are owned by − The organization should coordinate with NWRA and
the state and can not be owned by a private owner except the local councils, but each organization should
through transfer of ownership or acquirement. manage itself independently as NGOs.

Article 6: − All citizens in the water basin are entitled to participate

in the organization and should be represented
principles of water demand management: in a democratic way in the management of the
organization.
Encourage and develop community and users
participation in water resources management at central Article 10:
and local levels.
(a) WUAs may form a union at the level of the water
Plan and allocate water resources for meeting the basin (b) No more than one union is allowed in the same
demand based on the sustainability concept, with water basin.
special attention for protection of groundwater aquifers
Article 12: goals of WUAs:
including imposing constraints on activities which harm
water resources. 1. Organize water users to participate in water
management.
Article 8:
2. Provide conditions needed for cooperation between
it is allowed to establish WUAs or groups or committees water users and the government institutions.
or unions whose goal to involve community participation
3. Assist NWRA in implementing water rules
in water resources management or operation and
maintenance of water structures.
through dealing with a single community based 29
organization.
 4. Enable water users to have access to the information should be considered:
and data related to water resources and participate
in meetings, training and workshops. 1. Principle of participation in water rights if the water
status is not threatened (No harm, no suffer)
Article 13: Responsibilities of WUAs:
1. Provide advice to NWRA, if requested, about well 2. Area of agricultural lands
licensing and water structures.
3. Well productivity in such a way that each hectare will
2. Contribute to resolving differences on water rights receive not less than 0.5 l/s in a season.

3. Coordinate and organize efforts of water users to Article 76:

protect flood water streams, springs, wells and water no well license shall be given for drilling a well in the
structures that are common. area of springs except with the permission of NWRA
chairman.
4. Participate in financing different common water
projects through collecting contributions

Article 14:
if the strength of membership in the WUA is reaching two
third of all beneficiaries in a common water resource,
then all decisions taken by the WUAs are mandatory for
all beneficiaries.

Article 15:
all WUAs must abide with the water resources management
plan and all laws, policies, strategies and rules.

Article 75:
the distance between a well and adjacent well is
determined by a decree of the NWRA chairman based
30 on studies of the basin, but the distance should not be
less than 500 m in major basins. The following criteria
A number of 47 stone checkdams were constructed along the riverbed of wadi Qaradha, Sana’a Basin, to augment groundwater
recharge. Water reappeared in the open wells located on the banks of the wadi which means reduction of withdrawal of deep
groundwater

31
Springs are regarded the secured source of water in many mountainous areas, especially for drinking water. The community
in Khrabat Muhyab, Sana’a Basin, prohibit well drilling within 2000 m distance to springs. Spring water is shared for drinking
and irrigation
 Farmers in wadi Areesha, Sana’a Basin, come together with support from the government to construct a dam for groundwater
recharge. Well drilling is allowed around the reservoir area and water is pumped to the farms upto 4 km distance

32
The story of water in wadi Dhelaa can be felt from the existence of qanats, dugwells and deep tubewells. Now farmers are left
with deep tubewells which go deep upto 300m. Quest after water pushed farmers to adopt the 500 m distance rule between
wells. A recharge dam was constructed but the dam is never filled with water
In wadi Dhelaa, most of deep wells are under shared
ownership, up to thirty families per well. The sharing is
not only for agriculture but also for house connections.
This is one type of community rule for domestic water
supply

33
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