TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL TRAINING INSTITUTE

FACULTY OF CIVIL TECHNOLOGY

M.Sc. IN WATER SUPPLY AND SANITARY TECHNOLOGY PROGRAM

Course-Ground Water Hydrology-Pollutant fate and Transport

Individual assignment
Name
Cabdi xuseen four

SUB-MITTED TO: - Dr. Fikru F. (PhD,PE)

March 30/3/2023
1. Explain and differentiate aquifer, aquitard, aquiclude and aquifuge.
Answer
There are four different types of geological formations of groundwater:

 Aquifer
 Aquitard

 Aquiclude

 Aquifuge

 Aquifer

An aquifer is a saturated formation of the earth. It not only stores the water but also yields
it in adequate quantity. Aquifers are highly permeable formations and hence they are
considered as main sources of groundwater applications. Unconsolidated deposits of sand
and gravel are examples of an aquifer and It is a permeable stratum or a geological
formation of permeable material. Aquifers are capable of yielding large quantities of
available groundwater under gravity. The aquifer transmits water relatively easily due to
its high permeability. Sand and gravel of unconsolidated deposits form good aquifers.

The groundwater availability of a place from an aquifer depends upon the rates of
recharge and withdrawal. Aquifer allows both the transmission conduit and storage for
water. Aquifers are found in different depths, lateral extent, and thicknesses. But based on
the occurrence and field situation aquifers are classified into unconfined aquifers and
confined aquifers.
Aquifers are classified into two types based on their occurrence which are as follows:

•Unconfined aquifer

•Confined Aquifer

 Aquitard

An aquitard is also a saturated formation. It permits the water through it but does not yield
water in sufficient quantity as much as aquifer does. It is because of their partly
permeable nature. But however, if there is an aquifer under the aquitard then the water
from aquitard may seep into the aquifer. Sandy clay is a perfect example of an aquitard.
Here, the clay particles block the voids present in the sand and make it partly permeable.

It is a formation that only allows only the seepage of water and the yield from aquitard is
very high when compared to an aquifer. Since it has a large amount of water there is a
possibility of water escaping from the aquitard to the aquifer below it. These do not
allow the flow of water underground because of its compacted layers.

Aquitards acts as a barrier for groundwater flow and also disconnects partially the flow
of groundwater by separating the aquifers. These limit and direct the surface water which
seeps down to the aquifers because of that they are also called cap rocks. Aquitards only
act as a barrier to the flow of water but allow the seepage of water through the aquitards.
  Aquiclude

An aquiclude is a geological formation which is impermeable to the flow of water. It

contains a large amount of water in it but it does not permit water through it and also does
not yield water. It is because of its high porosity. Clay is an example of aquiclude.

It is a geological formation that is impermeable which means it does not allow the
passage of water through it. But it is highly porous so it contains a large amount of water
in it. The aquiclude is formed when an aquifer is overlaid by a confined bed of
impervious material. One example of aquiclude is clay.

 Aquifuge

An aquifuge is an impermeable geological formation which is neither porous nor

permeable - which means it cannot store water in it and at the same time it cannot permit
water through it. Compact rock is an example of aquifuge and it is a geological formation
that is not porous or permeable. There is an absence of interconnected openings so it
cannot transmit water. Any massive compact rock without any fractures is called an
aquifuge. Solid rocks are a type of Aquifuge.
Comparison of Groundwater formations

The above-described geological groundwater formations are compared in the table

below which gives a better idea about their properties.
The difference between aquifer, aquiclude, aquitard, and aquifuge

Aquifer Aquiclude Aquitard Aquifuge

These are These are These are partly These are
permeable impermeable permeable impermeable

There is a yield of These do not yield There is a yield of These do not yield
water water water but the water
yielding will be so
slow
This can store water This can store water This can store water This cannot store
water
Sand and gravel are Clay is an example Sandy clay is an Compact rocks like
some of the of an aquiclude example of aquitard basalt and granite
examples of aquifer are some of the
examples of
Aquifuge
It is a saturated it is a geological It is a geological It is an impermeable
formation of the formation which is formation which is geological formation
earth impermeable impermeable

1. Distinguish with sketches, if necessary, the difference between confined an Unconfined

aquifer. Drive a formula for discharge of a well in a homogeneous unconfined aquifer
assuming equilibrium flow condition; state the assumptions on which the formula is based
Answer

1. Confined Aquifer

 Confined aquifers are also known as an artesian aquifer

 The aquifers which are embedded between two impervious beds of

Aquiclude or Aquifer are called a confined aquifer

 These aquifers are recharged from the places which are opened or exposed
to the ground surface

 The piezo metric level will be much higher in this aquifer than the top level
of the aquifer due to the water under pressure

 If both of the confining beds of a Confined aquifer are aquitards then it is

also called a leaky aquifer.

Thiem's Formula for Confined Aquifer Case. (For Pressure or

Artesian wells).
Confined aquifer case for Theism’s formula

In a confined aquifer, the flow is actually radial and horizontal and, therefore, it has- not
to be assumed as such, as it was in the unconfined case. Rest of the assumptions remain
the same and hold good
Confined aquifer case for Dupuit's formula

Where D = depth of the well or height of the

aquifer below the original peizometric surface
 2. Unconfined Aquifer

An unconfined aquifer is an aquifer which has free water surface - which means the water
table exists for this type of aquifer. This is also called as water table aquifer or free
aquifer or phreatic aquifer. Unconfined aquifers are recharged by the infiltration of
precipitation from the ground surface.
Unconfined Aquifer:-

 It is the topmost water-bearing stratum having no aquiclude lying over

 Unconfined aquifers are also known as water table aquifers or non-artesian aquifer

 This is a free water surface aquifer which means there exist a water table

 Through the infiltration of precipitation from the ground surface, the

recharging of these aquifers takes place.

 If a well is driven into an unconfined aquifer it will indicate a static water

level corresponding to the water table level at that location.

Unconfined aquifer case for Dupuit's formula

3. What is meant by artificial recharge of groundwater? Enumerate the different Methods
which are used for this purpose and describe two of them briefly.

Answer

The artificial recharge to ground water aims at augmentation of ground water

reservoir by modifying the natural movement of surface water utilizing suitable civil
construction techniques. Artificial recharge techniques normally address to
following issues:-

 To enhance the sustainable yield in areas where over-development has

depleted the aquifer.

 Conservation and storage of excess surface water for future requirements,

since these requirements often changes within a season or a period.
 To improve the quality of existing ground water through dilution.
 To remove bacteriological and other impurities from sewage and waste
water so that water is suitable for re-use.
Artificial recharge techniques and designs
A wide spectrum of techniques is in vogue to recharge ground water reservoir.
Similar to the variations in hydrogeological framework, the artificial recharge techniques
too vary widely. The artificial recharge techniques can be broadly categorized as follows:-
a. Direct surface techniques
 Flooding
 Basins or percolation tanks

 Stream augmentation

 Ditch and furrow system

 Over irrigation

b. Direct sub surface techniques

 Injection wells or recharges wells
 Recharge pits and shafts

 Dug well recharge

 Bore hole flooding

 Natural openings, cavity fillings.

Artificial Recharge Structures are:-

 Ditch and Furrow Method
 Percolation Tanks (PT) / Spreading Basin

 Check Dams Cement Plug

  Inter Watershed Transfer

4. Explain and differentiate groundwater fluid transport of contaminants (pollutants) such

as advection, molecular diffusion, and turbulent diffusion and shear flow dispersion.

Answer

Pollutants

Pollutants are any substances, such as chemicals or waste products, introduced into the
environment that render natural resources like air, water, and soil unsuitable or
harmful for their typical purposes.

Pollutants are the result of direct or indirect human introduction of substances into the
environment. These pollutants result in harm to living organisms and pose acute or
chronic hazards to human health.

Common pollutants include:

 Nitrogen oxides
 Sulfur oxides

 Particulate matter

 Ground-level ozone

 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

 Mercury (Hg)

 Peroxyacyl nitrates

Individual pollutants can, moreover, be characterized either as primary or secondary

pollutants:-

 Primary Pollutants are released directly into the environment.

 Secondary Pollutants are the result of primary pollutants and external factors.

Contaminants

Contaminants are extraneous, often infectious and harmful, substances in concentrations

higher than their natural levels. This includes any foreign substance introduced into the
environment through human activity or natural processes and it can be chemical,
biological, radiological, or physical and can be found in the air, water or soil.
Contaminants in the workplace can pose a risk to workers, including the development of
chronic health complications.
These can be surface contaminants, like molds and fungi, or airborne contaminants like
vapors and gases.

Some of the most common workplace contaminants are:

1. Lead: Common in the metal and battery industries. Overexposure can cause
fatigue, nausea, weakness, and memory loss.
2. Silica: Common in construction projects involving concrete, gypsum, or plaster, as
well as in automotive repair shops. Overexposure can cause lung cancer, pulmonary
tuberculosis, autoimmune disease, and COPD.
3. Beryllium: Common in the tool and die-making industry, welding, and ceramics.
Overexposure can cause exhaustion, chest pain, weight loss, and eye irritation.
4. Hexavalent Chromium: Common in steel manufacturing, blazing, and thermal
cutting, as well electroplating and textile dyeing. Overexposure can cause
respiratory tract infection, lung cancer, and allergies.
5. Benzene: Common in the rubber processing industry, gas stations, and steel
plants. Effects of overexposure are dizziness, headache, nausea, eye irritation, and
skin irritation.
6. Formaldehyde: Common in industries that require the use of resins and dyes.
Overexposure can cause coughing, sneezing, and respiratory tract irritation.

Contaminant fate and transport

Contaminant Transport — Groundwater

Surface and subsurface soils sampled within the immediate vicinity of the former Untz
Dry Cleaner facility have not revealed contamination by PCE and associated degradation
products. Leaching of chemicals from soil is a process of migration involving the
movement of a chemical downward through soil by percolation of water. Typically, the
more precipitation, the greater the chance for chemicals to leach. Leaching is a concern
because of the potential for a chemical to move through the soil and contaminate the
groundwater. Many factors affect whether or not a chemical leaches in soil, including
solubility of the chemical, biodegradation, hydrolysis, dissociation, sorption, volatility,
rainfall, and evaporation. A chemical that is water-soluble can leach in soil and is likely to
be biodegraded by soil microbes. If biodegradation is rapid, then leaching may be
minimal. A chemical that is insoluble in water can be adsorbed in soil, moved with soil
particles, and perhaps very slowly biodegrade, if at all.
The presence of chlorinated hydrocarbons in the unsaturated soils serves as a renewable
source of groundwater contamination. As the water table fluctuates over time, the
saturated portion of the flow system repeatedly comes in contact with contaminated soil.
Each rise of the water table serves to recharge the contaminants in the groundwater.
Infiltration from above also contributes to the contaminant distribution in groundwater.
Once a chemical enters the groundwater regime, several transport mechanisms are present
that may aid in the spreading of the contamination. These mechanisms include diffusion,
advection, mechanical dispersion, and hydrodynamic dispersion.

Contaminant Transport

The evaluation of pollutant transport in groundwater incorporates at least two basic

differential equations, the equation of groundwater flow, namely Darcy law, and the
diffusion–advection equation .K is the hydraulic conductivity tensor (which depends on
the permeability and kinematic viscosity of the fluid, namely water), J is the gradient of
the piezo metric head, C is the pollutant concentration, V is the interstitial velocity (the
specific discharge divided by the effective porosity), Dh is the hydrodynamic
dispersion tensor (it incorporates effects of diffusion and tortuosity of streamlines),
which depends on V and properties of the permeable domain, and R represents possible
chemical reactions (such as adsorption and decay).

Distribution, Transport and Fate of Pollutants

Water transport

The transport of pollutants in water can occur under particulate or dissolved forms, either
in surface or ground waters. In surface waters, soil particles can be introduced in streams
and move under particulate form downstream (bed-load transport) by rolling, sliding,
and saltation and further deposited downstream. This transport depends on flow velocity,
turbulence, and grain size, shape, and density. In groundwater’s, particulate transport is
not so expressive and occurs for very small grain size particles.

The dissolved transport in waters is very important since this is highly associated with
more available forms of pollutants of greater environmental concern. In addition, by this
way pollutants can more easily reach other sites or environmental compartments way
from the source. Primarily, this involves leaching processes, i.e., a process by which
pollutants are released from solid phase into the aqueous phase under the influence of
dissolution and desorption of pollutants from their support-phases.
 Transport and fate of pollutants
The transport and fate of pollutants in soils are governed by different biotic or abiotic
processes and depend of several factors [35, 36, 41, 60, and 61]. These factors include soil
properties (e.g., mineralogy, organic matter content, pH, moisture); chemical compounds
properties (e.g., hydrophobicity, vapor pressure, and chemical stability); biota activity;
sequestration; and environmental factors (e.g., temperature and precipitation). The most
important mechanisms of transport of contaminants through soil are volatilization,
leaching, and erosion or suspension of soil particles. Mechanisms that control transport
may be the same that control availability to organisms, and thus contaminant fate.
Therefore, these concepts are closely related. Any study on the fate of pollutants in the
environment is indeed a complex issue, since it involves movements from and to different
compartments (soils, water, and air), and transfer along the food chain.

Definitions Advection, Diffusion

Concentration

The concentration of a substance, such as sulfur dioxide NO2 in the air or dissolved
oxygen in the water, is defined as the amount of the substance per unit volume of the fluid
containing it:

The amount of the substance is usually taken as its mass. In that case, the dimension of c
is mass per volume (such kg/m3 or mg/L).

Sometimes, the amount may be expressed in mass of one of the components (such as
sulfur alone because it may occur in various forms include SO and SO ) (such as sulfur
alone, because it may occur in various forms incl. SO2 and SO3).

When water is the ambient fluid and chemical reactions occur, it is convenient to express
concentrations in moles per volume. The unit is then moles/L, called molarity. [1 mole =
6.02 x 1023 molecules, such that the mass of a mole is exactly the molecular weight
followed by the gram unit. Example: One mole of SO2 has a mass of 32 + 2x16 = 64 g.]
The amount of substance traversing the cross-section over which the count is performed
depends on the nature of the transporting process.

If this process is the passive entrainment of the substance by the carrying fluid, then the
flux can be easily related to the substance concentration and the fluid velocity as follows:
flux can be easily related to the substance concentration and the fluid velocity, as follows:

Where, u is the entraining fluid velocity.

This process is called advection, a term that simply means passive transport by the
moving fluid that contains the substance.

Advection is but one process by which a substance can be carried from place to place.
Another, important process is diffusion, whereby molecular agitation and/or small-scale
turbulent motions act to move the substance randomly with respect to the mean motion of
fluid.

A possible other transport process is settling, caused by the vertical motion of particles of
the substance through the fluid under the action of gravity.

In this case, the relative velocity of the particles is simply added to the vertical component
of the fluid velocity.
Diffusion

Diffusion is the process by which a substance is moved from one place to another under
the action of random fluctuations. At the molecular level, the cause is the perpetual
agitation of molecules; at the turbulence level, it is advection by the turbulent eddies of
the carrying fluid. Although we can distinguish molecular diffusion from turbulent
diffusion it remains that although, we can distinguish molecular diffusion from
turbulent diffusion; it remains that in either case the impossibility to describe the details
of the motions calls for a statistical approach.

Consider the two-box system on the left and assume that there is no net flow from one box
to the other. Thus, the fluctuating flow u’ in one direction is compensated by another flow
of same magnitude in the opposite direction. The g pp length x is taken as the distance
between box centers.

A simple budget yields: Net flux from 1 to 2 = flux from 1 to 2 – flux from 2 to 1

The diffusive flux of substance is thus proportional to the gradient of the concentration.
In retrospect, this makes sense; if there were no difference in concentrations between the
boxes, the flux from one into the other would be exactly compensated by the flux in the
y p y opposite direction yielding no visible transfer; it is the concentration difference (the
gradient) that matters. Further, the greater the concentration difference, the larger the
imbalance of fluxes, and thus the net flux increases with the gradient.
The above expression is called Fick's law of diffusion and is analogous to Fourier's law of
heat conduction. (Heat flows from hot to cold with a flux equal to a conductivity
coefficient times the temperature gradient.) The expression `Fickian diffusion' is
sometimes used to imply the above relation.

Turbulent diffusion

Turbulent diffusion is the transport of mass, heat, or momentum within a system due to
random and chaotic time dependent motions. It occurs when turbulent fluid systems
reach critical conditions in response to shear flow, which results from a combination of
steep concentration gradients, density gradients, and high velocities. It occurs much more
rapidly than molecular diffusion and is therefore extremely important for problems
concerning mixing and transport in systems dealing with combustion, contaminants,
dissolved oxygen, and solutions in industry. In these fields, turbulent diffusion acts as an
excellent process for quickly reducing the concentrations of a species in a fluid or
environment, in cases where this is needed for rapid mixing during processing, or rapid
pollutant or contaminant reduction for safety.

However, it has been extremely difficult to develop a concrete and fully functional model
that can be applied to the diffusion of a species in all turbulent systems due to the inability
to characterize both an instantaneous and predicted fluid velocity simultaneously. In
turbulent flow, this is a result of several characteristics such as unpredictability, rapid
diffusivity, high levels of fluctuating vorticity, and dissipation of kinetic energy.

Turbulent diffusion flames.

Using planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF) and particle image velocimetry (PIV)
processes, there has been on-going research on the effects of turbulent diffusion in flames.
Main areas of study include combustion systems in gas burners used for power generation
and chemical reactions in jet diffusion flames involving methane (CH4), hydrogen (H2)
and nitrogen (N2). Additionally, double-pulse Rayleigh temperature imaging has been
used to correlate extinction and ignition sites with changes in temperature and the mixing
of chemicals in flames.
Turbulent diffusion is very efficient in rapidly decreasing the concentrations of
contaminants that are released into the natural environment. Despite intensive research
over many years, however, only crude predictions of these concentrations can be made.
Most mathematical models of turbulent diffusion, particularly engineering models, predict
only time-averaged concentrations.

While this may often be sufficient, for example, water quality standards are usually
written in terms of time-averaged values, more information on the statistical variation of
concentration fluctuations may sometimes be needed. This could include prediction of the
peak exposures of humans to air pollutants, of aquatic organisms to water contaminants,
of the probability of combustion of flammable gases accidentally released into the
atmosphere, or of the information available to an organism attempting to navigate through
a turbulent chemical odor plume to its source. These and similar topics are becoming
increasingly important in turbulent diffusion research.

Molecular diffusion

Molecular diffusion is a fundamental physical process, caused by the random motion of

molecules in gases and liquids, occurring even in completely stagnant conditions. The
effect of this random motion is to reduce gradients in concentration, leading eventually to
an even distribution of, for example, dissolved chemicals in water and often simply called
diffusion, is the thermal motion of all (liquid or gas) particles at temperatures above
absolute zero. The rate of this movement is a function of temperature, viscosity of the
fluid and the size (mass) of the particles.

Shear Flow Dispersion

The shear flow generated by natural convection in considerably influences the dispersion
of contaminants in various geological formations. Previous studies have revealed that the
dispersion coefficient depends on the Péclet number (Pe), shear rate, and complex pore
structures and
Shear velocity is used to describe shear-related motion in moving fluids. It is used to
describe:
Diffusion and dispersion of particles, tracers, and contaminants in fluid flows.

Diffusion is the process by which a contaminant in water will move from an area of
greater concentration toward an area where it is less concentrated. Diffusion will occur as
long as a concentration gradient exists, even if the fluid is not moving, and as a result, a
contaminant may spread away from the place where it is introduced into a porous
medium.
Diffusion may also occur when the concentration of a contaminant is higher in one
stratum than in an adjacent stratum (Fetter, 1993) provided that the adjacent stratum has
the requisite porosity.

Advection is the movement of dissolved solute with flowing groundwater. The amount
of contaminant being transported is a function of its concentration in the groundwater and
the quantity of groundwater flowing, and advection will transport contaminants at
different rates in each stratum.

Mechanical dispersion is composed of two contaminant front mixing methods

longitudinal and transverse dispersion. Longitudinal dispersion occurs along the direction
of the flow path, while transverse dispersion occurs normal to the flow path and causes
lateral spreading of the contaminant. Mechanical dispersion and diffusion combine in
groundwater flow to create hydrodynamic dispersion. This process begins when a
contaminant enters the aquifer. Once introduced, the adverting groundwater carries the
mass of contaminant with it, and in the process, the contaminant spreads, thereby
decreasing the maximum concentration with time. However, the contamination is now
spread over a much wider area.

The adsorption of a solute onto an aquifer material (e.g., clay) results in a reduction of
concentration in the aqueous phase and a retardation of the velocity of contaminant
migration. The degree of retardation experienced by a particular organic contaminant will
depend on the fraction of organic carbon of the aquifer materials. The higher the more
sites there are available for adsorption. Diffusion from a microscopic and macroscopic
point of view. Initially, there are solute molecules on the left side of a barrier (purple line)
and none on the right. The barrier is removed, and the solute diffuses to fill the whole
container.

Ground water. Infiltration from above also contributes to the contaminant distribution
in groundwater. Once a chemical enters the groundwater regime, several transport
mechanisms are present that may aid in the spreading of the contamination. These
mechanisms include diffusion, advection, mechanical dispersion, and hydrodynamic
dispersion.
5. State dupuits assumption for obtaining general equation governing
ground water flow and derive an expression for the confined aquifer.
Answer

Governing Equations for Unconfined Groundwater Flow

Unconfined flow equations are non-linear in that the transmissivity of the aquifer depends
on the saturated thickness and the saturated thickness varies in the direction of flow
because the water table slopes. By definition, a confined aquifer is fully saturated, so
transmissivity values are constant for a confined aquifer of constant thickness. Under
water table conditions the water table slopes, flow is parallel to the water table and the
saturated thickness decreases in the direction of flow (Figure 55). If the slope of the water
table is small, Darcy’s Law can be applied to develop governing equations by using the
Dupuit simplification or Dupuit assumptions.

Dupuit’s simplification uses the approximate gradient (dh over the distance x, –dh/dx)
rather than the true gradient (dh over the flow path length, –dh/dL) by assuming the flow
is horizontal (no vertical components of flow).

Expressing the flow area as the product of the height of the water table and the unit width
of the system in the y direction, the flow.
 Figure Dupuit’s simplification mathematically approximates unconfined flow as
horizontal

If the bottom of the unconfined aquifer is used as the datum, then the head defines the
saturated thickness. To include this dependency in the flow equations, Equation 70 is
adjusted so that aquifer thickness, b, is replaced with h, and the varying value of h has to
be inside the derivative. In addition, to represent unconfined flow, specific yield, Sy, is
used as the aquifer storativity. Thus, unconfined, two-dimensional (plan view), transient,
anisotropic, heterogeneous conditions of groundwater flow.

For unconfined, two-dimensional (plan view), transient, anisotropic,

homogeneous conditions of groundwater flow, hydraulic conductivities do
not need to be within the derivative

Unconfined, two-dimensional, plan view, transient, isotropic,

homogeneous flow is represented using only one value of K as shown
6. A pumping test was made in a medium sand and gravel to a depth of 20m where

bed of clay was encountered. The normal groundwater table was at the surface.

Observation holes were located at a distance of 5m and 12m from the pumped well.

At a discharge of 0.004m /s from the pumping well, a steady state was attained i

about 30hrs. The drawdown at 5m was 1.80m and at 12m was 0.40m. Compute the
coefficient of permeability of the soil.

Answer

Given:
3
Q=0.004M r1=5m

h=20m r2=12m

t=30hrs s1=1.8 s2=0.4

Solution:

h1=h_ s1 20_1.8 =18.2m

h2= h_ s2 20_0.4 =19.6m

Q = πk

K=2.3Qlog r2/r1
π (h22_-_h21

K = 2.3×0.004log12m/5m
π (19.62_18.22)
K =-331.24
7. An unconfined aquifer (where Dupuit assumption is valid) of clean sand and gravel is
At point C (100 m away from River A and at
1592 m elevation) a marsh land was observed during study time. The water
surface elevations in rivers A and B are 1590 m and 1585 m, respectively.
The top impermeable structure level is at 1580 m elevation. Estimate:

i. The maximum elevation of the water table and the location of the stagnation
ii. The travel time from the stagnation point to River A (Take effective
porosity of 0.35)

Answer
Solution

i. The maximum elevation of the water table and the location of the stagnation
 ii. The travel time from the stagnation point to River A (Take effective porosity of (0.35)

Solution

8. As shown in Figure below, a semi-impervious aquitard separates overlying

water table aquifer from an underlying confined aquifer. Determine the rate

of flow that takes place between the aquifers.

 Answer

Solution:

1. Since the water table is above the piezo metric surface

and a semi pervious (leaky) layer exits flow will take
place from the water table aquifer to the confined aquifer.
2. Head loss will take place when water move through
the water table (top) aquifer, which is not known.
3. Assume that the head b shown in the figure is hb and
consider the unit horizontal area through which flow takes
place.
4. Between the points a and b

q = 12 (27_hb /27)
5. Between points b and c, with reference to datum at c; the
head at c equals The piezometric above at c, ( 24m +
4.5m) . The head at b equals hb plus datum head of
4.5m above c, this means (4.5m + hb ) .
( ) ( )

4.5m
6. The equation 1 and 2 provides hb =26.5m
From equa 1. Q = 0.5 m3/day

9. A 1m diameter well penetrates vertically through a confined

aquifer 30 m thick. When the well is pumped at 113 m3/hr, the
drawdown in a well 15 m away is 1.8 m; in another well 50 m away,
it is 0.5 m. what is the approximate head in the pumping well for
steady state conditions and what is the approximate drawdown in
the well? Also compute the Transmissivity of the aquifer and the
radius of influence. Take the initial piezo metric level as 40 m
above the datum.
 Answer

Solution:

First determine the hydraulic conductivity

3 3
Q=113M /hr=2712m /day then,

( )
(

= ( )=13.3m/day
( )( )

Transmissivity is
2
T=Kb=13.3m/day×30m=399m /day

Compute head, hw in pump well using

h2=ho_s2 40_0.5= 39.5m

hw =h2_ ( )
(

34.5m
=39.5m_ ( )( )
( )=

Drawdown is
S
w= ho_ hw 40m_34.5m= 5.5m
The radius of influence, R of pumping well is
( )( )( )
( )= (15m) exp(
R= =79m
10. A well penetrating a confined aquifer is pumped at a uniform
rate of 6807 m3/day. Drawdown during the pumping test is
measured in the pumping well of 0.127m radius is listed below.
i. Using Theis method determines T and S for this confined
aquifer.

ii. Rework (a) using Cooper Jacob method

iii. Determine the transmissivity from the residual drawdown

analysis

Solution

Values of ⁄ in ⁄ are computed and appear in the

right column of table values of s and ⁄ are plotted on
logarithmic paper .values of W(U)from table are plotted on
anther sheet of logarithmic paper of the same size and scale
and curve is drawn through the points then the two sheets are
superposed shifted with coordinate axes parallel until the
observation points coincide with the curve .

Select a convenient point with W (u) =1.00 and u=1

so that s=0.18m and⁄ =150
⁄ =216000 ⁄

( )
( )= ⁄
T= ( )
=3009.35

S= = =0.00056
11. A 0.5 m diameter well (200m from a river) is pumping at an unknown rate from a confined
aquifer (see the figure below). The aquifer properties are T = 432 m2/day and S = 0.0004. After
8 hours of pumping, the drawdown in the observation well (60m from the fault) is 8 m. compute
the rate of pumping and the drawdown in the pumped well. What is the effect of the river on
drawdown in the observation and pumping well?

Answer

Solution
12. Groundwater is pumped from a confined aquifer. The pumping discharge is 314.2 m3/day.
The saturated depth of the aquifer is 50 m; the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer equals 10
m/day and the storage coefficient of the aquifer is 0.0001. A river (R) is located at a distance of
70.8 m of the pumping station, and the midpoint of a nature reserve (NR) is located at a distance
of 500 m from the pumping well.

i. Determine the lowering of the hydraulic head as a function of time in the midpoint of
the nature reserve given the setup shown below.

ii. What would be the drawdown variation, if there is a fault (impermeable geologic
medium) at the location of the river?

iii. What do you observe from the results of the above questions?

Answer

Solution
 13.A step drawdown test was carried out on a pumping well and the relation between
thedischarge Q (in m3/day) the corresponding specific capacity (Sc) could be approximate

by S/Q = what is the well’s efficiency?

Solution
obtained.If the discharge is divided by the drawdown, the specific capacity of the well is
 This is the measure of the productivity of the well.

 Clearly the larger the specific capacity, the better the well

The specific capacity Sc = = =

Sc = ,

3
Assume the discharge of 1m /s

3
Sc = ()
= 1246.9m /s

Clearly the larger the specific capacity, the better is the well or the well is efficient
 14.The step draw-down test carried out in a pumping well has resulted in a relation given
by: s/Q = 3 + 0.005Q; where s is the drawdown in meters and Q is the well yield. Determine
the well’s efficiency.

Solution
The step draw-down test carried out in a pumping well has resulted in a relation given
by: s/Q = 3 + 0.005Q; where s is the drawdown in meters and Q is the well yield.
Determine the well’s efficiency.

= 3 + 0.005Q

S = 3Q+0.005Q
n
If a pumping well is assumed to be 100% efficient (CQ =0), the the specific capacity of the
well will be
SW = BQ + BQn but BQn=0
SW =BQ
S = 3Q+0.005Q
S=3Q

The efficiency of a pumping well expresses the ratio of aquifer loss (theoretical draw) to total
(measured) draw down in the well.

The well efficiency is defined by:

EW = 1OO , but S = 3Q

EW = 1OO , Assume the B = 3

EW = 1OO = 100%

EW = 100%, the well is 100% efficient!

15. A 60cm diameter well fully penetrates a 40m thick confined aquifer of hydraulic
conductivity 20m/day. Due to continuous pumping, if a drawdown of 1.5m is registered in the
well. What will be the rate of pumping when the well is located at a distance of 80m from a
perennial stream.

Answer

Solution:

Given:

Dia =60cm =0.6m = r = 0.3m

A =80m

X =80m _0.3m =79.7m and y =0

S=

Q= )
(
)

=4π (40m) (20m/d)(1.5m)

ln (80m+79.7m)2
2
(80 _79.7m)

= 15079.645 /12.55 =1201.57