Graphs of algebraic functions

Dr Maphane & Dr Kaisara

Botswana International University of Science and Technology

maphaneot@biust.ac.bw & kaisarat@biust.ac.bw

September 21, 2023

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Maphane & Kaisara (BIUST) MATH 101 September 21, 2023 1 / 29

Outline

1 Graphs of algebraic functions

Transformation of graphs of functions
Graphs of quadratic functions
Using Zeros to Graph Cubic Polynomials

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Transformation of functions
Transformations of a function gives us a better understanding of how to graph
functions. The transformations that we study are shifting, reflecting, and
stretching. Given the graph of y = f (x).

Example: Use the graph of f (x) = x 2 to sketch the graph of each function.

(a) g (x) = x 2 + 3. (b) h(x) = x 2 − 2.

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Example cont’d

Solution: To obtain the graph of f (x) = x 2 , we first make a table of values.

Then we plot the points given by the table and join them by a smooth curve to
obtain the graph as shown below. The graph of f (x) = x 2 is called a parabola.
Then vertically shift the graph to obtain the graphs of g and h.

(a)
(b)

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Horizontal shifts of graphs
Suppose we know the graph of y = f (x). How do we use it to obtain the graphs
of y = f (x + c) and y = f (x − c) for c > 0. The method is called horizontal
shifts of graphs.

Exercise: Use the graph of f (x) = x 2 to sketch the graph of each function.

(a) g (x) = (x + 4)2 . (b) h(x) = (x − 2)2 . senac-logo.pdf

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Example cont’d

Solution: To graph g , we shift the graph of f to the left 4 units, and to graph h,
we shift the graph of f to the right 2 units, as shown in the figure below.

√
Exercise: Sketch the graph of f (x) = x − 3 + 4. Here we combine the
horizontal and vertical shifts.
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Example cont’d
√
Solution: We start with √ the graph of y = x and shift it to the right 3 units to
obtain the graph of y = x − √ 3. Then we shift the resulting graph upward 4 units
to obtain the graph of f (x) = x − 3 + 4 as shown in the figure below.

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Reflecting graphs
Suppose we know the graph of y = f (x). How do we use it to obtain the graphs
of y = −f (x) and y = f (−x)? Here we use reflection.

Exercise: Sketch the graph of each function.

√
(a) f (x) = −x 2 . (b) g (x) = −x.
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Maphane & Kaisara (BIUST) MATH 101 September 21, 2023 9 / 29

Example cont’d

2 2
Solution: The graph of f (x) = −x
√ is the graph of y = x √reflected along the
x-axis, and the graph of g (x) = −x is the graph of y = x reflected along the
y -axis, as shown below.

(b)

(a)

√
Note that the domain of g (x) = −x is {x ∈ R : x ≤ 0}.
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Maphane & Kaisara (BIUST) MATH 101 September 21, 2023 10 / 29

Vertical Stretching and Shrinking
Given the graph of y = f (x). How do we use it to obtain the graphs of y = cf (x)?

Exercise: Use the graph of f (x) = x 2 to sketch the graph of each function.

(a) g (x) = 3x 2 . 1 2
(b) h(x) = x .
3 senac-logo.pdf

Maphane & Kaisara (BIUST) MATH 101 September 21, 2023 11 / 29

Example cont’d
Solution: The graph of g is obtained by multiplying the y -coordinate of each
point on the graph of f by 3. Thus, stretching f vertically by a factor of 3, giving
a narrow parabola, while h is obtained by multiplying the y -coordinate of each
point on f by 13 . Thus, shrinking f vertically by a factor of 13 , resulting in a wider
parabola as shown below.

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Combining Shifting, Stretching, and Reflecting

Exercise: Sketch the graph of the function f (x) = −2(x − 3)2 + 1. Here we
Combine shifting, stretching, and reflecting.
Solution: First sketch y = x 2 , then shift to the right 3 units to get y = (x − 3)2 .
Then, reflect along the x-axis and stretch by a factor of 2 to get y = −2(x − 3)2 .
Finally, shift upward 1 unit to get f (x) = −2(x − 3)2 + 1 as shown below.

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Graphing quadratic functions using standard form

Consider the quadratic function f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c, a ̸= 0. A quadratic function

f can be expressed in the standard form f (x) = a(x − h)2 + k by completing the
square. That is,

f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c
 
b
= a x 2 + x + c, (then add a zero)
a
b2
   2
b b
= a x2 + x + 2 + c − a
a 4a 4a2
2
b2

b
=a x+ +c − .
2a 4a

This equation is in standard form with h = −b/(2a) and k = c − b 2 /(4a).

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Graphing of quadratic functions cont’d

Notice that by putting f in standard form we can now sketch f from the graph of
y = x 2 , using shifting, stretching and reflection transformations. Hence, the graph
of any quadratic function f is a parabola with vertex (turning point) (h, k).
The parabola opens upward if a > 0 or downward if a < 0, as shown in the figure
below.

The turning point(vertex) occurs at x = h = −b/(2a). This simplifies the

sketching of f without necessarily showing the applied transformations.
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Example

Exercise: Let f (x) = 2x 2 − 12x + 23.

(a) Express f in standard form. (b) Sketch the graph of f .

Solution:
(a) Since the coefficient of x 2 is not 1. We have,

f (x) = 2x 2 − 12x + 23
= 2(x 2 − 6x) + 23
= 2(x 2 − 6x + 9) + 23 − 18
= 2(x − 3)2 + 5.

The standard form is f (x) = 2(x − 3)2 + 5.

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Example cont’d
(b) Since a = 2 > 0 the parabola opens upward and the vertex is (3, 5). Also the
discriminant b 2 − 4ac < 0, so f has no x-intercepts. But the y -intercept is
f (0) = 23.

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Maximum and minimum values of quadratic functions
If a quadratic function f has a vertex (h, k), then the function has a minimum
value or a maximum value at the vertex. See the figure below.

Which is equivalent to evaluating f at x = −b/(2a). Thus, the range of f is

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[k, ∞) if a > 0 and (−∞, k] if a < 0.
Maphane & Kaisara (BIUST) MATH 101 September 21, 2023 18 / 29
Example 1

Exercise: Let f (x) = 5x 2 − 30x + 49.

(a) Express f in standard form. (c) Find the minimum value of f .

(b) Sketch the graph of f .

Solution:
(a) Since the coefficient of x 2 is not 1. We have,

f (x) = 5x 2 − 30x + 49
= 5(x 2 − 6x) + 49
= 5(x 2 − 6x + 9) + 49 − 45
= 5(x − 3)2 + 4.

The standard form is f (x) = 5(x − 3)2 + 4.

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Example 1 cont’d
(b) Since a = 5 > 0 the parabola opens upward and the vertex is (3, 4). Also the
discriminant b 2 − 4ac < 0, so f has no x-intercepts. But the y -intercept is
f (0) = 49.

(b) Since the coefficient of x 2 is positive, f has a minimum value. The minimum
value is f (3) = 4. senac-logo.pdf

Maphane & Kaisara (BIUST) MATH 101 September 21, 2023 20 / 29

Example 2
Exercise: Consider the quadratic function f (x) = −x 2 + x + 2.

(a) Express f in standard form. (c) Find the maximum value of f .

(b) Sketch the graph of f .

Solution:
(a) Since the coefficient of x 2 is not 1. We have,

f (x) = −x 2 + x + 2
= −(x 2 − x) + 2
 
2 1 1
=− x −x + +2+
4 4
 2
1 9
=− x− + .
2 4

1 2
+ 94 .


The standard form is f (x) = − x − 2 senac-logo.pdf

Maphane & Kaisara (BIUST) MATH 101 September 21, 2023 21 / 29

Example 2 cont’d

Since a = −1 < 0 the parabola opens downward and the vertex is 12 , 94 .

(b)

Also the discriminant b 2 − 4ac > 0, so f has x-intercepts, which are x = 2

and x = −1. But the y -intercept is f (0) = 2.

(b) Since the coefficient of
x 2 is negative, f has a maximum value. The

maximum value is f 21 = 94 . senac-logo.pdf

Maphane & Kaisara (BIUST) MATH 101 September 21, 2023 22 / 29

Guidelines for graphing cubic polynomials using zeros

If p is a cubic polynomial function, then c is called a zero of p if p(c) = 0. In

other words, the zeros of p are the solutions of the cubic equation p(x) = 0. Note
that if p(c) = 0, then the graph of p has an x-intercept at x = c, so the
x-intercepts of the graph are the zeros of the function.
(a) Zeros: Factor the cubic polynomial to find all its real zeros; these are the
x-intercepts of the graph.
(b) Test Points: Make a table of values for the cubic polynomial. Include test
points to determine whether the graph of the polynomial lies above or below
the x-axis on the intervals determined by the zeros. Include the y -intercept in
the table.
(c) Graph: Plot the intercepts and other points you found in the table. Sketch a
smooth curve that passes through these points and exhibits the required end
behavior.

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Maphane & Kaisara (BIUST) MATH 101 September 21, 2023 23 / 29

Example 1

Exercise: Sketch the graph of the polynomial function

p(x) = (x + 2)(x − 1)(x − 3).
Solution: The zeros are x = −2, 1 and 3. These determine the intervals
(−∞, −2], [−2, 1], [1, 3], and [3, ∞). Using test points in these intervals, we get
the information in the following sign diagram.

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Example 1 cont’d

Plotting a few additional points and connecting them with a smooth curve helps
us to complete the graph as shown in the figure below.

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Example 2

Exercise: Consider the cubic function p(x) = x 3 − 2x 2 − 3x.

(a) Find the zeros of p. (b) Sketch the graph of p.

Solution:
(a) To find the zeroes of p we factor completely.

p(x) = x 3 − 2x 2 − 3x
= x(x 2 − 2x − 3)
= x(x − 3)(x + 1).

Hence, the zeros are x = 0, x = 3 and x = −1.

(b) The x-intercepts are x = 0, x = 3 and x = −1. The y -intercept is p(0) = 0.
We make a table of values of p(x), making sure that we choose test points
between (and to the right and left of) successive zeros.
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Example 2 cont’d

Then plot the points in the table and connect them by a smooth curve to
complete the graph, as shown in Figure 8 below.

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Example 3
Exercise: Consider the cubic function p(x) = x 3 − 2x 2 − 4x + 8.

(a) Find the zeros of p. (b) Sketch the graph of p.

Solution:
(a) To find the zeroes of p we factor completely.

p(x) = x 3 − 2x 2 − 4x + 8
= x 3 − 4x − 2x 2 + 8
= x(x 2 − 4) − 2(x 2 − 4)
= (x − 2)(x 2 − 4)
= (x + 2)(x − 2)2 .

Hence, the zeros are x = 2 and x = −2.

(b) The x-intercepts are x = 2 and x = −2. The y -intercept is p(0) = 8. Make a
table of values of p(x). senac-logo.pdf

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Example 3 cont’d

Choose test points between (and to the right and left of) successive zeros. Then
plot the points in the table and connect them by a smooth curve to complete the
graph, as shown in Figure 10 below.

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