1.

INDIGOFERA (Indigofera zollingeriana) – Indigofera is a leguminous shrub commonly used as a

forage crop. It's known for its nitrogen-fixing properties and ability to thrive in diverse climates.

- Indigofera zollingeriana can be used as animal feed which is rich in nitrogen, phosphorus
and calcium. Indigofera zollingeriana is very well used as forage for animal feed and
contains 27.9% crude protein, 15.25% crude fiber, 0.22% calcium, and 0.18% phosphorus.
The indigofera zollingeriana legume has a high protein content, is tolerant of the dry season,
is a pool of water and is resistant to salinity and high protein content (26% -31%)
accompanied by a relatively low fiber content and a high level of digestibility (77%). This
plant is very good as a source of forage both as a basic feed and as a supplement to feed
protein and energy sources, especially for livestock in high production status (lactation)
because it is tolerant of drought, then Indigofera zollingeriana can be developed in areas
with dry climate to overcome the limited availability. Forage especially during the dry
season. Another advantage of this plant is that its tannin content is very low, ranging from
0.6 to 1.4 ppm (far below the level that can cause anti-nutritional properties).
2. PINTO (Arachis pintoi) - Pinto peanut (Arachis pintoi Krapov. & W.C. Greg.) is a perennial tropical
legume useful for pasture, ground cover and as an ornament. Pinto peanut is a valuable forage,
easy to establish, persistent, and combines well in mixtures under a wide range of climate and
soil conditions, including heavy grazing (Khamseekhiew et al., 2001).
- Nutritive value
13‒25% crude protein, 60‒70% dry matter digestibility. Relatively low levels of condensed
tannins.
Pinto peanut is a good forage supplement for ruminants fed on low quality tropical grasses
due to its high protein content. Pinto peanut is widely used in tropical grazing systems for
ruminants in South and Central America
3. STYLO (Stylosanthez guianesis)- Stylo is a tropical legume known for its high protein content and
ability to withstand grazing pressure. It's often used in mixed pastures
- Stylosanthes guianensis has a variable protein content, which is usually moderate (about
14% DM) but can be as low as 6% or exceed 20% DM. The fibre content is quite high (more
than 25% DM crude fibre). Stylo contains condensed tannins.
- Stylo is a valuable forage legume for ruminants, usually fed as hay (or sun-dried), cut-and-
carry forage, or grazed. Like other legumes, Stylosanthes guianensis is often used as a
supplement during the dry season to improve the nutritive value of low quality forages,
including crop residues or by-products such as rice straw (Thang et al., 2010), maize stover
(Said et al., 1993), or other locally available forages (Matizha et al., 1997; Akinlade et al.,
2002; Kiyothong et al., 2004; Pen et al., 2013).
4. Acid Ipil-ipil (Leucaena diversifolia)- Leucaena diversifolia is a tree or erect shrub, 3-20 m tall,
with a singlestemmed bole 20-50 cm in diameter, slender and clear up to 10 m in height,
ascending branches with horizontal twigs. Bark on young branches smooth, rougher on bole,
grey-brown with shallow rusty orange-brown vertical fissures; slash green then cream.
- Nutritive value
- Leaves of L. diversifolia generally have lower nutritive value (lower palatability, digestibility,
intake and crude protein content, and higher condensed tannin content) than those of L.
leucocephala. Crude protein concentrations range from 25 to 32% of DM. In vitro DM
digestibility ranges from 56 to 61% of DM, but in vivo DM digestibility is low due to high
concentrations of condensed tannins (6‒19% of DM). The very high CT concentrations
 preclude the feeding of L. diversifolia to monogastrics and limit its value as a protein
supplement for ruminants.
5. IPIL-IPIL (Leucaena leucocephala)- Provides an excellent source of high-protein cattle fodder 
Contains mimosine, a toxic amino acid which is metabolized to goitrogenic DHP

- Leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit) is a fast growing, evergreen, thornless shrub,
reaching a height of 5 m (Hawaiian type) to 20 m (Hawaiian giant type) (FAO, 2009). Leucaena is a long-
lived perennial legume (around 23 year half-life in difficult conditions in Australia). It has a deep taproot
and is highly branched. Leaves are bipinnate, bearing numerous leaflets 8 mm to 16 mm long (Cook et
al., 2005). The inflorescence is a cream coloured globular shape producing clusters of flat brown pods,
13 to 18 mm long containing 15-30 seeds. Flowering and fruiting occur throughout the year (Ecoport,
2009).

- Leucaena is valuable for its wood, which is used to make good quality charcoal, small furniture and
paper pulp. Its young shoots, young leaves and seeds may be used as a vegetable in human nutrition.
Seeds can also be used as a substitute of coffee or as pieces of jewellery (Cook et al., 2005).

- Leucaena is one of the highest quality and most palatable fodder trees of the tropics.

- Ruminants

Leucaena leucocephala has been being recognized as a high-potential fodder for centuries. Its
nutritional value is comparable with that of alfalfa with a high ß-carotene content (Ecoport, 2009). The
content in condensed tannins (2.6% DM) in the leaves and stems reduce DM digestibility but enhances
by-pass protein (FAO, 2009; Cook et al., 2005).

Leucaena leucocephala can survive for decades under heavy cutting or grazing. It provides high quality
forage during the dry season and is very palatable to cattle, sheep and goats (Jones, 1979). Moreover, it
grows well in association with many subtropical and tropical grasses (Cook et al., 2005

6. FLEMENGIA (Flemengia macrophylla)

It is considered a poor forage since it has high fibre and condensed tannin concentrations and is not
readily eaten by stock. More suitable for small ruminants than for cattle.
Contains 22.7 % crude protein (CP) and 8%tannin

 Low digestibility because of high tannin and fibre content.

 Low palatability to cattle, particularly in the wet season

7. RENSONII (Desmodium cinerium) a leguminous plant tagged as "alfalfa of the tropics". It is high
in crude protien and is best for goats and other livestocks.
Desmodium rensonii is used most often as a fodder tree in a system of hedgerows and alley
cropping. As a legume, it produces nitrogen-rich foliage (crude protein- 20-22%), that is fed to
goats, cattle, sheep, rabbits, pigs and guinea pigs, as well as serving as mulch and green manure.
It is highly preferred in the SALT (Sloping Agricultural Land Technology) method of farming to
control erosion while producing large amounts of foliage for animal food.
8. SIGNAL GRASS (Brachiaria decumbens)

Nutritional attributes
Like many other tropical grasses, the chemical composition of Brachiaria decumbens is highly
variable and depends on the stage of maturity, which is at its highest during the period of
slowest growth (Loch, 1977). Protein values ranging from 4 to 15% of DM have been recorded.
In Trinidad, crude protein decreased from 13.1 to 9.1% of DM between the vegetative stage (3
weeks regrowth) and flowering (5 weeks) (Grieve et al., 1965). In Brazil, crude protein increased
from 3.8 to 5.3% of DM between the dry season (July) and the start of the rainy season
(November) (Garcia et al., 2004). In Cuba, crude protein decreased from 7.9 to 5.4% of DM
between day 30 and 75 during a period of low rainfall, and from 8.4 to 6.3% of DM during a
period of high rainfall (Vega Espinosa et al., 2006). The DM of signal grass has a high fibre
content (21-41% crude fibre, 56-85% NDF, 30-47% ADF, 3-8% lignin) that increases with
maturity.
9. SWEET NAPIER (Pennisetum purpureum cv. Mahasarakham)

10. PARA GRASS (Brachiaria mutica)

Para grass (Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf) is a semi-aquatic, palatable and good quality forage
grass particularly suited to poorly drained, swampy and flooded tropical and subtropical areas.
Para grass can be grazed, used in cut-and-carry systems or made into hay or silage. It can be
used for erosion control on river banks and steep slopes.
Para grass is a perennial, stoloniferous grass. It has stout and long trailing runners that can grow
to a length of 5 m in one season (Cook et al., 2005). Erect culms are decumbent. They root from
the basal nodes and may reach a height of 0.9-2 (-3) m. Para grass is leafy. Leaf blades are hairy,
linear, up to 30 cm long and 16-20 mm wide. The inflorescence is a panicle (6)-10-20 (-30) cm
long holding 5-20 spreading racemes (2-15 cm long) (Cook et al., 2005). In spite of its high
number of flower heads, para grass is a poor seed producer and its seeds are not very viable
(Lansdown et al., 2013).

Para grass has a variable nutritional value, with a protein content in the 7-10% DM range. Dry
and old forage can contain as little as 3-4% protein but protein contents higher than 20% DM
have been recorded.
In Northern India (Uttarakhand), a comparative study based on in sacco measurements on 25
feed resources concluded that Brachiaria mutica had a good nutritive value and could
be included in the diet of ruminant animals to increase productivity (Sharma et al., 2006).The
nutritive value of Para grass is highly variable, due to large differences in composition. OM
 digestibility values recorded in the literature range from 39 to 77%. In growing goats, the DM
and CP digestiblities were 67% and 70% respectively (Nguyen Thi Mui et al., 2001).

11. SETARIA (Setaria sphacelata)

Golden millet (Setaria sphacelata var. anceps (Schum.) Stapf & Hubb) is a tropical and subtropical
perennial grass. It is a productive and variable species, of which numerous subspecies and varieties have
been described. Many commercial cultivars have been developed for various climates and soil
conditions. It is cultivated worldwide for pasture and for cut fodder. It can be used to make silage and
finer types are reported to be suitable for hay making (Cook et al., 2005). It is used as ground cover for
soil conservation

Like many tropical grasses, golden millet forage has a rather low protein content (about 6-8% DM) that
is highly variable, with observed values as high as 20% DM.

Goden millet is a relatively high yielding quality forage for ruminants.

Compared to Brachiaria brizantha and Megathyrsus maximus, Setaria sphacelata cv. Kazungula had the
lowest DM percentage year-round and the smallest leaf blade during spring and summer. This can limit
its intake by ruminants, especially during the rainy season (Sánchez et al., 1996; Gerdes et al.,
2000a; Gerdes et al., 2000b). Compared to Narok and Nandi, Kazungula was the least acceptable cultivar
as it flowered early in the growing season and remained stemmy for a long period.

12. RED CALLIANDRA (Calliandra calothyrsus)

is a small tropical legume tree valued for its multipurpose attributes. Used in agroforestry systems, it
yields many products (fuelwood, fodder, fibre, honey, shellac) and provides services (shade, erosion
control, weed control, soil improvement, as an ornamental plant, etc.) (Orwa et al., 2009; Palmer et al.,
1994; Wiersum et al., 1997). A very versatile species, calliandra does well under a wide range of soils and
is outstanding in those of low fertility

Calliandra calothyrsus is a small, thornless, often multistemmed shrub. Under optimum conditions it can
attain a height of 12 m and a trunk diameter of 30 cm, but its average height is 5-6 m and diameter 20
cm. Bark colour varies from white to dark red-brown and is normally glabrous but occasionally can be
finely pubescent. It has both superficial and deepgrowing roots. Sometimes a taproot is formed.

Calliandra is an almost evergreen, thornless small legume tree, usually about 5-6 m high, but it can reach
a height of 12 m. It has a straight trunk up to 30 cm in diameter and many branches that form a dense
canopy (Orwa et al., 2009; Palmer et al., 1994). The bark is very variable in colour, from white to red
brown or blackish brown (Orwa et al., 2009; Palmer et al., 1994; Wiersum et al., 1997). It is mainly
glabrous but can also be finely pubescent (FAO, 2016). Calliandra has a fast growing, vigorous root
system that develops down to a depth of 1.5-2 m within 4-5 months. The root system encompasses both
superficial adventitious roots and deep growing roots, sometimes developing a taproot (Orwa et al.,
2009). Calliandra roots nodulate with Rhizobium strains. New sprouts are readily formed from the root
system and facilitate coppicing. Under annual coppicing of stems of 3-5 cm diameter, the tree can
survive for many years (FAO, 2016).

Like other legumes, calliandra foliage is rich in protein (about 20% of DM, up to 28%) and, in Indonesia
for example, the plant has been used as a protein bank (Acti, 1983). Protein content generally decreases
and fibre content increases with the age of regrowth, due to a strong decrease in the leaf:stem ratio,
from 3.3 to 0.4 between 1 and 6 months of regrowth (Kabi et al., 2008). Harvesting between 2 and 4
months resulted in both high biomass and a high nutritive value (Kabi et al., 2008). The lignin content is
relatively high. Leaves are richer in protein and tannins, and lower in fibre, than stems or pods (Salawu
et al., 1997a; Salawu et al., 1999a). Calliandra has a high concentration of condensed tannins and
subsequently low digestibility of nitrogen (Ahn et al., 1989). It may be used in limited amounts as a
source of pigment in layer diets (Teguia, 2000).

13. TRICANTHERA (Tricanthera gigantean)

Trichanthera gigantea is a small to medium sized shrub, generally about 5 m high but it can grow to a
height of 12-15 m (Cook et al., 2005; Rosales, 1997). The crown is 6 m in diameter and the tree is many
branched. Branches are quadrangular with rounded nodes and minutely haired tips. The leaves are
oppositely borne on 1-5 cm long petioles. Leaf blades are 26 cm long x 14 cm broad, ovate to oblong in
shape, dark green on the upper surface and paler on the underside. The inflorescences are compact
terminal panicles bearing 10-20 bell-like flowers. The corolla is 3-4 cm long, red at the base and
becoming yellow at the throat. Nacedero flowers have conspicuous, long, hairy anthers (the latin
name Trichanthera means "hairy anther"). Fruits are dehiscent woody capsules, containing between 4
and 40 seeds, which split open once the seeds are mature (Cook et al., 2005; Rosales, 1997). Like all
plants of the Acanthaceae family, Trichanthera gigantea forms cystoliths, which are small mineral
concretions that appear as minute short lines on the upper surface of the leaves, the upper portions of
the stems, on the branches of the inflorescences and on the calyx (Rosales, 1997)

Contains high concentrations of watersoluble carbohydrates and starch, and low NDF
 CP content ranges from 12- 22%, IVDMD ranges from 45-60% and DMD ranges from 50-70%
 Contains comparatively high ash and calcium concentrations at 16-20% and 2.4-3.8% of DM,
respectively.
 The high ash and Ca concentrations may be related to the presence of cystoliths, small
mineral concretions on the leaves and stems

Nacedero foliage is relatively rich in protein (13 to 22% DM), though lower values have been
recorded (Rosales et al., 1999; Rosales, 1997; Nguyen Xuan Ba et al., 2003). Most of the crude
protein is true protein and the balance of amino acid appears to be good (Rosales et al.,
1999; Rosales, 1997). The ash content (often more than 20% DM) and more specifically the
calcium content has been found to be particularly high compared with other fodder trees
(Garcia et al., 2008; Rosales, 1997). This can be explained by the presence of cystoliths in the
leaves, which may help to explain why, on farms in Colombia, nacedero is used as a lactogenic
drink, which may have potential for feeding lactating animals (Rosales, 1997). The fibre content
is extremely variable, with reported NDF values ranging from 33 to 66% of the DM
14. MOMBASA (Megathyrsus maximus cv. Mombasa)
Guinea grass (Megathyrsus maximus (Jacq.) B. K. Simon & S. W. L. Jacobs) is a major pantropical
grass used throughout the tropics for pasture, cut-and-carry, silage and hay. It is a fast growing and
leafy grass, which is palatable to livestock with a good nutritional value. However, it is generally
recommended to supplement it with sources of protein in order to meet nutritional requirements or
improve animal performance.

Morphology
Guinea grass is a large tufted, fast-growing perennial grass. It has a broad morphological and
agronomic variability, ranging in height from 0.5 to 3.5 m, with stems of 5 mm to 10 mm diameter. There
are two main types: a tall/medium tussock type, taller than 1.5 m at flowering, and a short tussock type
(Cook et al., 2005). The root is a short creeping rhizome; culms are erect, hirsute at the nodes. Leaves
are blade-shaped, glabrous to pubescent up to 35 mm broad. Inflorescence is a panicle, 15 to 50 cm
long. Spikelets are 3-4 mm green to purple (Ecoport, 2009).

Traces of HCN in Guinea grass are reported as well as small amounts of oxalic acid (0.28%) (Ndyanabo,
1974 cited by FAO, 2009). Continuous feeding of oxalates has been implicated in hyperparathyroidism
("big head") in horses, and occasionally nephrosis or hypocalcaemia in ruminants (Miyazaki et al., 2003).

15. KING GRASS (Pennisetum purpureum Schumach x Pennisetum glaucum)

a major tropical grass. It is one of the highest yielding tropical grasses. It is a very versatile
species that can be grown under a wide range of conditions and systems: dry or wet conditions,
smallholder or larger scale agriculture. It is a valuable forage and very popular throughout the
tropics, notably in cut-and-carry systems (Mannetje, 1992; FAO, 2015).

Nutritional attributes
Elephant grass has a rather low protein content (about 10% DM) but young grass can be very
nutritive. In Venezuela, for instance, protein values ranged from 21% DM at 30 days of regrowth
to less than 4% DM at 70 days (Butterworth, 1965). Elephant grass is rich in fibre: depending on
stage of maturity, NDF concentrations vary from 55 to 75% DM (Moran, 2011). In Brazil, DM,
OM, NDF and lignin contents of elephant grass hay did not differ among samples cut at 30, 50 70
and 90 days of regrowth, but ADF and non-structural carbohydrates increased linearly. Non-
protein N accounted for almost all soluble N contents, which increased four-fold from 30 to 70
days and decreased at 90 days of regrowth (Kozloski et al., 2005). Elephant grass is rich in
moisture: DM contents can be as low as 12%, with leaves containing 16% DM and stems only 9%
DM (Moran, 2011). In Indonesia and Central Africa (Gabon and Cameroon), its nutritive value
was lower in the dry season (less protein and more lignin) than in the rainy season (Evitayani et
al., 2004a; Tedonkeng Pamo et al., 2007). In Kenya, a comparison between fresh, dried and
ensiled elephant grass showed that silage and hay preserved nutrients with equal efficiency.
Therefore, surplus wet season elephant grass could be preserved for use during dry seasons
under tropical climate (Brown et al., 1985). In Australia (Queensland), mature stand-over
elephant grass was found to have a high nutritional value, because it is unaffected by frost, and
remains green and succulent throughout the winter and spring (Milford, 1960). In several
countries (Indonesia, Philippines, Cameroon), phosphorus, magnesium, sulphur, copper, zinc
and selenium contents of elephant grass were generally below the critical level to satisfy
requirements of grazing livestock in the tropics, but calcium was sufficient (Nasrullah et al.,
2004; Njwe et al., 1988; Orden et al., 1999).
16. GUATEMALA (Tripsacum andersonii)

17. NATIVE NAPIER (Pennisetum purpureum)

For instance, if napier grass is harvested at 3.5 m height, the yield may be a little more but the fodder
may be of little value to an animal nutrition because it does not constitute a maintenance ration and
thus the very purpose of green fodder production is defated. To obtain satisfactory results this grass
should not be fed alone but with legumes, concentrate or oil cakes. It contains 8-12% crude protein and
26-28% crude fiber. The total digestible nutrient ranges from 55-58%.

18. DWARF NAPIER (Pennisetum purpureum)

19. SUPER NAPIER (Pennisetum purpureum x pennisetum glaucum)

Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.) is an erect annual grass, reaching up to 3 m high with a
profuse root system. Culms are slender, 1-3 cm wide. Leaves are alternate, simple, blade linear,
pubescent and minutely serrated, up to 1.5 m long x 8 cm wide. The inflorescence is a panicle, 12 to 30
cm long. Fruits are grains whose shape differs according to cultivars. It uses C4 carbon fixation (Andrews
et al., 1992).

The “Super Napier (Pennisetum purpureum x Pennisetum glaucum) is known to be

high yielder (500 t/ha/yr), showing relatively high crude protein of about 16 to 18 percent

(Kiyothong, 2014)

Pearl millet is palatable to livestock but its nutritive value depends on variety, growing conditions, stand
management and preservation methods.

Several varieties have been developed in order to enhance forage yield, palatability and digestibility.
Breeding programs have created shorter varieties (half the height of natural pearl millet) with a higher
nutritive value because the dwarf trait increases the leaf:stem ratio and subsequently crude protein. In
brown mid-rib varieties the lignin content is much lower than in normal pearl millet, in vitro DM
digestibility is thus enhanced (Andrews et al., 1992). Pearl millet is able to grow in scarce conditions
(irrigation with high level of water salinity) without losing nutritive value (Fahmy et al., 2010).

The crude protein content of green pearl millet forage varies from 6 to 20%. The fresh forage is fairly
well digested by ruminants, with DMD being about 66-69%. In pearl millet silage, crude protein content
is low (from 4% to 10%) due to protein losses, and the rumen degradable fibre fraction is low
(Guimaraes et al., 2010).

The nutritive value of pearl millet stover depends on chemical composition and in vitro OMD (ranging
between 40% and 60%), and also on simple morphological traits such as culm diameter (the greater the
diameter, the less digestible the stover) (Alexander et al., 2007).

Pearl millet stalks have a low nutritive value that can be improved with urea treatment, which increases
nitrogen content, DM intake and digestibility (Choudhary et al., 2004; Ramana et al., 1989).
20. KENNEDY GRASS (Brachiara ruziziensis)

Congo grass is a short-lived perennial grass (Husson et al., 2008). It is tufted, creeping (semi-prostrate)
and rhizomatous. It roots from the nodes and forms a dense leafy cover (Cook et al., 2005; Urio et al.,
1988). Congo grass has a dense system of bunched, quickly growing roots that can go down to a depth
of 1.8 m (Husson et al., 2008). Culms grow from the nodes of the rhizomes and may reach a height of 1.5
m when flowering (Cook et al., 2005). The leaves are soft but hairy on both sides, lanceolate in shape
and up to 25 cm long x 1-1.5 cm broad, light-green in colour. The inflorescence consists of 3-9 relatively
long racemes (4-10 cm) that bear spikelets in 1 or 2 rows on one side of a broad, flattened and winged
rachis (Cook et al., 2005). The spikelets are hairy and 5 mm long. The weight of 1000 grains is about 4 g
(Husson et al., 2008). Congo grass is very similar to signal grass (Brachiaria decumbens) and is often
mistaken for it (Cook et al., 2005). Genetic material from Congo grass has been used to hybridize
with Brachiaria brizantha yielding a series of cultivars known as Mulato (Argel et al., 2007; Argel et al.,
2005).

Congo grass is a valuable forage for livestock. It is palatable and its nutritive value is good (Schultze-Kraft
et al., 1992). It is mostly used for direct grazing of permanent pastures, in the open or under coconut
plantations. Congo grass can be cut for hay or fed fresh to stalled ruminants (Cook et al., 2005; Schultze-
Kraft et al., 1992). In Brazil, there is increasing interest in growing Congo grass both for fodder and for
mulch in soybean-maize associations or in sunflower crops (Giancotti et al.,

Congo grass is a useful forage in the humid tropics. Its nutritive value can be good, especially during the
rainy season: different authors reported crude protein concentrations between 8% and 15% of DM, and
NDF concentrations between 61 and 67% of DM (Ibrahim et al., 1995; Herrero et al., 2001; Meale et al.,
2012). However, drought has an adverse effect on its nutritive value: in Cameroon, protein content
decreased from 16 to 5%, and NDF and ADF increased from 71 to 76% and 34 to 48% of DM,
respectively, between rainy and dry seasons (Tedonkeng Pamo et al., 2007). The nutritive quality of
Congo grass hay is lower, with a protein content about 5% of DM.

22. MADRE DE CACAO (Gliricidia sepium)

Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp. is a perennial, medium-sized (2-15 m high) legume tree. It is
mostly deciduous during the dry season but is reported to remain evergreen in humid areas. Leaves are
imparipinnate; leaflets (5-20) are ovate, 2-7 cm long x 1-3 cm broad. The bright pink to lilac flowers are
arranged in clustered racemes. The fruits are dehiscent pods, 10-18 cm long and 2 cm broad, that
contain 8 to 10 seeds.

Gliricidia sepium is one of the major tropical forage trees due to its protein-rich forage and high nutritive
value. Gliricidia forage can be cut by hand and left on the ground for grazing or carried to paddocks or
stalls. It is also possible to make silage from chopped forage, which may be mixed with grasses or maize.
Additives, such as molasses, sugar cane or formic acid (0.85%), should be added to provide fermentable
carbohydrates (Wiersum et al., 1992).
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