Merged

E2E 222
Circuits Theory II
Dr. Akram Alzaghir
Assistant Professor
akramalzaghir@karabuk.edu.tr
Overview
• Understand the concepts of sinusoids and phasors.
• Apply phasors to circuit elements.
• Introduce the concepts of impedance and admittance.
• Learn about impedance combinations.
• Apply what is learnt to phase-shifters
Alternating Current
➢ The term alternating indicates only that the waveform alternates between two prescribed levels in a set
time sequence.
➢ Instantaneous value: The magnitude of a waveform at any instant of time; denoted by the lowercase
letters (v1, v2).
➢ Peak amplitude: The maximum value of the waveform as measured from its average (or mean) value,
denoted by the uppercase letters Vm.
➢ Period (T): The time interval between successive repetitions of a periodic waveform.
➢ Cycle: The portion of a waveform contained in one period of time.
➢ Frequency: (Hertz) the number of cycles that occur in 1 s f = 1T
➢ The sinusoidal waveform is the only alternating waveform whose shape is unaffected by the response
characteristics of R, L, and C elements.
Sinusoids
• Sinusoids are interesting to us because there are a number of natural
phenomenon that are sinusoidal in nature.
• It is also a very easy signal to generate and transmit.
• Also, through Fourier analysis, any practical periodic function can be
made by adding sinusoids.
• Lastly, they are very easy to handle mathematically.
• A sinusoidal forcing function produces both a transient and a steady
state response.
• When the transient has died out, we say the circuit is in sinusoidal
steady state.
Sinusoids
• A sinusoidal voltage may be represented as:
𝒗(𝒕) = 𝑽𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕
Where 𝑽𝒎 is the amplitude of the sinusoid, 𝝎 is the angular frequency in
radiance/s, and 𝝎𝒕 is the angular of the sinusoid.
• From the waveform shown below, one characteristic is clear: The
function repeats itself every T seconds.
𝟐𝝅
• This is called the period 𝝎𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅 𝒐𝒓 𝑻 =
𝝎
A sketch of Vm 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡:

(a) as a function of 𝜔𝑡,
(b) as a function of t.
Sinusoids
• The period is inversely related to another important characteristic, the frequency
𝟏
𝒇=
𝑻
• The units of this is cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz)
• It is often useful to refer to frequency in angular terms:
𝜔=2𝜋𝑓
• Here the angular frequency is in radians per second
• More generally, we need to account for relative timing of one wave versus another.
• This can be done by including a phase shift, 𝝓: thus the general expression is as follow:
𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕 + 𝝓)
• v2 LEADS v1 by phase φ.
• Consider the two sinusoids shown in the figure
• v1 LAGS v2 by phase φ.
𝒗𝟏 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 and 𝒗𝟐 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕 + 𝝓)
• v1 and v2 are out of phase.
• If two sinusoids are in phase, then this means that they reach their maximum
and minimum at the same time, if phase difference is not zero, they are out of phase
Sinusoids
• Sinusoids may be expressed as sine or cosine. When comparing two sinusoids, it is
expedient to express both as either sine or cosine with positive amplitudes.
• This is achieved by using the following trigonometric identities:
sin 𝐴 ± 𝐵 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 ± 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵
cos 𝐴 ± 𝐵 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 ∓ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵
• So, The conversion between them is:
− sin 𝜔𝑡 = sin 𝜔𝑡 ± 180°

− cos 𝜔𝑡 = cos 𝜔𝑡 ± 180°
± cos 𝜔𝑡 = sin 𝜔𝑡 ± 90°
∓ sin 𝜔𝑡 = cos 𝜔𝑡 ± 90°
• Using these relationships, we can transform a sinusoid from sine form to cosine form or
vice versa.
Sinusoids
Conversions for Sinusoids
A sin(wt +f) A cos(wt + f - 90o)
- A sin(wt +f) A sin(wt + f + 180o )
Or
A sin(wt + f - 180o )
- A cos(wt +f) A cos(wt + f + 180o )
Or
A cos(wt + f - 180o )
A sin(wt +f) A sin (wt + f - 360o)
Or
A sin (wt + f + 360o)
A cos(wt +f) A cos (wt + f - 360o)
Or
A cos (wt + f + 360o)
Sinusoids
Example 1
Given a sinusoid, 𝒗 𝒕 = 𝟓 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟒𝝅𝒕 − 𝟔𝟎°) , calculate its amplitude, phase, angular
frequency, period, and frequency.
Solution:
The Amplitude 𝑉𝑚 = 5, phase 𝜙 = – 60o, angular frequency 𝜔 = 4𝜋 rad/s,
𝟐𝝅 2𝜋 1 1
Period 𝑻 = = = 0.5 s, frequency 𝑓 = = = 2 𝐻𝑧.
𝝎 4𝜋 𝑇 0.5
Example 2
Find the amplitude, phase, period, and frequency of the sinusoid.
𝒗 𝒕 = 𝟏𝟐𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝟓𝟎𝒕 + 𝟏𝟎°)
Solution:
The Amplitude 𝑉𝑚 = 12, phase 𝜙 = 10o, angular frequency 𝜔 = 50 rad/s,
𝟐𝝅 2𝜋 1 1
Period 𝑻 = = = 0.1257 s, frequency 𝑓 = = = 7.958 𝐻𝑧.
𝝎 50 𝑇 0.1257
Sinusoids
Example 3
Calculate the phase angle between 𝒗𝟏 = −𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜔𝒕 + 50°) and 𝒗𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜔𝒕 − 10°), State which
sinusoid is leading.
Solution:
In order to compare 𝑣1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣2 , we must express them in the same form (cosine form):
𝑣1 = −10𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 + 50° = 10𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 50° − 180°)
𝑣1 = 10 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝟏𝟑𝟎° or 𝑣1 = 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕 + 230°)
And
𝑣2 = 12𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 − 10o = 12𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 10° − 90° = 12𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 𝟏𝟎𝟎°
𝑣2 = 12𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 − 100° + 360° = 𝟏𝟐𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕 + 𝟐𝟔𝟎°
Since 𝜙2 > 𝜙1 , thus 𝑣2 leads 𝑣1 by 260° − 230° = 𝟑𝟎°
Sinusoids
Example 3
Find the phase angle between 𝒊𝟏 = − 4sin(377t +55°) and 𝒊𝟐 = 5 cos(377t − 65°), Does 𝒊𝟏 lead or lag 𝒊𝟐 ?.
Solution:
In order to compare 𝒊𝟏 and 𝒊𝟐 , we must express them in the same form (cosine form):
𝑖1 = − 4sin(377t +55°) = 4cos(377t + 55° + 90°) = 4cos(377t + 55° + 90°)
𝑖1 = 4cos(377t + 145°)
And
𝒊𝟐 = 5 cos(377t − 65°)
Since 𝜙1 > 𝜙2 , hence 𝑖1 leads 𝑖2 by 145° − −65° = 𝟐𝟏𝟎°
Or
𝒊𝟐 = 5 cos(377t − 65°) = 5 cos(377t − 65° + 360°)

𝒊𝟐 = 5 cos(377t° + 295°)
Since 𝜙2 > 𝜙1 , thus 𝑖2 leads 𝑖1 by 295° − 145° =150°
Both answers are correct

Complex Numbers
• A powerful method for representing sinusoids is the phasor.
• A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and phase of a sinusoid.
• But in order to understand how they work, we need to cover some complex numbers first.
• A complex number z can be represented in rectangular form as:
𝑧=𝑥+𝑗𝑦, j = −1, 𝑥 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑧 , 𝑦 = 𝐼𝑚(𝑧) • x is the REAL part.
• It can also be written in polar or exponential form as: • y is the IMAGINARY part.
• r is the MAGNITUDE.
𝑧 = 𝑟∠∅ = 𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝜙
• φ is the ANGLE.
• The different forms can be interconverted.
• Starting with rectangular form, one can go to polar:
𝑦
• Given x and y, we can get 𝑟 and 𝜙, thus, 𝑟 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 , 𝜙 = tan−1
𝑥
• On the other hand, if we know r and 𝜙 we can obtain x and y as:
𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜙 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜙
Complex Numbers
➢ A complex number may be written in RECTANGULAR FORM as: forms.
z = x+ jy j= -1 RECTANGULAR FORM
x = r cos  y = r sin 
z= r f POLAR FORM
y
r= x2 + y 2  =tan -1
x
z= re jf EXPONENTIAL FORM
y
r= x2 + y 2  =tan -1
x
z = x + jy= r f = re jf
e jf =cosf +jsinf Euler's Identity

cosf = Re e jf  Real part
sinf = Im e jf  Imaginary part
Complex Number Conversions
➢ We need to convert COMPLEX numbers from one form to the other form.
z = x + jy = rf = re− jf =r (cosf + j sin f )
z = x + jy = rf = re− jf =r (cosf + j sin f )

y
r = x 2 + y 2 , f = tan −1 Rectangular to Polar
x
x = rcosf , y = r sin f Polar to Rectangular
Complex Numbers
➢ Mathematical operations on complex numbers may require conversions from one form to other
form.
ADDITION: z1 + z 2 =(x1 + x 2 )+j(y1 + y 2 )
SUBTRACTION: z1 - z 2 =(x1 -x 2 )+j(y1 - y 2 )
Addition and subtraction of
MULTIPLICATION: z1z 2 = r1 r2 f1 +f2 complex numbers are better
performed in rectangular form;
z1 r1 multiplication and division are
DIVISION: = f1 -f2
z 2 r2 better done in polar form.
1 1
RECIPROCAL: = -f
z r
SQUARE ROOT: z = rf
2
COMPLEX CONJUGATE: z = x − jy = r  − f = re − jf
Phasors
• The idea of a phasor representation is based on Euler’s identity:
𝑒 ±𝑗𝜙 = cos 𝜙 ± 𝑗 sin 𝜙
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 + ∅ = 𝑅𝑒(𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗(𝜔𝑡+𝜙) )
Or 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑒(𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜙 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 )
Thus,
𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑹𝒆(𝑽𝒆𝒋𝝎𝒕 )
Where 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜙 = 𝑉𝑚 ∠∅
• The transformation between time domain to phasor domain is:
𝑽𝒎 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕 + ∅) 𝑽 = 𝑽𝒎 ∠∅
𝒗 𝒕 = (𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞 − 𝐝𝐨𝐦𝐚𝐢𝐧 ⇔(𝐏𝐡𝐚𝐬𝐨𝐫 − 𝐝𝐨𝐦𝐚𝐢𝐧
𝐫𝐞𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧) 𝐫𝐞𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧)
Phasors
➢ A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and phase of a sinusoid.
➢ Phasor is the mathematical equivalent of a sinusoid with time variable dropped.
➢ Phasor representation is based on Euler’s identity.
e  jf =cosf  jsinf Euler's Identity
cosf = Re e jf  Real part
sinf = Im e jf  Imaginary part
➢ Given a sinusoid v(t)=Vmcos(ωt+φ).

v(t ) = Vm cos(wt + f ) = Re(Vm e j (wt +f ) ) = Re(Vm e jf e jwt ) = Re( Ve jwt )
V = Vm e jf = Vm f = PHASOR REP.
v(t ) = Vm cos(wt + f )  V = Vm f
(Time Domain Re pr.) (Phasor Domain Re presentation)
v(t ) = Re{Ve jwt } (Converting Phasor back to time)
Phasors
➢ Given the sinusoids i(t)=Imcos(ωt+φI) and v(t)=Vmcos(ωt+ φV) we can obtain the
phasor forms as:
Phasors
➢ Amplitude and phase difference are two principal concerns in the study of
voltage and current sinusoids.
➢ Phasor will be defined from the cosine function in all our proceeding study. If
a voltage or current expression is in the form of a sine, it will be changed to a
cosine by subtracting from the phase.
Example
Transform the following sinusoids to phasors:
i = 6cos(50t – 40o) A
v = –4sin(30t + 50o) V
Solution:
a. I = 6 − 40 A
b. Since –sin(A) = cos(A+90o);
v(t) = 4cos (30t+50o+90o) = 4cos(30t+140o) V
Transform to phasor => V = 4140 V
Phasors
Example 5:
Transform the sinusoids corresponding to phasors:
a) V = − 1030 V
b) I = j(5 − j12) A
Solution:
a) v(t) = 10cos(wt + 210o) V
5
b) Since I = 12 + j5 = 12 2 + 52  tan −1 ( ) = 13 22.62
12
i(t) = 13cos(wt + 22.62o) A
Phasor as Rotating Vectors
v(t ) = Vm cos(wt +  )
v(t ) = Re Vm e( jwt + ) 
v(t ) = Re Vm ( jwt +  ) 
Rotating Phasor
Sinusoid-Phasor Transformation
• Table for transforming various time domain sinusoids into phasor domain:
➢ Differentiating a sinusoid is equivalent to multiplying its corresponding phasor by jω.
➢ Integrating a sinusoid is equivalent to dividing its corresponding phasor by jω.

(Time Domain) (Phasor Domain)
v(t ) = Vm cos(wt + f )  V = Vm f
v(t ) = Vm sin(wt + f )  V = Vm f − 90
dv
 JwV
dt
V
 vdt 
Jw
➢ Adding sinusoids of the same frequency is equivalent to adding their
corresponding phasors.
V=V1+V2
Examples - Sinusoid-Phasor
(1) (2)
Dr. Akram Almohammedi

Phasor Relationships for Resistors
i (t ) = I m cos(wt + f ) = Re(Ie jwt )
v(t ) = i (t ) R = RI m cos(wt + f )
V = RI m f =RI
Phasor voltage and current of a

resistor are in phase
Phasor Relationships for Inductor
di d
v(t ) = L = L I m cos(wt + f ) = −w LI m sin(wt + f ) = w LI m cos(wt + f + 90)
dt dt
V = w LI m (f + 90)=w LI m e jf e j 90 = jw LI
Phasor current of an inductor

Time Domain Frequency Domain LAGS the voltage by 90 degrees.
Phasor Relationships for Capacitor
dv d
i (t ) = C= C Vm cos(wt + f ) = −wCVm sin(wt + f ) = wCVm cos(wt + f + 90)
dt dt
I
I = wCVm (f + 90)=wCVm e jf e j 90 = jwCV V=
jw C
Phasor current of a capacitor LEADS

the voltage by 90 degrees.
Time Domain Frequency Domain
Voltage current relationships
Voltage current relationships
Overview
• Understand the concepts of sinusoids and phasors.
• Apply phasors to circuit elements.
• Introduce the concepts of impedance and admittance.
• Learn about impedance combinations.
• Apply what is learnt to phase-shifters
Impedance and Admittance
➢ The Impedance Z of a circuit is the ratio of phasor voltage V to the phasor current I measured in ohms Ω
V
Z= or V =ZI
I
➢ The Admitance Y of a circuit is the reciprocal of impedance measured in Simens (S).
I 1
Y= = or I =YV
V Z
➢ Impedances and Admitances of passive elements.
Element Impedance Admitance
1
R Z=R Y=
R
1
L Z = j L Y=
j L
1
C Z= Y = jC
j C
➢ The Impedance Z of a circuit is a function of the frequency.
Element Impedance Admitance
1
L Z = j L Y=
j L
1
C Z= Y = jC
j C
➢ Inductor is SHORT CIRCUIT at DC and OPEN CIRCUIT at high frequencies.

Capacitor is OPEN CIRCUIT at DC and SHORT CIRCUIT at high frequencies.
Z L = j L
ZL → 0  → 0 (Short at DC)
ZL →   →  (Open as  → )
1
ZC =
j C
ZC →   → 0 (Open at DC)
ZC → 0  →  (Open as  → )
➢ The Impedance Z represents the opposition of the circuit to the flow of sinusoidal current.
V
Z = = R + jX =
I
=Resistance + j  Reactance
= Z 
X
Z = R +X 2 2
 = tan −1
R
R = Z cos  X = Z sin 
➢ The Reactance is Inductive if X is positive and it is Capacitive if X is negative.

➢ The Admittance Y represents the admittance of the circuit to the flow of sinusoidal current.
The admittance is measured in Siemens (s)
1 I
Y = = = G + jB
Z V
= Conductance + j  Suseptance= Y 
1 R − jX R − jX
Y = G + jB = = 2
R + jX R − jX R + X 2
R X
G= 2 B=− 2
R +X 2
R + X2
Kirchoff’s Laws in Frequency Domain
➢ The Kirchoff”s Voltage Law (KVL) holds in the frequency domain. For series connected impedances:
V
Z eq = = Z1 + Z 2 + + Z N (Equivalent Impedance)
I
➢ The Voltage Division for two elements in series is:
Z1
V1 = V
Z1 + Z 2
Z2
V2 = V
Z1 + Z 2
Parallel Combination for Phasors
➢ The Kirchoff”s Voltage Law (KVL) holds in the frequency domain. For series connected impedances:
1 I 1 1 1
Yeq = = = Y1 + Y2 + + YN = + + + (Eqiv. Admitance)
Z eq V Z1 Z 2 ZN
➢ The Current Division for two elements is:
Z2
I1 = I
Z1 + Z 2
Z1
I2 = I
Z1 + Z 2
Application of KVL for Phasors
Z3
Z1
Y-Δ and Δ-Y Equivalent Circuits
➢ Y-Δ and Δ-Y type equivalent conversions will be most useful when considering Three Phase circuits.
➢ Impedances Z1, Z2 and Z3 are Y connected.
➢ Impedances Za, Zb and Zc are Δ connected.
➢ Y and Δ forms can be equivalently converted from one form to the other.
➢ Y-Δ and Δ-Y conversions are valid for impedances as well as resistive circuits.
➢ Y-Δ and Δ-Y type equivalent conversions will be useful when considering Three Phase circuits
in Chapter 12.
 − Y Conversion
Y −  Conversion
Zb Zc
Z Z + Z 2 Z3 + Z 3 Z1 Z1 =
Za = 1 2 Z a + Zb + Zc
Z1
Za Zc
Z Z + Z 2 Z3 + Z 3 Z1 Z2 =
Zb = 1 2 Z a + Zb + Zc
Z2
Z Z + Z 2 Z3 + Z 3 Z1 Z a Zb
Zc = 1 2 Z3 =
Z3 Z a + Zb + Zc
Find I in the circuit given?
Converting Δ
Connection to Y
form, we obtain
Converting to Y form, we
can simplify the circuit by
combining the parallel and
series elements
Z
Phase Shifters (Leading Output)
➢ Phase shifting is employed to correct undesirable phase shift of the AC voltage.
Vo R R XC
= =  tan −1 , XC = − 1
Vi R + jX C R + XC
2 2 R C
XC
Vo Leads Vi by  = tan −1
R
XC
Phase of Vi has been changed by  = tan −1
Leading Output. R
Output Leads the input

Phase Shifters (Lagging Output)
➢ Phase shifting is employed to correct undesirable phase shift of the AC voltage.
1
Vo jC 1 1
= = =  − tan −1 ( RC )
Vi R + 1 1 + j RC 1 + ( RC ) 2
jC
Vo Laggs Vi by  = tan −1 ( RC )
Lagging Output.
Output Lags the input

Phase Shifters
P.P.9.13 Design an RC circuit that provide 90° lagging phase shift. Find the output voltage if 10 Volt is applied.
Chapter problems
Chapter problems
Overview (Sinusoidal Steady State Analysis)
• Apply previously learn circuit techniques to sinusoidal steady-state analysis.
• Learn how to apply nodal and mesh analysis in the frequency domain.
• Learn how to apply superposition, Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems in the frequency domain.
Dr. Akram Almohammedi E2E 222 Circuits Theory II

Steps to Analyze AC Circuits
➢ Transform the circuit to the Phasor Domain.
➢ Solve the problem using circuit techniques listed below
1) Nodal Analysis
2) Mesh Analysis
3) Superposition
4) Source transformation
5) Thevenin or Norton Equivalents
➢ Transform the resulting circuit back to time domain.

Steps to Analyze AC Circuits
➢ Transform the circuit to the phasor or frequency domain.

➢ Solve the problem using circuit techniques (nodal analysis,
mesh analysis, superposition, etc.).
➢ Transform the resulting phasor to the time domain.
Solve Freq to Time

Time to Freq
Variables in Freq

Nodal Analysis
➢ Since KCL is valid for phasors, we can analyze AC circuits by NODAL analysis.
➢ Determine the number of nodes within the network.
➢ Pick a reference node and label each remaining node with a subscripted value of
voltage: V1, V2 and so on.
➢ Apply Kirchhoff’s current law at each node except the reference. Assume that all
unknown currents leave the node for each application of Kirhhoff’s current law.
➢ Solve the resulting equations for the nodal voltages.
➢ For dependent current sources: Treat each dependent current source like an
independent source when Kirchhoff’s current law is applied to each defined node.
However, once the equations are established, substitute the equation for the
controlling quantity to ensure that the unknowns are limited solely to the chosen
nodal voltages.

Nodal Analysis (Example 10.1)


Nodal Analysis (Practice Problem 10.1)
➢ Practice Problem 10.1: Find v1 and v2 using nodal analysis

➢ Practice Problem 10.1
(1)


Step (2)
Step (1)


Mesh Analysis ➢ Since KVL is valid for phasors, we can analyze AC
circuits by MESH analysis.
E2E 222 Circuits Theory II

Mesh Analysis - Supermesh
➢ Practice Problem 10.4: Calculate the current Io
Meshes 2 and 3 form a

supermesh as shown in
the circuit below.


Superposition Theorem
➢The superposition theorem eliminates the need for solving simultaneous linear equations by
considering the effect on each source independently.
➢ To consider the effects of each source we remove the remaining sources; by setting the voltage
sources to zero (short-circuit representation) and current sources to zero (open-circuit
representation).
➢ The current through, or voltage across, a portion of the network produced by each source is
then added algebraically to find the total solution for current or voltage.
➢ The only variation in applying the superposition theorem to AC networks with independent
sources is that we will be working with impedances and phasors instead of just resistors and real
numbers.
➢ The superposition theorem is not applicable to power effects in AC networks since we are still
dealing with a nonlinear relationship.
➢ It can be applied to networks with sources of different frequencies only if the total response for
each frequency is found independently and the results are expanded in a nonsinusoidal expression
.
➢ One of the most frequent applications of the superposition theorem is to electronic systems in
which the DC and AC analyses are treated separately and the total solution is the sum of the
two.
When a circuit has sources operating at different frequencies,
• The separate phasor circuit for each frequency must be solved independently, and
• The total response is the sum of time-domain responses of all the individual phasor
circuits.
➢ Superposition Theorem applies to AC circuits as well.

➢ For sources having different frequencies, the total response must be obtained by adding
individual responses in time domain.

Exp. 10.6 calculate 𝒗𝟎 in the circuit using the superposition theorem
a) All sources except DC 5-V set to zero b) All sources except 10cos(10t) set to zero

Exp. 10.6 Superposition Technique for sources having different frequencies
c) All sources except 2 sin 5t set to zero
vo= v1+ v2+ v3



P.P.10.6 calculate 𝒗𝟎 in the circuit using



Overview (Sinusoidal Steady State Analysis)
• Apply previously learn circuit techniques to sinusoidal steady-state analysis.
• Learn how to apply nodal and mesh analysis in the frequency domain.
• Learn how to apply superposition, Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems in the frequency domain.
Source Transformation
➢ Transform a voltage source in series with an impedance to a current source in parallel with an
impedance for simplification or vice versa.
If we transform the current source to a voltage source, we obtain the circuit shown in Fig. (a).
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
➢ Thévenin’s theorem, as stated for sinusoidal AC circuits, is changed only to include the
term impedance instead of resistance.
➢ Any two-terminal linear ac network can be replaced with an equivalent circuit consisting of
a voltage source and an impedance in series.
➢ VTh is the Open circuit voltage between the terminals a-b.
➢ ZTh is the impedance seen from the terminals when the independent sources are
set to zero.
Norton Equivalent Circuit
➢ The linear circuit is replaced by a current source in parallel with an impedance.
IN is the Short circuit current flowing between the terminals a-b when the terminals are short circuited.
➢ Thevenin and Norton equivalents are related by:
VTh = Z N I N ZTh = Z N
P.P.10.8 Fin the Thevenin Equivalent At terminals a-b in the circuit
P.P.10.9 Determine the Thevenin and Norton Equivalent for Circuits with Dependent Sources
To find Vth , consider the circuit in Fig. (a).

P.P.10.9 Thevenin and Norton Equivalent for Circuits with Dependent Sources
Since there is a dependent source, we can find the impedance by inserting a voltage source and calculating
the current supplied by the source from the terminals a-b.
Overview (AC Power Analysis)
• Know the difference between instantaneous power and average power.
• Learn the AC version of maximum power transfer theorem.
• Learn about the concepts of effective or rms value.
• Learn about the complex power, apparent power and power factor.
• Understand the principle of conservation of AC power.
• Learn about power factor correction.
Instantaneous AC Power
➢ Instantaneous Power p(t) is the power at any instant of time.
v(t ) = Vm cos(t + v ) i(t ) = I m cos(t + i )

1 1
p(t ) = v(t )i (t ) = Vm I m cos(v − i ) + Vm I m cos(2t + v + i )
2 2
Instantaneous AC Power
➢ Instantaneous Power p(t) is the power at any instant of time.
p(t ) = v(t )i(t )

Assume a sinusoidal voltage with phase  v , v(t ) = Vm cos(t + v )
Assume a sinusoidal current with phase i , i(t ) = I m cos(t + i )
1 1
p(t ) = v(t )i (t ) = Vm I m cos( v − i ) + Vm I m cos(2t + v + i )
2 2
p(t ) = CONSTANT POWER+SINUSOIDAL POWER (frequency 2 )
1 1
p(t ) = v(t )i(t ) = Vm I m cos(v − i ) + Vm I m cos(2t + v + i )
2 2
➢ The instantaneous power is composed of two parts.
• A constant part.
• The part which is a function of time.

Instantaneous and Average Power
➢ The instantaneous power p(t) is composed of a constant part (DC) and a time dependent
part having frequency 2ω.
p(t ) = v(t )i(t )
v(t ) = Vm cos(t + v ) i (t ) = I m cos(t + i )
1 1
p(t ) = Vm I m cos(v − i ) + Vm I m cos(2t + v + i )
2 2
Instantaneous Power p(t)
Average Power
P = 12 Vm I m cos(v − i )
Average Power
➢The average power P is the average of the instantaneous power over one period .
p (t ) = v(t )i (t ) Instantaneous Power

1 T
P=
T 0
p (t ) dt Average Power
v(t ) = Vm cos(t +  v ) i (t ) = I m cos(t +  i )
1 1 1

T

T

T
P= p (t )dt = 1
Vm I m cos( v −  i )dt + 1
Vm I m cos(2 t +  v +  i )dt
T 0 T 0 2 T 0 2
1 T 1 T
P = Vm I m cos( v − i )  dt + 2 Vm I m  cos(2t +  v + i )dt
1
2
1
T 0 T 0
= 12 Vm I m cos( v − i ) + 0 (Integral of a Sinusoidal=0)
P = 12 Vm I m cos( v −  i )
1
P= 1
2 Re  VI   = Vm I m cos( v − i )
2
Average Power
➢The average power P, is the average of the instantaneous power over one period .
P = 12 Vm I m cos( v − i )
1
P = Re  VI  = Vm I m cos( v − i )
1
2

2
➢ A resistor has (θv-θi)=0º so the average power becomes:
PR = Vm I m = I m R = I R
1 1 2 1 2
2 2 2
1. P is not time dependent.

2. When θv = θi , it is a purely resistive load case.
3. When θv– θi = ±90o, it is a purely reactive load case.
4. P = 0 means that the circuit absorbs no average power.
Calculate the instantaneous power and average power absorbed by a passive linear network
Solutions:
➢ Example Calculate the instantaneous power and average power

absorbed by a passive linear network if:
v(t ) = 80 cos (10 t + 20)

i(t ) = 15 sin (10 t + 60)
1 1
p(t ) = Vm I m cos( v − i ) + Vm I m cos(2t +  v + i )
2 2
=385.7 + 600cos(20t − 10) W
P= 385.7 W is the average power flow

Average Power Problem
➢ Practice Problem 11.4: Calculate the average power absorbed by each of the five elements in
the circuit given.
Average Power Problem (Cont. Practice Problem 11.4)
Maximum Average Power Transfer
➢ Finding the maximum average power which can be transferred from a linear circuit to a Load
connected.
a) Circuit with a load b) Thevenin Equivalent circuit
• Represent the circuit to the left of the load by its Thevenin equiv.
• Load ZL represents any element that is absorbing the power generated by the circuit.
• Find the load ZL that will absorb the Maximum Average Power from the circuit to which it is connected.
Maximum Average Power Transfer Condition
• Write the expression for average power associated with ZL: P(ZL).
ZTh = RTh + jXTh ZL = RL + jXL
RL 2
VTh VTh 1 2 VTh
I= = P = I RL = 2
ZTh + Z L ( RTh + jX Th ) + ( RL + jX L ) 2 ( RTh + RL ) + ( X Th + X L ) 2
2
Ajust R L and X L to get maximum P

VTh RL ( X Th + X L )
2
P
=
X L ( R + R ) 2 + ( X + X ) 2  2
 Th L Th L 
VTh ( RTh + RL ) 2 + ( X Th + X L ) 2 − 2 RL ( RTh + RL ) 
2
P
=
RL 2 2
2  ( RTh + RL ) + ( X Th + X L ) 
 2
P P
= 0  X L = − X Th =0  RL = RTh 2 + ( X Th + X L ) 2 = RTh
X L RL
Z L = RL + jX L = RTh − jX Th = ZTh

Maximum Average Power Transfer Condition
• Therefore: will generate the maximum power transfer.
2 2
I L RL VTh
•Maximum power Pmax Pmax = =
2 8RTh
➢ For Maximum average power transfer to a load impedance ZL we must choose ZL as the complex conjugate
of the Thevenin impedance ZTh.
Z L = RL + jX L = RTh − jX Th = Z Th
2
VTh
Pmax =
8RTh

➢ Example 11.5: Calculate the load impedance 𝑍𝐿 that maximizes the average power drawn from the
circuit and What is the maximum average power?.
➢ Practice Problem 11.5: Calculate the load impedance for maximum power transfer and the
maximum average power.
Maximum Average Power Transfer (Cont. Practice Problem 11.5)
Maximum Average Power for Resistive Load
➢ When the load is PURELY RESISTIVE, the condition for maximum power transfer is:
XL = 0  RL = RTh 2 + ( X Th + X L )2 = RTh 2 + X Th 2 = ZTh

➢ Now the maximum power can not be obtained from the Pmax formula given before.
➢ Maximum power can be calculated by finding the power of RL when XL=0.
∙ RESISTIVE
LOAD
∙
∙
∙
➢ Practice Problem 11.6: Calculate the resistive load needed for maximum power transfer and the
maximum average power.
Cont. Practice Problem 11.6
RL
➢ Notice the way that the maximum power is calculated using the Thevenin Equivalent circuit.
Effective or RMS Value
➢ The EFFECTIVE Value or the Root Mean Square (RMS) value of a periodic current is the
DC value that delivers the same average power to a resistor as the periodic current.
a) AC circuit b) DC circuit
1 T R T
P =  i (t ) Rdt =  i (t ) 2 dt = I eff 2 R = I Rms 2 R
2
T 0 T 0
1 T 1 T
I eff = I Rms =  Veff = VRms = 
2 2
i (t ) dt v (t ) dt
T 0 T 0
Effective or RMS Value of a Sinusoidal
➢ The Root Mean Square (RMS) value of a sinusoidal voltage or current is equal to the maximum
value divided by square root of 2.
1 T 2 Im2 1 I
 
T
I Rms = I m cos 2
tdt = (1 + cos 2 t )dt = m
T 0 T 0 2 2
➢ The average power can be written in terms of the rms values:
P = 12 Vm I m cos(v − i ) = VRms I Rms cos(v − i )

➢ The average power for resistive loads using the (RMS) value is:
2
V
PR = I Rms 2 R = Rms
R
➢ Practice Problem 11.7: Find the RMS value of the current waveform. Calculate the average power
if the current is applied to a 9  resistor.
4t
8-4t
 4t 0  t 1 T =2
i (t ) = 
8 − 4t 1  t  2
i dt =  
1 1

T
0
1
1
2
I 2
= 2
(4t 2
) dt + (8 − 4t ) 2
dt
2  
rms
T 0
16  1 2  1  t 3  2  16
=   
t dt + (4 − 4t + t ) dt 
2 2 2
I rms
2  0 I 2
= 8  +  4t − 2t +  1  =
2
1  rms
3  3  3
16
I rms = = 2.309A  16 
3 P = I rms
2
R =  (9) = 48W
 3 
Apparent Power and Power Factor
➢ The Average Power depends on the Rms value of voltage and current and the phase angle
between them.
P = 12 Vm I m cos(v − i ) = VRms I Rms cos(v − i )

➢ The Apparent Power is the product of the Rms value of voltage and current. It is measured in
Volt amperes (VA).
1
S = Vm I m = VRms I Rms
2
➢ The Power Factor (pf) is the cosine of the phase difference between voltage and current. It is
also the cosine of the angle of load impedance. The power factor may also be regarded as the
ratio of the real power dissipated to the apparent power of the load.
P
pf = = cos(v − i )
S
P = Apparent Power  Power Factor = S  pf
➢ The angle ∅𝑣 − ∅𝑖 is called the power factor angle, since it is the angle whose cosine is the
power factor. The power factor angle is equal to the angle of the load impedance if V is the
voltage across the load and I is the current through it. This is evident from the fact that
➢ Not all the apparent power is consumed if the circuit is partly reactive.
Purely resistive θv– θi = 0, Pf = 1 P/S = 1, all power are

load (R) consumed
Purely reactive θv– θi = ±90o, P = 0, no real power

load (L or C) pf = 0 consumption
Resistive and θv– θi > 0 • Lagging - inductive load

reactive load θv– θi < 0 • Leading - capacitive load
(R and L/C) P/S < 1, Part of the apparent
power is consumed
Overview (AC Power Analysis)
• Know the difference between instantaneous power and average power.
• Learn the AC version of maximum power transfer theorem.
• Learn about the concepts of effective or rms value.
• Learn about the complex power, apparent power and power factor.
• Understand the principle of conservation of AC power.
• Learn about power factor correction.
Complex Power
➢ The COMPLEX Power S contains all the information pertaining to the power absorbed by a given load.
2
1  V
S = VI = VRms IRms = I 2 Rms Z = Rms
2 Z
VRms = VRms v I Rms = I Rms i

S = VRms I Rms (v − i )
= VRms I Rms cos(v − i ) + jVRms I Rms sin(v − i )
= P + jQ = Re{S} + j Im{S} = Real Power+Reactive Power
Complex Power
➢ The REAL Power is the average power in watts delivered to a load; the only useful power delivered to the load. It is
the actual power dissipated by the load.
➢The REACTIVE Power represents the energy exchange between the source and reactive part of the load. It is being
transferred back and forth between the load and the source
➢The unit of Q is volt-ampere reactive (VAR)
S = P + jQ = Re{S} + j Im{S}
=Real Power+Reactive Power
S = I 2 Rms Z = I 2 Rms ( R + jX ) = P + jQ
P =VRms I Rms cos(v − i ) = Re{S} = I 2 Rms R

Q =VRms I Rms sin(v − i ) = Im{S} = I 2
Rms X
Resistive Circuit and Real Power
v(t ) = Vm sin(t +  ) i (t ) = I m sin(t )

1 1
p (t ) = v(t )i (t ) = Vm I m cos( ) 1 − cos(2t )  + Vm I m sin( ) sin(2t )
2 2
= VRms I Rms cos( ) 1 − cos(2t )  + VRms I Rms sin( ) sin(2t )
= VRms I Rms − VRms I Rms cos(2t )  = 0 RESISTIVE
p(t ) is always Positive
Inductive Circuit and Reactive Power
v(t ) = Vm sin(t +  ) i (t ) = I m sin(t )

1 1
pL (t ) = v(t )i (t ) = Vm I m cos( ) 1 − cos( 2t )  + Vm I m sin( ) sin(2t )
2 2
= VRms I Rms sin( 2t )  = 90 INDUCTIVE
pL (t ) is equally both positive and negative, power is circulating
Inductive Circuit and Reactive Power
➢If the average power is zero, and the energy supplied is returned within
one cycle, why is a reactive power of any significance?
➢At every instant of time along the power curve that the curve is above
the axis (positive), energy must be supplied to the inductor, even though
it will be returned during the negative portion of the cycle. This power
requirement during the positive portion of the cycle requires that the
generating plant provide this energy during that interval, even though
this power is not dissipated but simply “borrowed.”
➢The increased power demand during these intervals is a cost factor
that must be passed on to the industrial consumer.
➢Most larger users of electrical energy pay for the apparent power
demand rather than the watts dissipated since the volt-amperes used are
sensitive to the reactive power requirement.
➢The closer the power factor of an industrial consumer is to 1, the more
efficient is the plant’s operation since it is limiting its use of “borrowed”
power.
Capacitive Circuit and Reactive Power
v(t ) = Vm sin(t +  ) i(t ) = I m sin(t )

1 1
pC (t ) = v(t )i (t ) = Vm I m cos( ) 1 − cos(2t )  + Vm I m sin( ) sin(2t )
2 2
= −VRms I Rms sin(2t )  = −90 CAPACITIVE
pC (t ) is equally both positive and negative, power is circulating
Complex Power
➢ The COMPLEX Power contains all the information pertaining to the power absorbed by a given load.
1 
Complex Power=S = P + jQ = VI = VRms I Rms (v − i )
2
Apparent Power=S = S = VRms I Rms = P 2 + Q 2
Real Power=P = Re{S} = S cos(v − i )
Reactive Power=Q = Im{S} = S sin( v − i )
P
Power Factor= =cos(v − i )
S
• Real Power is the actual power dissipated by the load.
• Reactive Power is a measure of the energy exchange between source and reactive part of the load.
Power Triangle
➢ The COMPLEX Power is represented by the POWER TRIANGLE similar to IMPEDANCE

TRIANGLE. Power triangle has four items: P, Q, S and θ.
a) Power Triangle b) Impedance Triangle Power Triangle
Q=0 Resistive Loads (Unity Pf )

Q0 Capacitive Loads (Leading Pf )
Q0 Inductive Loads (Lagging Pf )
Real and Reactive Power Formulation
v(t ) = Vm cos(t + v ) i(t ) = I m cos(t + i )

p(t ) = VRms I Rms cos(v − i ) 1 + cos 2(t + v ) + VRms I Rms sin(v − i ) sin 2(t + v )
=P  1 + cos 2(t + v ) + Q  sin 2(t + v )
=Real Power + R eactive Power
P is the REAL AVERAGE POWER

Q is the maximum value of the circulating power flowing back and forward
P = Vrms I rms cos Q = Vrms I rms sin 

Conservation of AC Power
➢ The complex, real and reactive power of the sources equal the respective sum of the complex,
real and reactive power of the individual loads.
a) Loads in Parallel b) Loads in Series
➢For parallel connection

S = 𝑉𝐼 ∗ = 𝑉 𝐼1∗ + 𝐼2∗ = 𝑉𝐼1∗ + 𝑉𝐼2∗ = 𝑆1 + 𝑆2
➢For series connection
S = 𝑉𝐼 ∗ = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 𝐼 ∗ = 𝑉1 𝐼 ∗ + 𝑉2 𝐼 ∗ = 𝑆1 + 𝑆2
➢ Practice Problem 11.13: The 60  resistor absorbs 240 Watt of average power.
Calculate V and the complex power of each branch. What is the total complex power?
➢ Practice Problem 11.13: The 60  resistor absorbs 240 Watt of average power.
Calculate V and the complex power of each branch. What is the total complex power?
➢ Practice Problem 11.14: Two loads are connected in parallel. Load 1 has 2 kW, pf=0.75 leading
and Load 2 has 4 kW, pf=0.95 lagging. Calculate the pf of two loads and the complex power supplied
by the source.
Complex power is Conserved

Power Factor Correction
The process of increasing the power factor without altering the voltage or current to the original
load is known as power factor correction
Power factor correction: (a) original Phasor diagram showing the effect of
inductive load, (b) inductive load with adding a capacitor in parallel with the
improved power factor. inductive load.
Power Factor Correction
Power triangle illustrating power factor

correction.

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E2E 222

A sketch of Vm 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡:

• Here the angular frequency is in radians per second

− sin 𝜔𝑡 = sin 𝜔𝑡 ± 180°

𝒊𝟐 = 5 cos(377t − 65°) = 5 cos(377t − 65° + 360°)

Both answers are correct

e jf =cosf +jsinf Euler's Identity

z = x + jy = rf = re− jf =r (cosf + j sin f )

➢ Given a sinusoid v(t)=Vmcos(ωt+φ).

➢ Integrating a sinusoid is equivalent to dividing its corresponding phasor by jω.

Dr. Akram Almohammedi

Phasor voltage and current of a

Phasor current of an inductor

Phasor current of a capacitor LEADS

➢ Inductor is SHORT CIRCUIT at DC and OPEN CIRCUIT at high frequencies.

➢ The Reactance is Inductive if X is positive and it is Capacitive if X is negative.

➢ The Voltage Division for two elements in series is:

Output Leads the input

Output Lags the input

Dr. Akram Almohammedi E2E 222 Circuits Theory II

➢ Solve the problem using circuit techniques listed below

➢ Transform the resulting circuit back to time domain.

Dr. Akram Almohammedi E2E 222 Circuits Theory II

➢ Transform the circuit to the phasor or frequency domain.

Solve Freq to Time

Dr. Akram Almohammedi E2E 222 Circuits Theory II

Dr. Akram Almohammedi E2E 222 Circuits Theory II

Dr. Akram Almohammedi E2E 222 Circuits Theory II

Dr. Akram Almohammedi E2E 222 Circuits Theory II

➢ Practice Problem 10.1: Find v1 and v2 using nodal analysis

Dr. Akram Almohammedi E2E 222 Circuits Theory II

Dr. Akram Almohammedi E2E 222 Circuits Theory II

Dr. Akram Almohammedi E2E 222 Circuits Theory II

Dr. Akram Almohammedi E2E 222 Circuits Theory II

Dr. Akram Almohammedi E2E 222 Circuits Theory II

E2E 222 Circuits Theory II

Meshes 2 and 3 form a

E2E 222 Circuits Theory II

E2E 222 Circuits Theory II

➢ Superposition Theorem applies to AC circuits as well.

E2E 222 Circuits Theory II

E2E 222 Circuits Theory II

c) All sources except 2 sin 5t set to zero

vo= v1+ v2+ v3

E2E 222 Circuits Theory II

E2E 222 Circuits Theory II

E2E 222 Circuits Theory II

E2E 222 Circuits Theory II

E2E 222 Circuits Theory II

E2E 222 Circuits Theory II

➢ Thevenin and Norton equivalents are related by:

To find Vth , consider the circuit in Fig. (a).

v(t ) = Vm cos(t + v ) i(t ) = I m cos(t + i )

p(t ) = v(t )i(t )

• The part which is a function of time.

p (t ) = v(t )i (t ) Instantaneous Power

v(t ) = Vm cos(t +  v ) i (t ) = I m cos(t +  i )

1. P is not time dependent.

➢ Example Calculate the instantaneous power and average power