Concrete Work in Residential Buildings

FOOTINGS

Footings are provided to distribute loads to the soil and to provide a platform for the construction
of foundation walls and support posts. In addition to distributing the loads to the soils and
minimizing differential settlement that can cause cracking in walls above the footing, the footings
can bridge isolated areas of settled soil under the footing. Footings should be placed below the
frost line (The line varies by latitude, it is deeper and closer to the poles. Per Federal Highway
Administration Publication Number FHWA-HRT-08-057, the maximum frost depth observed in the
contiguous United States ranges from 0 to 8 feet (2.4 m). Below that depth, the temperature varies,
but is always above 32 °F (0 °C)) and concrete should not be cast in standing water or mud.
During cold weather, the soil should be protected from freezing before and after concrete
placement. A footing drainage system is usually required to minimize lateral loads on foundation
walls.

Horizontal and vertical reinforcement (rebars) is usually placed in concrete walls to resist
applied loads and control cracking due to shrinkage and temperature effects.

• Problems faced in residential concrete construction

The decisions at the construction site are taken by the individual contractors and the
requirements of air entrainment, slump, curing water-cement ratio, admixtures, control joints,
etc. are ignored leading to the inferior quality of construction.

The main problem arises due to the slow pour of concrete. The concrete from ready-mix trucks
may not be used within 90 min (depending on the weather, <<40min) and water may be added
to prevent loss of slump. The added water may not be mixed sufficiently further deteriorating the
quality of concrete. To avoid this situation, forms must be in place with sufficient workers to
place the concrete when the ready-mix truck arrives.

Problems arise due to the rapid drying of the surface. Finishers may rewet and then trowel the
surface which weakens it. Such surfaces have poor wear resistance and are prone to scaling.
To avoid this, the surface should be kept wet by covering it with plastic film or by spraying
evaporation retardant. By no means, should added water be forced back into concrete.

Sometimes, the mindset of contractors is that curing is not required at cold temperatures
because it harms the concrete surface. During cold weather, curing must be done by taking
precautions to avoid freezing.

Joint errors are prevalent in residential concrete. The contractors may provide joints that are too
far apart or may not be sufficiently deep. This causes cracking of concrete. Joints should be
properly placed with sufficient depth. Joints re-entrant corners should be jointed.

Because concrete is relatively weak in tension, some cracking can be expected in most
concrete construction. The most common cause of cracking in residential concrete is drying
shrinkage and temperature effects. Drying shrinkage is caused by the loss of moisture during
the hydration process. To minimize cracking potential, concrete should be placed with the
lowest possible water content and properly cured. Contraction joints using saw cuts need to be
sawn early enough, deep enough, and not spaced too far apart.

Dusting is the development of fine powdery material due to a thin layer of weak concrete called
laitance at the surface. This is often caused by floating bleed water back to the surface. It may
also be caused by overly wet mixtures, inadequate curing, and freezing at the surface.

Scaling is caused by the loss of surface mortar surrounding coarse aggregate particles, leaving
the coarse aggregate exposed. It is usually caused by water freezing in the concrete and lack of
air entrainment to relieve the internal pressure due to freezing.

Pop-outs at the surface are usually caused by internal pressure developing due to the
expansion of unstable materials or chemical reactions between the cement and some types of
aggregates.

Blisters can appear on the surface during finishing due to bubbles of entrapped air forming
under an airtight surface layer. This can be prevented by using proper finishing procedures and
good-quality concrete.

• Concrete materials

Concrete consists of cementitious material (Portland cement, fly ash, slag, etc.), coarse
aggregate (gravel), fine aggregate (sand), and water. Admixtures and additives may also be
added to produce desired properties. The strength of the mix depends to a large extent on the
proportions of these ingredients. Each material in concrete has its own significance and
changing proportions alter the properties of concrete significantly. Concrete is usually supplied
to the site by a ready-mix concrete supplier. Hence, the concrete mix supplier should be
consulted prior to altering the proportion of cement, aggregates, or water.

- Aggregates

Aggregates occupy the major portion of concrete by volume and serve as inexpensive fillers.
Aggregates should be chemically inert so that they do not react with cement or water which
might lead to the deterioration of concrete. The size, shape, and surface texture of aggregate
also affect the quality of concrete.

- Water / Cement ratio

The cementitious pastes consist of cement and water that coats and bonds the aggregates
together. This paste also fills the voids between the aggregates. The strength of concrete
depends primarily on the water-cement ratio. If the amount of cement is increased, the strength
of the concrete will increase. However, there should be sufficient water present in the mix to
hydrate all of the cement. The addition of water more than the specified amount will provide
ease of placing the concrete i.e. workability; however, it will decrease the strength of the
resulting mix and increase the potential for the shrinkage which may further increase the
development of cracks. The water-cement ratio should be preferably less than 0.45. No
additional water should be added at the job site to ready mix concrete unless the water-cement
ratio at the time of batching is lower than the allowable. If the slump( the consistency of fresh
concrete before it sets) is lower than the maximum allowed value, high range water reducing
agents may be used. Retarders can be used when the concrete mix truck has to travel a long
distance from the concrete plant to the job site so that concrete does not set before it reaches
the site. Retarders temporarily stop the action of hydration of cement.

• Compressive Strength

The compressive strength of concrete used for residential construction should not be lower than
2500 psi. This range is applicable only where the weathering probability is negligible. For the
construction of driveways, stairs, curbs, and slabs which will be exposed to weather, the
minimum compressive strength of concrete should not be less than 4500 psi and the slump
should not be more than 5".

Concrete has a tendency to shrink when it dries. Cracks may develop when shrinkage is
restrained. This restraint may result from support conditions, reinforcing steel, the connection
between different parts of the structure, etc. Cracks are generated as a result of shrinkage.
Since shrinkage is greater at the surface, it generates surface cracks initially. Concrete has low
tensile strength. If the tensile stress on a concrete component is greater than the tensile
strength, concrete tends to crack. Joints may be provided to control cracking. Concrete may
crack randomly in slabs on the ground if control joints are not provided to divide the slab into
smaller sections. Hence, control joints are created into concrete so that cracking occurs at
predetermined locations. These control joints are created by grooving and sawing the concrete
surface.

• Concrete in cold/hot weather

Concrete gets permanently damaged if it is exposed to freezing temperature before reaching a

compressive strength of 500 psi. Hence, for cold weather concreting special provisions are
needed for maintaining the placement temperature. Insulation products and supplemental heat
may be needed to maintain the concrete temperature. Accelerators can be used when casting
concrete during cold weather. Accelerators decrease the setting time of concrete to counter the
effect of low temperature.

If the ambient temperature is less than 1.67°C, the concrete temperature should be maintained
above 35 °F till the compressive strength reaches 500 psi. Frozen material containing ice should
not be used in the mix. Materials coming in contact with concrete-like aggregates,
reinforcement, and form, should be free from frost.

Casting concrete in hot weather can also lower the ultimate concrete strength and serviceability
of a concrete member. In hot weather, water is evaporated from the mix, slump decreases
rapidly and cement sets up rapidly. The water at the surface may dry up quickly and if not cured
adequately, it may decrease the ultimate strength. Loss of water may lead to shrinkage and
cracking.
Adding more water may compromise the ultimate strength of the mix. Sometimes dry subgrades
and formwork can absorb water from the concrete mix aggravating the problem. The thermal
differential may be set up between two parts of the member which might lead to cracking.
Retarders are used in areas where the high temperature may decrease the setting time of
concrete.

• Workability of concrete

The concrete mix should be workable during placement and finishing. Properties like
consistency, setting time, and bleeding also affect the strength of concrete.

- Slump

Consistency of concrete defines the flowability of concrete and it is measured through the slump
test. During the slump test, a truncated cone is filled with concrete and the amount by which the
concrete subsides is measured once the cone is lifted. If the slump value is high (6"- 8"), it
means that the concrete is more workable. However, if the water content is more than the
designed water content of the mix, it would result in weak concrete. A low slump (1"-3") means
concrete is difficult to consolidate and is stiffer. Concrete with a low slump is difficult to place
and finish. Slump usually varies from 5" - 6". The slump value of concrete should not be
increased only by adding water as water may make the cement paste thin and reduce the
strength of concrete and increase shrinkage. If required, a slump can be increased by the use of
admixtures.

- Setting time

Setting time is the time concrete takes for initial stiffening once the water has been added to the
mix. It can vary from 4 to 8 hrs depending on the mix composition, cement properties,
temperature of the mix, and ambient temperature. The setting time of concrete increases with a
decrease in temperature.

- Bleeding

After the concrete has been placed, solid material settles down whereas excess water rises to
the surface. This phenomenon is known as bleeding. During finishing, this water may get mixed
with the surface layer leading to the creation of weakened zone and fine cracks, and surface
defects such as dusting and scaling. Hence, finishing should not be done while bleed water is
present.

- Air entrainment

Air entrainment admixtures help entrain tiny air bubbles in the concrete. This improves the
workability of concrete. The amount of water required to achieve a certain consistency also
decreases with the use of air entrainment admixtures. As the amount of water decreases in the
mix, the strength of concrete increases, and the problem of bleed water reduces. The bubbles
remain as discrete voids after the hardening of concrete. These voids help in releasing the
pressure during the freeze-thaw cycle. It is required that concrete subjected to freezing and
thawing should have between 5%-8% of entrained air by volume. For regions of minimum
weathering probability, there is no minimum air entrainment requirement.

- Placement

The normal discharge time for the placement of concrete is 1.5 hours after adding water. This
discharge time can be exceeded if the temperature of concrete is in the range of 12.8 to 37.78 C
and the water amount present in the mixture is not more than the specified mixture proportion.

While placing concrete, care should be taken so that consistency and matrix of the concrete mix
are maintained and there is no loss of material. The area should be cleared of debris, ice, and
excess water before concrete is placed over it. Concrete should be consolidated using vibrators.
Extra care should be taken while placing concrete around reinforcement bars, corners of forms,
and other embedded items so that there is no void around them. Removal of forms should be
done in such a way that the surface of the concrete is not damaged.

- Concrete Cover

Concrete cover for concrete cast against earth should be a minimum of 3 inches, for concrete
exposed to weather or earth, the cover should be a minimum of 1.5 inches and for concrete not
exposed to weather and earth, the cover should be a minimum of 0.75 inches.

- Calcium Chloride

Calcium chloride should not exceed 2% by weight of cementitious materials for structural plain
concrete in dry areas protected from water. For structural work, plain concrete exposed to
atmospheric conditions and reinforced concrete, calcium chloride should not exceed 0.3% by
weight of cementitious materials.

- Curing

The concrete mix loses moisture once it is placed and loss of moisture may lead to improper
hydration of cement. Curing is done to maintain adequate moisture and temperature conditions
in a freshly placed concrete mix so that hydration of cement takes place and the desired
strength of the concrete mix is developed. It has a significant impact on strength, permeability,
abrasion resistance, and resistance to freezing and thawing of concrete structures. All concrete
structures should be cured for the specified period

The curing period is the time period beginning at the placing of concrete and extending until the
concrete has attained the desired strength. Curing should be started as early as possible when
drying conditions exist. For temperatures above 4.44 °C, curing should be done till the concrete
has achieved 70 percent of specified strength.

Curing duration can be decreased if accelerators are used for the development of early
strength. For temperatures below 4.44 °C, the concrete must be protected from the effects of
cold weather throughout the process of placing, finishing, and curing. During cold weather, heat
should be used to maintain the temperature of the concrete, along with proper curing.
The curing procedure can be described in three stages. Initial curing measures such as fogging
and the use of evaporation reducers are applied between placement and final finishing of
concrete. It is done to reduce the loss of moisture from the surface. Intermediate curing is done
using spray-applied liquid membrane-forming curing compounds and is implemented after
finishing and before the final set of concrete. Final curing is implemented when the concrete has
reached the final set. It is implemented through measures such as applying wet coverings or
using liquid membrane-forming curing compounds. A complete and continuous water cover
should be available over the concrete surface for wet water curing. Alternate wetting and drying
of concrete surfaces deteriorate its quality. The water should be free from harmful chemicals
and impurities. Potable water is acceptable as curing water.

If wet covers are used for curing, they should not be allowed to dry and absorb water from
concrete. The curing period should terminate with uniform, slow drying of the concrete surface.
To achieve this, the cover material should be allowed to dry thoroughly before removing it.

- Consolidation

Consolidation of freshly mixed concrete results in the reduction of voids by expelling entrapped
air. It leads to a compact mix that has a closer arrangement of particles of concrete and has a
strong and durable structure. If concrete is not consolidated it may lead to porous, low strength,
highly permeable structure.

The consolidation requirements are determined by the workability of the mix. While determining
the workability, reduction due to loss in a slump because of high temperature, premature
hardening, etc. should be considered. Workability determines the ease with which concrete can
be mixed, placed, consolidated, and finished. Workability is primarily controlled by the water-
cement ratio of the mix. When the mix has a high ability to flow (contains more water), the mix
may segregate during consolidation. Concrete mix with a low water-cement ratio requires more
effort to achieve proper consolidation. In such cases, admixtures can be added to achieve
desired consistency and workability. If stiffer mixes are not consolidated properly, they will
contain entrapped air and will be porous resulting in a decrease in strength.

Manual and mechanical methods are available for consolidation. Consolidation is usually done
by vibration, centrifugation (spinning), spading and tamping. The consolidation method depends
on the concrete mix, placing conditions, and amount of reinforcement. If the mix has flowing
consistency, rodding may to done to consolidate it. Spading is done on the formed concrete
surface. If the mix is stiff, hand tamping may be done to consolidate the mix. While applying
these methods, a thin layer of concrete is laid and rammed. Consolidation obtained through
manual methods is effective but is time and labor-intensive.

Mechanical methods consist of the use of equipment that applies static pressure, power
tampers, centrifugation, shock tables, and vibrators. Two or more methods can be used
together. Vibrators are predominantly used for consolidating concrete. Vibratory impulses
induced by vibrators, liquefy the mortar, and internal friction between particles results. When
internal friction decreases, concrete is not able to support its honeycomb structure and becomes
unstable. While in this condition concrete becomes denser eliminating the honeycombs. Once
the vibrations are stopped, internal friction is again established. Agitating the mix further forces
the entrapped air to rise to the surface. The vibration should be terminated when entrapped air
is reduced sufficiently.

• Type of Foundations
• Rebar Size, Diameter, and Cross-sectional Areas

• Before the footings

On stable soils with an allowable bearing pressure of 75 kPa or greater.

• Basic Footing Widths and Areas

Where the supported joist span exceeds 4.9m in buildings with light wood-frame walls, floors,
and roofs, footing widths shall be determined according to

W = w•[ å sjs / (storeys•4.9)]

where
W = minimum footing width,

w = minimum width of footings supporting joists not exceeding 4.9 m, S sjs = sum of the
supported joist spans on each storey whose load is transferred to the footing, and storeys =
number of storeys supported by the footing.

• Minimum Footing Sizes

Minimum Width of Strip Footings, mm

No. of Floors Minimum Footing Area for
Supporting Supporting
Supported
(2) Columns Spaced 3 m o.c.,(1) m2
Exterior Walls Interior Walls(3)
1 250 200 0.4
2 350 350 0.75
3 450 500 1.0
• Adjustments to Footing Widths for Exterior Walls

1) The strip footing widths for exterior walls shown in the Table, shall be increased by
a) 65mm for each storey of masonry veneer over wood-frame construction supported by
the foundation wall, b) 130 mm for each storey of masonry construction supported by the
foundation wall, and
c) 150mm for each storey of flat insulating concrete form wall construction supported by
the foundation wall.

• Adjustments to Footing Widths for Interior Walls

1) The minimum strip footing widths for interior loadbearing masonry walls shown in
Table shall be increased by 100 mm for each storey of masonry construction supported
by the footing.

2) Footings for interior non -loadbearing masonry walls shall be not less than 200mm
wide for walls up to 5.5m high and the width shall be increased by 100 mm for each
additional 2.7 m of height.

• Footing Thickness

1) Footing thickness shall be not less than the greater of

a) 100mm,or
b) the width of the projection of the footing beyond the supported element.

FOUNDATION WALLS

Foundation Wall Thickness and Required Lateral Support

1) Except as required in Sentence(2), the thickness of foundation walls made of unreinforced

concrete block, or solid concrete and subject to lateral earth pressure shall conform to Table
9.15.4.2.-A for walls not exceeding 3.0 m in unsupported height.

2) The thickness of concrete in flat insulating concrete form foundation walls shall be not less
than the greater of a) 140mm, or
b) the thickness of the concrete in the wall above.

3) Foundation walls made of flat insulating concrete form units shall be laterally supported at the
top and at the bottom.
Table 9.15.4.2.-A
Thickness of Solid Concrete and Unreinforced Concrete Block Foundation Walls Forming
Part of Sentence 9.15.4.2.(1)

Maximum Height of Finished Ground Above Basement

Floor or Crawl Space Ground Cover, m
Height of Foundation
Type of Wall Laterally Height of Foundation Wall Laterally
Minimum Wall
Foundatio
n Wall
Thickness, mm Unsupported at the Supported at the Top(1)(2)
Top(1)(2)
≤ 2.5 >2.5 >2.75
≤ 3.0 m
m mand≤2.75m mand≤3.0m
Solid 150 0.8 1.5 1.5 1.4
concrete, 200 1.2 2.15 2.15 2.1
15 MPa 250 1.4 2.3 2.6 2.5
min.
strength 300 1.5 2.3 2.6 2.85
Solid 150 0.8 1.8 1.6 1.6
concrete, 200 1.2 2.3 2.3 2.2
20 MPa 250 1.4 2.3 2.6 2.85
min.
strength 300 1.5 2.3 2.6 2.85

Unreinforc 140 0.6 0.8 – –

ed 190 0.9 1.2 (3) (3)
concrete 240 1.2 1.8 (3) (3)
block 290 1.4 2.2 – –

Notes to Table 9.15.4.2.-A:

(1) SeeArticle9.15.4.3. (2) SeeArticle9.15.4.6. (3) SeeTable9.15.4.2.-B.

4) The thickness and reinforcement of foundation walls made of reinforced concrete block and
subject to lateral earth pressure shall conform to Table 9.15.4.2.-B and Sentences (5) to (8),
where

1. a) the walls are laterally supported at the top,

2. b) average stable soils are encountered, and
3. c) windloadsontheexposedportionofthefoundationarenogreaterthan0.70kPa.

5) For concrete block walls required to be reinforced, continuous vertical reinforcement shall

1. a) be provided at wall corners, wall ends, wall intersections, at changes in wall height, at
the jambs of all openings, and at movement joints,
2. b) extend from the top of the footing to the top of the foundation wall, and
3. c) where foundation walls are laterally supported at the top, have not less than 50mm
embedment into the footing if the floor slab does not provide lateral support at the wall
base.
6) For concrete block walls required to be reinforced, a continuous horizontal bond beam
containing not less than one 15M bar shall be installed

a) along the top of the wall,

b) at the sill and head of all openings greater than 1.20 m in width, and c) at structurally
connected floors.

Table 9.15.4.2.-B
Reinforced Concrete Block Foundation Walls Laterally Supported at the Top(1) Forming
Part of Sentence 9.15.4.2.(4)

Size and Spacing of Continuous Vertical

Reinforcement, M at mm o.c.
190 mm Minimum Wall 240 mm Minimum
Maximum Height of Finished Ground Thickness Wall Thickness
Above Basement Floor or Crawl Space Foundation Wall
Foundation Wall Height
Ground Cover, m(2) Height
≤
≤ 2.75 ≤ 2.75
≤ 2.5 m ≤ 3.0 m 2.5 ≤ 3.0 m
m m
m
0.8 (3) (3) (3) (3) (3) (3)
1-15M 1-15M
1 (3) (3) (3) (3)
at 1 800 at 1 800
1-15M 1-15M 1-20M 1-20M
1.2 (3) (3)
at 1 600 at 1 600 at 2 000 at 2 000
1-15M 1-15M 1-15M 1-20M 1-20M
1.4 (3)
at 1 600 at 1 600 at 1 600 at 1 800 at 1 800
1-15M 1-15M 1-15M 1-20M 1-20M
1.6 (3)
at 1 400 at 1 400 at 1 400 at 1 600 at 1 600
1-15M 1-15M 1-15M 1-20M 1-20M
1.8 (3)
at 1 400 at 1 400 at 1 200 at 1 600 at 1 600
Table 9.15.4.2.-B (continued)
Reinforced Concrete Block Foundation Walls Laterally Supported at the Top(1) Forming
Part of Sentence 9.15.4.2.(4)

Size and Spacing of Continuous Vertical

Reinforcement, M at mm o.c.
Maximum Height of Finished
190 mm Minimum Wall 240 mm Minimum Wall
Ground Above Basement Floor
Thickness Thickness
or Crawl Space Ground Cover,
Foundation Wall Height Foundation Wall Height
m(2)
≤ 2.5 ≤ 2.5 ≤ 2.75
≤ 2.75 m ≤ 3.0 m ≤ 3.0 m
m m m
1-15M at 1
1-15M 1-20M 1-20M
000 or 1- 2-15M at 1 1-20M at 1
2 at 1 at 1 at 1
20M at 1 200 600
200 600 600
200
2-15M 1-20M 1-20M
2-15M at 1 2-15M at 1 1-20M at 1
2.2 at 1 at 1 at 1
000 000 400
200 400 400
2-15M 1-20M 1-20M
2-15M at 1 2-15M at 1-20M at 1
2.4 at 1 at 1 at 1
000 800 200
000 400 400
2-15M at 2-15M at
1-20M
800 or 1- 800 or 1- 1-20M at 1
2.6 n/a n/a at 1
25M at 1 25M at 1 000
000
000 000
1-20M at
1-20M at 800 or 2-
2.8 n/a n/a n/a n/a
600 15M at 1
000
1-20M at
2-15M at
3 n/a n/a 400 or 1- n/a n/a
800
25M at 600

Notes to Table 9.15.4.2.-B:

(1) SeeArticle9.15.4.3.
(2) SeeArticle9.15.4.6.
(3) No reinforcement required.

9.15.4.3.

7) In concrete block walls required to be reinforced, all vertical bar reinforcement shall be
installed along the centerline of the wall.

8) In concrete block walls required to be reinforced, ladder- or truss-type lateral reinforcement

not less than 3.8 mm in diameter (no. 9 ASWG) shall be installed in the bed joint of every
second masonry course.
Foundation Walls Considered to be Laterally Supported at the Top

1. 1) Sentences(2) to (4) pertain to lateral support for walls described in

Sentence9.15.4.2.(1).
2. 2) Foundation walls shall be considered to be laterally supported at the top if

1. a) such walls support a solid masonry superstructure,

2. b) the floor joists are embedded in the top of the foundation walls, or
3. c) the floor system is anchored to the top of the foundation walls with anchor bolts, in
which case the joists may run either parallel or perpendicular to the foundation walls.

3) Unless the wall around an opening is reinforced to withstand earth pressure, the portion of
the foundation wall beneath an opening shall be considered laterally unsupported if

a) the opening is more than1.2m wide ,or

b) the total width of the openings in the foundation wall constitutes more than 25% of the length
of the wall.

4) For the purposes of Sentence(3), the combined width of the openings shall be considered as
a single opening if the average width is greater than the width of the solid wall between them.

5) Flat insulating concrete-form-foundation walls shall be considered to be laterally supported at

the top if the floor joists are installed according to Article 9.20.17.5.

9.15.4.4.

9.15.4.5.

Foundation Walls Considered to be Laterally Supported at the Bottom

1) Flat insulating concrete form foundation walls shall be considered to be laterally supported at
the bottom where the foundation wall

a) supports backfill not more than1.2m in height,

b) is supported at the footing by a shear key and at the top by the ground floor framing, or c) is
doweled to the footing with not less than15M bars spaced not more than1.2m o.c.

Reinforcement for Flat Insulating Concrete Form Foundation Walls

1) Horizontal reinforcement in flat insulating concrete form foundation walls shall

1. a) consist of

i) one 10M bar placed not more than 300mm from the top of the wall, and ii) 10M bars at
600mm o.c., and

2. b) be located
 i) in the inside half of the wall section, and
ii) with a minimum cover of 30mm from the inside face of the concrete.

2) Vertical reinforcement in flat insulating concrete form foundation walls shall be

1. a) provided in accordance with

i) Table9.15.4.5.-A for140mm walls,

ii) Table9.15.4.5.-B for190mm walls, and

iii) Table9.15.4.5.-C for240mm walls,

2. b) located in the inside half of the wall section with a minimum cover of 30 mm from the
inside face of the concrete wall, and
3. c) where interrupted by wall openings, placed not more than 600mm from each side of
the openings.

3) Cold joints in flat insulating concrete form foundation walls shall be reinforced with no less
than one15Mbar spaced at not more than 600 mm o.c. and embedded 300 mm on both sides of
the joint.

4) Reinforcing around openings in flat insulating concrete form foundation walls shall comply
with Article 9.20.17.3. or 9.20.17.4.

Table 9.15.4.5.-A
Vertical Reinforcement for 140 mm Flat Insulating Concrete Form Foundation Walls
Forming Part of Sentence 9.15.4.5.(2)

Minimum Vertical Reinforcement

Max. Height of Finished Ground Above Maximum Unsupported Basement Wall
Finished Basement Floor, m Height
2.44 m 2.75 m 3.0 m
10M at 400 10M at 400 10M at 400
1.35
mm o.c. mm o.c. mm o.c.
10M at 400 10M at 380 10M at 380
1.6
mm o.c. mm o.c. mm o.c.
10M at 380 10M at 380 10M at 380
2
mm o.c. mm o.c. mm o.c.
10M at 250 10M at 250 10M at 250
2.2
mm o.c. mm o.c. mm o.c.
10M at 250 10M at 250
2.35 n/a
mm o.c. mm o.c.
10M at 250 10M at 250
2.6 n/a
mm o.c. mm o.c.
15M at 250
3 n/a n/a
mm o.c.
Table 9.15.4.5.-B
Vertical Reinforcement for 190 mm Flat Insulating Concrete Form Foundation Walls

Forming Part of Sentence 9.15.4.5.(2)

Minimum Vertical Reinforcement

Max. Height of Finished Ground Above Finished Maximum Unsupported Basement Wall
Basement Floor, m Height
2.44 m 2.75 m 3.0 m
None 10M at 400 10M at 400
2.2
required mm o.c. mm o.c.
10M at 300 10M at 300
2.35 n/a
mm o.c. mm o.c.
10M at 300 15M at 400
2.6 n/a
mm o.c. mm o.c.
15M at 400
3.0 n/a n/a
mm o.c.
Minimum Vertical Reinforcement
Max. Height of Finished Ground Above Maximum Unsupported Basement Wall
Finished Basement Floor, m Height
2.44 m 2.75 m 3.0 m
None
2.2 None required None required
required
15M at 400 mm 15M at 400 mm
2.6 n/a
o.c. o.c.
15M at 400 mm
3.0 n/a n/a
o.c.

9.15.4.6. 9.15.4.7.

Table 9.15.4.5.-C
Vertical Reinforcement for 240 mm Flat Insulating Concrete Form Foundation Walls
Forming Part of Sentence 9.15.4.5.(2)

Extension above Ground Level

1) Exterior foundation walls shall extend not less than 150mm above finished ground level.

Reduction in Thickness

1) Where the top of a foundation wall is reduced in thickness to permit the installation of floor
joists, the reduced section shall be not more than 350 mm high and not less than 90 mm thick.

2) Where the top of a foundation wall is reduced in thickness to permit the installation of a
masonry exterior facing, the reduced section shall be
a) not less than 90mm thick ,and
b) tied to the facing material with metal ties conforming to Sentence 9.20.9.4.(3) spaced not
more than

i) 200mm o.c. vertically, and ii) 900mm o.c. horizontally.

3) The space between wall and facing described in Sentence(2) shall be filled with mortar.

Corbelling

1) Corbelling of masonry foundation walls supporting cavity walls shall conform to

Article9.20.12.2.

Crack Control Joints

1) Crack control joints shall be provided in foundation walls more than 25m long at intervals of
not more than 15 m.

2) Joints required in Sentence (1)shall be designed to resist moisture penetration and shall be
keyed to prevent relative displacement of the wall portions adjacent to the joint.

Concrete Strength

Concrete psi

Pounds per square inch (psi) measure the compressive strength of concrete. A higher psi
means a given concrete mixture is stronger, so it is usually more expensive. But these stronger
concretes are also more durable, meaning they last longer.

The ideal concrete psi for a given project depends on various factors, but the bare minimum for
any project usually starts around 2,500 to 3,000 psi. Each concrete structure has a normally
acceptable psi range.

Concrete footings and slabs on grade typically require a concrete of 3,500 to 4,000 psi.
Suspended slabs, beams, and girders (as often found in bridges) require 3,500 to 5,000 psi.
Traditional concrete walls and columns tend to range from 3,000 to 5,000 psi, while 4,000 to
5,000 psi is needed for pavement. Concrete structures in colder climates require a higher psi in
order to withstand more freeze/thaw cycles.

Compressive strength is usually tested at seven days and then again at 28 days to determine
the psi. The seven-day test is done to determine early strength gains, and in some cases, it may
even be performed as early as three days.

Concrete is also measured by its strength capacity. MPa (mega pascals) is the metric
measurement for psi or pounds per square inch. The BC Building Codes require a minimum
MPa for specific concrete projects. Please refer to the table to choose the appropriate MPa
when calculating your volume and price.

Concrete BCBC BCBC BCBC Suggested Maximum Optimum

Location Minimum Maximum Air Strength W/C Air
Strength W/C* Content (MPa) Ratio Content
(MPa) Ratio Range

Footing, walls, 0.55 –

15 0.70 n/a 20 – 25 3 – 5%
foundations 0.60

0.50 –
Interior flatwork 20 0.65 n/a 25 – 28 3 – 5%
0.55

Garages,
32 0.45 5 – 8% 32 0.45 5 – 6%
carports

Exterior flatwork 32 0.45 5 – 8% 32 0.45 5 – 7%

Architectural Concrete

Concrete can take almost any form, texture, and color to enhance the appearance of a building
and its functional structural requirements. It offers surfaces that range from smooth to rough and
a spectrum of color that ranges from the icy blue of quartz through the delicate pastels to the
deep reds of decorative aggregates.

Architectural concrete refers to concrete that while providing an aesthetic finish to the building
also serves a structural function.

Decorative concrete typically refers to concrete flatwork or building elements such as panels,
that while enhanced with texture or color, are not structural building members.

White portland cement is made of select materials that contain negligible amounts of iron and
manganese oxides—the materials that give cement a gray color. Every cement, whether white
or gray, has different inherent color tones as a result of slight differences in raw material
ingredients and manufacturing processes. Architects should take this into consideration in the
design process. When uniform color is critical, it is suggested to stockpile an adequate quantity
of cement and aggregate so that consistent color results can be obtained.

Integrally colored concrete is made by adding mineral oxide pigments to concretes made with
either white or gray cements. White cement is used when lighter shades of concrete are
desired, but red, tan, and dark gray hues can be produced using gray cement.

An exposed-aggregate surface is a decorative surface obtained by removing the outer layer of

mortar and exposing the aggregate particles. This may be done with a variety of techniques,
including chemical surface retarders, sandblasting, water blasting, or acid etching. The selection
of aggregates is based on color, hardness, size, shape, gradation, durability, availability,
method, and degree of exposure and cost. Popular decorative aggregates are natural materials
such as quartz, granite, marble, limestone, and gravel, and manufactured materials such as
alkali-resistant glass and ceramics.

Forms and form liners can be used to create textures and patterns that simulate, for example,
brick, stone, and wood. The aluminum wall forming systems are available with brick-pattern
faces, or with vertical rib or board-and-batten patterns. Also, a textured concrete surface will
help camouflage the subtle differences in texture and color found on the surface of the concrete.

Reinforcement Bar (Rebar)

Concrete Cover to Reinforcement

§ Concrete cover for steel bar is much necessary to protect the steel against corrosion
(rusting) and to provide resistance against fire.
§ For R.C.C. Slab and staircase the cover is 20 mm.
§ For R.C.C. Column the cover (To stirrups) is 30mm.
§ In the case of underground structures, the cover is 50 mm.
§ In the case of beams in the superstructure (To stirrups) the cover is 25mm.
§ In the case of ground resting floor slab (Top surface) and retaining walls, the cover is
50m.

Rebar Overlap Length

Lapping is usually done where minimum bending stress is encountered. In general, lap length is
50d which means 50 times the bar diameter, if both bars are of the same diameter.

Stirrups

Stirrups will be required at areas of high shears, such as bearing points and below large point
loads. Increasing concrete beam spans, to reduce the need for additional piers, has resulted in
the need for the use of steel stirrups. Concrete beams vary in depth. The deeper the beam, the
more shear capacity. When the depth is not adequate, steel stirrups must be added to increase
the shear capacity of the beam.

These stirrups are usually one piece of steel that is bent into a rectangular shape. The stirrup
typically wraps around the bottom and top bars of the beams. A designer should specify the size,
spacing and location along the length of the beam where the stirrups are required. In my site
specify the stirrup dimensions in our section drawings, so that the stirrup can be manufactured
prior to installation. The installer should be careful to fabricate the stirrup from one piece of steel
and adequately overlap each end.
 Fig 4: Bar Schedule for stirrups

Stools

Stools are used to separate the top reinforcement mesh and bottom reinforcement mesh.
Dimension of the Stools could be change as requirement. Those should be strength enough to
bear the loads without changing the gap of two layers. 12 mm or 16 mm bars are used to make
the stools.

Fig 5: Stools

Important points to be checked.

§ Size of the bar
§ Length of the bar
§ Location of the bar
§ Position of the bar
§ Number of bars
§ Lap lengths
 § Correct cover of reinforcements and cover blocks
§ Spacing (in slab reinforcements and stirrups)
§ Direction of the bars (in slabs)
§ Dimensions of the element thickness of a slab, depth, width of a beam, etc…)

Columns, Beams, Slab Reinforcement

§ Column Reinforcement
The column reinforcement bars should be started from the Footing. The upper column
reinforcement bars are cranked at the laps and connected. Special care should be taken in this
to ensure the lap lengths. After the erection of main reinforcements, cover blocks were attached
to column reinforcements to maintain the required cover for column reinforcement. Most of the
Columns' centers were located at intersections of grid lines.

Stirrup spacing
According to the Column reinforcement details drawing the reinforcement detail for a typical
internal Column, from to basement to the ground floor is as follows.

Column stirrups were tightened up to beam bottom level and the rest is tightened once beam
reinforcement is fabricated. So Bar benders are instructed on how to provide the stirrups. Mark
the stirrup spacing from the basement floor level in the Column main bars with chalk as following
the detailed drawing.

E.g.:

Fig 6: Section of column Reinforcement

Bar Schedule for Footing, Column up to DPC and Column.

E.g-
Footing
Size – 1000 x 1000 x 250
R/f Details – Y10 at 225 C/C (B) Both ways

Table 1: Schedule for Footing, Column up to DPC, and Column

§ Beam Reinforcement
A beam is a horizontal structural member resting on two or more supports. It is used to transfer
the load to the columns. Beam reinforcements are arranged after the construction of beam and
slab formwork.

The method adopted for the arrangement of beam reinforcements is as follows:

 First the top most reinforcement bars are hung over the beam formwork and then
the stirrups are placed and bound at correct positions. Thereafter the bottom
reinforcement bars are placed and bound to the stirrups. After that the rest of the
reinforcement bars and tension bars are inserted into the cage according to structural
drawings. Then cover blocks are fixed to bottom and side reinforcements before
placing the concrete.

Consideration for give lap length

Fig 7: Reinforcement for beams

Top reinforcement of the beam shall be lapped at the middle of the span of
between two supports. Bottom reinforcement of the beam shall be lapped at the end
of the span of the two supports. Considering the region where the maximum bending
movement is existing.

Lapping is did the place which the tension is didn’t act. Normally 2/3 of the length
is choosing for lapping. When lapping top & bottom re-bar, it is better to follow the
following method.Otherwise, it might cause to reduce the concrete covering
thickness of the topmost& bottom most slab reinforcement.

Fig 8: Reinforcement for beams

Anchorage (bond) in concrete

Because the actual bond stress varies along the length of a bar anchored in a zone
of tension. The main requirement for safety against bond failure is to provide a
sufficient extension of the length of the bar beyond the point where the steel is
required to develop its yield stress and this length must be at least equal to its
development length. However, if the actual available length is inadequate for full
development, special anchorages must be provided, such as bends, hooks.

E.g- (Anchorage length 45 d (for top bars),12 d (for bottom bars)) where “d”, “Ø” is
diameter of the Bar.

Anchorage length Calculation

E.g.:- 20 mm diameter bar

Fig 9: Anchorage length

Bending length = 112.5- (Cover (25 mm)+ Stirrup (10 Ø))

= 72.5mm

Anchorage length (x) = 45 x diameter of the bar(20 Ø)

= 827.5 mm

Bar schedule for Beam

 Table 2: Bar Schedule for Beam

§ Slab Reinforcement
Slab reinforcement is the most important part of the structure. It is important to have
an idea on slab reinforcement detailing. Following basic thing could be studied in
drawing on slab reinforcement detailing.

DISTRIBUTION BAR REINFORCEMENT

Small diameter bars, usually at right angles to the main reinforcement, intended
to spread a concentrated load on a slab and to prevent cracking. Standard method
used for indicated the slab top & bottom reinforcement.

First step of the fixing of slab reinforcement was placed the bottom most R/F (B1) of
the slab. Before placing the re-bar, correct spacing given in the detailing drawing
were marked by using piece of choke on the slab formwork. After placed the (B1)
R/F then placed the (B2) R/F and bound both R/F layers together by using binding
wire. Then cover blocks for bottom most R/F were fixed. Finally, Top R/F (T2),
Topmost R/F (T1)& distribution bars were placed according to the drawing and fixed
together by using binding wire. Then Stools were fixed to separate the both top &
bottom R/F net as fulfilled the thickness.

Fig 10: Reinforcement of a slab

Bar crank
Bar cranking is the process of bending up the bottom steel bars in upward direction.
It is mainly to prevent upward bending moment near the joint. Also useful for
attaching stirrup bar effectively. Cranking is also used in two way slabs.

§ Bar schedule for Slab

 Table 3 : Bar schedule for Slab

§ Bar schedule for some other structures

Bar schedule for Plinth
 Table 4: Bar schedule for Plinth

Bar schedule for Stiffener column, Sill beam and Lintel beam
 Table 5: Bar schedule for Stiffener column, Sill beam and Lintel beam

Foundation Anchor Bolt Requirements

anchor bolts are more than wall-to-sill connectors; they serve as your structure's primary form of
resistance against several types of building loads. Playing such a key role, foundation anchor
bolts are subject to a broad range of regulations and building codes. While your local building
department has the last word on specific requirements, an understanding of the options among
installation materials and methods helps you plan your construction project, estimate materials
and discuss details with the building department, designers or contractors.
Project-Specific Requirements

The ultimate answer to your foundation anchor bolt requirements lies with your local building
department; they decide whether to approve or reject your plans. Building departments base
their requirements on your building's design and the special circumstances of your area.
Unusual building designs might require more bracing than conventional wood-frame
construction. Additionally, areas that experience high wind-loads or seismic activity might have
special anchor bolt requirements. As you research foundation anchor bolt requirements, keep in
mind that your local building authority can provide definitive answers that apply to your situation.
For professional assistance, work with a building contractor, architect or engineer.

Cast-in-Place Vs. Epoxy

Cast-in-place and epoxy-anchoring are the most common methods of connecting anchor bolts
to a foundation. Cast-in-place refers to plunging the bolts into the foundation's wet mortar or
concrete, or pouring around braced bolts, and allowing the masonry to cure around the bolt.
Epoxy-anchoring is a retrofit installation method. After masonry cures, builders drill an anchor
bolt hole in the wall or slab and use epoxy to adhere the bolt to the foundation. While many
municipalities allow either installation method, some areas accept only one or the other. Building
authorities occasionally allow mechanical anchors, such as masonry expansion anchors, for
remodeling and retrofit applications.

Bolt Shape and Size

While the most common shape for cast-in-place anchor bolts is an L or J shape, certain projects
call for squiggly, S-shaped bolts or U-shaped bolts. Because bent bolts won't fit into straight
holes, epoxy-anchored bolts are typically straight rods that resemble a headless machine bolt.
An anchor bolt diameter ranges from 3/8 inch to 1 inch or more and the length runs from roughly
6 inches to greater than 3 feet. While sizing requirements vary according to local code, 1/2 inch
diameter, embedded at least 7 inches, is usually the minimum. If your local regulations call for
bolts to embed at least 7 inches below the foundation's top surface, you'll need an 8- to 12-inch-
long bolt to allow for protrusion above the foundation.

Bolt Spacing

Bolt spacing requirements range from every 4 feet to every 8 feet, depending on your project's
design and circumstances. In many cases, increasing the bolt's diameter allows you to increase
the minimum spacing requirement. For example, your building code might require 1/2-inch bolts
spaced every 4 feet, but might allow 5/8-inch bolts set every 6 feet. Codes also specify the
minimum distance between the wall's ends and the outermost bolts, usually at least 12 inches.