Racecar Engineering - May 2024

RALLYING Why the WRC chose to drop
hybrid powertrains for 2025

UK £6.95 / US $16.25
Inside the world of modern motorsport technology May 2024 / Vol 34 No 5
Peugeot 9X8 2024

New winged concept for
Le Mans prototype
F1 Power Units
FIA’s Nikolas Tombazis
talks 2026 regulations
FORD SUPERVAN 4.2 VEHICLE CONTROL SYSTEMS JEDI ANNIVERSARY

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CONTENTS  MAY 2024  Volume 34 Number 5
COVER STORY 38 National motorsport BUSINESS

UK constructor, Jedi Racing
8 Peugeot 9X8 Cars, under the spotlight 80 News
Why the wingless wonder FIA backs liquid hydrogen,
has finally joined the crowd 46 Electric tech IMSA revises BoP and Alpine
Ford’s latest SuperVan takes on undergoes technical reshuffle
the world’s most iconic racetracks
COLUMN 82 Bump stop
5 Peter Wright
The difference between opinion, TECHNICAL
assumption and scientific fact
56 Gaining control
The performance gains to be
FEATURES found in motorsport electronics
16 Balance of Performance 66 3D printing
Will a new, trust-based system Advances in additive
make it a fairer race at Le Mans? manufacturing and the role of AI
18 Isotta Fraschini 74 Danny Nowlan

The underdog hybrid The downsides of spec racing
LMH car from Michelotto and Balance of Performance
22 Formula 1
An in-depth look at the new
2026 Power Unit regulations
32 Rallying
Inside the WRC’s decision
to drop hybrid systems
There are major changes afoot in the

world of rallying as organisers aim to
reshape the WRC’s technical roadmap
XPB
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MAY 2024 www.racecar-engineering.com 3

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WRIGHT LINE – PETER WRIGHT
Belief system
Relying on assumptions when predicting the performance
of an F1 car is likely to make an ‘ass’ out of ‘u’ and ‘me’
XPB
The physical properties of most aspects of a racecar are now well understood; it’s the constant dynamic changes that cause confusion
Y
ears ago, I took the latest results is that not everything is yet known about Models and simulations these days are
from the wind tunnel tests on all aspects of an F1 car, and so all these based on the best science available: Newton’s
Lotus’ next Formula 1 car to show expensive tools incorporate assumptions Laws; material properties; linkage geometry;
Colin Chapman. He looked at the where knowledge is missing. fluid dynamics; combustion theory;
comparison with the existing car and said, To quote the English philosopher and chemistry, and many other engineering
‘Go and show them to the man with the critic, George Henry Lewes, ‘we must never interpretations of scientific theory, most of
chequered flag.’ That car was the T80, and we assume that which is incapable of proof.’ which have stood the test of time.
were about to discover what we didn’t know However, even science admits the best it
about the aero-elastic characteristics of a Bravado time can do is to come up with ‘the least wrong
ground effect F1 car, the phenomenon that Every year, in February and March, the F1 conclusion, based on the evidence available.’
would become known recently as ‘porpoising’. world turns up to testing and technical The characteristics of most metallic and
Bouyed by the T79’s championship win directors and team principals extol the work composite materials is well established,
the year before, I thought we had it handled. of their engineers in developing significant although not so long ago, British company
This was in 1978. We didn’t have the improvements that will move them up the Rolls-Royce tripped up over the unknown
benefit of computer models or sophisticated grid. The disappointment and disillusion energy absorbing properties of carbon fibre,
simulators, and yet, 44 years later, most of when this doesn’t happen is palpable, when it equipped its RB211 big fan engine
the F1 grid were caught out by the same especially among the team bosses, who with CFRP fan blades.
phenomenon when they started running realise they don’t know why, and that they Fluids are another matter entirely.
their 2022 cars to the new aero regulations. themselves can do nothing about it. Fluid properties, involving temperature,
And this was with the benefits of CFD, six- Of course, predicting performance pressure, velocity, viscosity, compressability,
post rigs, simulators and enough computing relative to one’s competitors is always a risky constituents including gas (mainly air)
power to get to Mars. So, how come it is business but, when absolute performance is inclusion in liquids, and liquid (mainly water
still not possible to accurately predict the no better, or sometimes even worse, there has as vapour) inclusion in gases, are partially
performance of an F1 car? The simple answer to be an explanation. understood in isolation, but there are high
Not everything is yet known about all aspects of an F1 car, and so all these
expensive tools incorporate assumptions where knowledge is missing
WRIGHT LINE – PETER WRIGHT
I have been told that Red

Bull has a department
that examines... all the
evidence supporting
the conclusions that the
development will improve
the performance of the car.
I can’t imagine they are the
most popular department
levels of interdependency. When fluids

combust, there is more uncertainty.
Yet fluids dominate the key areas of an
F1 car’s performance, be it downforce, drag,
cooling, power (combustion), tyres (rubber,
in its natural form, is a colloid-like milk).
So, while it may be possible to model and The Lotus 79 was a relatively straightforward racecar, but the aerodynamics were still complicated and that put the engineers
determine the steady-state performance of working on it (without the benefit of computer models or simulation) to the test as they tried to control its properties
fluids, dynamic properties are an order harder,
and it is these dynamics that consequently How these variations in vertical loads, and
mess up the predictions. hence variations in lateral and longitudinal
The aerodynamics of an F1 car are subject loads, affect what is happening with the
to turbulence levels caused by the wake of rubber of the tread, and how they excite the
another car, or a cross wind, movement on car and its structure, can therefore only be
the suspension (even without porpoising) assumed when trying to model and predict
and very complex flows due to the intense the performance of the car.
vortices shed by the front wing and tyres. Still dominating both qualifying and
CFD has come a long way in modelling race performance in F1 today, the grip, A scale wind tunnel model was the most sophisticated tool available in ’78
these flows, but does not deal perfectly with temperature, degradation and wear of tyres
dynamic changes in the flows. have a large influence on the outcome. system on the 1993 F1 car to power its
Likewise, combustion models are very active suspension. This relied on computer-
advanced, but how well they predict the Firmly held opinion controlled hydraulic cylinders to support
intake flow regimes, mixing with evaporating So what can a modelling or simulation the car and emulate spring dampers. We
fuel, ignition, burning and heat exchange, I engineer do to improve predictions? The modelled the hydraulic system to determine
have no idea, as this is key powertrain IP. rules and equations upon which the model is pump, tank and accumulator sizes, assuming
Fluids also influence damper performance, written are, where possible, based on proven everything would perform as advertised.
powertrain cooling and lubrication, brakes science and engineering principles but, When we ran it, we found the hydraulic fluid
and tyre cooling, and hydraulic systems. confronted with an unknown or uncertainty, was full of air, rendering it compressable
Then there are the tyres. Being composites a gap in the software cannot be left unfilled. such that the computer and Moog valves lost
of fabrics and elastic polymers, they behave So, it must be filled with a best guess control of the cylinders.
somewhere between a solid and a liquid, based on assumptions. There’s that word Back in the workshop, we rigged up a flow
the whole of which is given structure by again. In the same way religion tends to fill meter in the hydraulic system and ran the
inflation with a gas. Their behaviour, when in the gaps in our knowledge of how life engine to power the system. Above a certain
subjected to steady-state speeds, loads, slip and the environment works, these rpm, the flow meter indicated flow was no
ratios and slip angles, is measured by tyre assumptions are based on a belief of how longer proportional to rpm, and the return
manufacturers, and their structural dynamics that particular aspect of an F1 car works. fluid turned milky. The pump was cavitating
modelled in FEA and rig tested. Yet exactly The Oxford English Dictionary defines a – a charateristic we had not included in the
what happens when the rubber tread meets ‘belief’ as ‘a firmly held opinion’, not fact. model. Pressurising the bellhousing tank
the stone / tarmac / concrete, either wet or It is the quality of these assumptions that solved the problem, and we were made wiser
dry, remains something of a mystery. determines how well the model or simulation by the experience.
Of course, the steady-state characteristics predicts the performance. I have been told that Red Bull has a
do not tell the whole story, as no tyre on any Take a ‘firmly held opinion’ into a court of department that examines, independently
racecar is anything like steady state. Rather, law and it will quickly be subjected to cross from the engineers originating a new
it is subjected to vertical load variations, due examination about the evidence to support development, all the evidence supporting
to sprung and unsprung dynamics, from it. Engineering assumptions should be held the conclusions that the development
around five to over 15Hz, plus much higher similarly accountable. will improve the performance of the car.
vehicle structural frequencies. Consequently, A simple example of not checking an I can’t imagine they are the most popular
precisely what happens at the interface with assumption occured some years ago when department in Red Bull, but it may go some
the track is not known, as far as I am aware. we, at Team Lotus, put a full hydraulic way to explaining the team’s successes.
6 www.racecar-engineering.com MAY 2024

WEC – PEUGEOT 9X8 2024
After much speculation, Peugeot has taken the wraps off its
updated version of the 9X8 prototype and, as predicted, it has
sprouted a rear wing
By ANDREW COTTON
Peugeot has changed around 90 percent of the surface area of the new car
while also retaining the family resemblance to its predecessor. Long distance
testing and two races are in store for the 9X8 2024 before Le Mans in June

The rules have changed during what has
been a turbulent period for the FIA and ACO,
and Peugeot was unable to react as quickly
to the changes as its arch rival, Toyota

P
eugeot has bowed to the inevitable
with the updated version of its FIA
World Endurance Championship
contender, called the 9X8 2024. As
expected, the Hypercar has been equipped
with a rear wing as part of a major upgrade
package for the first time.
The previous 9X8 relied upon underfloor
aero and a front weight bias with the car that
debuted at Monza in 2022. The final race for
that car was the opening round of the 2024
season in Qatar in March as the update was
not yet homologated. Now good to go, the
revised 9X8 is a very different beast.
The old car was an extreme design,
pushing the limits of the regulations as they
were written when the concept was devised.
However, the rules have changed during
what has been a turbulent period for the FIA
and ACO, and Peugeot was unable to react as
quickly to the changes as its arch rival, Toyota. Everything seemed to be going well until Sebring in March 2023. The bumpy track there made a mess of the 9X8’s aero concept
That is not to say the first generation
9X8 was obsolete. It was running second in which helped keep the development cost That was because it conformed to an older
Qatar before it ran out of fuel, but it proved down to an estimated €10m. version of the regulations and there was a
difficult to balance it against the competition However, technical director, Olivier danger that its tyre size choice could lead to
due to its very different design philosophy. Jansonnie, says the team has changed around special development from Michelin.
The updated car is a more traditional winged 90 per cent of the surface of the car, putting The 9X8 was a concept designed to
prototype concept, although the team more air over the top to feed the rear wing extremes, taking full advantage of regulations
behind it is proud of the fact it still looks rather than under it and through tunnels. that made the aerodynamic target relatively
externally quite similar to the previous model. He goes on to say the car is very similar easy to hit, while also using a powerful front
in looks to its predecessor, but has a very hybrid system and by regulation, front tyres
Rearward shift different philosophy, and will rely less on the the same width as the rears.
Peugeot has worked hard to move the weight BoP to keep it at the front of the grid. That combination, coupled with a
further rearwards, reduced its reliance on forward weight bias and strong ground
underfloor aero, and introduced a rear wing. Joker in the pack? effect, enabled Peugeot to dispense with the
The team has also switched tyre concept From the moment that the 9X8 was traditional rear wing. It was so proud of this
to run a narrower front and wider rear that launched, rivals were briefing against the car. fact that at the car’s first race in 2022, the
brings it more in line with its competitors. It was leaked that the team already needed PR team handed out chocolate wings.
The team achieved this while retaining the to invoke its joker package before the car had However, convergence with the LMDh-
same tub, engine, gearbox and hybrid system, even been revealed to the watching world. spec cars meant the LMH concept had no
Peugeot was proud of its original, wingless concept, and eventually proved that it could work, but the new car is more traditional in design and will therefore be easier to manage

The big wide-open expanse of Le Mans played to the
car’s philosophy, but also masked the 9X8’s weaknesses
‘Keeping the rear was a challenge with

The shape of the 2023 Le Mans race also suited Peugeot,
the new rear wing, but we managed with early rain and a lower deployment speed for the
to retain the absorbing structure, hybrid system allowing the 9X8s to lead for the first time
so did not need to re-crash [test]

the car. That was very important for
us from a schedule standpoint’
Olivier Jansonnie, technical director at Peugeot Sport
choice but to change. The four-wheel-drive

function was therefore summarily castrated,
the front wheels only able to be driven
when over a certain speed in the dry (but
changeable according to the BoP).
The tyre size requirement was also
changed for cars homologated from 2023
onwards and the front differential settings
were altered, reducing the ability for the front disaster. On the bumpy track, the ground tyre meant weight distribution had to move
hybrid system to assist in cornering. effect proved ineffective, and the weak points rearwards, but the team took advantage of
Toyota was able to make the necessary in terms of reliability, particularly around the that. The fragile gear change mechanism has
changes before the 2023 season, and did so gear change mechanism, were exposed. been beefed up, with some 4kg added to the
without using its jokers, but Peugeot could Following that race, attended by Stellantis weight of the system.
not implement the required design changes chief executive officer, Carlos Tavares, the The engine has been similarly modified,
in time due to the complexity of its concept. team made the decision to start preparations while the ballast has moved from the front
As Jansonnie famously said, ‘It’s quicker for the 9X8’s successor. end. Achieving all of that was not as easy as it
to re-write a regulation than re-design a car.’ The first step was to accept that tyre size sounds as weight distribution and c of g are
would have to change, by regulation. The both closely guarded by regulation.
Proof of concept narrow rear tyre was compromised in its ‘The idea was to try to use the new
Peugeot was stuck with its concept, but power delivery on the old car and suffered opportunities in the regulations,’ says
determined to make it perform. At Le Mans, from high wear. As the original concept Jansonnie. ‘[With] the 29 / 34 tyre size,
the car did work, the track’s long straights relied heavily on front drive, which became very early in the process we identified that
and smooth surface allowing the aero to work minimum speed limited, the rear tyres would potentially had more performance than the
as intended. However, the 2023 season- have to work even harder than originally 31 / 31 design. At the time, in 2022, when the
opener at Sebring was nothing short of a intended. Switching to the narrower front decision was taken to open this opportunity,

Peugeot based the car’s original development around

the 31 / 31 tyre combination, but a change to the
regulations now means that it needs to run a narrower
front, wider rear, which had a knock-on effect on the
car’s aero balance and weight distribution
we couldn’t re-design the car. It was too late The team also had to do a lot of work on ‘We wanted to keep the overall
for us since we wanted to have a car ready to the overall aero concept. Rivals had noted
race at Monza [in July] 2022. that a shift in aero balance would be helped look of the car, which seems to
‘Now we have this opportunity, and by the addition of a rear wing, and so it was have been quite a success, and keep
actually in testing we found that it has even no surprise that Peugeot followed suit.
more potential than we had expected from From a heavy reliance on underfloor the DNA of the brand, while at the
the simulation, which was a surprise to us. performance in the previous car, the rear
‘Then we adapted the aero to match this wing now needs to be fed, so the splitter has
same time completely revising it’
new tyre dimension so, basically, changing to send more air over the car than before. Olivier Jansonnie
the weight distribution on the car to be much Jansonnie says the 9X8 does still retain
more rearward than the previous version, and a strong element of underfloor-generated
changing the aero balance as a consequence.’ downforce, but its relationship to the rear
wing meant an extensive re-design. downforce from the top of the bodywork,
Aero balance ‘It’s a different concept,’ says the and then you reduce your underfloor
Unsurprisingly, the aero balance is also closely Frenchman. ‘It’s not just an add-on of the rear downforce simply because you have to fit in
regulated, and ballast may be applied to the wing; it is a completely new aero package. the performance window.
car through the BoP system, which makes life But, from the public side of things, the car ‘It’s interesting to see that you can achieve
a little more complicated than just putting looks very similar to the previous car, just a quite substantially different aero concept
lead into the floor of the car to keep the with a rear wing added. with surfaces that are mostly all changed, but
excess weight as low as possible. ‘If you look carefully, though, you will still look the same. If you overlay both cars,
One of the further consequences of the see we have touched 90-95 per cent of the the look of the cars is quite interesting.’
change in weight distribution was that crash surfaces of the car, including the complete While the overall concept has changed,
testing also had to be carefully considered. underfloor. That was one of the challenges, the team says it can still take a benchmark
In the end, Peugeot managed to make the and one of the constraints we had. from the original car when it comes to race
changes without needing to re-test the crash ‘We wanted to keep the overall look of preparation and set-up. Having already
structure at the rear of the car. the car, which seems to have been quite a completed around 7-8000km of testing with
‘Keeping the rear was a challenge with success, and keep the DNA of the brand, the 9X8 2024, including two endurance runs
the new rear wing, but we managed to retain while at the same time completely revising it. (and with more mileage planned before the
the absorbing structure, so didn’t need to re- ‘Everything is connected together. If you 24 Hours of Le Mans in June) it is well placed
crash [test] the car,’ says Jansonnie. ‘That was are going to put some rearward aero balance to judge the correlation between the old
important for us from a schedule standpoint.’ on the car, you can actually create more and updated versions.

HORSEPOWER 600bhp - 800bhp upto 11000rpm
TORQUE 530Nm from 5000rpm
WEIGHT 125 - 160kg dependent on config

Some of that will be to do with the team manufacturers what they are using to make cars were supposed to rely on their front
operation. When the car raced for the first their decisions (see p16). They could look at hybrid systems. Once the hybrid system had
time in 2022, that was also the first race for 20 per cent fastest laps, 40 per cent or 60 per its capacity reduced, organisers forced the
the team of mechanics and engineers. Nearly cent, which would take further into account LMH contenders to introduce adjustable anti-
two years later, there is more strength in the the team and tyre wear, for example, while roll bars into their existing designs which was
team, as well as the car. the 20 per cent option would better suit the not easy in a tightly confined space.
car’s potential to post the fastest lap. Peugeot has kept its monocoque, and so
Race preparation The manufacturers will be better at retained much of the suspension design and
That will surely pay dividends at Le Mans, playing the game if they know the rules, so it’s pick-up points, but has been able to adapt to
which the old car contested only once. easier for the governing bodies to simply not the new rule with the evolution of the car.
There, the wingless 9X8 seemed to be in its show them the full picture. ‘Simply, we had more time to design
element, more so than anywhere else, though That said, Peugeot believes its updated car something, and that drove us to do a bit
Jansonnie disagrees with this observation. will be easier to balance, so it hopes to rely better,’ says Jansonnie. ‘The constraints
‘I would not specifically say that Le Mans less on the BoP and more on its own traits. haven’t changed, and we have not revised
was good for us because of the ground effect, ‘To put it simply, we still believe it was the monocoque to do that.
but I would say that our car concept overall possible to balance the old car concept, but ‘We don’t change what we have already
on aero and tyres was probably less of a unfortunately in 2023 this was not done,’ said, that we think this decision of allowing
disadvantage than in other places. says Jansonnie. ‘We wanted to get rid of the the differential has been taken far too late for
‘I still believe we can achieve at least the dependency on the BoP, and do something the LMH cars. The regulation as we have it
same performance at Le Mans with the new that is closer to our competition so we don’t now, though, we have to live with, and it is a
car as with the old one. depend so much on the track layouts. performance differentiator, so we have to add
‘Secondly, from Le Mans itself, besides ‘We have proven that in low-grip it somehow, but to do that you end up with
the performance, just by doing that race we conditions the car was performing better, something that is complicated.’
learned a lot in terms of preparation, how we but we just wanted to put the car back to a Peugeot will debut the 9X8 2024 at Imola
approach the race, the set-up for the race, the more average window and a more similar and then run it at Spa, giving the FIA and
strategy… I think we can for sure carry these condition to what our competition is doing. ACO two races to assess it before Le Mans.
over with the new car and be stronger at Le ‘In Qatar, for instance, we were in what The team feels it has a good understanding of
Mans than last year.’ I call a corner of the BoP, which means how the update works, and remains confident
For that all to work, of course, relies on the maximum power and lowest weight, but then the BoP will better suit the new concept.
BoP system that the FIA and ACO have again you cannot move from that corner. Now we The wingless 9X8 wasn’t successful,
revised for this year. The race in Qatar was the expect to move to a more average position.’ it wasn’t particularly reliable, but it was
first time the 9X8 raced within the expected memorable. It’s a shame the original rules that
window, and it ran well, almost bringing Roll with it allowed for novel, more extreme designs have
home a podium finish. One of the other big changes that came evolved, and that Peugeot ended up treading
Now, the FIA and ACO will rely on race through convergence was the introduction a well-worn path like the others. However, it’s
data, coupled with simulated data but, of the cockpit-adjustable anti-roll bar, a results that count, and Peugeot now has to
crucially, will keep secret from the teams and mechanism used by LMDh cars, while LMH deliver with its new concept.
Peugeot believes its new car will be

easier to balance, so the team hopes
to be able to rely less on the system
and more on its own performance
The LMDh integration heavily compromised the original design of the Peugeot, with the front hybrid system having its impact reduced. Fortunately, the team was able to retain its monocoque

BALANCE OF PERFORMANCE – LE MANS
Law of averages
After years of struggling and complaining, the WEC is implementing
a new BoP system this year, but with some key details hidden
By ANDREW COTTON
T
he ongoing saga of Balance of The rumour was that an agreement had deliberate. ‘It is linked to lap time simulation,’
Performance (BoP) took some been reached, only to then be put in the bin Bouvet confirmed. ‘Homologation parameters
dramatic steps in the early part of in favour of a new system that was presented are done from wind tunnel data, c of g height,
2024. The FIA and ACO presented in Qatar ahead of the 2024 season. fuel loads. We do the simulation post event,
their new method of balancing the Hypercars ‘We are looking at the performance of for the next event, but that does not mean
to the media at the opening round of the FIA the best car from each manufacturer and we will intervene every race. The BoP can be
World Endurance Championship in Qatar. we do an average of that,’ explained ACO identical but you will see different figures
Shortly afterwards, IMSA announced that competition director Thierry Bouvet. ‘So, because it is a different track.
the method it implemented in GTD at the let’s say you have five manufacturers, we ‘Describing the whole process, since last
Daytona 24 Hours was too complicated to take the best car per manufacturer – so you year we have a year of data, and we use it.
replicate for the remainder of the season and have five cars – and then we take an average The result of the BoP today is not only due
so, in agreement with the manufacturers, it from each of those five cars. That defines the to homologation parameters. The result
reverted to last year’s more traditional system. performance window and then hopefully all for Qatar was homologation parameters,
The performance balancing system the cars are inside.’ which are improved from last year, the
for the WEC’s flourishing top class was That ‘performance window’ is rumoured result of equivalence of platform, and of the
controversial last year. The engineers used to be around + / -0.2 per cent. Around a manufacturer compensation.’
first order parameters of weight, power and 100-second lap, that’s + / - two tenths of a
aerodynamic efficiency to balance the cars. second, though Bouvet was not willing to Top speed
Toyota, however, was better than anyone else confirm that figure. This is infuriating for One of the big changes to the system will
in race conditions, notably on second order the teams, as is the unwillingness to explain be the study of the cars over 210km/h. The
parameters such as tyre wear and strategy, what other performance parameters are wind tunnels are only able to simulate up
and won the opening races comfortably. being taken into account. to this speed, but there’s around 100km/h
So for the centenary race at Le Mans, the The idea of not telling the manufacturers extra to be had at Le Mans and the cars are
FIA and ACO changed their minds. Instead of means teams and manufacturers will not clearly performing differently at these speeds,
leaving the BoP alone until after Le Mans to be able to ‘game’ the system. Obfuscation is outside the parameters of the BoP.
prevent sandbagging, as promised, they took
into account the second order parameters
and promptly upset Toyota. There were even
rumours the Japanese manufacturer would
cancel its hydrogen programme in protest.
So, post Le Mans, the FIA and ACO
reverted to the original BoP format, which
led to Ferrari refusing to speak to the
media following the Monza race. The Italian
constructor clearly felt Toyota had been given
an advantage but, as regulations ban teams
from speaking about BoP, nothing was said.
Secret squirrel
Clearly, something had to be done, so the
FIA and ACO took the decision to create
a new system. This opened the door to
multiple options for the organisation, but
the governing bodies had to decide.
Some, such as Ferrari, wanted to have no
performance balancing for cars that had
been designed to fit in performance windows.
Others, such as Porsche, made it clear that
it only signed up to the WEC on the proviso
that there was performance balancing. The core concept of BoP remains to de-incentivise teams and manufacturers from over spending to try and improve the performance of their cars

The idea is for the FIA and ACO to make minimal intervention and to prevent Hypercar manufacturers from trying to game the system, though that appears to have still been happening in Qatar
Unsurprisingly, some manufacturers There, they will use the experience from data from the homologation process. They
promptly pointed at others saying that even last year, simulated data from the first three will then take performance data from the
extrapolating the information available, top races this year (Qatar, Imola and Spa), and will simulation process that the FIA is trying to
speed performance of rivals was unusual. try to balance the cars from there. perfect and match that with a percentage of
To combat this, the FIA and ACO tried to If they see a car performing too well, they lap times seen in real-world competition.
measure the cars at the pre-season test in will react quicker than if a car was too slow, What percentage of lap time will be
Qatar, and said they were analysing the data Bouvet indicated. That does rather suggest no analysed is a closely guarded secret. The
that was available. one will be trying to appear too fast… fastest 20 per cent of lap time, for example,
‘Before, you had some differences in drag Porsche’s problem in that scenario is that it would focus on the outright speed capability
and downforce on one car, and you were has customer teams in JOTA and Proton that of the car, while the fastest 60 per cent of
trying to compensate the difference between desperately want to beat the factory Penske lap time would also take into account set-up
power and weight,’ explained Bouvet. ‘So, if cars, and it has no control over those teams’ and tyre performance.
you would have had more because the car performance, unlike both Ferrari and Toyota. That’s why Cadillac ran multiple stints on
was draggy, then you would probably need to the same tyre in Qatar, both slowing the car
Cruise control
Photos: XPB
add more weight. It was kind of a loop. on track and reducing time spent in the pit.
‘Now, with this two-stage power, we’re Le Mans is the longest race on the calendar, ‘It is not simple lap time, because it
able to differentiate acceleration and top and outright performance is often not the would be too easy,’ confirmed Bouvet. ‘It
speed. Basically, that’s giving us another key to success. In fact, it’s rare for the quickest is performance related and it is related to
tool to be able to address the gap, and as car to win the race. Therefore, what the BoP correlation of simulation.’
a consequence of that you will have less has to achieve there is to ensure one car is
difference in weight, which you can see in not cruising to a lap time, while others are Rumble on
LMGT3, for example.’ pushing hard to achieve that same lap time. By keeping the criteria private, it’s hard to
In order to prevent teams and ‘The idea is to intervene as little as know what will happen, and difficult to
manufacturers from playing the game in possible,’ said Bouvet, re-iterating that the challenge the FIA and ACO on their decisions.
the run up to Le Mans, the FIA and ACO core idea of performance balancing is to This is now a system based on trust, the
have stated that the BoP for that race will be prevent the incentive to improve a car manufacturers having to hope the FIA and
separated from all the other tracks. and out-spend the opposition, rather than ACO are correct in their sums.
manufacture laptime. ‘Within platforms at Qatar saw Porsche take the first WEC win
Le Mans, there was not so much difference for an LMDh car. It remains possible for LMDh
The FIA and ACO will take the power, between the cars. We don’t have to intervene and LMH to be balanced against each other;
a lot, which is good.’ That’s why the two this is now termed ‘Equivalence of Platform’.
weight and aero efficiency data from regulatory bodies won’t get involved in Where it all falls down is the new circuits
the homologation process. They will balancing the weight of the drivers. Heavier on the schedule this year – Qatar, Imola,
drivers are at a disadvantage compared to São Paolo and Austin. For these races,
take the performance data from the lighter ones in terms of overall lap time, but the organisers will have to rely more on
that’s a step too far for endurance racing. simulation data than real-world experience,
simulation process… and match In summary then, the FIA and ACO will which makes life even more complicated.
that with a percentage of lap times take the power, weight and aero efficiency Expect this to rumble on for a while yet.

WEC  ISOTTA FRASCHINI TIPO 6C
Isotta Fraschini is the latest Hypercar to enter

the FIA World Endurance Championship,
reviving a legendary name in a modern world
By ANDREW COTTON

L
ooking through the list of The two governing bodies decided that production car and F1 expertise to bring its
manufacturers competing in the FIA manufacturers ‘of sufficient reputation’ 499P up to speed, while Toyota has been in
World Endurance Championship this should be able to enter cars, and that led the top class for more than a decade, and
year, it’s an impressive array of some to the revival of, for example, the Vanwall comfortably won the WEC titles in 2023.
of the biggest names in the motoring world. name through ByKolles. It also brought It was also glaringly obvious at the first
Ferrari, Toyota, Porsche, Peugeot, BMW and Isotta Fraschini back out of the shadows, the race of the 2024 season that another niche
Lamborghini, to name just a few. There is name being chosen to adorn the prototype LMH constructor, Glickenhaus, was absent.
one name that sticks out from all the others, that was being designed by Michelotto. Having followed the old adage that to
though, and that’s Isotta Fraschini. It wasn’t hard to see why Michelotto make a small fortune in racing, start with
This lesser known car company is wanted in. It hadn’t produced a prototype a big one, Jim Glickenhaus had pulled out,
currently experiencing what might be since the 1990s, when it was involved in the preferring to spend his money on other
termed a second wind. Originally formed Ferrari 333SP (Michelotto produced 26 of projects that were more relevant to what
in 1900 by Cesare Isotta and brothers the 40 examples built) but, since then, it has the company sold on the road, and new
Vincenzo, Antonio and Oreste Fraschini, it focused on GT racing, working closely with technologies such as hydrogen.
went racing for the first time in 1907 and Ferrari to produce the GTE and GT3 cars that There were raised eyebrows at the Qatar
then later went on to produce luxury road competed around the world. race in March when the Isotta Fraschini Tipo
cars. However, by 1949, the company had 6 LMH Competizione qualified four seconds
stopped making cars and instead focused Prime time off the pace, and then raced with a three-
on trolley buses, having merged with With the regulations making it relatively second gap to the front-running cars.
engine manufacturer Breda. inexpensive to produce a Hypercar, at least Eventually, the vehicle retired in the fifth
During the 1990s, efforts were made to compared to the old LMP1 cars, and with hour when a suspension mounting broke.
revive the road car side of the business but, a BoP system in place to prevent ongoing The project had already courted
after a few false starts, the company filed development costs, this was a prime time controversy when the Duqueine team was
for bankruptcy in 1999. That should have to build a car and go racing at Le Mans. appointed to run the car after an initial deal
been the end of Isotta Fraschini, but things However, the size of the task cannot with Vector Sport fell through. British squad
started to move again when the FIA and be underestimated. It took Peugeot more Vector had been in line to run the car, but
ACO’s top category for endurance racing, than 18 months to provide a competitive was replaced shortly after the programme
Hypercar, was gaining momentum. car with its 9X8. Ferrari leaned heavily on its received its entry to the 2024 season.
Bouyed by the FIA and ACO’s enthusiasm

for manufacturers of sufficient reputation,
Michelotto revived an Italian motorsport
brand that hasn’t raced for over 100 years

WEC – ISOTTA FRASCHINI TIPO 6-C
So, the Tipo 6-C was both controversial

and slow, and the team had also nominated
inexperienced drivers to the WEC in order to
reduce the pressure of outside judgement.
At face value, the whole project didn’t look
like a particularly good idea.
Under the surface, however, is a very
experienced team with some high quality
engineering partners and, of course, a
committed plan to improve quickly.
As a hybrid LMH car manufacturer,
Isotta Fraschini was forced to take the route
of carrying a front-mounted hybrid and
perfecting a four-wheel-drive system from
the outset. That meant it faced the same
complicated electronics that the bigger
manufacturers were dealing with, but with a
fraction of the budget. The car also features
the now-standard 900V electrical system to
aid fast charge and recharge.
The front motor of the hybrid system
kicks in over a certain speed, regulated by
the BoP, when it replaces the energy
provided by the engine. Peak power is
limited by regulation and the power
delivery has to match a set torque curve.
Getting close to that curve without
breaching it, even over a kerb or a bump,
is one of the major tasks facing the
engineers programming the system.
It took years for even Toyota to meet
that curve and, when it did, it was a huge
performance ad`vantage. For Isotta Fraschini
to be able to achieve that in the first race was The engine is a bespoke 3.0-litre V6 turbo developed by HWA. Battery comes from WAE and electric motor from Bosch
perhaps asking too much. What the team
was able to do was match the Xtrac-provided
hardware to the Bosch electronics. Neither
of these companies is new to the WEC game,
and so have a baseline from which to work.
Bespoke engine
The car was designed at Michelotto by Luigi
Dindo. It is powered by an all-new, bespoke,
3.0-litre, 90-degree V6 engine that has
been developed for the project by HWA in
Germany. The unit has a single turbocharger,
similar to that of the Alpine A424, and the
turbo sits outside the v of the engine.
Power is fed to the rear wheels through
the tried and trusted, seven-speed Xtrac
P1395 gearbox, mounted transversely. The chassis of the Isotta Fraschini was designed entirely at Michelotto to current Le Mans Hypercar regulations
The design of the chassis was supposed
to have been undertaken by Christiano
Michelotto, but the popular Italian who was
heavily involved in the development, build
and delivery of the GT3 Ferraris, was relieved
of his post by his father after the company
lost the Ferrari 296 GT3 deal to ORECA.
That left Dindo, the long-serving designer
of the company, to produce an LMH car fit to
take on the biggest and best in the endurance
racing world. A weighty responsibility.
The idea was to build a pure racecar to the
current LMH regulations, and then produce
customer cars at a later date. Partners are established players in sportscar racing, such as Brembo, Bosch and Multimatic, so component quality is high

As the Isotta Fraschini name is owned by ‘The MGU is made with a company [Bosch] However, the car was far off the pace in
the same parent company as Michelotto, it that works with Xtrac,’ confirms Berro. ‘All the Qatar and needs to improve quickly. That,
made sense to link the two programmes. mechanical parts are made by Xtrac. They says Berro, will come from set-up and team
‘The aerodynamics were modelled with supply us the parts and we integrate it with application; they can then start to look at the
Williams, and then we did a real car, 1:1 scale, the MGU. Then we have our inverter inside. BoP to help them move up the grid.
with Sauber,’ says the head of motorsport at ‘The brakes are by Brembo, so are of top
Isotta Fraschini, Claudio Berro. quality. For the material, we do the best. Branching out
The cars all produce similar amounts of Multimatic provides the suspension and As with all things in racing, money is the key
drag and downforce, performance balanced Bosch the electronics. The quality of the to survival, so the company plans to build a
in the Sauber wind tunnel to ensure parity, components is so high.’ trackday version, in a similar financial model
so hitting the figures was not a particularly That said, one of the key issues facing to the Ferrari 499P Modificata, and a road car.
arduous challenge. What is more difficult is teams is tyre wear. With Michelin pushing The former was presented to the public
ensuring the car remains in that performance for a reduction in the number of tyres at Imola in November 2023, while Isotta is
window in all conditions. consumed during a race, emphasis is placed currently working up a two-seater road car
While the minimum weight in Hypercar is on the ability of cars to double stint around that is expected to break cover shortly.
1030kg, the Isotta Fraschini is not at the limit, ordinary tracks and triple stint at Le Mans. ‘We make one prototype, and we showed
and the Tipo 6-C raced in Qatar at 1085kg. It The Tipo 6-C still has a lot to learn running the car in Imola,’ says Berro. ‘It’s 90 per cent
also ran with the highest amount of energy on a track with multiple other cars, and similar to the racecar but we have work to do.
per stint, suggesting it needed it to produce LMGT3 tyres from Goodyear laying down Now we start to study a double seat so we
comparable lap times to others in the class. rubber. So, in qualifying, the team did not have a two-seater hypercar. This is our target.
With all of that in place, the company focus too much on overall fastest lap time. ‘For now, we race this extreme car to
turned towards other partners already The issue with the pace is, according show the brand, then we show the car like
involved in sportscar racing. to Berro, possible to rectify. ‘Probably, the Valkyrie. We use the same technology as
performance will be better in the race than this car to show on the race and the road. The
qualifying,’ said the Italian ahead of the engine is not for the road, due to emissions,
As with all things in racing, money is 1812km race. ‘The car works with the tyre very but the concept is here. We have the potential
well, but we don’t explore the limit of settings for 1000bhp, and we need the same for the
the key to survival, so the company for qualifying. For the race, the car is in a good road. We don’t need any more.’
plans to build a trackday version, in a way. It’s important to stay with the group, and It’s clear there is a long way to go with
in a 10-hour race if you start on line five or line this project, and the level of competition
similar financial model to the Ferrari eight, it doesn’t mean anything.’ means it’s going to be tough even to stay in
After selecting two inexperienced drivers the game. As more cars from resource-laden
499P Modificata, as well as a road car alongside Jean-Karl Vernay, the team hoped manufacturers continue to arrive, the Isotta
to relieve the pressure of expectation. Fraschini has to step up and be counted.
Suspension is double wishbone and torsion bar with integrated brake-by-wire system, carbon discs and a combination of six-piston (front) and four-piston (rear) calipers by Brembo
Steering is by way of electric steering rack, while the majority of the control systems Isotta Fraschini signed two Silver-rated WEC rookies to partner Vernay. It says this will
onboard come from Bosch Motorsport, including the ECU, VCU and PowerBox relieve pressure, but is such an approach tenable considering the level of competition?

FORMULA 1 – 2026 PU REGULATIONS
F1 is approaching
its biggest engine Formula 1 has been racing with hybrids for a decade now, but
regulation overhaul a new era begins in 2026. Racecar spoke to FIA single seater
since the introduction
of the 1.6-litre V6 director, Nikolas Tombazis, to find out what we should expect
hybrids back in 2014
under the new engine regime
(pictured)
By CHRISTIAN MENATH

XPB
FIA single seater director, Nikolas Tombazis, has been central in developing the new regulations that feature less complex, less efficient ICE PUs, with more emphasis put on the electric side
A
decade ago, a new era began in This will all be different in 2026. Years current Power Unit, but this marvel of
Formula 1. High-revving, of discussion, negotiation and haggling technology is what makes the engines so
naturally-aspirated V8 engines culminated in version one of the 2026 incredibly efficient. Its elimination will
had had their day. Since then, regulations on 16 August 2022. The inevitably make the 2026 engines less efficient.
manufacturers no longer talked of engines, negotiations were complicated because the The thermal efficiency of the engines
but of Power Units. Mercedes High FIA had to take various points of view into today is over 50 per cent. With a maximum
Performance Engines therefore became account. On the one hand, there were the fuel flow of 100kg per hour from 10,500rpm,
Mercedes High Performance Powertrains. manufacturers already involved – Mercedes, the power units achieve a system output of
In addition to the combustion engine, Ferrari, Renault and Honda. On the other, over 1000bhp.
there was now also a turbocharger with an there were potential newcomers to the series. It’s not just the removal of the MGU-H that
electric component, the MGU-H, as well as So, while the FIA didn’t want to scare off will reduce efficiency; the combustion engine
further development of the former KERS, any of the established manufacturers, it also will suffer as a result of other measures, too.
which was now called MGU-K. At 120kW, the wanted to keep the entry barrier as low as Although key parameters such as stroke and
Motor Generator Unit-Kinetic, delivered twice possible for interested parties. bore remain identical, further restrictions are
as much power as KERS to the crankshaft, being brought in on the combustion engine
with the electrical energy temporarily Efficiency compromise side. For example, the maximum compression
stockpiled in the 4MJ Energy Store. That, in a nutshell, is why the new regulations ratio will be reduced from 18:1 to 16:1.
The engine manufacturers agreed on are a compromise. At first glance, everything ‘Of course, you lose a little bit of efficiency,’
these regulations around 15 years ago. looks like it remains the same with the admits Nikolas Tombazis, single seater
Even then, electrification and high-efficiency combustion engine and it’s the rest of the director at the FIA, in an interview with
engines were still magic words in the Power Unit that has changed quite a lot. Racecar Engineering for this article.
automotive industry. The 1.6-litre, V6, turbocharged ICE ‘18:1 would lead to a more efficient
However, the Power Unit was not remains, but the MGU-H has been removed. engine. While we don’t want to negate that,
immediately well received in Formula 1. The elimination of the electric turbocharger ultimately, these engines are a compromise
Too complicated, too expensive, too was the most important point in order to between different parameters: cost, efficiency,
heavy, too quiet, so the critics kept saying. attract new manufacturers. whether it is possible for newcomers to get
Well, 10 years later, the criticism has fallen The electric motor rotates up to 125,000 into the sport – and all of these parameters
almost silent. All manufacturers now have times per minute, delivers between 60 and are slightly contradictory. In the end, the
the technology under control and are at a 70kW and switches back and forth between solution has to be a compromise.’
similar performance level. Consequently, power delivery and harvesting in the shortest This is also the reason why the
the regulations on the powertrain side have possible time. The MGU-H is probably the combustion engine has been limited to the
remained largely unchanged. single most complicated component in the essentials. Variable geometry turbochargers

XPB
Formula 1 currently uses 10 per cent renewable ethanol fuel, but the 2026 rules take sustainability further by removing the fossil fuel content entirely, in the push for carbon neutrality by 2030
Audi
‘We’ve wanted to simplify the
ICE in order to make it possible
for newcomers to come into the
sport and not have to go through
a few years of humiliation before
they can be competitive’
Nikolas Tombazis, single seater director at the FIA
Audi, one of the new manufacturers coming into F1, argued for the use of aluminium pistons rather than steel ones
are still not permitted, and variable intake The incentives have paid off. Audi and Red At the same time, this means only the
trumpets will be banned again under the Bull Powertrains (with Ford) will join in 2026, basic architecture of the existing engines
new 2026 regulations. while Honda will return with Aston Martin. remains suitable. Also because the previously
‘Variable geometry technology is quite Thanks to the slight simplifications, the unlimited boost pressure is now being limited
high and quite expensive and would mean newcomers will be able to catch up more to 4.8bar since the MGU-H was removed. So,
that this area is subject to constant change. quickly with the largely unchanged in effect, all new Power Unit development will
We felt this was not an area where we wanted combustion engine. The reduction of the start virtually from scratch.
to fight a battle,’ says Tombazis. compression ratio illustrates the approach.
‘We’ve wanted to simplify the ICE in order ‘To work at the compression ratio of 18:1, Material matters
to make it possible for newcomers to come you would need to get there very gradually, Another concession has been the permitted
into the sport and not have to go through a step after step after step,’ explains Tombazis, piston material. Aluminium pistons were
few years of humiliation before they can be ‘and we don’t want them to make new extensively discussed, but existing PU
competitive. It’s still going to be very difficult engines every year. We felt that if we left it at manufacturers wanted to keep steel pistons.
for them. I’m not saying it’s going to be easy, 18:1, it would just increase the gap between ‘It was a big topic,’ recalls Tombazis. ‘When
but we wanted to make some simplifications.’ newcomers and the incumbents.’ we did the analysis, we found that aluminium

would have been more expensive and less
FIA
performant. Therefore, it was decided that Energy flows, power and energy storage and state of charge limits for the 2026 F1 PU regulations
pistons had to be made out of steel.’
This conclusion was no great surprise
to many as the incumbent manufacturers
had already gone through this process. In
retrospect, the switch from aluminium to steel
was one of the trend reversals in Formula 1
Power Unit development.
‘I guess the steel piston is a good example.
We were definitely coming to the limits of
what was possible with aluminium ones. It
just came to that tipping point, and that was
an interesting journey to go through,’ recalls
Mercedes engine boss, Hywel Thomas.
Even with the lower compression ratio,
steel is still the material of choice for pistons.
‘The way these engines work is very close
to the knock level; the pressures are
extremely high,’ says Tombazis. ‘So aluminium
cannot be as effective.
‘It would make them a lot cheaper as an
individual unit because these pistons are very
expensive to machine, and very complicated,
but considering a whole engine has to last, on
average, about eight races, the benefit of the
extra reliability [of steel] outweighs that.’
Pioneering role
So, accepting that the new F1 ICE will be
significantly less efficient in 2026, how does
this fit with the current zeitgeist?
The answer is fuel. While the current fuel
only has to contain 10 per cent advanced
sustainable ethanol, fuel in 2026 will have to
be completely sustainable. This was not only a
key criterion for new entrants, but for all
manufacturers. This change was even able to
persuade Honda to revoke its withdrawal.
The aim is to shift the technological
pioneering role on the combustion side
towards drop-in fuel.
‘We’ve eliminated the fossil components
FIA
in the fuel, and fuel manufacturers now need 2026 Power Unit element minimum mass limits (for reference only)
to develop manufacturing and production
techniques for such fuels,’ says Tombazis.
As a result, the efficiency of the MGU-K
ESME MGUK mechanical ICE TC Powerbox
combustion engine is no longer so transmission
elementary from an environmental No No
Min
perspective. Especially as the proportion of individual
12kg
individual
mass limit mass limit
combustion engine power will also be
drastically reduced. In 2026, the maximum
Min Min Assumed Min ICE+TC+Powerbox
fuel flow of 100kg per hour will become a 35kg 16kg 4kg 130kg
maximum energy flow of 3000MJ per hour
from 10,500rpm. The mode of operation 2026 Power Unit mass allowances as weighed
remains the same. Fuel flow will still be
ESME MGUK
measured, and the energy content of the Total PU
min mass min mass Not ICE min mass as weighed minimum
as as weighed
homologated petrol will be determined in weighed weighed mass
the laboratory. Tombazis explains the
Drive in
thinking behind the decision: > 35kg > 20kg > – > 130kg > 185kg
MGUK
‘We felt it was more correct to have an Drive
> 35kg > 18kg > – > 132kg > 185kg
energy limit because it means if you have a split
component with maybe a bit smaller energy Drive in
> 35kg > 16kg > – > 134kg > 185kg
ICE
density per unit mass - but otherwise a very
good fuel - it should be allowed, not stopped.

Getty Images
The new rules aim to entice new powertrain constructors and manufacturers into F1. So far, Red Bull Powertrains and Audi have signed up, while Honda is returning as Aston Martin’s PU supplier
This, however, shifts the problem to the The lower heating value (LHV), the
‘That’s why we’ve made these chassis side, as it could possibly mean larger available thermal energy produced by the
fuel tanks are required. combustion of one kilogram of fuel, must be
regulations. To make sure fuel between 38 and 41MJ, according to the new
development happens at the fuel Pump up the volume regulations. The competition is therefore not
‘We don’t expect a huge variation there. I only between the engine manufacturers, but
manufacturer and engine development don’t think anyone is going to come with also between the oil companies.
a fuel that needs twice the volume, or There are measures in place to ensure no
happens at the PU manufacturer’ something like that. Plus, there is a limit on engine manufacturer has an advantage in this
energy content per kilo,’ notes Tombazis. respect. Development on single-cylinder test
benches is permitted, but strictly controlled.
XPB
‘It must not be designed by the PU

manufacturer. They can get a generic
one-cylinder engine,’ confirms Tombazis.
‘That’s why we’ve made these regulations. To
make sure fuel development happens at the
fuel manufacturer and engine development
happens at the PU manufacturer.’
The 3000MJ per hour limit means
significantly less power, even without taking
into account the lower combustion efficiency.
Converted into today’s mass flow, this
equates to a reduction of around 25 per cent.
ICEs are currently expected to have an
output of around 400kW in 2026. In return,
the proportion of e-power will be significantly
increased. In the new era, the MGU-K will be
allowed to deliver an additional 350kW to the
crankshaft, rather than the current 120kW.
The almost equal split between the
combustion engine and the electric motor
One of the major demands of the interested OEMs was a more equal split between internal combustion engine and electric power was a major wish of the OEMs.

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Red Bull Powertrains, the only ‘There are some areas of the engine, like
independent engine manufacturer currently the cylinder head, which cannot be additive Initially, there was talk of
operating in the championship, would prefer manufactured for cost reasons. Generally
to push more petrol through the injection speaking, though, AM is an area where we are
recuperation on the front axle,
nozzles. This is because the 2026 Power Unit modernising the regulations for 2026, and as well as recuperation via the
only works to a limited extent. that also applies on the chassis side.’
The size of the energy storage unit Back to the energy dilemma. In racing crankshaft on the rear axle as before.
remains unchanged at 4MJ for weight mode, a maximum of 9MJ may be consumed In the future, power units will be
reasons, but the maximum e-boost has and released by the MGU-K per lap, but in
almost tripled. If more electrical power can be qualifying, 13MJ can be released if the battery operated like a serial hybrid
delivered, the electrical energy must also be is full at the start of the lap.
fed in. However, the MGU-H is no longer there However, even 13MJ is not enough on
as a power supplier. Instead, the MGU-K is most tracks to deliver full power every time at ‘I think perhaps where we need to pay
allowed to slow down the crankshaft more. full throttle. 13MJ is 13,000kW seconds. With urgent attention before it’s too late is to look
350kW of electric power, that’s a good 37 at the ratio between combustion power and
Battery development seconds of full power available, but the electrical power to ensure we’re not creating a
Up to now, only 2MJ per lap may be energy storage system is currently only technical Frankenstein that will require the
recuperated at the rear axle. In 2026 it will be sufficient for 33.3 seconds of full e-power, chassis to compensate to such a degree, with
9MJ. The battery must therefore be fully plus a contribution from the MGU-H. moveable aero to reduce the drag to such a
charged and discharged on average more The full power output time is similar, but level that the racing will be affected,’ warns
than twice per lap. For this reason, the focus there is one major difference: when the Red Bull’s Christian Horner.
of battery development will now shift to e-power stops in 2026, only 400 combustion
power density, not energy density. engine kW will remain. Recuperating 9MJ per Speed profile
Consequently, the regulations for battery lap will therefore be a Herculean task. Max Verstappen, for one, was very worried
technology are much more open than for Initially, there was talk of recuperation on about the speed profile, as on some tracks
combustion engines. Manufacturing the front axle, as well as recuperation via the drivers have to downshift at the end of long
processes are more free and additive crankshaft on the rear axle as before. In future, straights well before the braking zone.
manufacturing is now playing a greater role. the power units will be operated like a serial According to FIA analyses, such fears are
‘It was identified that some of the exhaust hybrid. In partial load operation, when the unfounded. Nevertheless, adjustments will
components, for example, were actually driver is not calling for full power, the still be made to the regulations.
cheaper to make with additive combustion engine will charge the battery. ‘What we are dealing with is just making
manufacturing,’ acknowledges Tombazis. That alone is not enough, so the 2026 sure that at circuits with very long straights
Certain parts, such as the three-into-one chassis regulations must follow suit and we distribute the power more evenly along
collector, can now come from the 3D printer. produce cars with less aerodynamic drag. the straight and don’t have it all at the start.
XPB
Rules such as the ‘three per cent’ clause are part of the FIA’s plan to develop engine regulations that are as equal as possible, making it harder for any team or manufacturer to gain an advantage

The MGU-H will no longer be present in 2026, yet engine weight is set to increase further still as the MGU-K becomes more powerful
I think that has been working quite okay now,’ ‘We had infinite discussion with the Industry view
says Tombazis, adding, ‘We also wanted to
make sure on some circuits that we don’t PU manufacturers about weight
and they were all very concerned
C
have any stupidly high speeds, and we’ve also ambridge University spin-off
got that under control now.’ company Echion is involved in
Currently, lap time-optimised, maximum about this topic in case it became a developing battery technologies
power is delivered as soon as traction permits, for heavy duty vehicles, and
but because only a limited amount of energy
battleground. All of them pushed has developed an anode material called
is available, the power output then decreases very hard for a weight limit’ XNO, based on mixed niobium oxide
as the straight progresses. In order to prevent ompositions and microparticle designs.
this, appropriate adjustments will be made in It says this provides ‘substantial amounts
the next version of the regulations. ‘We don’t want to say you just have the of power’ while also supporting ultra-fast
For some tracks, there will even be special cost cap and can do what you want with charging and higher capacity retention
rules regarding energy output. ‘That will be everything else, because we feel it then puts
at fast charging rates compared to LTO
the exception, not the norm,’ says Tombazis. enormous pressure on the cost cap, which
and graphite.
can lead to distortions, or to even breaches.’
Increasing the battery’s responsibility
Heavy weights In contrast to the current engine freeze,
in the power unit will see teams pay
That was not the only criticism of the new more thought has been given to potential
engine regulations. The complex technologies problem cases this time around. For example, greater attention to battery design, from
onboard were largely responsible for the what happens if a manufacturer is too far overall weight down to the molecular
weight explosion of the cars in 2014, which behind? If a three per cent deficit in the detail of the battery anode material,
saw the current Power Units weighing in at a combustion engine is exceeded, additional says Echion. Under the 2026 regulations,
whopping 151kg. Although the MGU-H will updates can be made. The exact nature of harvestable energy per lap of the ERS-K
be omitted in 2026, the more powerful this process is still being defined, but it’s not will increase as will peak power provided
MGU-K, in particular, will continue to drive up just about peak performance. to the MGU-K. However, the amount
the weight, so the entire Power Unit looks ‘It is more like an integrated power, but of energy that can be used from the
likely to weigh at least 185kg. it’s not exactly a simple integration,’ says battery at any one time is still capped.
However, there was no requirement in the Tombazis. ‘It depends on how power is The 2026 competition will therefore be
the new regulations to impose a limit here. delivered around the track. a battle of fast-charging batteries, with
Because a budget cap now applies to the ‘We are planning to refine this particular teams likely to trial different approaches.
engine manufacturers for the first time, the clause a bit more. We want to find a range of Manufacturers might opt for chemistries
lightweight arms race would have regulated conditions. If an engine is running much
that minimise degradation, reducing the
itself. In contrast to the chassis, there are no cooler than another engine, for example, that
need for oversized batteries.
major safety concerns being flagged up. is also a drawback. So you may have equal
This leads to the area of development
‘We had infinite discussions with the PU power between two engines, but an engine
around anode materials. The anode is an
manufacturers about weight and they were may have to run 10 degrees cooler than
area where battery manufacturers are
all very concerned about this topic in case it another to achieve that, which then increases
became a battleground. All of them pushed the amount of cooling needed.’ already working hard to improve charge
very hard for a weight limit,’ says Tombazis. It’s clear there is still work to do on the rates, capacity and performance. Anode
Ultimately, the FIA did not want to give finer details, but the 2026 Formula 1 Power materials, says Echion, have the potential
too much freedom here in order to avoid Unit regulations certainly look to be a big to unlock more power from traditional
putting unnecessary pressure on the system. step in the right direction. lithium-ion batteries.

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????????
RALLYING – 2025 RULE CHANGES
The FIA has recommended that the World Rally Championship drop hybrid
powertrains for 2025 with a view to a new rule set for 2026. The FIA’s
David Richards and Andrew Wheatley take us through the plans
By ANDREW COTTON

H
ybrid powertrains were Not so, says FIA Foundation chair supported by Andrew Wheatley [FIA rally
introduced to the FIA World Rally and former Subaru rally team boss, director] and Xavier [Mestelan Pinon,
Championship (WRC) in 2022, at David Richards. This is the first step in a FIA chief technical and safety officer].
the behest of the manufacturers major re-think of rallying, and a crucial We said, let’s just do something
who felt they needed to race what they sold move towards fulfilling the FIA’s mandate quickly. We can’t just sit around and
for the road. However, following a decision to improve grass roots competition. let things carry on as they are without
to closely examine what is needed to make putting some proposals on the table.
the WRC sustainable for the future, that Racecar Engineering: What was behind We looked at all sorts of things; we
decision has been undone, and from next the decision to drop hybrids from the had a complete look at the whole process.
year the cars will revert to non-hybrid status. World Rally Championship for 2025? We didn’t just say, do we need hybrids?
The focus is very much on sustainability, David Richards: The initiative, or the Or what are we going to do for Rally2?
not only from a technical perspective but demand, came from the fans who are all We asked, what’s important about the
from a sporting one, too. Dropping hybrids asking what is going on with the world World Rally Championship? What are
means Rally1 cars will be less costly to championship, that questioning of it. the key aspects of it that we need to
buy, cheaper to run and the gap to the And then [FIA president] Mohammed Ben protect and ensure for the future? What
slower Rally2 machinery will be closed, Sulayem said in Baku in December that it’s are the demands of promotion and
allowing the manufacturers involved in that about time we did something around this. marketing that we’re not doing today?
class to more easily make the step up. Robert [Reid, FIA deputy president And then finally, on the technical
Taken in isolation, dropping hybrid is for Sport] and I put our hands up and side, where are the car manufacturers
a shock to the system. The WRC is mid- volunteered to get stuck in and try to write going? What are their requirements?
contract with official supplier, Compact a report and make some recommendations. How do we encourage greater
Dynamics, and the manufacturers are not We commandeered [FIA World Motor participation at the top level?
selling fewer hybrid road cars, so on the Sport Council members] Gary Connolly It was a holistic look; it wasn’t
face of it, it seems to be a rushed call. and Andrew Mallalieu, and, of course, just an issue about hybrids.

????????
‘The complication of [hybrids], the cost, and
the barrier to participation from the next level
down of drivers are significant issues’
David Richards, chair at the FIA Foundation
A big part of the decision-making process was to bring Rally1 and Rally2 closer together, in order to provide a more achievable step between the two classes for younger teams and drivers
RE: We’re in the middle of a rule cycle I wouldn’t say every decision taken The other thing that’s important to
and the manufacturers have already has been unanimous, but I would say bear in mind is that this 2025 / 2026
invested a lot of time and money into it’s definitely a majority decision that regulation is a step towards the new 2026
getting to grips with the hybrid system hybrids should take a back seat now. The rules. It’s part of a transition. The intention is
and the strategies it involves. How complication of them, the cost, and the that the new regulations will be published
dramatic is the change in philosophy barrier to participation from the next level at the start of 2025 for the 2026 application,
going to be after this decision? down of drivers are significant issues. and then into the 2027 world championship.
DR: It has been done in conjunction Andrew Wheatley: I think that’s fair to say. It makes sense when you see the transition
with the manufacturers. They were Each manufacturer has a different reason from where we are now to where we’re going,
involved at the beginning of December why they would like or not like hybrid but, to see how this develops in these steps.
and have been party to discussions for the greater good of the sport, this was
right the way through the process. perceived as a positive step forward. RE: We note that WRC uses a sustainable
fuel supplied by P1, and Formula 1 will
XPB
While Rally2 cars are still popular and introduce sustainable fuel to its 2026
affordable, current Rally1 cars are not. technical regulations. The torque curve
M-Sport, for example, has only sold one changes also closely resemble what’s
of its Rally1 Fiestas to a customer happening in FIA GT3. Is this part of a wider
FIA strategy, or is this specific to rallying?
DR: I think from a rally point of view,
it’s a logical step. It’s therefore no
coincidence that other motorsports
are following a similar trend.
RE: Sustainable fuel is an emerging

technology - we should be shouting
it from the rooftops - but currently it’s
not a very well communicated strategy.
Do you have plans to change this?
DR: Rally is a wonderful platform for
sustainable fuels, and we tend to push
very hard on that front, making sure
it gets the promotion and publicity it
deserves, which I don’t think it has today.

XPB
‘One of the simple things
to help reduce the cost of
aerodynamic development
is a top speed cap’
Andrew Wheatley, FIA rally director
In a further move to keep a lid on costs, top speeds will be limited in 2026, while hydrogen remains on the cards as rallying seeks to remain open minded about future fuel sources
That’s where the promotion of the fundamentally different philosophies; To base the Rally1 regulations on
sport, and communication, comes in. [Rally2] is a customer philosophy, and a standard road ’shell was just not
Hand in glove with the changes to [Rally1] is purely professional. feasible, or at least if it was, it would be
technical, it’s a significant commitment However, it will enable those drivers extraordinarily costly. So, the new concept
from the FIA, to promote the sport more to take one step closer to being able to is an extension of what we have today.
effectively and to review the commercial show their worth. Secondly, it will allow the All the safety work from today’s Rally1
aspects of it to build a better profile. Rally1 category to come down one small cars will carry over to the new version. It
I don’t think anyone can criticise the TV step so drivers can make that transition will be a sort of evolution, if you like.
coverage it gets today. It’s been superb and without full factory support, and all the The proposal is that it’s slightly larger
the promoters are doing an excellent job. But simulation and testing that comes with that. than the current car, which will not only give
their focus has been very much TV centric. increased safety, but make it more relevant to
We intend to broaden that now to make RE: Do you think it’s fair to say people the cars the manufacturers are promoting.
sure we communicate not just to the fan have underestimated the technical The intent is for the FIA to homologate a
base, which the TV tends to do, but to the leap that hybrid has required? set of tooling and have an authorised supplier
broader public and those on the periphery DR: One of the other aspects, of course, sell it, allowing manufacturers, or tuners,
of the WRC. Or those that we’ve lost in is that whereas Malcolm Wilson [M-Sport] anywhere in the world to make the spaceframe.
recent years and need to capture back. used to regularly sell a number of cars to So it’s the tooling that will be standardised.
private competitors, he has so far only
RE: Rally2 cars will be closer to Rally1, sold one of the latest generation cars.
making it easier for those in the secondary The private competitors have all seen the
class to race in the top level of WRC. Was problems of [hybrid], the expense, and
that one of the reasons to drop hybrid? there’s just no demand for these cars.
DR: That’s a good observation. The perception So, the secondary market, those
and the truth, from what I’m told by drivers gentleman drivers who would have turned
who tried to make this transition, is that it’s up at the World Rally Championship and
an extremely difficult step. Andrew has some made up the top 20, just don’t exist anymore.
anecdotal evidence of drivers that have AW: That’s the bit that’s missing right now.
done it and has spoken to them afterwards.
AW: It’s easy if you step into a full factory RE: The idea is for the 2026 Rally1 regulations
team environment, and you’re engaged from to have a common safety cell onto which the
the start with all that application. Where it’s manufacturers can hang their bodywork.
challenging for drivers is trying to step into What is the background to this decision?
that environment. That’s the difficult bit. DR: To be honest with you, that was not the
At the moment, the step between Rally2 original idea. The original thought process,
and Rally1, in terms of performance, is before we researched this properly, was that
relatively small, but in terms of the whole a more powerful Rally2 car would be the
process it’s much more complex. That’s answer. But what became apparent talking
another thing we’re talking about with to the manufacturers was that the cars
this transition to the next set of technical currently competing in Rally2 are reaching TV coverage of rallying, including special made for TV
regulations, to enable those two disciplines the end of their lives. And, in that segment stages, is already excellent, but there are even greater
to come closer together. They won’t of the market, there are no cars going to marketing opportunities out there to be exploited
merge, because that’s impossible as they’re follow behind internal combustion engines.

the cost of aerodynamic development is
Tom Banks
a top speed cap. The current Rally1 can

peak at around 195km/h but you’re talking
about very small periods where it’s at that
speed, so the amount of work that has to
be done to get ultimate efficiency at that
speed is disproportionate to the benefit.
The homologation approach
to the transmission also opens the
doorway a little bit for more people.
One crucial thing, though, is the safety
cell is being designed around an electric
vehicle architecture, the intention being
for it to accommodate that as well.
DR: In circuit racing, if you have a
small discrepancy in performance,
that makes all the difference, and
the driver is less of an influence.
In rallying, a driver has a far greater
influence in the overall performance.
If we get everything right, and I’m
Currently, Rally1 is purely professional, while Rally2 is a customer philosophy. The new rules aim to change this position confident we will, you could put one of
the top drivers into any of these cars and
They would then acquire homologated they’ll get the same performance. That
bodywork from the car manufacturers, levels the playing field enormously.
‘One of the great things about which would fit on the same pick-up points, It also allows younger drivers to come
the WRC is that we must look so you just decide whether you want a through and shows the talent more
Ford, Toyota, Hyundai or whatever. easily, which is not happening today. This
to engage and embrace all Other manufacturers could then is a democratisation of the World Rally
the new technologies the car come along and homologate their
bodywork, again to fit that chassis.
Championship, which it always used to be.
If you look at the past, you could go
manufacturers are looking We will ask for the bodywork to be out and buy the same car the factory was
made of sustainable, reusable materials. selling, and you could be competitive.
to promote… whether The current proposal is to have options In the Subaru days, we would be selling
it’s electric, hydrogen, for the transmission. We won’t do a tender for 20 of these cars a year. Malcolm [Wilson]
that, instead allowing transmission suppliers would be doing the same with his Fiestas.
whatever it might be’ to offer a standard unit that fits the chassis, at That’s not possible today, and that is
David Richards a certain price. Those will be homologated, not healthy for the sport, in our view.
and customers choose which one to go for.
Engines will be bought from the RE: Hydrogen is a major focus of the FIA at the
manufacturer; the same engine as in Rally2. moment. Do you see that fuel being used in
XPB
With those constraints, it should be an the World Rally Championship any time soon?
easy car to build anywhere in the world. DR: One of the great things about the WRC
And it should keep the price down as well. is we must look to engage and embrace all
the new technologies the car manufacturers
RE: You’ve suggested a car cost of €400,000 are looking to promote because that’s how
(approx. £342,300 / US$435,700). How does we’ll encourage them into the championship,
that compare to the current Rally1 cars? whether it’s electric, hydrogen, whatever it
DR: Double that price. might be. We must protect that for the future.
Personally, I think the new car will be But, at the same time, we’ve got to be very
below that figure, looking at comparable cautious that we don’t create an imbalance
GT4 cars, which are about £280,000 (approx. and don’t end up with all the problems that
$356,600). I don’t see these cars being are raised around balancing performance.
much more complicated than that. If there are ways of controlling engine
Now that we’ve set that target, performance, so it’s the same running on
though, we mustn’t let it escalate. hydrogen as on a sustainable fuel, that should
AW: There are a couple of interesting things be taken on board as soon as possible.
here. There is the torque meter on the engine, Liquid-based hydrogen seems to be a
which does restrict the development race. The sensible route forward, and the FIA is doing
manufacturers still want to have the lightest a lot of research into it at the moment, a lot
and most reliable unit they can, but searching of crash protection testing, and I suspect it’ll
for the last 2bhp, that’s the expensive bit. only be a matter of time before that’s feasible.
Also, by reducing the aerodynamics, we Knowing Toyota, and their enthusiasm for
again stop some of the peak development [hydrogen], I suspect they’ll be pushing us to
cost. One of the simple things to help reduce bring that into the world championship.

CONSTRUCTOR FOCUS – JEDI RACING CARS
Jedis have been a familiar sight in UK motorsport

for 40 years now. The single seater started off as a
hillclimber but has been raced on circuits since the 1990s

Jon Elsey
British racecar constructor, Jedi, turns 40 this year, and its
diminutive creation is still turning heads, winning races
and shaking up the motorsport establishment
By MIKE BRESLIN

J
edis posted the fastest lap of the
season at two UK circuits last year,
Brands Hatch Indy and Silverstone
International. That news will come as
no surprise to many on the British club racing
scene, for this potent little racecar has been
punching above its weight – currently just
350kg – for four decades now.
Remarkably, during that time its design
has not strayed far from the initial concept,
yet it remains fast and relevant, now plying
its trade in its own F1000 championship,
while it also gives Formula 3 cars a run for
their money in Monoposto races.
Wellingborough, Northamptonshire-based
Jedi Racing Cars is owned and run by father
and son, John and Frazer Corbyn, although
John is semi-retired and ‘now only comes in
six days a week,’ jokes Frazer.
John designed and built the first Jedi in
1984, with the help of Roger Grigg, who did
the drawings. It was Frazer, at the time a Star Chassis is of spaceframe construction, making it both strong and cheap to fix. Additional safety measures include anti-intrusion plates
Wars obsessed young lad, who named it.
Initially, there was no intention to sell the One of the clearest signs of the Jedi’s
Hill start car but, with its success on the hills, potential evolution was an early alteration to the frame.
However, to really understand this car and, by customers soon came knocking at the door. ‘The chassis is now deeper, because it was
extension, the company that makes it, you By the late 1990s, when Jedis were also out designed to run 10in wheels originally,’ says
need to look at its story, which did not begin on the circuits, that interest increased John, ‘but we very quickly moved on to 13in,
a long time ago in a galaxy far, far away, but exponentially, and the little racecars have so we lowered it, which then lowered the
in the sport of hillclimbing. been a staple of UK club racing ever since. driver and the engine, and that was a bonus.’
We’re used to seeing bike-engined racecars Partly to mark the 40th anniversary of the
these days but, in 1984, when the first Jedi original car, ‘Number 1’ is at present being Spaceframe chassis
made its debut with a Suzuki T500 engine, rebuilt at Jedi’s factory, and in its naked More recently, for the Mk6, which represented
they were a rare thing indeed. spaceframe form it is noticeably similar to the one of the biggest performance hikes in the
‘I think the first car wasn’t only right, it was current Mk7 frames sitting alongside it. car’s history, the chassis was altered again, this
also built at the right time,’ says Frazer. ‘There ‘The car has never really chopped and time at the front to allow for a higher nose,
was nothing else like it. Other bike-engine changed too much,’ confirms Frazer. ‘When and we’ll come to why later. However, while
cars had been done, there was the Johnny Number 1 is rebuilt, we’ll stick it next to a there have undoubtedly been changes, there
Walker 4 for example, but this was different. current Mk7, and you’ll immediately see the has never been any thought of moving away
‘This was the first time anybody really shared DNA between the two cars. from a spaceframe, for a multitude of reasons.
successfully used a two-stroke,’ John explains. ‘It’s a bit like the original Lotus 7 and the ‘It’s a tough car,’ says Frazer, ‘and the good
‘And the car was very light. It was the same current Caterham. It’s never really changed thing about a spaceframe is you can repair it
weight as the bike that donated the engine.’ much, it’s just evolved.’ fairly easily. You can also see damage.
Jon Elsey
Bodywork is of a modular design and comes in seven separate pieces. This was a consideration right from the start, again to help keep potential (perhaps inevitable) crash damage costs down

And for our customers, we didn’t want to put
a completely different roll hoop on it, because
then it would require different bodywork, and
so on, and more expense.’
Budget bodywork
There isn’t a huge amount of bodywork on a
Jedi, and what there is is of a modular design,
which is a trend with racecar builders in recent
times, although the British constructor took
this approach from the start.
‘The bodywork is done in sections because
I had a smash at Prescott in a Formula Ford
2000 once and the bodywork was all one
piece, so it cost a lot to fix,’ explains John. ‘So,
when I did this, I thought we’ll have a separate
nosecone, separate cockpit surrounds,
everything separate. That way you don’t have
to replace everything if you do have a shunt.’
That said, the original car was even more
basic in terms of the bodywork, being just a
The race prep shop at Jedi’s Wellingborough base. The cars compete in their own F1000 championship, and also in Monoposto GRP nosecone and aluminium sides.
‘Then, as we started needing more cooling
‘No one will argue against carbon tubs The steel used for most of the spaceframe on the cars, we began putting sidepods and
being the correct direction for the high-end structure is ERW, while the roll hoop and engine covers on,’ says Frazer.
stuff, but there’s a cost with it. Also, can you sidebars are CDS. The chassis is also clad in As far as materials are concerned, Jedi
see the damage? There are lots of second stressed aluminium panels. bodies are still mostly GRP and aluminium.
hand cars out there with carbon tubs, and ‘We’ve made certain modifications to it ‘Again, it’s the big carbon debate,’ notes
sometimes you wonder how many of them over the years,’ admits Frazer. ‘ROPS [the then Frazer. ‘You might ask why don’t we do carbon
have been x-rayed, just to see what has new Roll Over Protection System regulations] wings? And people do ask us that. Well, we
happened to them. was a thing we had to go through a few years can do carbon wings. The problem is that
‘With this car, it’s just the direction we ago, but we got through that and, in the the front wing always gets hit straight away
carried on with. Because the performance was process, had the roll hoop tested at MIRA. in an accident, and aluminium wings are
there, and the safety record was so good, we ‘We wanted to do our own [hoop] because much cheaper to produce, which means it’s
simply never needed to change it.’ we really wanted the car to still look the same. cheaper for the customer.
TECH SPEC: Jedi Mk 7
Jon Elsey
Chassis
Tubular steel spaceframe; built-in front end crash structure;
removable foot box protection; side impact bars; anti-intrusion plates
Engine
Dry sumped Suzuki GSX-R1000 (K8); power: 170bhp at the wheels
Transmission
Six-speed Suzuki gearbox; chain drive with Quaife ATB LSD
Bodywork
Modular design with seven GRP elements
Aerodynamics
Adjustable twin-element aluminium front and rear wings; front
splitter and diffuser; rear diffuser
Suspension
Adjustable rod end suspension with unequal length wishbones;
double adjustable coilover dampers to Jedi specification
Brakes
AP two-pot calipers front and rear; Ferodo pads
Tyres
Hoosier slicks and wets
Cooling
Radiator and oil cooler in sidepods
Dash and datalogging
Carbon dash with choice of instrumentation
Safety
Foam moulded seat; FIA-approved, six-point, HANS-friendly harness
with HANS-spec mounting points; two-way, plumbed-in fire
extinguisher system
Weight
350kg

The most commonly used

engine for the spec F1000
championship is the Suzuki
GSX-R1000… giving around
170bhp at the wheels and
revving to 13,500rpm
‘Also, this is club racing, and who wants

carbon all over the track, which can then go
through tyres?’
Engine evolution
Perhaps the biggest changes the car has seen
over the years have come with the
bewildering array of powerplants run in Jedis,
from Yamaha TZ and R1 engines, to Honda
CBR 600s, Fireblade engines and many more. Most Jedis now pack a dry sumped Suzuki GSX-R1000 (K8) motorcycle engine, which produces 170bhp at the wheels
In the beginning, John had to solve the
problems associated with early bike-engine There are also some cars using Yamaha R1 up specifically for a bike engine car,’ says
cars, such as oil surge and poor pick-up, which engines in the F1000 championship, while Frazer. ‘He took a Mini diff’, and that Mini diff’
was sorted easily enough on the original car anything goes in Monoposto. Indeed, one Jedi is used to running in engine oil in a Mini
by fitting a dry sump system. in that championship is competing with a gearbox; it’s part of the engine. So, you have
‘Not only did this cure any problems with BMW S1000RR unit (see RE V34N12). to put a pot on that, and run it so the oil is
the oiling, but also the main problem of sealed within it. The first one he did for the
overheating,’ recalls John. ‘It cured that Shift and diff’ first car was a dog food tin! And that stayed
instantly. We found we could run half the The Suzuki engines are very reliable, though on the car for a season. After that, we had
cooling system, and so we ran with one Frazer says they don’t like to be over-revved proper machined cans.’
radiator instead of two.’ on the downshift, which brings us neatly to The current Jedi uses a Quaife ATB limited
It’s possible to fit more powerful engines the car’s gearbox. This, as with most slip differential, which is ideal in such a light
into a Jedi, including Suzuki’s legendary motorbike-engine racecars, is integrated with car with a relatively powerful engine.
1300cc Hayabusa, but John feels this has a the powerplant and it’s a six-speed sequential ‘It’s just improved everything, and it’s
detrimental effect on the car’s weight unit. Where the Jedi differs from other similar strong as well,’ says Frazer.
distribution, and the extra power does not cars, though, is in its lack of a paddle shift.
necessarily equate to lower lap times. With ‘We have had inquiries asking if we can Simple suspension
this in mind, the most commonly used engine go down the paddle shift route,’ Frazer Those who race Jedis, such as F1000 front
for the spec F1000 championship is the Suzuki acknowledges, ‘and we can do it, there are runner, Dan Gore, have told Racecar they’re
GSX-R1000, which Frazer describes as ‘just systems we know will work. The issue is what great fun to drive, and to slide, which is down
brilliant’, giving around 170bhp at the wheels it does to performance and cost in a to the combination of power, differential and
and revving to 13,500rpm. one-make championship. the relatively light aero, but also the
It remains pretty much factory standard, ‘You can run them on hills, or sprints, suspension. The latter is another area where
too. ‘We dry sump it,’ he says. ‘Then, for even in Monoposto, but in a one-make Jedi got it right first time around.
F1000 it’s a tight rule book, so basically, they’re championship, if putting a paddle shift on Yet, interestingly, when the car first saw
just blueprinted. You can skim the head makes a difference to lap time, then it’ll the light of day in 1984, it was bucking
slightly and you can port them, but you’ve become the thing to have. But not everyone contemporary trends in suspension design
got to have standard crank, rods, pistons and has the same budget, and you have to look by not using inboard coilover dampers. That
valves. You’ve also got to use standard cams, after the whole group. philosophy continues to this day.
but you can put an aftermarket slotted cam ‘If the guys with the money can afford it, ‘We didn’t want to do that,’ says John. ‘We
wheel on the end, just so you can tickle up but there’s a portion of the grid that can’t wanted something really simple. But we do
your timing a little bit.’ afford it, it’s no longer a level playing field.’ have very strong front springs set at a high
F1000 engines are generally put together To transmit the power, Jedis use a angle, so they change rates very quickly…
by specialist engine builders, but the K8 unit superbike O-ring chain, which is easily strong It runs on average about 700lb front springs
most commonly used is becoming a little old enough to last a season or more, chiefly and 250 rears. If you have a soft rear, you get
now. Fortunately, there is a newer alternative because even though it transfers power good traction on the rear, while the front
in the GSX-S engine, which is found in Suzuki’s through relatively wide tyres compared to controls the roll.’
range of sports tourers. a motorbike, it does not need to do so It is possible to go to inboard suspension
‘It’s got different cams in it, different valves through a swinging arm. with a Jedi, but again the constructor has felt
and different pistons,’ notes John, ‘but to get However, it’s with the differential that Jedi no need to do so. The car works as it is, and its
the right power, you just swap all those for the broke new ground all those years ago. entire concept has always been about
K8 bits. As the rest of it is all new, you’re then ‘This was one of the things dad did that straightforwardness. Hence the lack of any
sort of getting a new K8.’ nobody had done at the time, design a diff’ set suspension aids such as anti-roll bars.

forced upon Jedi recently. This is due to the
recent upheaval in the motorsport tyre
industry in the UK, as detailed in RE V34N4.
Although it has now been announced that
Avon tyres will return under new
management, with no stock available at the
start of the season to see it through 2024,
F1000 made the decision to switch to Hoosier
slicks, and early indications are that the US
manufacturer has supplied a very decent tyre.
‘In some ways there are areas where it’s
better than an Avon,’ says Frazer. ‘There are
also areas where it’s not quite so good. But
the areas where it’s not so good I think can
be improved with very fine set-up changes,
not only on the chassis, but also with how
we’re running the tyre.’
Jedi has used outboard suspension since the car’s inception. It has no anti-roll bars, relying on its stiff front springs to control roll Meanwhile, in a bid to reduce costs in
F1000, Jedi has introduced a new tyre use rule.
Jon Elsey
‘We’ve seen situations recently where

people have used a couple of sets of tyres
over a race weekend,’ says Frazer, ‘but
obviously not everyone is in a position to do
that, so now you’ll only be allowed to register
a number of tyres per race weekend and, out
of those, only four can be new.’
Aero package
Helping to get the most from those tyres is a
neat aero package which, while it obviously
has a job to do, is certainly not the be all and
end all with this car.
‘Let’s not pretend this is a full aero car. It’s
not,’ says Frazer. ‘It’s a car that was built for
mechanical grip. It was originally built without
any wings at all but, as the car got quicker, it
needed some aero on it to take over when
required. So, we started putting wings on it.
‘We’ve now got a full floor, a splitter and
diffuser at the front, a diffuser at the back and
Rear aero comprises a centre post, twin-element wing and diffuser, but Jedis are not high downforce cars, which means close racing fully adjustable front and rear wings. It’s still
as simple as it can be though.’
‘This is club racing, and One of the noticeable aero tweaks,
which was originally introduced on the Mk6,
who wants carbon all is the higher nose mentioned earlier, along
over the track, which can with an underslung wing that is also a bit
bigger than on previous cars. It’s a very neat
then go through tyres?’ approach and a good way to gain additional
Frazer Corbyn front downforce on a small car.
Best of all, it has been developed using old
fashioned engineering nous, rather than CFD.
‘You change the front springs if it’s wet,’ As Frazer says, ‘This car has seen none of that.’
says John, matter-of-factly. It’s interesting that in Monoposto, where
There is also adjustment available in the these cars will often nibble at the rear diffusers
unequal length double wishbone suspension. of F3s, it’s the low drag and mechanical grip
‘You can adjust pretty much everything that gives the Jedi its rapid lap times, through
you need to,’ says Frazer. ‘You can adjust your the high straight-line speed that results. The
cambers, toe, caster; the shock absorber is car’s relative lack of downforce also means
adjustable, with separate bump and rebound, Jedis can run close together in F1000, which
and you can also use alternative springs.’ produces some great racing.
Jedis have been used in a number of
Changing rubber one-make, single-seater series over the years,
Jedi has resisted the temptation to go with a paddle gear shift While the suspension concept has been including Formula 600, Formula Honda – with
mechanism to keep costs down in its one-make championship. The proved to work very well over many years, manufacturer support – and Formula Jedi,
gearbox is a stock Suzuki six-speed sequential there has been one fundamental change but around six years ago the company settled

on the F1000 name. This coincided with a

change of organising club from the BRSCC
to the 750 Motor Club, and since then it has
never looked back, with grids regularly
hovering around the 20-car mark.
Competitive cost
It’s no surprise the cars are so popular, for
they give phenomenal bang for buck,
reaching 60mph in just three seconds and
being capable of up to 150mph. All this for
around £40,000 (approx. US$51,175) plus tax
for a complete new car. If that’s a bit much for
your pocket, there are plenty of cheaper,
second hand examples around, too.
Running them on a tight budget is also
possible, with some owner / drivers telling Current car has an undercut to work the front wing more efficiently. All aero development is the result of experience, not CFD
Racecar they have completed a season in
Jon Elsey
F1000 for between £10,000 and £12,000
(approx. $12,795-$15,350), while arrive and
drive deals, which are offered by teams and
also by Jedi itself, come in around the £30,000
mark (approx. $38,380).
It’s interesting to note that it costs that
much to race in the Star of Tomorrow Formula
Ford 1600 series in 1984, when the first Jedi
was built, which further points to how
competitive the cost of racing these cars is.
Another popular option is owning the car,
but having it run from and by the factory.
Arrive and drive your own car, if you will.
Because F1000 is a spec championship,
there is little ongoing development of the
current Jedi, and the Corbyns feel this is
another important point.
‘As a manufacturer, the only thing we’re
doing by not bringing out rafts of regular
updates is shooting ourselves in the foot,’
says Frazer, smiling. ‘But we believe that if F1000 grids are healthy, with around 20 cars regularly lining up, thanks to the great performance-to-price ratio.
you buy a second-hand car, or you buy a Jedis can also be raced for around £10,000 a season, yet post some of the fastest lap times in the UK
new car for F1000, or even Monoposto, this
looks after your investment a little bit. You ‘We like to do as much as we can in house, ‘It’s still a quick car, and it’s surviving
know your car is still going to be relevant, if because that way we can regulate what stock
you later want to sell it.’ we hold,’ says Frazer. ‘We’ve always liked to rely in the modern world. There’s also
Jedi, as a company, remains extremely
busy, both with its work organising the
on ourselves.’
something a little bit retro about it,
championship and running cars, as well as Jedi master? and I think people quite like that’
the engineering projects it does for race As for the future, Jedi is aiming to carry on as
Frazer Corbyn
teams and other racecar constructors. it always has, building on the approach that
With such a strong second hand market has served it well for 40 years.
for its products, it doesn’t build as many new ‘I think right now it’s about keeping company, we were hillclimbing into the late
cars these days as it used to, and a lot of the everything as stable as we can for the ’90s, but quite early on dad recognised how
day-to-day work is spares, repairs, customer base,’ Frazer says. ‘We’ve never expensive the arms race in that sport would
maintenance and service work. chopped and changed the design, so I can’t become. Sure enough, there are some very
Sensibly, Jedi has also made the effort to see the point in doing that now. It’s still a high end, bespoke hillclimb cars now that
diversify in recent years, building aerospace- quick car, and it’s surviving in the modern have been developed for that purpose with
spec fuel cells for Shadow Microlight aircraft, world. There’s also something a little bit retro the right budgets behind them.
for example, among other projects. about it, and I think people quite like that. ‘For us to be on a level playing field with
All of this is the work of a small team, just ‘The only way we would maybe change them would take the right customer, with the
five or six heads, including fabricators, Rocky the design would be for the hillclimb side.’ right investment. But, yes, there is some
Botticelli and Frazer himself, plus former Jedi Which raises an interesting question: unfinished business there.’
racer, Murfie Aldridge, and one or two might Jedi consider building an all-new car In the meantime, Jedi will continue to do
part-time employees. Between them, they do specifically for the hills? what it does best, provide blindingly fast,
pretty much everything, except for some of ‘I think in some respects, for dad, there’s affordable racecars based on sound principles
the more specialised CNC work. unfinished business there,’ says Frazer. ‘As a and no-nonsense engineering.

EV – FORD SUPERVAN 4.2

Is it a bird? Is it a plane? No, it’s SuperVan 4.2, a 2000bhp
electric van built to promote Ford’s E-Transit platform
(and break a few records in the process)
By LAWRENCE BUTCHER
The plan with SuperVan 4.2 is to attack lap records on some of the world’s most demanding circuits. At Mount Panorama in Australia, Romain Dumas re-set the non-race lap record to 1m56.3247s
T
he first SuperVan, built for Ford by Sriram Pakkam, lead engineer on the
Terry Drury Racing in 1971, was a project at Ford Performance, outlines the
decidedly analogue affair, featuring company’s reasoning.
a tube frame chassis and the engine ‘We’ve got all the NASCAR stuff, sportscars,
and gearbox from a GT40 mounted in the Formula 1, and then you’ve got these EV
load area. It was used as a promotional demonstrators that we’re really pushing.
tool, even lapping the Nürburgring in a If you look at all the other series we’re
respectable nine minutes and 13 seconds, participating in, there are rule sets which
and was a roaring success for the company. vary in how restrictive they are, technically
SuperVan 2 followed in 1984, this time speaking. The point with these demonstrators
with a Cosworth DFL motor, and that was is to take those shackles off and just let
followed up with the SuperVan 3 in the 1990s, physics be your rule set. Go as hard as you
again using Cosworth power, this time an HB. can, until the limit of physics prevents you
Following a near 30-year hiatus, Ford has from going any further.’
upped its efforts to employ demonstration and
prototype cars, both as R&D platforms and Pushing the limits
marketing tools, leading to the return of the This approach has been applied to a range of Ford sees its current range of performance demonstrators as test beds
unhinged Transit concept, SuperVan 4 in 2022. demonstrators Ford has rolled out recently. for pushing various areas of its automotive technology to the limits
Developed in conjunction with STARD, ‘We have eight or nine of them, all
the Austrian-based creator of racing EV pushing in very different directions,’
powertrains, it was based around the recently continues Pakkam. ‘When it comes to
launched E-Transit, pepped up with a quad something like SuperVan 4.2, we’re pushing
electric motor drivetrain putting out a frankly the limits on aerodynamics, on how you
ludicrous (for a delivery van) 2000bhp. load tyres up. I mean, we’re literally running
This was a good starting point, but the out of tyre on this thing.’
company really wanted to make a statement Across these other demonstrators, which
with this evolution of the concept, and only include the Mustang Cobra Jet 1800 electric
the heat of competition could provide that. drag car, an off-road performance version of
But where can you take something that the F-150 Lightning and the Mustang Mach-E
doesn’t fall within any recognised rule set 1400, the company is working on all areas of
and race it? Pikes Peak, of course. vehicle performance, from cell and battery
Enter SuperVan 4.2, which took the pack system development to motor and
underpinnings of version 4, turned inverter technology.
everything up to 11 and took on the best of ‘In some, we play with just pushing Finding suitable tyres for the SuperVan 4.2 project in a very short
the rest at the Race to the Clouds in 2023. off road suspension to the extreme and timeframe tested the engineers at Ford’s partner company, Pirelli

‘The point with these
demonstrators is to take those
shackles off and just let physics be
your rule set. Go as hard as you can,
until the limit of physics prevents
you from going any further’
Sriram Pakkam, lead engineer on the
Transit 4.2 project at Ford Performance
seeing what effect that has on an electrified

drivetrain,’ says Pakkam. ‘For us, it’s always
take on stuff like Pikes Peak, Bathurst and
‘Just blindly adding downforce
other demanding, iconic racetracks around
to technically explore and learn. And at the the world,’ notes Pakkam. is never going to benefit
same time, our engineers get to operate on For Pikes Peak, the van ran a three-
the limit in some of these regimes.’ motor set up, and added an additional one
you. You need to do it at
at Bathurst, which meant either 1400bhp the right ratio, and right
Technology transfer or 2000bhp on tap, though the bulk of the
These demo cars are not simply marketing highly condensed development programme level of performance’
and hardware research tools, although focused more on the aerodynamics and Sriram Pakkam
the processes and tools the team at Ford chassis package than outright power.
Performance develop feed back into the First up, a diet was in order. 4.0 still
production car side of the company. retained a significant portion of the standard we looked at the sensitivity to lift over drag
‘There’s never a sweet, easy, bullet that Transit sheet metal, which was ditched on and asked what sort of lift or drag ratio we
says, yep, this bit came off this car and goes 4.2 in favour of a full carbon jacket. The wanted to hit. Is it 2.5:1 or is it three to one?
into this production vehicle. It’s all in the chassis also went to a full tube frame this Where does it start to really benefit?’
details, the minutiae,’ says Pakkam. ‘All of us, time round. Those two modifications This is where having almost limitless
from vehicle dynamics, the aerodynamicists trimmed a phenomenal 400kg from the power comes in handy. At 1400bhp, being
and the powertrain specialists, we’re all overall weight, or the equivalent of a ready- traction limited is more of a concern than
sitting together, working through the details. to-race Formula Ford from the overall mass. being drag limited. ‘The difference at Pikes
And all those details come together to give Peak is the total level of downforce; we could
you a nice technology transfer.’ Aero scrutiny just go crazy,’ says Pakkam.
The plan for SuperVan 4.2 was The aerodynamics also came in for close However, for the Bathurst assault, this
straightforward: go out and break records. scrutiny, as Pakkam details. ‘Aerodynamically approach had to be dialled back, not because
In particular, the Open class record at Pikes speaking, between 4 and 4.2, I know they the van ran out of power, but because, as
Peak. It smashed that goal, with Romain kind of look the same but, once you look Pakkam puts it, ‘the tyres are just going to
Dumas clocking a time of 8m 47.682s up hard enough, you’ll see things like the blow past a certain point.’
the mountain in 2023, clear of the previous massive double diffuser and rear wings. It On the topic of tyres, Ford worked closely
mark by 36 seconds. really has changed a lot,’ he says. with partner, Pirelli, but clearly, developing
In the process, the team also came ‘It’s a very simple brief in terms of a purpose-made tyre in such a short period
tantalisingly close to winning overall. aerodynamics; just get the most you can, of time was never going to happen. So, the
Then, earlier this year, Ford took the beast right?’ he continues before adding a caveat. engineers at Pirelli helped the team find a
down under and obliterated the Bathurst ‘But at the same time, you want to add it with balance between what they wanted to do
(non-race) record, lapping Mount Panorama a good lift over drag ratio, and this is the case and what existing tyres could safely handle.
in 1:56.3247, topping 180mph in the process. in all the series we do. Development of the aero package was
‘4.2 is about tackling records around ‘Just blindly adding downforce is never conducted purely in CFD, with Pakkam noting
circuits, taking the SuperVan 4.0, and the going to benefit you. You need to do it at the that there simply wasn’t time to run the
great level of powertrain technology we had right ratio, and right level of performance. van in a wind tunnel. Fortunately, Ford has
on that, and then improving the chassis to At Pikes Peak, for example, in our simulations developed some robust correlation processes
SuperVan 4.2 is the first in a long line of Ford SuperVans to feature an all-carbon fibre body. Aerodynamics have been significantly re-booted from the 4.0 version of 2022 that it is based upon

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Depending on where it is racing, SuperVan 4.2 features either a three or four-motor drivetrain, offering the team a
choice of 1400bhp or 2000bhp. Naturally, at such extreme power levels, the cooling package has its work cut out
Where previous versions of SuperVan deliberately retained major parts

of the Transit base vehicle, 4.2 is an out and out silhouette machine
The whole powertrain is of modular design, so can easily be tweaked to suit different environments and challenges. EVs are ideally suited to events like Pikes Peak where instant torque
Ford says it’s also very tunable and uses DiL simulators and desktop physics models to validate the project’s aims response and lack of atmospheric effect on the motors pays dividends
between CFD, track and tunnel, so the team putting huge amounts of current through is where the modular nature of SuperVan’s
was happy to go down this route. the contactors and the busbars. If you don’t powertrain pays dividends.
‘We’re fairly confident on that so, once design that right, there’s a very real chance ‘It’s highly tuneable and very modular,
we got the van ready, there was correlation you will literally melt the contactors. and that in many ways is the power of the
work done from the track to CFD. Generally ‘We’re running into very extreme regimes thing,’ asserts Pakkam.
speaking, all the changes we made, like of electrical performance, and you have to An EV powertrain offers a level of flexibility
dropping or raising ride heights, wing angle design your cooling to protect from that.’ it would be impossible to achieve with an
adjustments, they all correlated very well.’ Ensuring everything stays within the right ICE. ‘Modularity is key,’ says Pakkam. ‘Targets
The benefit of working outside of a rule parameters is a balancing act between all the are super important. You need to know what
set also meant the team wasn’t chasing different systems. From an aero perspective, you are aiming to do with the vehicle, and
absolute values, hunting for fractions of a Pakkam notes that while at Pikes Peak the top the only way you can figure that out is by
per cent of downforce or drag. Instead, it just speeds are relatively low, meaning drag is less simulating around either your Driver-in-the-
needed to ensure the aero was consistent. of an issue, the reduction in air density as the Loop simulator or desktop physics models.
‘You just want to know that the change van climbs the mountain impacts cooling. Those tell you roughly what a vehicle is
you’re making is going to respond the way ‘There is less mass flow to the coolers capable of, so we run various scenarios on
you think it is,’ concurs Pakkam. [higher up the track], but this if offset by the each of these things. Max power is almost
Linked to the aero package is the cooling reduction in full throttle compared to running always not the answer.’
system, which, unsurprisingly, has its work cut on a traditional racetrack.’ Being able to switch configurations
out. Pakkam says the heat rejection from the easily makes it simpler to find the right
powertrain in 4.2 is considerably higher than Modular tuning compromise from track to track, but the
it was with SuperVan 4.0. This is just one element of the equation. The impact of changing layouts still needs to be
‘When you’re running our sort of power way the battery cells are tuned, the discharge considered from a whole vehicle performance
level and need robustness, running at rates and a host of other factors are also perspective. For example, swapping from
those levels with wide open throttle, you’re tweaked to suit individual conditions, which three to four motors changes the axle weights.

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‘It’s a huge set of parameters we feed in,

and you get this sort of Pareto frontier of the
quad motor set up; you could do it in the
The individual cells need to be
torque vectoring style, you could put a small
most ideal trade-off for weight vs power. differential in between. We modelled those modelled at a thermal and chemical
When you have a modular vehicle, it’s easier approaches and decided instead to have the
to get the set up you need,’ says Pakkam. motors interlinked with an LSD type set up.’
level, and then the interactions at
Vital to finding those trade-offs are The reasoning, according to Pakkam, is pack level need to be understood…
accurate models, with multiphysics battery performance related, with the characteristics
models near the top of this list. The individual of a torque vectoring system less suitable for and then integrated into the
cells need to be modelled at a thermal and the types of conditions the van will run under. models that run the BMS
chemical level, and then the interactions at ‘Depending on how out of shape you
pack level need to be understood. Are there get, and the differential and speed between
hot or cold spots? How close can individual your left and right tyre, generally, when
cells be pushed to their limits? Does this limit you’re doing a torque vectoring type set up, At Bathurst, for example, the team had
change when in a pack? you’re essentially cutting the torque out of Dumas using different maps for different
All these factors, and countless others, that side of it. Whereas with an LSD, you’re sectors of the track. In the tighter sectors,
need to be understood and then integrated transferring that same amount of torque to 2000bhp was overkill, so he could flip to a
into the models that run the BMS. the wheel that has grip.’ lower power setting and still have the car
‘This kind of thing is what the production behave how he wanted it to, but then crank it
teams are thinking about constantly,’ says Maximum performance up to full power on the faster sections.
Pakkam. ‘If you want to squeeze every last bit With this in mind – and Pakkam reinforces There are, of course, a whole host of other
of power out of your vehicle, you need very that it is very application specific – an LSD parameters that can be played with, such as
strong cell modelling and understanding. was going to let the team, and Romain energy recuperation for just one example.
‘For example, you use more energy dense Dumas in particular, extract the absolute ‘Regen’ performance comes into it, and
type cells, which vary in how the cathode and maximum performance from the van. adds a whole new dimension,’ says Pakkam.
anode are designed, on a production vehicle, The driver’s needs mustn’t be forgotten ‘You can change brake settings based on
whereas we go for a high discharge cathode and, experienced as Dumas is, what models that because of what’s possible with the
and anode. It’s just a different application say is perfect cannot be taken at face value, combination of regen’ and mechanical
of the same understanding and chemistry, particularly in terms of driveability on very brakes. You can really blow up the number
and this is where going down to that level demanding tracks. Hence Ford added the of settings you can tweak.’
really starts to transfer across in terms of ability to switch power maps on the fly. What’s next for Super Van 4.2? More record
knowledge, process and methodology.’ ‘In the virtual world, the driver doesn’t use attempts are on the cards, and we wouldn’t
It is notable that, while SuperVan 4.2 2000bhp all the time. They go at half throttle be surprised if some of the current high-
can happily run with a quad motor set up, when needed,’ explains Pakkam, ‘but that’s profile electric vehicle records in Europe are in
the team has chosen not to go the route of not how it really works. You can’t just tell Ford’s sights. There is also unfinished business
using torque vectoring and instead relies on Romain to go half throttle. No, he wants the at Pikes Peak, though for 2024 Ford will use
traditional mechanical differentials. dynamics that come with going full throttle, an all-new F-150 Lightning-based concept to
‘That’s where it gets interesting,’ says and the way that applies the load to the tyres, gun for the overall win. Maybe the SuperVan
Pakkam. ‘There’re various ways of using a even when he doesn’t want 2000bhp.’ could carry the tools?
The team uses different, driver-controllable maps to get the maximum performance
out of the vehicle. A lower power map was used in the tighter sectors at Bathurst,
for example, where the full 2000bhp on tap would have been overkill

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TECHNOLOGY – CONTROL SYSTEMS
Control environment
Formula E
In series like Formula E,
energy is like gold.
Managing it effectively
is essential to success
How the increasingly complex world of motorsport electronics is, for

now at least, an open avenue of performance development
By JAHEE CAMPBELL-BRENNAN
I
n the high adrenaline world of They comprise three main components: The result was fuel economy and
motorsport, the quest for speed, sensors to measure the physical emissions gains, a smoother running
efficiency, and precision is part of the quantities we want the system to engine and an easier car to drive.
game. At the heart of this pursuit lies the influence; controllers, which run software In this simple example, sensors measure
complex and sophisticated realm of control algorithms and perform the calculations things like airflow into the engine, air
systems – a convergence of mechanical to generate a control output, and and water temperatures, exhaust O2,
innovation, electronic ingenuity and actuators, which achieve a desired result. throttle position and engine speed, and
software sophistication. Today, these systems feed these into a control unit. There, an
are integral to the performance, safety Control evolution adjustment to injector duty is calculated
and competitiveness of racing vehicles. One of the earliest examples of automotive from a look-up-table to alter the duration
The domain of control systems and control systems was electronic fuel injection, of injector spray and keep the engine in
mechatronics is a broad and highly which evolved from the trusty mechanical its optimal region for a given air intake.
developed sub-sector in the world of carburettor assembly into the complex Today, we are in an age where sensor
motorsport. From battery controllers to port injection systems we have today. sophistication, processing power and
chassis systems, drive-by-wire to hybrid Once, the driver would manually operate mechanical components offer such precision
powertrain integration, control systems a choke valve to make basic adjustments to that in a modern combustion engine, dozens
have become pivotal in defining the the air / fuel ratio for different conditions, of control systems manage operation to
capabilities of a modern racecar. such as on a cold start where a rich mixture maximise efficiency and performance
As these systems evolve, they push the is needed, then leaning it out when the throughout the operating range.
boundaries of what is technically possible system is up to operating temperature. Chassis systems have also benefited
and re-shape the very nature of racing. By automating this system, the task was from this technology. ABS controls
Control systems have evolved to allow not only removed from the driver (providing caliper clamping force to maximise
very fine, automated control of mechanical some great marketing material), but finer, deceleration, while traction control ensures
components on modern racecars. more accurate control was possible. wheelspin is controlled at corner exits.

Wavey Dynamics
The role of sensors,

particularly in the chassis
and integrated powertrain
systems, has evolved
from mere trackside data
collection to becoming
pivotal in real-time decision
making processes
Closed-loop control illustration
The proliferation of electrified These algorithms make split- between electronics and machine, but
powertrains has initiated a step second decisions on control actions, the one thing all the techniques have in
change in this technology and not only translating complex data into precise common is they all use closed-loop control.
amplified the technical challenges, but actuator responses with the goal of In a closed loop, the response of
opened new avenues of performance minimising lap times and optimising the system environment to a control
optimisation, which, for a motorsport energy management, all whilst staying action is measured and fed back into
engineer, is where the fun resides. within new regulatory boundaries. the system in a correction loop until
In this performance-orientated the desired condition is reached.
environment, the role of sensors, Harder, faster, smarter There are two main approaches with
particularly in the chassis and integrated As we explore this dynamic world control algorithms. They can be reactive
powertrain systems, has evolved from of control systems, we’ll see how and generate a control output based on
mere trackside data collection to becoming cutting-edge software and hardware live observations - examples of this are PID
pivotal in real-time decision making innovations come together to create (Proportional Integral Derivative), State-
processes, providing vital data that feeds not just faster, but smarter racecars. Space or Fuzzy Logic (see box out below).
into sophisticated control algorithms There are many different methods of The second approach, and one which
and informs a wealth of choices. implementing control to bridge the gap is more appropriate to the complexity of
Reactive control approaches
PID Fuzzy Logic

Proportional Integral Derivative is a reactive control This method of control is an approach that deals with approximate reasoning,
strategy based on three distinct components. The first, a akin to human decision-making processes, rather than precise calculations. In this
Proportional control output, is calculated based on the method, variables are processed in degrees of truth (0.0 to 1.0) rather than in binary
difference between a desired and measured condition. terms (true or false).
This correction is substantial and acts immediately. This makes it more appropriate in systems with high non-linearity and hysteresis,
However, this approach can accumulate errors, such as turbocharger wastegate actuation. Here, Fuzzy Logic can interpret varying
perhaps due to changing environmental conditions degrees of engine parameters like throttle position, engine speed and load to adjust
or a bias arising from sensor issues. To address this, the boost pressure.
an Integral component of the controller calculates an This method allows for smoother and more responsive turbo control over the PID
output based on the time integral of the error. method, enhancing engine performance under different racing conditions.
Then, to prevent oscillation or overshoot in the
control action, the controller includes a Derivative
MPC and Space-State
component. This part calculates the rate of change
Model Predictive Control is another notable advancement in control system complexity,
of the measured quantity and acts to dampen the
relative to PID, and generates control outputs in a predictive manner.
response to avoid overshoot.
Utilising a mathematical model, MPC implements control outputs based either on
An example of a PID system is in traction control.
first principles or through data-driven system identification, and references the model
Here, the initial control output, proportional to the
to predict a future state and control the system accordingly.
difference in wheel speed between the measured and
State-Space control is an application of MPC that works well in complex, dynamic
expected value, is fine tuned by calculating the time
systems where set points frequently change. This method has been used in engine
integral of its error. This accounts for varying track
calibration to replace the traditional look-up table approach to fuelling.
conditions or tyre wear. Additionally, the derivative
Capturing complex interactions within the engine that are difficult to quantify,
of the wheel speed is calculated, and a correction is
predictive control can better manage the transient behaviours of an engine, like sudden
applied to prevent overshoot and ensure stability,
accelerations or load changes, allowing for the optimisation of engine settings in real
based on how fast the wheel speed is changing.
time to achieve better fuel efficiency and performance.

modern systems, is a predictive approach,

where mathematical models of the system
and the focus needed to get the most out
of them in terms of energy efficiency and
Making best use of every
predict future states and provide control torque delivery for a given power supply. single available unit of energy
based on present observations. These are Field Oriented Control (FOC) is a method
especially appropriate where measurement employed to maximise this efficiency
is not just good practice, it’s
of physical quantities is not easy. and torque across the operating range. a competitive advantage
Naturally, such sophisticated control This control approach decouples torque
comes at the cost of high computational and magnetic flux by controlling stator
demand, and the necessity for precise current, unlike traditional methods that However, when multiple systems must be
modelling. That means a lot more resource. simultaneously affect torque and flux by coordinated to both work and communicate
manipulating voltage and frequency. together, an integrated approach is required.
Complex motivator This is crucial because the optimal flux for Perhaps the most common application
Unsurprisingly, the motivator behind the generating torque with the most efficiency of this in motorsport today is in hybrid
complexity correlates strongly with the varies at different loads and speeds. vehicles, where the total torque delivered
advent of electronic powertrains. This The net efficiency gain of FOC lies in to the contact patches of the tyres is a
also aligns with the broader push for its adaptability to fine tune the motor’s combination of inputs from up to three
sustainability in motorsport, where many operation for varying conditions, from systems (the combustion engine, the
regulations now limit the amount of energy producing high torque at low speeds to friction brakes and the e-motor).
a racecar can use over an event, either maintaining efficiency at high speeds. PID Enabling these different systems, each
in the form of fossil fuels or electricity. elements in FOC are integral to regulate working with their own physical principles,
Making best use of every single the currents required to achieve this. to contribute to driving and braking torque
available unit of energy is not just good This adaptability results in enhanced in a performant, robust manner, as well
practice, it’s a competitive advantage. performance, reduced energy consumption as ensuring the driver feels confident to
This complexity, due to complex, non- and decreased wear and tear on the motor. extract the maximum performance available
linear systems that draw from a wide range from the chassis, is not an easy task.
of physical measurements drives the wider Integrated approach So, how do you enable these key vehicle
use of proactive control, though often To this point, we’ve considered control systems to interact and communicate
reactive strategies such as PID are integrated systems on a component basis, which with each other in the same language?
into these model-based strategies. is straightforward in the sense that The most effective method employs a
An example of this can be seen with each component is operating in torque guided structure that, at vehicle level,
electric motors. While simpler in parts isolation, without having to know the enables all the systems to communicate
present, they are complex in the finer details states of other parts on the vehicle. in a common language – torque.
Ferrari
Ferrari uses a central vehicle control unit (VCU) to orchestrate torque and manage energy distribution around the 499P’s many complex, integrated systems, each of which has its own controller

Logically, this has to happen on a
Bosch Motorsport
vehicle level, though with the oversight of

a ‘supervisor’ to orchestrate the systems.
‘The inputs to the torque master depend,
firstly, on how complex you’d like to make
the strategy, but also on regulations. Main
inputs are throttle pedal position and brake
pressure, but you could use wheel speed,
yaw rate or anything you’d like to control
torque and do some really nice vehicle
dynamics stuff,’ says Karl Kloess, system
expert for e-mobility at Bosch Motorsport.
Ferrari designed its latest endurance
racecar, the 499P, to hybrid LMH regulations,
opting to design its control architecture in
house, but following a very similar approach.
‘Of course, we have a controller for the
internal combustion engine, for the
gearbox, for the clutch, for the voltage
battery, for the electric motor, and
for all the major components. The
controllers are coordinated by this
Field Oriented Control (FOC) is a specialised strategy used to maximise the efficiency of MGUs across their entire operating range overall brain we have in the car,’ concurs
Ferdinando Cannizzo, head of endurance
‘The torque demand is the key racecars at the Italian constructor.
language for communication between ‘We call this the Vehicle Control
The torque master, or VCU, defines all the hybrid systems. This means the Unit (VCU) and, essentially, it interprets
combustion, hybrid and braking systems the driver commands and merges the
the set point, but it is down to are managed by defining a torque set responses in what we call general traction
single components like the ECU, or point. This is managed by a vehicle and energy optimisation management.’
supervisor, which is essentially a ‘torque The torque master, or VCU, defines
drive inverter, to ensure the torque master,’’ explains Vincent Parvaud, the set point, but it is down to single
set point is met with a certain product manager for e-mobility at Bosch
Motorsport, which supplies the spec
components like the ECU, or drive inverter,
to ensure the torque set point is met with a
accuracy within a particular time electric motor to the LMDh platform. certain accuracy within a particular time.
Bosch Motorsport
Hybrids in LMH and LMDh blend torque from ICE and e-motor, and regen’ using a torque guided approach which enables all the onboard systems to commmunicate using a common language

Cars such as the 499P built to the

LMH rule set have an additional avenue
‘We are taking into consideration
the grip level, accelerations in x, y and z
‘We are taking into consideration the
of performance over LMDh in that the and we are looking at things like speed, grip level, accelerations in x, y and
electric motor drives the front wheels over engine and e-system state, turbocharger
certain speeds, making the cars 4WD. speeds and targets to respond in the right
z and we are looking at things like
Defining the torque split between way in order to give the driver the best speed, engine and e-system state,
the front and rear axles is a performance feedback to improve their performance.’
concern, not only to maintain the correct What’s exciting about this level of turbocharger speeds and targets to
chassis balance, but also to ensure tyre life integration is the depth of models that can respond in the right way in order to
is maximised. This then needs to be adapted be made for extracting car performance.
for different track conditions, phases of Ferrari, for example, has implemented a give the driver the best feedback
a corner and tyre degradation states. real-time tyre model into the car, which to improve their performance’
‘Depending on each situation, we could predicts the vertical loads, wear and
find this split based on the available grip thermal state of the tyre to estimate grip Ferdinando Cannizzo, head of endurance racecars at Ferrari
and whether we are in the straight or the and provide wheel torque appropriately.
corner, but also taking into consideration ‘It’s not the same complexity as
some other elements like the state of charge the DiL model, as we need to calculate Consequently, involving drivers from
of the battery, the power required, the quickly, but there is a simplified tyre the beginning of the development cycle
temperature and whether we need 4WD model to estimate grip based on certain is smart in any project. A comfortable,
for handling control or not,’ adds Cannizzo. measurements in order to define traction confident driver is more likely to be a
These calculations are all made within the control, for example,’ explains Cannizzo. fast driver but, with all this additional
VCU, which uses a model-based approach to ‘If the driver tries to make an overtake customisation of vehicle functions, having
define instantaneous set points for its systems. on a dirty part of the track with low their input feedback into the development
To do this, the VCU must have a clear grip, the system needs to re-estimate, of the car’s systems is integral. Simplicity
understanding of the environment it is live, in order for the TC to react.’ is the name of the game here. Intelligent,
working in and of the vehicle state. To Make no mistake, this is the cutting edge ergonomic design in order to inspire
operate with the fidelity and constraints of modern racecar technology. intuitive car / driver interface is crucial.
required, instrumentation is extensive. As you’d expect, some groundbreaking
Driver control things are being done here too, with the
Sensor fusion So far, we have talked about how these drivers now able to modify not only the
For the variables which can’t be directly advances in control benefit the mechanical car’s response to basic control inputs from
measured, sensor fusion is used to make aspects of the vehicle, but haven’t considered the pedals, but also driver assistance, in
inferences based on what can be measured. the living, breathing component of a racecar. novel and fascinating ways to suit personal
‘We are firstly measuring the torque Anyone who has watched high- preferences or racing conditions.
output at the driveshaft,’ notes Cannizzo. level motorsport in recent times will be ‘We can completely control things such
‘This is basically our target control, which familiar with the multitude of buttons as the shape of the pedal curve, which
we need to match based on the VCU’s and switches on the steering wheel and alters the way in which the pedal requests
instruction. We must not over or undershoot dashboard. These are another way for the torque, and the torque split between
the target the VCU is giving to us. driver to interface with the car’s systems. front and rear axle depending on balance
The driver has not been entirely forgotten in the modern racecar. If regulations allow, they are able to alter torque curves, the way the throttle pedal requests torque and adjust axle torque split

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or degradation of the car. They can also
Bosch Motorsport
stiffen or soften the front and rear [anti-]
roll bars on the car,’ explains Cannizzo.
‘On the chassis side, with the TC system,
we give the driver the ability to set up when
to start controlling or cutting traction in
the corner. They can also adjust the level or
intensity of the torque cut and how long the
cut will last, down to the specific corner.’
Comms network
With the VCU taking information from
all these sensors and exchanging large
quantities of data between all the
component controllers to achieve this, a
strong, robust communication network is
required. A combination of CAN (Controller
Area Network) and ethernet lines is the best
solution for this in a racecar environment.
CAN communication is robust, reliable
and well suited to electronically noisy
environments like motorsport, with low
latency and, importantly, the ability to An example of one of the many electronic controllers featuring on today’s high-tech racecars
provide consistency in timing of data packets.
CAN allows multiple devices to be linked We had closed-loop control based on If your algorithms are more
in a ‘daisy chain’ arrangement, which reduces these signals, synchronised to be able to
wiring complexity and weight. correct for the next combustion cycle.’ precise, and your systems are
For applications requiring very high data For a V10 turning at 19,000rpm, that’s better integrated, there are clear
rates, ethernet lines are more suited. a combustion event every 0.63ms.
‘We have around 10 major ECUs in the Just operating these systems coherently performance gains to be had
car, and many more smart components,’ is one thing. Doing it better than your
notes Cannizzo. ‘In total, we have around a competitors is an edge. In short, if your
dozen CAN communication lines in the car.’ algorithms are more precise, and your This allows controllers to be provided
That’s a lot of computing power and a systems are better integrated, there are with artificial sensor inputs to
lot of data bandwidth. To obtain the best clear performance gains to be had. test how the system reacts.
solution, some specialised integrated circuits In fact, the entire system can be
are employed in the form of FPGA (Field Lucrative field built and run in a HiL simulation, but
Programmable Gate Array) semiconductors. Development of controls technology in an environment this complex and
FPGAs have architecture that can be is also an area not currently closed dynamic, it’s more feasible to test
configured specifically for the type of down by regulations, so investing time individual systems or components.
computing they will be doing, meaning and resources in it can be lucrative. Because of this, the objective with HiL
they excel at parallel processing, allowing Ferrari’s LMH programme, for example, testing isn’t so much performance
them to perform multitudes of operations has a controls team of 10 full-time engineers, development but functionality and
simultaneously. This sets them apart from while the VCU and control software, as well error proofing to ensure the system can
the microprocessors we find in our home as most of the major hardware controllers resume after a fault, for example.
electronics, which have a fixed, generalised for components such as the battery and Again, the CAN system is very effective,
architecture and compute tasks in series. electric motor, are developed in house. but can also be fragile in certain ways.
With such precise and dynamic control OEMs and teams can also, in the case Some of the controllers share lines so,
requirements, the timing and integrity of Bosch Motorsport’s experience, hand if one of the controllers on the line sends
of messages is crucial, which is another it over to the system supplier, and some a delayed message, or sends a message
area where FPGAs shine. Any hesitancy clients opt to have them design the software with an incorrect ID, it can commonly
or mistimed messages can bring the control as well as supply the hardware. disturb the whole system.
whole system to an abrupt halt. ‘We are using a MATLAB / Simulink Losing communication in a motorsport
The key phrase here is ‘real-time’ environment to develop our control situation, with critical systems such
processing, which FPGA achieves by structures using a model-based approach,’ as torque control or battery isolation
synchronising the clock cycles of each notes Parvaud. ‘It allows us a common monitoring, can mean the end of a race.
controller in the network. In a well designed language with which to exchange
system, the timing of each sent and received ideas and cooperate. We can also System verification
message is consistent and reliable. simulate the whole system with this.’ ‘You need to test a number of scenarios
‘An interesting anecdote on this kind When the software models are created, and understand that you can get back
of system is in Formula 1,’ says Parvaud. real-world verification is initially tasked to to normal operation,’ concurs Kloess.
‘In the past, we had cylinder pressure HiL (Hardware-in-Loop) testing, which ‘If the system develops a fault, you
sensors and we had a device allowing allows the real hardware to be connected to need some code in place to exit the
real-time analysis of the cylinder pressure a simulation environment that replicates fault and resume normal operation
signals for each combustion cycle. the operational context of the system. without resorting to a reset.’

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‘Sometimes there can be a few

milliseconds delay in signals, which can
break the whole system down. You need to
test these failure cases very early in the
programme with the HiL.’
To further verify functionality and
robustness, organisations such as Ferrari
will use a complete chassis dyno to run a
rolling chassis with all the powertrain and
chassis systems intact, perhaps just minus
bodywork, through an endurance test to
replicate the conditions encountered during
a 24-hour race at Le Mans, for example.
Performance testing is usually performed
on the DiL simulator, which doesn’t have all
the hardware, but contains all the software
and controls logic required to tune the
system. With today’s sophisticated vehicle
dynamics models, many of the dynamic
conditions of racing can be captured.
Nevertheless, it is still not possible to
replicate the physical world with 100 per
cent fidelity in simulation, so there’s a big
element of physical track testing still
required to provide both the system
robustness and performance correlation. Control systems must be designed to work around failures and degradation, keeping the car running at least until it reaches the pit
Arguably, the most difficult task is
capturing all the dynamic qualities of the ‘With any potential failure, our question Regulations will largely dictate
system in the models. It’s one thing to is always the same,’ says Cannizzo.
make things function on paper but, in the ‘How can we finish the race? Is there what future motorsport electronics
dynamic environment of racing, scenarios any chance to keep going, even will be able to influence… If
can be encountered that the system finds with reduced performance?
difficult to replicate. ‘We always want to find an we follow patterns of the past,
‘Every test or race we are learning
something,’ says Cannizzo. ‘How to make
alternative mode of operation to
carry on with the car to the end of the
though, as controls teams expand
things happen more efficiently, or how to race, or at least the next pit stop.’ and grow, the investment into
match the function of one system to the This is a particular area of development
other in a more effective way. This also has where machine learning is being explored
both engineering and software /
to be in a method which the driver is with the target of helping the driver to hardware will surely be curtailed
comfortable with.’ select the right car settings in order to
Retirements have always been a manage specific race phases or events.
part of racing, but with such extensive We are still riding the wave of this There’s no doubt we are in a new era
use of circuitry in modern racecars, the revolution of controls, and there’s no of automotive electronics paralleling
risk of electrical failure or malfunction doubt their use in automotive control the revolution in electrification.
is more prevalent than ever. systems is only going to increase. And while we navigate the labyrinth
Further development will involve ever of complex control systems in today’s
Self-help systems more sophisticated and precise models, motorsport, their profound impact
A by-product of all the instrumentation which can handle more calculations and extends beyond mere speed and
and code onboard is the ability for react even faster, and the demand for more efficiency, not only re-defining vehicle
the car to self-diagnose failures or processing power will no doubt follow. performance but also safety, sustainable
performance degradation in its systems. ‘A clear future direction is the continued racing and bringing us into a new era
Once an error is detected, it can be demand for additional processing power of deeper driver / vehicle synergy.
handled in one of two ways. The system can to grow the complexity of control systems. Regulations will largely dictate what
be designed to self-recover, without any We just launched the development of future motorsport electronics will be able
intervention from the driver or team, or it our fourth-generation modules and a key to influence, and how much technical
can alert engineers at the garage of an issue, improvement is in processing power,’ states freedom will be possible. If we follow
who can then advise the driver on some Parvaud. ‘Each time we release a system we patterns of the past, though, as controls
corrections to make via the steering wheel. believe it will stay relevant for 10 years or so, teams expand and grow, the investment
This is where having a robust DFMEA but have found after three or four years we into both engineering and software /
early in the programme is essential. This are already revisiting computational power.’ hardware will surely be curtailed at some
allows these failures to be foreseen and Largely out of view, these quiet point to ensure parity among competition.
mitigations incorporated to manage them but extremely powerful innovations Until then, these silent but
with little or no reduced performance. One have transformed what’s at the core highly impactful areas of vehicle
can only imagine the length of the DFMEA of top-level racing, from efficiency development will continue to influence
for the 499P’s hybrid powertrain systems. and reliability to performance. races from the shadows.

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TECHNOLOGY – 3D PRINTING
Just press print

T
Racecar investigates the oday’s Formula 1 teams manufacture
over 9000 3D printed parts each
‘When developing a part for 3D printing,
you have to consider how it is orientated,
current state-of-the-art season. Yet to accurately print these the thickness of the layers and whether it is
in 3D printing technology components requires a whole realm

of engineering practices, known as Design for
self-supporting, or requires supports to be
altered,’ highlights Allen Kreemer, principal
and asks if AI is poised to Additive Manufacturing (DfAM). This is applications engineer at Stratasys.
essentially the methodology behind optimising ‘Then you have to optimise the
take over the industry the form and function of a part to not only parameters of the printer to carefully control
By GEMMA HATTON achieve accurate builds, but also to fully exploit the bonding between the layers of powder
the capabilities of additive manufacturing. or filament for a successful build.

3D Systems
Formula 1 teams now 3D
print thousands of parts each
season, and around 70 per
cent of the bodywork of a
typical wind tunnel model
will be additive manufactured
using SLA technology
‘On some of our printers, there are over Excess powder is removed after the resulting in the highest resolution of
350 parameter sets just to make filament printing process is complete, the build plate 3D printed parts available.
come out of a nozzle accurately and reliably.’ drops and the re-coater applies a new layer of In the case of DLP, the surface quality
There is a plethora of 3D printing powder on top. This process repeats until the achieved is comparable to injection
technologies on the market today, but entire geometry of the part is printed. moulding. UV lasers, DLP projectors or injet
typically they fall into three main categories: PBF can be used for printing polymers nozzles draw the cross section of the part,
powder-based, liquid-based and filament- such as in Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) and selectively curing the liquid. Once a layer
based. Each has its own variety of associated SAF (Selective Absorption Fusion), as well as is complete, the build plate moves and the
processes, depending on the type of material metals in Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS). printer cures the next layer of resin to the part.
and printer that is being used. Filament-based printers, on the other
In motorsport, the predominant powder- Highest resolution hand, such as Fused Deposition Modelling
based process is Powder Bed Fusion (PBF). Instead of powder, resin-based technologies, (FDM) extrude a thermoplastic filament
This is where a roller, or blade, applies a thin such as Stereolithography (SLA), Digital through a nozzle, which deposits thin
layer of powder over a build plate. Lasers, or Light Processing (DLP) and Polyjet use a strands along predefined paths onto the
other radiant heat sources, above then melt vat or injet heads filled with photosensitive build plate. The filament then solidifies as
the powder particles according to the cross resin to print plastic components. The build it cools and the build plate drops, ready
section of that layer of the part. plate is moved precisely in very thin layers, for the next layer to be applied.

TECHNOLOGY  3D PRINTING
‘Deciding which technology will achieve
Stratasys
the best printed part comes down to a
process of elimination,’ says Kreemer. ‘You
first have to ask yourself, what does victory
look like for the part? Once the customer
has defined the mechanical loading, heat
deflection or chemical exposure required,
that often eliminates a number of processes
and materials right at the start.
‘Typically, we find that production parts
on racecars such as body panels, ducts and
brackets are best suited for FDM, while
engine components are best for DMLS and
scale model aerodynamic test parts are best
done using SLA.
‘On average, the thickness of layers FDM
can print in ranges between 127 to 500
microns, whereas SLA, DMLS and SLS can
print layers as thin as 100 microns and Polyjet
and DLP even thinner at 14-20 microns.’
Orientation day
The first stage of making a part ready for 3D
printing is to orientate it in a way that gives
the printer the best chance of building a part
that accurately represents the original design.
‘Certain orientations will give you a much
better representation of the CAD model
without having to resort to post processing
after the part has been printed,’ explains
Colin Blain, Advanced Applications Engineer
at 3D Systems.
‘It’s similar to the contours on a map.
Instead of printing shallow gradients with
large gaps between the edges of the layers,
you ideally want to orientate the part so the
layers have high gradients, making the edges
of the layers as vertical as possible.
‘For example, if we wanted to print a
tube, orientating this horizontally means you
would have to section those curves into flat
planar, 2D cross sections. Even if the layers are McLaren uses Stratasys SLA 3D printers to make wind tunnel F1 parts, allowing it to go from CAD to printed part in three to four days
extremely thin, the layering or ‘stair stepping’
will be far more pronounced where the
3D Systems
curvature of the part approaches horizontal. Orientation greatly

Whereas, if you orientated the tube vertically, influences the
you only have to print rings that are stacked surface quality
perfectly on top of each other. of a printed part.
‘So, the more you can orientate your layers Poor orientation
to the vertical axis, the closer your printed (below) can result
part will be to your original design, and the in pronounced
higher the quality of the surface finish.’ ‘stair stepping’,
Positioning the part vertically can also whereas optimum
help reduce the cross-sectional area on orientation leads
the build plate. This not only facilitates the to high surface
printing of several parts in one go, but also quality and
reduces heat build up and the subsequent accuracy
risk of distortion or warpage, leading to a
higher quality component.’
‘When determining the orientation of
a part for 3D printing, it’s a balancing act
between reducing the cross-sectional area,
managing the loading or forces in the final
3D Systems
use environment of the part and achieving a The orientation of the part on the right has been optimised, requiring
high quality surface finish,’ says Kreemer. fewer support structures, less post processing and cleaner surfaces

‘So, we tend to orient parts such as curved
SSYS
panels vertically and blockier flat parts for

tooling and fixtures horizontally.’
Support act
Once the orientation has been decided, the
next question is whether the part requires
any supporting structures, either internally
or externally. A general rule of thumb in
DfAM is that any feature with an overhang
angle below 45 degrees to the z axis is
self-supporting, otherwise some kind of
assistance is required.
This is particularly relevant in FDM, where
layers are applied on top of each other. If the
layer on top is at an angle greater than 45
degrees, it will overhang the layer beneath
by more than 50 per cent, causing the top
layer to droop because it cannot support itself
during the manufacturing process.
Powder-based technologies such as SLS,
on the other hand, require no assistance as
the surrounding powder bed supports the
entire geometry, including any overhangs.
The precise geometry of these supports
can be defined by intuitive software.
‘Our software generates support
structures autonomously based on a
predefined minimum angle of the surfaces
of the part,’ explains Blain. ‘The software
also looks out for any down-facing features
that come into play during the print. Any
features that hang past horizontal, when
Penske’s brake caliper ducts are 3D printed on Stratasys’ Neo800 machine sliced into 2D cross sections, will form islands
that are initially disconnected from the main
‘On average, the thickness of layers FDM can print in geometry, so we have to provide support
structures for those, too.
ranges between 127 to 500 microns, whereas SLA, ‘We can also design these supports to
be multifunctional,’ continues Blain. ‘Often,
DMLS and SLS can print layers as thin as 100 microns we will have some sacrificial geometry that
and Polyjet and DLP even thinner at 14-20 microns’ serves as a support structure, as well as a
means of holding the component during
Allen Kreemer, principal applications engineer at Stratasys post processing and handling further
downstream – similar to the tabs in an Airfix
Mackart
model. These are then removed just before

the part is ready to be used.’
Internal supports also need to be
considered to provide the strength and
rigidity required for hollow parts. These
can include simple cylindrical elements
supporting internal overhangs or more
complex lattice structures. The latter can
also be used instead of a solid interior fill,
significantly reducing weight, build time
and cost of the part.
‘Let’s say you have designed a 20mm
thick part in CAD, and you want a
honeycomb internal fill within the bulk of
that part and some solid mounting points,’
says Kreemer. ‘Our software, GrabCAD Print,
has a multi solid import function so, when
the CAD is imported, our software remembers
the locations of those solid and honeycomb
regions and automatically generates your
As a general rule in FDM, any features with overhang angles greater than 45 degrees to the z axis require support structures selected internal fill structure.’

Stratasys
FDM printers from Stratasys include a multi-solid import function, which automatically generates internal lattice or honeycomb support structures
Whether it is filament,
Conflux Technology
powder or resin, each material
needs to be applied within a
precise temperature range
to ensure effective adhesion
between the layers
The removal of these support structures

also has to be considered during the design
process as these supports need to be
removed quickly and without damaging
features or surface finishes.
‘In the case of our 3D-printed metal heat
exchangers, we are often printing intricate Conflux Technology uses Laser Powder Bed Fusion with metallic particles as small as 0.09mm to make its motorsport heat exchangers
geometries that have fluid paths less than
one millimetre wide, so we need to avoid zero to 20mm, we choose a layer thickness to melt the material but not too hot that
having to remove any internal supports,’ of 50 microns, for example, and then use the lasers destroy it. This often leads to
highlights Ashley Dowle, senior design 100-micron layers for the rest of the part.’ temperatures in the powder or resin bed
engineer at Conflux Technology. ‘That’s Once sliced, the software then sends the exceeding 2000degC (3630degF), yet there is
why we optimise our designs to be self- coordinates of each of these layers to the nowhere for this heat to dissipate because the
supporting wherever possible. printer, which compiles the file and then part is immersed in the powder or resin bed.
‘It’s a similar consideration for powder begins the printing process. This can lead to overheating and hot spots.
removal. The particles of the metal powders Over in FDM, the temperature of the
we use can be up to 0.09mm across, and any Temperature control nozzle needs to be carefully controlled to
blockages can increase pressure drop and One of the most important factors in printing ensure filament is extruded at the right
lower the overall performance of the heat high-quality parts is managing the build up viscosity. If the heat at the nozzle migrates
exchanger. We therefore try to design fluid of temperature during the printing process. up the extruder assembly, it can soften the
channels with as straight an exit path to the Whether it is filament, powder or resin, filament upstream, causing it to swell and
ports as possible, to facilitate easier powder each material needs to be applied within a create a blockage.
removal. However, with such complex precise temperature range to ensure effective ‘Adding new hot layers, on top of already
geometries this is often very difficult.’ adhesion between the layers. Too hot and cooling layers, creates a temperature
When the optimal orientation and the material will have low viscosity, which gradient,’ highlights Dowle. ‘Depending on
supporting structures have been defined will reduce the precision of the layers and the geometries and wall thicknesses being
within the CAD model, it then needs to features. Too cold and the material will not built, these gradients might be quite extreme
be sliced into thin layers, and again, this is adhere and the part won’t be accurate. in places, and this is where warping can occur.
achieved through software. Once applied, the layers then need to ‘Generally speaking, it is better if the part
‘You can vary the thickness of the layers,’ cool and solidify at a consistent rate to is as symmetrical as possible, relative to the
says Blain. ‘Obviously, the thicknesses you can achieve a tight microstructure and superior z axis, or build direction, and that any wall
print will depend on the technology you are mechanical properties. thickness changes are gradual. Otherwise,
using, but if an area of a part is featureless, Each type of printing technology has its you may find significant warpage occurs.
there is little benefit in printing in fine layers. own specific challenges when it comes to ‘If, say, we had to build a large rectangular
‘We typically define the thicknesses in managing temperatures. The lasers used in part at 45 degrees from the z axis, any of the
ranges. So, if all the detail of a part is from SLS, DMP and SLA need to be hot enough larger flat surfaces may deviate from the design.

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‘The evolution of the 2D
SSYS
printer was over a long period
of time and I’d say we’re 40
to 60 per cent of the way
there with 3D printing’
Allen Kreemer
‘The down skins may also suffer from

poor definition and / or porosity. This could
be a problem in the end product.’
To help control temperatures during the
printing process, heaters, ventilation and
cameras are often integrated into the printers.
Stratasys, for example, has developed a
closed-loop thermal control system within its A 3D-printed fan used in IndyCar to cool the driver during practice sessions. The housing is printed in Nylon 12 CF on
machines. Its FDM printers utilise heaters and Stratasys’ Fortus 900mc with a comparison between the bare surface finish (left) vs painted (right)
convection to ensure the air has consistent
SSYS
thermal behaviour, while its powder-based
SAF (Selective Absorption Fusion) technology
combines an infrared camera and heaters
to continuously monitor and adjust the
temperature of the active print layer.
‘Controlling the temperature to within a
tight range is really critical for geometrical
accuracy and adhesion between layers,’
explains Kreemer. ‘Our SAF printers use an
infrared camera and over a dozen ceramic
heaters in the hood assembly that sits above
the active build layer. This technology jets
out an infrared absorption fluid onto the
powder bed, which is then exposed to
infrared energy, fusing the layers together. So
we know what the cross section of each layer
looks like before it is fused and, by monitoring The LED lenses on the Acura ARX-05 DPi sportscars were 3D printed from 2018 to 2020. Originally, these were made of
the temperature distribution, we can see if an cast polycarbonate, but 3D printing accelerated lead times from several weeks to just eight days
area is getting too hot. If that occurs, we turn
that heater down. If an area is becoming too ‘However, a lot of the more complex parts ‘That tribal knowledge of tuning hundreds
cold, we turn that heater up. for motorsport don’t lend themselves to of parameters in the development lab is slow
‘Each layer takes around 12 seconds, so that and do require some human expertise,’ and tedious,’ notes Kreemer. ‘It’s a necessary
this temperature control needs to have a very continues Blain. ‘The big shift has been in data evil, but I don’t feel it’s a value add for the
fast response. By keeping the temperature quality and reliability, as well as the quality of customer to be aware of this effort because,
tightly controlled we can achieve nearly the STL files from CAD, which has improved at the end of the day, they just want to hit
isotropic material properties that are greatly over the last 20 years, so the support print and produce a high-quality part.
comparable to injection moulding. It also generation is now much more accurate.’ ‘So, that’s a big area of opportunity for
helps guarantee accuracy and repeatability.’ ‘If you think back to the old dot matrix machine learning. Parts could be put through
2D printers in the late 1980s, users had to high-resolution photogrammetry and the
Simulated future set margins, indents and all sorts of printing algorithms could analyse the geometry,
With simulation already automating some of parameters just to get a sheet of paper to surface finish and automatically tweak the
the stages of transforming a CAD model into come out of the printer,’ recalls Kreemer. ‘Now, parameters to improve it.’
a 3D-printed part, you might be wondering you can hit print on your iPhone and print any The orientation of a part could also be
how long it will be before simulation can take document on whatever printer you want. another process that would benefit from AI.
care of the entire process. ‘The evolution of the 2D printer was over a ‘That’s where I think AI could play a huge
‘In terms of pressing a button and long period of time and I’d say we’re 40 to 60 part,’ says Blain. ‘We’re not far away from
printing, we are kind of already there,’ says per cent of the way there with 3D printing.’ loading a CAD file and automatically printing
Blain. ‘We are already using numerous pieces The big opportunities for simulation in 3D it, but fundamental to that is the initial part
of software for generating supports and printing lie in utilising AI to automate data orientation because that has the biggest
dividing the part into layers. In fact, for some processing. The algorithms underpinning AI influence on the quality of the final part.
other applications, such as for the dental and machine learning are ideal for iterating ‘AI could help define optimum orientation,
industry, the data is loaded in and the parts through large volumes of data to converge on which might not necessarily be the quickest
are orientated, supported and sent to a an optimised result, and this could accelerate print, but the best for quality, whilst at the
printer without any human intervention at all. the task of tuning printing parameters. same time helping maximise production.’

ROD ENDS
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TECHNOLOGY – SIMULATION
Spreading disease
Why motorsport must stop the insanity of ever-tighter technical regulations
By DANNY NOWLAN
XPB
F3000 in 1991, when the rule book was open and the racing grids were full. Despite what some now cite as the problems with open technical regulations, back then teams could afford to race
O
ne of the great paradoxes of fact, if not addressed, there is a very real which started with F3000 in 1996, and then
motor racing is for something chance they will kill the sport completely. spread to most major open-wheel series in
that professes to be a technical This is what we’ll be discussing in this article. the decade and a half that followed.
sport, it has the most Jekyll and So, how did all this work out?
Hyde relationship with technology of any Tipping point In IndyCar’s golden era of CART and
area of engineering I have encountered. The reason we are in this mess is that as Champ Car, Penske and Chip Ganassi Racing
A few classic examples are Balance of costs were climbing in the late 1980s to ruled the roost. That said, there were a lot of
Performance, which in recent years has got mid-’90s, motorsport regulatory bodies other good operations that kept them on
its tentacles into just about all forms of the started panicking. The tipping point was their toes. Fast forward the tape to now and
sport, the dominance of single spec (or near when the Williams Formula 1 team fielded it’s largely Penske and Ganassi again at the
single spec) formulae and regulatory bodies a combination of effective active top of the championship’s spec incarnation.
mandating competitors must run x brand suspension and a works engine. The FIA Formula 2 is another case in point. In
of spring, damper or data system. resident techno hysteria in motorsport 1995, the last season of the free technical
Add to this the second there is a immediately went into overdrive and the era of F3000, the operating budget per car
processional race, the commentators FIA promptly banned active suspension and was about £600,000 (approx. US$770,000).
wheeling out the familiar punching bags of traction control for the 1994 F1 season. Today, the operating budget of
aero and technology spoiling the show. Not The other thing that emerged around a typical Formula 2 team is in the order of
only do comments like this have no basis: in that time was the concept of spec formulae, two to four million pounds.
A budget cap will address this somewhat, but it won’t account for
technical infrastructure that is already invested
Fig 1: Reward vs cost / time curve
An unintended consequence of all this is the ladder that teams previously

used to move up into Formula 1 is now completely shattered
An unintended consequence of all this from one to two brings just a 15 per cent active suspension, and is one of the
is the ladder that teams previously used increase in performance. What is shown sharpest minds I’ve come across in this
to move up into Formula 1 is now here is a tanh curve, but that is pretty much business). He made the point that when
completely shattered. The evolution of standard engineering knowledge. you tighten regulations, you always end
Jordan Racing into Jordan Grand Prix, that up spending more money.
would then eventually morph into Aston Cold facts
Martin Racing is most instructive here. There are some rather stark examples that Arms race
Eddie Jordan’s team started competing represent the first part of the curve. Firstly, The reason for this is shown by the second
in F3 in the early 1980s, and then moved to let’s wind the clocks back to the later stages part of the curve in figure 1. Far from
F3000 before entering F1 in 1991. The team of the Cold War. The Soviet Union Fulcrum cutting costs, all that happens is the teams
experienced quite a few bumps along the and Flanker family of jets had a fraction of that have more money, and better technical
way, but it showed it could be done. the development budget of their western infrastructure, spend more trying to figure
‘teen’ counterparts (namely F-14, F-15, F-16 out how to make a wing flex 2mm to pass
Series disconnect and F-18), yet their aero propulsive an FIA test, yet deflect 4mm on track. And
Even as late as 1995, the things that performance was near identical. so the arms race begins.
separated an F3000 car from an F1 car were The reason was very simple. The Flanker A budget cap will address this somewhat,
the engine, the lack of carbon-carbon and Fulcrum were well developed where but it won’t account for technical
brakes and details of the aero. Now, FIA they needed to be, but the back of the jet infrastructure that is already invested.
F2 and F1 are so disconnected, the only looked like a dog’s breakfast. Little wonder team principals like
things they have in common are they are A more motor racing relevant case is the Guenther Steiner have given us such a
both open wheelers that run downforce cockpit X-wings that appeared on the Tyrrell colourful demonstration of the English
with CLA values of more then 3.5 and they 025 F1 car in 1997. Everyone looked at them language, because in this environment they
have DRS. Consequently, the jump for and said, ‘What the?!’ yet it allowed a dying are taking a water pistol to a gun fight.
aspiring F2 teams wanting to do F1 is Formula 1 team a decent shot at getting To further illustrate the situation, let’s
now virtually impossible. back into the mix. Then, of course, the FIA, review the validity, or lack of, introducing
Need further proof? Let’s put some in its infinite wisdom, banned them. spec dampers us engineers cannot touch.
figures to the idea that tightening technical The second part of the curve is where In last year’s ChassisSim bootcamps, I
regs is a bad idea with a cost / return / the big formulae are right now. gave the students a demonstration of how
development curve, as shown in figure 1. I remember spending some time with to use the shaker rig toolbox, a virtual
This makes for sobering reading. To go Dave Williams on the Multimatic rig in equivalent of the shaker rigs you see at
from zero to one on the time / cost axis nets Thetford in the UK in mid-2008 (for the facilities like Sauber and Multimatic.
you 80 per cent of the reward. But to then go uninitiated, Dave was the father of Lotus’ F1 Some of the results are shown in table 1.

Fig 2: F3 bootcamp shaker rig results
There are options here, and for a team running in any of the mid-
level formulae, these sorts of costs are not a deal breaker
The shaker rig plot of Set-up 1 versus

Table 1: Results of the F3 shaker rig demo
Set-up 4 in figure 2 shows a stark picture.
Set-up CPL front CPL rear Cross pitch Comment
Note these different set-ups represent
Set-up 1 162 199.7 2.01 Baseline
changes in rear damping and tweaking the
springs only. The grand total of time I spent Set-up 2 162.2 201.7 1.84 CPL worse but like the CP
on this? Seven minutes, and another 10 Set-up 3 162.7 204 1.6 Another improvement
minutes explaining it to the students. Set-up 4 161.6 200 1.57 Sell your family members and put this
set-up on the car immediately
Common myth
This blows away the myth that tuning Table 2 lists some rough costs for doing
Table 2: Cost for having a free (not spec) damper
dampers is hard. That belief might have had this. Admittedly, a good set of four-way
Item Cost (US$)
some validity 20-25 years ago, but not adjustable dampers aren’t cheap (the
today. The number of papers and books numbers here are taken from JRI and Four-way adjustable damper $10,000
written on the subject by people like Jorge Penske at the PRI Show when I was costing Damper dyno $5000-$15,000
Segers (and me) are testament to this. dampers for some Time Attack customers) ChassisSim licence $500-$10,000
The real power of something like this, but, believe me, they pay off.
though, is to offer a mid-level team the The damper dyno can be anything from toolbox but it will still get the job done. It
tools required to give a front-running team a basic one like an SPA dyno, all the way to a only starts to become expensive when you
a genuine scare out on track. So tell me, full CTS Automation dyno. are on a full ChassisSim licence.
how exactly does this spoil the show? The ChassisSim licence needed to run Still, it shows there are various options
The most common riposte to that is to these calculations is based on two options. open to you here, and for a team running in
say it’s too expensive, so let’s look at what Firstly, using the online sim’ and track replay. any of the mid-level formulae, these sorts of
you need to spend to make this happen. That’s not as effective as the shaker rig costs are not a deal breaker.

For any club racers reading this, what I

have presented here is the gold-plated
Adrian Newey is another good example
Nothing replaces real experience,
of this. Everyone talks about Adrian as if he is
option. There are cheaper dampers available a living engineering deity, but if you read his yet constricting the technical
and many other ways you can save money. autobiography, How To Build A Car, you’ll
The point I’m making is the case for a soon realise that one of the things that
pathways available to young
sealed damper is untenable on multiple makes him so good is the sheer number of engineers by ever tighter regulations
levels, with cost being just one of them. racecars he had to design with only limited
rule restrictions. Then he race engineered is robbing them of the ability to
Robbing the young them. Experience, experimentation and then gain the valuable technical insight
The other, more insidious thing about yet more experience.
tightening regulations is it robs current and
future generations of motorsport engineers Narrow boundaries performance in that context, because the
of vital training and experience. I raised this If you look at F2, F3 and F4 today, engineers rule book is so free, it blows the myth that
point in my article about the pitfalls of trying working in those categories have extremely technical development bankrupts you right
to slot Formula Student / FSAE engineers narrow boundaries around what can be out of the water.
straight into high-end motor racing teams, adjusted on the cars they are engineering, in Time Attack also offers an exciting
but it’s worth stating again here. terms of spring, damper and geometry platform for engineers to try stuff, and the
I came into the sport at the tail end of choices. And don’t even think about messing lessons learnt in doing that (and not always
the era when open-wheel formulae were with the aerodynamics / bodywork. getting it right) are invaluable, whatever
still relatively technically free. When I was One could contend Formula Student / motor racing discipline you then go into.
doing Formula Ford, for example, I was FSAE can plug that gap but, as I have The take away here is that nothing
playing with four-way adjustable dampers. discussed at length in the past, the cars they replaces real experience, yet constricting
In my first foray into British F3 in 1998, are designing and working on are so the technical pathways available to young
we didn’t think twice about putting cars on a unrepresentative that young engineers are engineers by ever tighter regulations is
shaker rig and playing with wing positions. in no position to go straight from their robbing them of the ability to gain the
When I did Australian F3000, I was experience there into F1 or sportscars and valuable technical insight that older
working with hydraulically-actuated third hope to hit the ground running. engineers like me took for granted. Sadly,
springs. I could go on. One series that does give me hope is Time the fallout of this is something I now have
Did I get it right all the time? Hell no, but Attack and hillclimbing, notably Pikes Peak. to deal with on a near daily basis.
the experience was invaluable, and it laid the I’ve written about the former on a number of The future of motorsport relies on
firm foundations for where I am today. occasions and, if you look at money spent vs recognising and addressing this situation.
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BUSINESS – NEWS
IN BRIEF FIA full steam ahead on

liquid hydrogen
AP Racing has become the
exclusive clutch supplier for
IndyCar. All 28 cars this season
are using the company’s CP8278
three-plate, 10-bolt clutch,
which features a pull-type
configuration and a cushion The FIA will concentrate its of motorsport competitions, An FIA technical working group
pressure plate designed to sustainable powertrain efforts where optimisation is key.’ has been active since 2019 to explore
help with modulation. on the promotion of hydrogen Liquid and compressed gas hydrogen regulations and safety with
stored in liquid form. are the two main types of mobile manufacturers. Last year, an
The FIA has partnered with AVL After the first FIA World Motor hydrogen storage, but there is no independent think tank was set up
Racetech for the Austrian firm
Sport Council meeting of the year, global consensus on which is best. between Extreme H and Formula 1,
to become its official vehicle
the global motorsport body gave Hydrogen has a low volumetric which was described as a ‘welcome
simulation software supplier.
FIA chief technical and safety further details on its preferred energy density, so it needs to addition’ by FIA chief technical and
officer, Xavier Mestelan Pinon, strategy of implementing hydrogen be liquefied or compressed to be safety officer Xavier Mestelan Pinon.
said AVL’s software plays a technology as it tries to reduce stored in a racecar. Its low boiling ‘One of the missions of motorsport
‘pivotal role’ in developing motorsport’s carbon emissions. point (-252.9degC) means that is to serve the automotive sector
technical regulations, facilitating It is looking at liquid hydrogen any liquefied storage system must and, for this reason, the more forums
circuit homologations and (LH2) because of the lower withstand very cold temperatures. there are [for stakeholders] to
analysing future technologies. volume and weight of the storage Despite pressing on with LH2, the exchange know-how the better,’ he
tank vs hydrogen stored as FIA will keep looking at compressed said. ‘This is something that will drive
Audi is completing a takeover
compressed gas. The FIA deems gas hydrogen storage on the side, research and development forward,
of Sauber Group, purchasing
LH2 storage to be ‘better suited as long as ‘minimum safety and benefiting motorsport, mobility
100 per cent of the shares in the
Swiss company and signalling to the demanding environment technical requirements are met.’ and, of course, the environment.’
its intentions to push on with
FIA
its 2026 Formula 1 entry.
Andreas Seidl will be Audi F1
Team CEO, while Audi technical
chief, Oliver Hoffmann, will
become head of the Sauber
board and Audi Formula
Racing’s shareholder committee.
The FIA is putting
most of its focus
Lamborghini announced the
sudden exit of its motorsport on hydrogen
director, Giorgio Sanna, in stored in liquid
March. Sanna had been at the form as it aims to
helm of the Italian marque’s develop more
racing activities since 2015, sustainable racing
overseeing its growth in
GT3 and its prototype debut
with the SC63 LMDh.
Lamborghini’s chief technical
officer, Rouven Mohr, has
All-new technical triumvirate at Alpine
stepped into the directorial
Alpine has re-structured its ‘We have decided to make these
XPB
role on an interim basis.

Formula 1 technical team after two organisational changes as we can
McLaren Trophy will expand key figures resigned. The Renault clearly see that we are not where
to North America with a brand confirmed after a lacklustre we want, or need to be, in terms
new regional series in 2025, season-opening Bahrain Grand of performance level, so it is time
following two seasons in Europe. Prix that technical director, Matt to take another step in terms of
Fellow British manufacturer, Harman, and head of aerodynamics, organisation and people,’ said
BAC, has launched what Dirk de Beer, were leaving to ‘seek Alpine F1 team principal, Bruno
it calls the world’s fastest
new challenges’ elsewhere. Famin, who thanked Harman
single-make series, using a
Alpine entered the 2024 season and de Beer for their efforts.
race-prepared version of the
Mono. Races will take place in hoping its A524 car would spur ‘The new three-pillared structure
the Middle East this winter. a push beyond the midfield like with three technical directors, each
McLaren and Aston Martin last specialising in different areas, will
As reported in last month’s year, but the team failed to score bring better work and collaboration
issue, Nova Motorsport has points in the first two races. Matt Harman had been part of the Enstone across our technical areas and
acquired the assets and brand Alpine’s re-structure divides structure since 2018, having moved there from contribute to delivering performance
licence to produce Avon racing the technical director role into Mercedes. De Beer joined Enstone in late 2019 from the factories to the racetrack.’
tyres. It has obtained residual three positions. Joe Burnell leads Adding to what has been a
stock from Avon’s former
the engineering sub-department, All three were already disquieting period for Alpine’s F1
owner, Cooper Tire, and plans
while David Wheater oversees working for Alpine, which programme, former team consultant,
to introduce an updated range
in the second half of this year. aerodynamics and Ciaron Pilbeam is based across facilities in Bob Bell, has joined Aston Martin
heads up performance. Enstone, UK and Viry, France. in a new executive technical role.

Le Mans limits LMP2 gear ratios
The 24 Hours of Le Mans will gear ratio package this time around. Inter Europol team manager, linked to the Gibson V8 engine.
mandate a single set of gear ratios Racecar understands this set was the Sascha Fassbender, feels the move There is still a rev limit of 8000rpm
for LMP2 cars at this year’s race, longest of the three permitted in the will ‘take a little bit of freedom in the first five gears and 8500rpm
after previously allowing teams to past, while the reason to implement away’ from competitors. in sixth, plus a 75-litre fuel capacity
choose from different options. a single, common package was ‘Teams can use this as a and 950kg minimum weight.
A handful of teams, including made to ensure greater parity in successful tool,’ he said. ‘If we go When it was a full-time class in the
Inter Europol Competition the field, which consists of privateer more to a ‘stock’ car, it takes away FIA World Endurance Championship
and Prema, used shorter gear teams. The bulletin mentioned the inspiration of the teams that last year, LMP2 had a 63-litre fuel
ratios last year to improve the stratification between Hypercar and they have in setting up the car. tank at races outside of Le Mans.
acceleration of their Oreca 07s. LMP2, however this was not part of ‘But we take it as it is, and we There are 16 LMP2s at the
A bulletin from the FIA and Le the thinking for limiting the gear will try to defend our title.’ 24-hour classic this summer, all of
Mans organiser, the ACO, confirmed ratio options and was instead related For stratification, cars will continue them Orecas using the same Xtrac
that ‘set 3’ will be the only permitted to other technical parameters. to run with 35mm air restrictors six-speed sequential gearbox.
XPB
Polish team, Inter Europol, won the LMP2 class at Le Mans last year and was one outfit that used the option of shorter ratios in the race. For this year’s competition, all cars will have to run with the same ratios
IMSA rolls back on BoP approach in GTD

The IMSA SportsCar In December, IMSA held a test would prove to be difficult, ensure stability in its performance
Championship reverted to its original at Daytona where it organised particularly as there was no balancing task. It is unclear if the
approach to Balance of Performance run plans for each car to gather opportunity to conduct a Sebring system trialled at Daytona will return.
in the two GT Daytona classes after data. It then shared that data with sanctioned test,’ said IMSA’s senior ‘IMSA’s goal is stability in the
the season-opening Daytona 24 the manufacturers, which were technical director, Matt Kurdock. Balance of Performance process,’
Hours. That race saw IMSA introduce given a say in setting their cars’ ‘IMSA took some of the 2023 data, Kurdock added. ‘Once we get to
a new system that tried to find performance targets for the Roar in combination with some of the more of our traditional circuits,
common performance targets pre-event test and the race itself. Daytona data, and devised a BoP we feel that we can enter more of
between the various GT3 cars. A total of 11 meetings between solution for Sebring that combined a rolling BoP process where we’re
However, after discussions IMSA and the manufacturers those sources with trying to hit a not having to invent a clean sheet
with the car manufacturers, the have taken place since August. common performance target.’ BoP race to race. [Instead] we’re
sanctioning body re-took control ‘The OEMs felt that carrying on The reverted BoP approach is able to make small performance
over setting the BoP parameters in a manner [of ] working towards likely to continue at the rounds adjustments based on demonstrated
ahead of the 12 Hours of Sebring. the common performance targets after Sebring as IMSA seeks to data from Sebring and beyond.’

BUMP STOP
PIT CREW
To be or not to be?
Editor
Andrew Cotton @RacecarEd
The ongoing case for, and against, hybrids in motorsport
T
Email andrew.cotton@chelseamagazines.com
Deputy editor he recommendation by the FIA to drop hybrids WRC cars of the future will be lighter in weight, easier
Daniel Lloyd @RacecarEngineer
Email daniel.lloyd@chelseamagazines.com from the World Rally Championship in the middle to build, safer and just as fun to watch. They will also
Sub editor
Mike Pye
of a rule cycle is a strange one but, at the same carry good credentials for the environment, with less
Art editor time, long term one that can be understood. complication and producing less CO2 per kilometre than
Barbara Stanley
On the face of it, the teams have been busy managing cars of even five years ago, thanks to the sustainable fuel
Technical consultant
Peter Wright the technology in competition, the FIA has mastered the that will be used to power them.
Contributors
Christian Menath, Lawrence Butcher,
safety aspects and the manufacturers have what they While the WRC long-term planning department put all
Mike Breslin, Jahee Campbell-Brennan, wanted: a car that carries similar badging to their products this into place, the British Touring Car Championship’s boss
Gemma Hatton, Danny Nowlan, Peter Wright
Photography sold on the road. But not the same technology, of course. Alan Gow stated in an interview with Autosport that his
James Moy, Jack Shanlin, What’s needed in competition bears little resemblance series would not be changing its position on hybrids within
Chris Green Photography
Group sales director Catherine Chapman to what’s needed on the run to the shops, but at least the the current rule cycle. That caveat does leave the door open
Head of sales operations Greg Witham manufacturers involved can claim they race what they sell. to drop hybrid systems in the future if necessary.
Advertising manager Doug Howard
Tel +44 (0) 20 7349 3796; +44 (0) 7743 192 575 However, the decision is worth more than that. It needs
Email doug.howard@chelseamagazines.com
Marketing executive Bret Weekes
to be as there are contracts in place with the supplier, and Masters of technology
Email bret.weekes@chelseamagazines.com the manufacturers who based their costs on developing As for the drivers, they are quite capable of driving the
Publisher Simon Temlett hybrid over four years, not two, and now will have to hybrid cars to their limit, and across the sport it seems
Managing director James Dobson
Editorial and advertising optimise their cars without the electric energy. It remains they are quickly able to understand what they are doing. It
Racecar Engineering, Chelsea Magazine
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The cars are popular: Toyota recently launched a new GR On a side-note, Formula 1 will have to be careful when it
Yaris for the class, M-Sport has sold hundreds of Fords goes to a more powerful hybrid system in 2026. Once that
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was not unanimous, but was agreed by the majority. 2017 to 2022?’ I asked. ‘There isn’t a benefit,’ came the reply.
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cycle is never going to be universally popular. Hyundai, for that goes into them is better for the environment, but they
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RALLYING Why the WRC chose to drop

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