PRELIMS

COMMUNICATION
⮚ Communication is derived from the Latin word “communicare” which means “to impart”, “to share”, “to participate”
It is one of the more essential human activities that enable us to make connections, create meanings, and nurture
understanding.
ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
1. Communicators
❖ The people involved in the process of communication are
categorized into sender and receiver. In the process of
communication, both communicators take turns in their
roles.
● Sender

●Also known as source

●Initiates the conversation with the intention of passing

information and ideas to others.
●The sender has some kind of information, a command, a request, or idea- that he or she wants to present to others.
For that message to get through the receiving end, the sender must encode the message in a form that can be
understood, such as using a common language that both parties can understand.
● Receiver

⮚ The person to whom a message is directed is called the receiver or the interpreter. To comprehend the
information from the sender, the receiver must first be able to receive the sender’s information and then decode it
or interpret it.
2. The Message
⮚ The information that the sender wants to convey is called the message. It can come in the form of a question, a
plain statement, a comment or remark.
3. The Medium
⮚ The medium, also called the channel, is the means by which a message is transmitted. When people
communicate, they use a vehicle or a medium so that the message can get across the receiver. This medium is called
language. Communicators use a language that is common to both.
4. Feedback
⮚ The communication process reaches its final point when the message has been successfully transmitted,
received and understood. The receiver, in turn, responds to the sender, indicating comprehension. The response is
called the feedback. Response can come in the form of either verbal or non-verbal cues, depending on the
preference of the receiver.

COMMUNICATION MODELS
⮚ Are systematic representations of the process which helps in understanding how communication works can be done.
Models show the process metaphorically and in symbols. They form general perspectives on communication by
breaking communication from complex to simple and keeps the components in order. Communication models can
sometimes encourage traditional thinking and stereotyping but can also omit some major aspects of human
communication.

1. LINEAR MODEL
● Communication is considered one way process where sender is the
only one who sends message and receiver doesn’t give feedback or
response. The message signal is encoded and transmitted through
channel in presence of noise. The sender is more prominent in
linear model of communication.
● Founded by Shannon and Weaver which was later adapted by
David Berlo into his own model known as SMCR (Source,
Message, Channel, Receiver) Model of Communication.
 ● Applied in mass communication like television, radio, etc. This model is not applicable in general human
communication as general human communication has to have feedback and responses.

COMPONENTS OF LINEAR COMMUNICATION

⮚ Linear model has defined set of components required for a communication to be established where Sender is the
person who sends a message after encoding.
1. Encoding is the process of converting the message into codes compatible with the channel and understandable
for the receiver.
2. Decoding is the process of changing the encoded message into understandable language by the receiver.
3. Message is the information sent by the sender to the receiver.
4. Channel is the medium through which the message is sent.
5. Receiver is the person who gets the message after decoding.
6. Noise is the disruptions that are caused in the communication process in channel or in understandability of the
message.
1. TRANSACTIONAL MODEL
⮚ Is the exchange of messages between sender and receiver where each take turns to send or receive messages. Two way proce

⮚ Both sender and receiver are

the same time.
⮚ The communicators can be humans or machines. The
model is mostly used for interpersonal communication and is also
called circular model of communication.
⮚ The transactional model
of tmc.
⮚ In transactional model, efficiency
perceived by a person the same way when it is send through a
phone and when it is provided face to face. It is because of possible loss of message on a phone call or absence of
gestures.
2. INTERACTIVE MODEL
⮚ Interactive model or convergence model is similar to
ideas.
COMPONENTS OF INTERACTIVE MODEL
1. Encoder-Source-Decoder: The person who originates a message is
the source. The encoder and decoder are the same
person/source. The second source is also encoder as well as
decoder. The source acts as an encoder while sending the
message and as decoder while receiving the message. The
second source decodes the message, then originates another
message, encodes it and sends it to the first source. The source is
known to be encoder and decoder during the act of encoding and
decoding.
2. Message: Message is the information sent during the interaction.
3. Feedback: The decoder forms a second message after receiving the first which is known as feedback.
4. Field of Experience: Field of experience is the experience and knowledge that the source possess which affects the
message formation and interpretation. For example, the source’s culture, social behavior, etc.

VERBAL VS NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

⮚ Communicating meaning utilizes verbal and non-verbal expressions.
Verbal communication uses words which can be expressed either written or orally. (It is therefore wrong to say verbal
to mean “oral”, like, “verbalize” you concern, to mean saying it orally).
Non-verbal on the other hand is a wordless communication. Other means are used to convey meaning like facial
expressions, proxemics, paralanguage, appearance, gestures, oculesics, body language and posture, artifacts, haptics
and chronemics.

1. Facial Expressions
⮚ They are used by humans to convey various types of meaning in various contexts. Facial expressions such as a frown,
a raised eyebrow, a smile can send meanings depending on the context.
⮚ Ekman (1992) claimed that there is a set of expressions that are innate, and they mean that the person making
that face is experiencing an emotion. He also claimed that there are culturally acquired facial expressions used to
modulate the innate emotional expressions, so-called display rules, and others that are used for communication.
⮚ While nonverbal communication and behavior can vary dramatically between cultures, the facial expressions for
happiness, sadness, anger, and fear are similar throughout the world.
⮚ Facial expressions must be consistent with the meaning that a speaker intends to convey. Communication
breakdown happens because of the inconsistency in the facial expression and the intended meaning.

2. Proxemics
⮚ Edward T. Hall, the cultural anthropologist who coined the term
in 1963, defined proxemics as the interrelated observations and
theories of human use of space as a specialized elaboration of
culture.
⮚ Is the study of human use of space and the effect that population
density has on behavior, communication and social interaction. It
refers to an individual’s perception of the use of space, both
personal (how much space do they take up) and social (distance
from one another).
⮚ People often refer to their need for "personal space" which is also an important type of nonverbal communication.5
The amount of distance we need and the amount of space we perceive as belonging to us is influenced by a number
of factors including social norms, cultural expectations, situational factors, personality characteristics, and level of
familiarity. The amount of personal space needed when having a casual conversation with another person usually
varies between 18 inches to four feet. On the other hand, the personal distance needed when speaking to a crowd of
people is around 10 to 12 feet.

3. Paralanguage
⮚ Is the technical term for the voice cues that accompany spoken words. It is concerned with the sound of the voice
and the range of meanings that people convey through their voices rather than the words they use. The meaning of
what you express is contained, in part, in the words you say, but how you say it also contains powerful meanings. For
example, the word “Yes”, can completely convey different meanings, even in the exact same sentence, depending on
how it is said—whether it is spoken sincerely or sarcastically. The “how”—you say something—is referred to as
paralanguage, which includes your conscious or unconscious intonation, accent, pitch Opens in new window, pace,
pause, silence, emphasis, word and syllable stress.
⮚ Is your voice minus the words you speak. Again, it denotes the tone (sound) of your voice. The sound of your voice
communicates, revealing to others your emotional state, attitudes, status, personality, etc.
⮚ The tone of your voice can help you communicate what you mean to convey, or it can reveal thoughts you mean to
conceal. It can reinforce or negate the words you speak. How you speak influences how others interpret your
intentions, as well as how credible, intelligent, or attractive they judge you to be. With this in mind, you may assess
yourself by responding to the following questions:
o Does my voice enhance or detract from the impression I make?
o Does my voice support or contradict my intended meaning?
o If I were interacting with me, would I want to listen to the sound of my voice?

4. Gestures
⮚ Deliberate movements and signals are an important way to communicate meaning without words. Common gestures
include waving, pointing, and using fingers to indicate numeric amounts. Other gestures are arbitrary and related to
culture.
⮚ Gestures are woven into the fabric of our daily lives. You may wave, point, beckon, or use your hands when arguing
or speaking animatedly, often expressing yourself with gestures without thinking. However, the meaning of some
gestures can be very different across cultures. While the OK sign made with the hand, for example, conveys a positive
message in English-speaking countries, it’s consider offensive in countries such as Germany, Russia, and Brazil. So, it’s
important to be careful of how you use gestures to avoid misinterpretation.

5. Body Language and Posture

⮚ Consider how your perceptions of people are affected by the way they sit, walk, stand, or hold their head. The way
you move and carry yourself communicates a wealth of information to the world. This type of nonverbal
communication includes your posture, bearing, stance, and the subtle movements you make.

6. Oculesics or Eye Gaze

⮚ The eyes play an important role in nonverbal communication and such things as looking, staring and blinking are
important nonverbal behaviors. When people encounter people or things that they like, the rate of blinking increases
and pupils dilate. Looking at another person can indicate a range of emotions including hostility, interest, and
attraction.
⮚ People also utilize eye gaze as a means to determine if someone is being honest.
Normal steady eye contact is often taken as a sign that a person is telling the truth and is trustworthy.
Shifty eyes and an inability to maintain eye contact, on the other hand, is frequently seen as an indicator that someone
is lying or being deceptive.

7. Haptics
⮚ Derived from Greek word “haptikos” meaning “ABLE TO COME INTO CONTACT WITH”

⮚ Haptics = Touch = Connection

⮚ Touch is at the core of personal experience

⮚ Of the five senses, Touch is the most proficient, the only one capable of simultaneous input and output.

⮚ Harry Harlow's (First psychologists to scientifically investigate the nature of human love and affection) classic
monkey study demonstrated how deprived touch and contact impedes development. Baby monkeys raised by wire
mothers experienced permanent deficits in behavior and social interaction. Touch can be used to communicate
affection, familiarity, sympathy, and other emotions.
⮚ In her book Interpersonal Communication: Everyday Encounters, author Julia Wood writes that touch is also often
used as a way to communicate both status and power.
⮚ Researchers have found that high-status individuals tend to invade other people's personal space with greater
frequency and intensity than lower-status individuals. Sex differences also play a role in how people utilize touch to
communicate meaning.
⮚ Women tend to use touch to convey care, concern, and nurturance. Men, on the other hand, are more likely to use
touch to assert power or control over others.

8. Appearance
⮚ This non-verbal cue is quite controversial. We're taught not to judge a book by its cover. We can't assess a person's
intelligence or demeanor by the clothes they wear. Yet, in a professional setting, one's appearance does send a
message. This is why we wear suits to interviews or enjoy casual Friday at the workplace.
⮚ Our everyday attire and hairstyle sends a message. Imagine a woman who always wears bright, bold tones. Perhaps
she wears orange suits with red blouses or yellow skirts with royal blue shirts. This is a woman who's not looking to
be a wallflower. You can probably roll the dice on her high level of self-confidence. On the other hand, just because
someone chooses muted tones or grays, it doesn't mean they're shy. They might simply prefer a simplistic style. To
them, less may be more.
⮚ Either way, how we present ourselves to people and situations tells a story. We're told to take our hats off at the
table, put a comb through our hair, and wear our Sunday best for a reason. It shows we put a little thought into the
interaction.

9. Artifacts
⮚ Objects used to communicate information about oneself
⮚ Colors common in healthcare and extremely important
⮚ Art, Clothing, Jewelry, Symbols, Signs, Logos / trademarks
⮚ Objects and images are also tools that can be used to communicate nonverbally. On an online forum, for example,
you might select an avatar to represent your identity online and to communicate information about who you are and
the things you like.
⮚ People often spend a great deal of time developing a particular image and surrounding themselves with objects
designed to convey information about the things that are important to them. Uniforms, for example, can be used to
transmit a tremendous amount of information about a person.
o Nonverbal communication plays an important role in how we convey meaning and inform ation to others, as
well as how we interpret the actions of those around us.
o The important thing to remember when looking at such nonverbal behaviors is to consider the actions in groups.
What a person actually says along with his or her expressions, appearance, and tone of voice might tell you a
great deal about what that person is really trying to say.

COMMUNICATION FILTERS/ BARRIERS

⮚ The communication process may not always result to a positive experience. When the intended meaning is not
perceived by the recipient of the message, miscommunication happens. Sometimes, people misunderstand one
another for a variety of reasons. Specific items that can distort or prevent communication refer to communication
barriers or filters.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION FILTERS:

1. CULTURAL BARRIER
⮚ Culture refers to the attitudes and beliefs that come from our personal environment and experience. People grow
from different cultural backgrounds and beliefs. How they perceive things therefore differ from other cultures. For
example, basic pleasantries differ from culture to culture. Filipinos usually greet elders by “pagmamano”; The
Japanese bow their heads as a form of greeting or respect; the Americans shake hands or kiss those who are
relatively close to them. When one is not particular about cultural differences, communication breakdown happens.

What to do about cultural barriers?

o Consider the cultural makeup of the intended audience.
o Seek to understand where are the differences.
o Fashion the message to ensure that it says what you exactly mean.

2. LANGUAGE BARRIER
⮚ Inability to converse in a language that is known by both the sender and the receiver is the greatest barrier to
effective communication. When a person uses inappropriate words and jargons while conversing or writing, it could
lead to misunderstanding between the sender and the receiver.
● Dialects - While two people may technically speak the same language, dialectal differences can make
communication between them difficult. Examples of dialectical language barriers exist worldwide. Chinese, for
example, has a variety of dialects that are commonly spoken, including Cantonese and Mandarin.
● Language Disabilities - Language disabilities are physical impediments to language. Physical language disabilities
that cause language barriers include stuttering, dysphonia or an articulation disorder and hearing loss.

What to do?
● In a work place or in a more formal setting, use visual methods of communication more than audio. Show more
than tell. Explain it with pictures as much as possible. Use pictures in your instruction manuals rather than words.
Almost every step in every process can be described in picture format. Give your listeners signs, cue cards or other
methods to help them learn.
● Use repetition. As with any new concept, most people don't learn something the first time they hear it. People need
to hear the same message over and over before they fully grasp it. Don't expect people to learn anything after being
told once. This is true of all of people whether they have a language barrier or not.
● Never raise your voice or over-enunciate your words. Talk slower, not louder. Speak clearly, not forcefully. People of
a different language and culture can hear fine. They probably also are intelligent enough to grasp what you are saying
if you intelligently deliver your message without talking down to them. Don't speak "Pidgin English." Speak correct
English the correct way, just more clearly. People cannot learn the language right if you don't speak it right.
● Use simpler words with fewer syllables. Be aware of the complexities of your words. Use more common words that
convey your message in simpler terms. Again, don't talk down; just use a less complex vocabulary.
● Minimize the use of slang or idiom.

● Keep it clear

● Use an interpreter whenever possible

3. PHYSICAL BARRIER
⮚ Doors that are closed, walls that are erected, and distance between people all work against the goal of effective
communication.

⮚ Physical barriers can be anything from background noise, distractions, interruptions, equipment, connection glitches
and the like. When on the phone, and you experience signal interruption, when sending text messages, but you
suddenly run out of load so the message failed to send, when you are talking with somebody in a noisy environment,
when taking a synchronous online exam and there is a sudden power interruption, those are considered physical
barriers.
● Environment - Some barriers are due to the existing environment. For example, if you are standing in adverse weather
conditions, your conversation would be hampered because you would not be able to pay full attention to what the
other person is saying.
● Distance- Distance also plays an important part in determining the course of a conversation.
● Ignorance of Medium- Communication also includes using signs and symbols to convey a feeling or a thought.

However, if there is a lack of ignorance about the medium in which sender is sending the message, the conversation
can be hampered.

4. PERCEPTUAL BARRIER
⮚ We all have our own preferences, values, attitudes, origins and life experiences that act as "filters" on our
experiences of people, events and information. Seeing things through the lens of our own unique life experiences or
"conditioning" may lead to assumptions, stereotyping and misunderstandings of others whose experiences differ
from our own.
⮚ Anything that inhibits or prevents us from making accurate perceptions is called a perceptual barrier or a perceptual
error. ... Five of the most common perceptual barriers are selective perceptions, stereotypes, halo effect,
projections, and expectations.
⮚ Perceptual barriers are internal. If you go into a situation thinking that the person you are talking to isn't going to
understand or be interested in what you have to say, you may end up subconsciously sabotaging your effort to make
your point. You will employ language that is sarcastic, dismissive, or even obtuse, thereby alienating your
conversational partner.

● Perceptual Filters -We all have our own preferences, values, attitudes, origins and life experiences that act as "filters"
on our experiences of people, events and information. Seeing things through the lens of our own unique life
experiences or "conditioning" may lead to assumptions, stereotyping and misunderstandings of others whose
experiences differ from our own.
● Triggers and Cues -What we say is affected by how we say it (tone, volume) and by our nonverbal cues, such as body
language and facial gestures. For example, you may perceive a situation differently if the person you are speaking
with is smiling or frowning, has body odour and is standing too close or is not giving you direct eye contact.
What to do?
⮚ The audience may make assumptions about you or the situation; perhaps you are new to the organization, or the
situation is a challenging one. To get your message past these barriers, provide evidence to support your claims and
enhance your credibility. Effective communication relies on being aware of nonverbal aspects of interactions with
others. It is equally important to be aware of one's own nonverbal behaviours and be sensitive to how they may be
 perceived. For instance, maintaining eye contact when communicating indicates interest. Staring out the window or
around the room is often perceived as boredom or disrespect.

5. EMOTIONAL BARRIER
Emotional barriers can be tough to overcome, but are important to put aside to engage in conversations. We are often
taught to fear the words coming out of our own mouths, as in the phrase "anything you say can and will be used against
you." Overcoming this fear is difficult, but necessary. The trick is to have full confidence in what you are saying and your
qualifications in saying it. People often pick up on insecurity. By believing in yourself and what you have to say, you will
be able to communicate clearly without becoming overly involved in your emotions.
● Anger- Anger can affect the way your brain processes information given to you. For example, angry people have
difficulty processing logical statements, limiting their ability to accept explanations and solutions offered by others
● Pride-The need to be right all the time will not only annoy others, it can shut down effective communication. For
example, you might focus only on your perspective, or you might come up with ways to shoot down other people
before you even listen to their points.
● Anxiousness- Anxiety has a negative impact on the part of your brain that manages creativity and communication
skills. For example, your constant worries can hinder your ability to concentrate on the information you are giving or
receiving.

✔ Removing Yourself. Angry people have difficulty processing logical statements, limiting their ability to accept
explanations and solutions offered by others. With this in mind, remove yourself from communication until you feel
you can collect your thoughts, think clearly and hold back potentially hurtful and undue comments.
✔ Accepting Imperfections. The drive to win every argument or get the last word often spawns from
overcompensation, or trying to cover emotional insecurities with a sense of superiority. Other people might find you
easier to communicate with when you accept your imperfections from time to time.
✔ Relaxation Exercises. While a mental health professional should address anxiety disorders such as post-traumatic
stress disorder or phobias -- typical anxiety, like the anxiety you feel before giving a speech -- can be managed with
relaxation exercises.

6. GENDER BARRIER
⮚ Gender barriers have become less of an issue in recent years, but there is still the possibility for a man to misconstrue
the words of a woman, or vice versa.
⮚ Even in a workplace where women and men share equal stature, knowledge and experience, differing
communication styles may prevent them from working together effectively. Gender barriers can be inherent or may
be related to gender stereotypes and the ways in which men and women are taught to behave as children.
⮚ Although not all men or all women communicate the same way as the rest of their gender, several traits that tend to
be more common in one gender or the other have been identified. Understanding these tendencies is key in creating
a work environment that fosters open communication among all employees.

According to Heather R. Huhman of Forbes, becoming aware of the following generalizations may help you more
effectively communicate at work:
✔ Women talk about other people. Men talk about tangible things like business , sports, food and drinks.

✔ Women ask questions to gain an understanding. Men talk to give information rather than asking questions.

✔ Women are more likely to talk to other women when a problem or conflict arises. Men are often known for dealing
with problems or issues internally
✔ Women focus on feelings, senses and meaning . They rely on their intuition to find answers. Men focus on facts,
reason and logic. They find answers by analyzing and figuring things out.
✔ A disagreement between women affects many aspects of their relationship and may take a long time to resolve. Men
can argue or disagree and then move on quickly from the conflict.

7. INTERPERSONAL BARRIER
⮚ Interpersonal barriers are what ultimately keep us from reaching out to each other and opening ourselves up , not
just to be heard, but to hear others. Oddly enough, this can be the most difficult area to change. Some people spend
their entire lives attempting to overcome a poor self-image or a series of deeply rooted prejudices about their place
in the world. They are unable to form genuine connections with people because they have too many false
perceptions blocking the way.
⮚ Luckily, the cure for this is more communication. By engaging with others, we learn what our actual strengths and
weaknesses are. This allows us to put forth our ideas in a clear, straightforward manner.
● Desire to Participate- The lack of desire to participate in the communication process is a significant barrier. There is
nothing more frustrating than trying to communicate with an individual that clearly does not want to.
● Desire to Explore- Unwillingness to explore different ideas, opinions, and priorities create communication barriers
every day of our lives. A clear lack of desire to explore your views, opinions, or ideas can be extremely frustrating.

✔ Use simple words to convey the message. To have an effective process of interpersonal communication, you have
to simplify language. Everyone hates to decipher spoken words, reserve the deciphering to the writing and when
speaking, keep it simple and easy to understand.
✔ Learn the art of listening. A person will always try to get his opinions across first before listening to the other
person's point of view. To improve interpersonal communication, listen both attentively and proactively.
✔ Keep composure while communicating. The process of interpersonal communication is more effective if emotions
are kept at bay. Keeping your composure while talking or negotiating with a business partner will keep you on the
right track towards your goal.
✔ Provide constructive criticism. Constructive criticism is perhaps the best sign that you are communicating with the
other person on a more personal level. Both the sender and receiver of communications may use feedback for
effective interpersonal communication.

Week 3: ENGLISH AS THE LINGUA FRANCA (ELF)

LINGUA FRANCA
⮚ Originally formed by Arabic speakers to communicate with the European travelers.

⮚ It usually means “any lingual medium of communication between people of different mother tongues, for whom it is
a second language."
⮚ Bridge language, trade language or common language

⮚ English as a lingua franca is a contact language between persons who share neither a common native tongue nor a
common culture.

Development of English as an International Language

ENGLISH
●Widest vocabulary in the world

●375 million native speakers

●3rd most spoken language in the world (Mandarin, Spanish)

●Vital language for learning and communicating to the world.

⮚ Nowadays, the world has become the global village and with the rise of the Internet, English got a distinguished role
in world communication. It has become a language of self-representation and communication with people from all
over the globe.
⮚ We can therefore say that English language is owned by everyone, and we cannot live without it. For example, if we
want to interact with people outside our locality, we would surely introduce ourselves using the English language.

Globalization in communication
●Proliferating connections among people and society (Mansbach & Rhodes, 2013)

● Transnational corporations

● Social networks
● International organizations

● Convergence of cultures

● Changes in nation but not losing its identity

● Deterritorialization

⮚ The demand for English as a lingua franca will increase and continue possibly as more and more people use it as basic
global communication tool. Speaking English became a trend as it gains popularity day by day because it has its own
potential to attract people in many different countries.
⮚ Even if you are just simply surfing the Internet, you may already explore anything that the world offers. In terms of
global leadership, you must have command on English i.e., speaking, writing and reading.
⮚ Hence, English is a vital language for learning and communicating to the world.

VARIETIES OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE

⮚ How we speak is influenced by many things. Our way of pronouncing words is all part of learning how to speak and
somehow copying the speech of those around us. Depending on our family history or background, we could ether be
monolingual, bilingual or multilingual, then we may learn to speak English alongside another language. As we go
further schooling, we will eventually learn the standardized forms of the English language in terms of spelling,
punctuation and grammar which is known as the Standard English.

⮚ As we move across the country, we experience not only changing landscape and architecture but also a gradual
change in the sounds we hear, in the accents and dialects that relate to the place in which they are spoken and to
which they belong.
● DIALECT – a variety of English that differs from other dialects or varieties in three specific ways:
o Lexis (vocabulary)
o Grammar (structure)
o Phonology (pronunciation or accent)
● ACCENT – refers to the differences in the sound patterns of a specific dialect and not its vocabulary and grammar

Attitudes towards Variations of English

⮚ For mainly historical reasons, certain English dialects or varieties have been viewed more positively than others. Thus,
standard English, because of its association with being the national English language, has been perceived as the most
prestigious English variety.
⮚ As society changes, so too do attitudes towards dialect, accent and variational use of English generally. Until not so
very long ago, variational uses of English were associated with social class. Today, issues of social class are not
straightforward as they were once; increased educational opportunity and economic prosperity means that more and
more young people are exposed to Standard English than ever before. Also, increased variety of accents in the media
for example, is a great help to break down prejudice towards variational use of English.

BRITISH VS. AMERICAN ENGLISH

⮚ There is an old saying that America and Britain are “two nations divided by a common language.” No one knows
exactly who said this, but it reflects the way many Brits feel about American English. My British friend still tells me,
“You don’t speak English. You speak American.” But are American and British English really so different

● VOCABULARY

⮚ The most noticeable difference between American and British English is vocabulary. There are hundreds of
everyday words that are different. For example, Brits call the front of a car the bonnet, while Americans call it the
hood.
Americans go on vacation, while Brits go on holidays, or hols.
New Yorkers live in apartments; Londoners live in flats.
⮚ There are far more examples than we can talk about here. Fortunately, most Americans and Brits can usually
guess the meaning through the context of a sentence.
 ● COLLECTIVE NOUNS

⮚ There are a few grammatical differences between the two varieties of English. Let’s start with collective nouns. We
use collective nouns to refer to a group of individuals.
⮚ In American English, collective nouns are singular. For example, staff refers to a group of employees; band refers to a
group of musicians; team refers to a group of athletes. Americans would say, “The band is good.”
⮚ But in British English, collective nouns can be singular or plural. You might hear someone from Britain say, “The team
are playing tonight” or “The team is playing tonight.”

● AUXILIARY VERBS

⮚ Another grammar difference between American and British English relates to auxiliary verbs. Auxiliary verbs, also
known as helping verbs, are verbs that help form a grammatical function. They “help” the main verb by adding
information about time, modality and voice.
⮚ Let’s look at the auxiliary verb shall. Brits sometimes use shall to express the future. For example, “I shall go home
now.” Americans know what shall means, but rarely use it in conversation. It seems very formal. Americans would
probably use “I will go home now.” In question form, a Brit might say, “Shall we go now?” while an American would
probably say, “Should we go now?”
⮚ When Americans want to express a lack of obligation, they use the helping verb do with negative not followed by
need. “You do not need to come to work today.” Brits drop the helping verb and contract not. “You needn’t come to
work today.”

● PAST TENSE VERBS

⮚ You will also find some small differences with past forms of irregular verbs.

⮚ The past tense of learn in American English is learned. British English has the option of learned or learnt. The same
rule applies to dreamed and dreamt, burned and burnt, leaned and leant.
⮚ Americans tend to use the –ed ending; Brits tend to use the -t ending.

⮚ In the past participle form, Americans tend to use the –en ending for some irregular verbs. For example, an American
might say, “I have never gotten caught” whereas a Brit would say, “I have never got caught.” Americans use both got
and gotten in the past participle. Brits only use got.
⮚ Don’t worry too much about these small differences in the past forms of irregular verbs. People in both countries can
easily understand both ways, although Brits tend to think of the American way as incorrect.

● TAG QUESTIONS

⮚ A tag question is a grammatical form that turns a statement into a question. For example, “The whole situation is
unfortunate, isn’t it?” or, “You don’t like him, do you?”

⮚ The tag includes a pronoun and its matching form of the verb be, have or do. Tag questions encourage people to
respond and agree with the speaker. Americans use tag questions, too, but less often than Brits.

● SPELLING

⮚ There are hundreds of minor spelling differences between British and American English. You can thank American
lexicographer Noah Webster for this. You might recognize Webster’s name from the dictionary that carries his name.
⮚ Noah Webster, an author, politician, and teacher, started an effort to reform English spelling in the late 1700s. He
was frustrated by the inconsistencies in English spelling. Webster wanted to spell words the way they sounded.
Spelling reform was also a way for America to show its independence from England. You can see Webster’s legacy in
 the American spelling of words like color (from colour), honor (from honour), and labor (from labour). Webster
dropped the letter u from these words to make the spelling match the pronunciation. Other Webster ideas failed, like
a proposal to spell women as wimmen. Since Webster’s death in 1843, attempts to change spelling rules in American
English have gone nowhere.
⮚ Not so different after all. British and American English have far more similarities than differences. We think the
difference between American and British English is often exaggerated. If you can understand one style, you should be
able to understand the other style.
⮚ With the exception of some regional dialects, most Brits and Americans can understand each other without too much
difficulty. They watch each other’s TV shows, sing each other’s songs, and read each other’s books. They even make
fun of each other’s accents.

British words and their American counterparts:

British English American English
accommodation Accommodations
action replay instant replay
aerofoil Airfoil
aeroplane Airplane
agony aunt advice columnist
Allen key Allen wrench
aluminium aluminum
aniseed anise
anticlockwise counterclockwise
articulated lorry tractor-trailer
asymmetric bars uneven bars
aubergine Eggplant
baking tray cookie sheet
bank holiday legal holiday
beetroot beet(s)
biscuit cookie; cracker
black economy underground economy
blanket bath sponge bath
block of flats apartment building
boiler suit Coveralls
bonnet (of a car) Hood
boob tube tube top
boot (of a car) Trunk
bottom drawer hope chest
bowls lawn bowling
braces Suspenders
brawn (the food) Headcheese
breakdown van tow truck
breeze block cinder block
bridging loan bridge loan
bumbag fanny pack
candyfloss cotton candy
car park parking lot
casualty emergency room
catapult Slingshot
central reservation median strip
chemist drugstore
chips French fries
cinema movie theater; the movies
cling film plastic wrap
common seal harbor seal
consumer durables durable goods
cornflour cornstarch
cos (lettuce) Romaine
cot crib
cot death crib death
cotton bud cotton swab
cotton wool absorbent cotton
council estate (housing) project
courgette zucchini
court card face card
crash barrier guardrail
crisps chips; potato chips
crocodile clip alligator clip
cross-ply bias-ply
crotchet (music) quarter note
current account checking account
danger money hazard pay
demister (in a car) defroster
dialling tone dial tone
diamante Rhinestone
double cream heavy cream
draughts (game) checkers
drawing pin thumbtack
dressing gown robe; bathrobe
drink-driving drunk driving
drinks cupboard liquor cabinet
drinks party cocktail party
driving licence driver’s license
dual carriageway divided highway
dummy (for a baby) Pacifier
dust sheet drop cloth
dustbin garbage can
earth (electrical) Ground
engaged (of a phone) Busy
real estate agent,
estate agent
realtor (trademark)
estate car station wagon
ex-directory unlisted
faith school parochial school
financial year fiscal year
fire brigade/service fire company/department
first floor second floor
fish finger fish stick
fitted carpet wall-to-wall carpeting
flannel washcloth
flat apartment
flexitime flextime
flick knife switchblade
flyover overpass
football soccer
footway sidewalk
fringe (hair) bangs
full stop (punctuation) period
garden yard; lawn
gearing (finance) leverage
gear lever gearshift
goods train freight train
greaseproof paper wax paper/waxed paper
green fingers green thumb
grill (noun) broiler
grill (verb) broil
ground floor first floor
groundsman groundskeeper
hairslide barrette
hatstand hatrack
hen night bachelorette party
hire purchase installment plan
hoarding billboard
hob stovetop
holdall carryall
holiday vacation
holidaymaker vacationer
homely homey
hosepipe (garden) hose
in hospital in the hospital
hot flush hot flash
housing estate housing development
hundreds and
sprinkles (for ice cream)
thousands
ice lolly Popsicle (trademark)
icing sugar confectioners’ sugar
indicator (on a car) turn signal
inside leg inseam
jelly babies jelly beans
Joe Bloggs Joe Blow
Joe Public John Q. Public
jumble sale rummage sale
jump lead jumper cable
jumper sweater
junior school elementary school
kennel doghouse
ladybird ladybug
a lettuce a head of lettuce
level crossing grade crossing
lift elevator
lolly lollipop
lollipop lady (or man) crossing guard
loose cover slipcover
lorry truck
loudhailer bullhorn
low loader flatbed truck
lucky dip grab bag
luggage van baggage car
maize corn
mangetout snow pea
market garden truck farm
marshalling yard railroad yard
maths math
metalled road paved road
milometer odometer
minim (music) half note
mobile phone cell phone
monkey tricks monkeyshines
motorway expressway; highway
mum/mummy mom/mommy
nappy diaper
needlecord pinwale
newsreader newscaster
noughts and crosses tic-tac-toe
number plate license plate
off-licence liquor store; package store
opencast mining open-pit mining
ordinary share common stock
oven glove oven mitt
paddling pool wading pool
paracetamol acetaminophen
parting (in hair) part
patience solitaire
pavement sidewalk
pay packet pay envelope
pedestrian crossing crosswalk
peg clothespin
pelmet valance
petrol gas; gasoline
physiotherapy physical therapy
pinafore dress jumper
plain chocolate dark chocolate
plain flour all-purpose flour
polo neck turtleneck
positive discrimination reverse discrimination
postal vote absentee ballot
postbox mailbox
postcode zip code
potato crisp potato chip
power point electrical outlet
pram baby carriage; stroller
press stud snap
press-up pushup
private soldier GI
public school private school
public transport public transportation
punchbag punching bag
pushchair stroller
pylon utility pole
quantity surveyor estimator
quaver (music) eighth note
queue line
racing car race car
railway railroad
real tennis court tennis
recorded delivery certified mail
registration plate license plate
remould (tyre) retread
reverse the charges call collect
reversing lights back-up lights
right-angled triangle right triangle
ring road beltway
roundabout (at a fair) carousel
roundabout (in road) traffic circle
rowing boat rowboat
sailing boat sailboat
saloon (car) sedan
sandpit sandbox
sandwich cake layer cake
sanitary towel sanitary napkin
self-raising flour self-rising flour
semibreve (music) whole note
semitone (music) half step
share option stock option
shopping trolley shopping cart
show house/home model home
silencer (on a car) muffler
silverside rump roast
skeleton in the
skeleton in the closet
cupboard
skimmed milk skim milk
skipping rope jump rope
skirting board baseboard
sledge sled
sleeper railroad tie
sleeping partner silent partner
slowcoach slowpoke
snakes and ladders chutes and ladders
 solicitor lawyer
soya/soya bean soy/soybean
splashback backsplash
spring onion scallion
stag night bachelor party
Stanley knife utility knife
starter appetizer
state school public school
storm in a teacup tempest in a teapot
surtitle supertitle
swede rutabaga
sweet(s) candy
takeaway (food) takeout; to go
taxi rank taxi stand
tea towel dish towel
terrace house row house
tick check mark
ticket tout scalper
timber lumber
titbit tidbit
toffee apple candy apple or caramel apple
touch wood knock on wood
trade union labor union
trading estate industrial park
trainers sneakers
transport cafe truck stop
trolley shopping cart
twelve-bore twelve-gauge
underground Subway
vacuum flask thermos bottle
verge (of a road) Shoulder
vest Undershirt
veterinary surgeon veterinarian
wagon (on a train) car
waistcoat vest
walking frame walker
wardrobe closet
water ice Italian ice
weatherboard clapboard
white coffee coffee with cream
white spirit mineral spirits
wholemeal bread wholewheat bread
windcheater windbreaker
windscreen windshield
See(of a car) fender
worktop countertop
zebra crossing crosswalk
zed (letter Z) zee
zip zippe

WEEK 4: Local and Global Communications in Multicultural Settings

⮚ Communication is guided by culture and context. It is predicted by the type of culture dictated by its context. Culture
is manifested in our actions and affects how we tell the world who we are and what we believe in. It is also the basis
of how we behave in a certain communication context. The context of communication brings a better understanding
about culture in general and our own culture in particular. Context was contextualized by Edward T. Hall, a cultural
anthropologist, as anything that refers to the stimuli, environment, or ambience surrounding an event. Our notion of
context leads us to be better able to adapt to a multicultural perspective of communication.
⮚ Local communication is highly grounded on the cultural context. This context of communication reflects the culture
of people who are creating their self-identity and community. On the other hand, global communication has turned
 to be a modifying factor of local communication. It attempts to bring changes that affect communication
conversations.
⮚ The increasing diversity of cultures throughout the world requires the study of intercultural communication, a
discipline that focuses on how culture affects communication. Intercultural communication concerns on the ability to
understand and value cultural differences. It considers the context of communication where people from different
cultural backgrounds interact and underscores the wide range of communication processes and problems that
naturally appear within a social context.
⮚ Language is a cultural component that is linked to intercultural understanding. How language is used and its non-
verbal forms are decoded based on culture. Hence enhancing oral and written communication in intercultural
environments is a way to achieving intercultural competence.
⮚ The increasing diversity of cultures throughout the world requires the study of intercultural communication, a
discipline that focuses on how culture affects communication and it concerns on the ability to understand and value
cultural differences.

VARIETIES AND REGISTERS OF SPOKEN AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE

LANGUAGE VARIETY
Also called lect.
Any distinctive form of a language or linguistic expression.
Refers to any of the overlapping subcategories of a language including:
Dialect
Register
Jargon
Idiolect

Varieties of English refer to the different kinds of English used around the world based on geographical
locations.
Several Major Varieties are:
American English
British English
Australian English
New Zealand English
Black English
Other Varieties are:
Singapore English
Philippine English

These are identified as variations based on the phonological (speech sounds) and lexical (vocabulary/grammar
and construction) levels of use.
Language variations are more or less similar and while most English speakers can understand each other,
problems occasionally arise. (Manzano, et al. 2018)
Difference of Lect from Standard English
LECT STANDARD ENGLISH

Developed for a number of reasons:

1. Geographical ⮚ A form of the English language that

- People who live in different geographic
is written and spoken by educated users.
areas often develop distinct dialect –
variations of Standard English.
2. Jargon ⮚ It is synonymous to good and correct
- Language from specific academic and English usage.
professional groups which is known to
and understood by members of the
group.
⮚ It also refers to a specific geographical
3. Idiolects
- developed by individuals at a particular dialect of English or a dialect of English
period of time
 ⮚ Or a dialect favored by the most powerful
and prestigious social group.

SUBCATEGORIES OF LANGUAGE VARIETY

1. DIALECT
- characterized as a way of speaking that differs from the standard variety of the language
- Greek word: dia = ‘across, between’ + legein = ‘speak’
- Variation of pronunciation (phonemes)
- Variation of lexicon (vocabulary)
- Variation of grammar (syntax)
❖ Dialect prejudice: certain dialects gained negative connotations in the U.S., thus the term refers to
discrimination based on a person’s dialect or way of speaking.
❖ According to Carolyn Temple and Donna Christian in their article, “Applied Social Dialectology:
“… dialect prejudice is endemic in public life, widely tolerated and institutionalized in social
enterprise that affect almost everyone such as education and media.”
- There is limited knowledge about and little regard for linguistic study showing that all varieties of a language
display systematically and that the elevated social position of standard varieties has no specific linguistic basis.
2. REGISTER
- The way a speaker uses language differently in different circumstances. It is the level and style of your writing,
and it should be appropriate to the situation you are in. It determines the vocabulary, structure and grammar
of your writing.
- If it varies in formality, it is called stylistic variation known as register in linguistics.

Factors which determine Registers:

⮚ Social occasion

⮚ Context

⮚ Purpose

⮚ Audience

❖ They are marked with a variety of specialized vocabulary and turns of phrases, colloquialisms, the use of jargon
and difference in intonation and pace.

Registers may be extremely rigid or very intimate depending on the following:

1. Grammar
2. Syntax
3. Tone

Forms of Language Register

A. FORMAL REGISTER
- is more appropriate for professional writing
- is impersonal
- This form of language register is most appropriate in professional and business writing. It entails the use of
formal writing which seems to be the most difficult type of writing. Not all professionals are good at it because
of the many complexities that writing requires. It is impersonal which means that it requires strict
implementations of rules in standard writing and is written without considering emotions. (Manzano, et al.
2018)

Examples: Business Reports, Announcements, Some essays

Rules of Formal Language Register:

o Do not use contractions

– cannot instead of can’t; have not instead of haven’t
o Spell out numbers less than one hundred
– nineteen, seventy-eight, twenty-two, six
o Write in the third person point of view
– avoid using: I, we, you, us
o Avoid using too much passive voice
– Passive: The bone was eaten by the dog; Active: The dog ate the bone
o Avoid using slang, idioms, exaggeration, and clichés
– awesome/cool, ok/okay, check it out
o Avoid abbreviations and acronyms
– Department of Education (DepEd), influenza (flu)
o Do not begin a sentence with words like and, so, but, also – Use these words instead: Nevertheless,
Additionally, However, In addition, As a result of, Although

o Always write in complete sentences.

a. Write longer, more complex sentences
- Longer and complex sentences are acceptable as long as they do not become wordy. Write
using substantial and meaningful sentences.
b. Informal Language Register
- is conversational

❖ Informal writing is written in the way we talk to our friends and family. This form is used when writing to someone
you know very well
Example: Phone Texts, Diaries, Letters

c. Neutral Register
- is not necessarily formal or informal
- is used to deliver facts

❖ Some writings are written in a neutral language, which means that they are not specifically formal or informal,
positive or negative. The neutral language register is used with non-emotional topics and information.
Example: Articles, Technical Writing

3. JARGONS
- Refers to the specialized language of a professional or occupational group.
- Such language is often meaningless to outsiders.
- George Packer describes jargon in a similar vein in a 2016 article in the New Yorker magazine:
“Professional jargon—on Wall Street, in humanities departments, in government offices—can be a fence raised
to keep out the uninitiated and permit those within it to persist in the belief that what they do is too hard, too
complex, to be questioned. Jargon acts not only to euphemize but to license, setting insiders against outsiders
and giving the flimsiest notions a scientific aura.”
- is a faux method of creating a sort of dialect that only those on this inside group can understand.

Jargon has social implications similar to dialect prejudice but in reverse:

⮚ Is a way of making those who understand this particular variety of language more erudite and learned;

⮚ Those who are members of the group that understands the particular jargon are considered smart, while those
on the outside are simply not bright enough to comprehend this kind of language.

TYPES OF LECTS

1. REGIONAL DIALECT
- A variety spoken in a particular region.
 Example: Ilocano, Ybanag

2. SOCIOLECT
- Also known as a social dialect, a variety of language (or register) used by a socioeconomic class, a profession, an
age group, or any other social group.
Example: Gay Lingo, Jejemon

3. ETHNOLECT
- A lect spoken by a specific ethnic group.
Example: Ebonics (the vernacular spoken by some African-Americans)

4. IDIOLECT
- The language or speech pattern of one individual at a particular period of time.
Example: “buhfor” instead of “before”

CULTURAL PRACTICES AND NUANCES

KOREA

FACTS AND STATISTICS:

LOCATION: Eastern Asia, southern half of the Korean Peninsula bordering the East Sea and the Yellow Sea

CAPITAL: Seoul

NATIONAL ANTHEM: Aegukga

NATIONALITY: Korean

ETHNIC MAKE-UP: Homogenous (except for small percentage of the population who are from elsewhere but reside in
the country permanently). It is one of the most racially pure countries in the world.

POPULATION: 50,924,172 (July 2016 Est.)

POPULATION GROWTH RATE: 0.53% (2016 Est.)

CLIMATE: Temperate, with rainfall heavier in summer than winter

TIME ZONE: Korea Standard Time UTC (UTC+09:00)

CURRENCY: South Korean ‘won’

GOVERNMENT: Republic

INTERNET PENETRATION: 92.1% (2016)

LANGUAGE IN SOUTH KOREA

 - The language structure, grammar and vocabulary are similar to Japanese. Dialects are regional; differing mainly
in accent, but are so similar that comprehension for speakers, or listeners, is not an issue. Key difference in
dialect is also attributed to social status.
- Korea has one of the highest literacy rates in the world due to the phonetic nature of the written language
which was invented in the mid-fifteenth century to give one language to Koreans.

SOCIAL CUSTOMS AND ETIQUETTE TIPS IN SOUTH KOREA

THE CONCEPT OF KIBUN

- Kibun is a word with no literal English translation; the closest terms are pride, face, mood, feelings, or state of
mind.
- If you hurt someone's kibun you hurt their pride, cause them to lose dignity, and lose face. Korean
interpersonal relationships operate on the principle of harmony.
- It is important to maintain a peaceful, comfortable atmosphere at all times, even if it means telling a "white
lie".
- It is important to know how to judge the state of someone else's kibun, how to avoid hurting it, and how to
keep your own kibun at the same time.
- In business, a manager's kibun is damaged if his subordinates do not show proper respect. A subordinate's
kibun is damaged if his manager criticizes him in public.
- Nunchi is the ability to determine another person's kibun by using the eye.
- Since this is a culture where social harmony is crucial, being able to judge another person's state of mind is
critical to maintain the person's kibun. Nunchi is accomplished by watching body language and listening to the
tone of voice as well as what is said.

NAMING CONVENTIONS

- In South Korea names operate in the reverse of Western cultures; Family name (surname), a second family
name shared by all of that generation, and finally their given name.
- It is considered very impolite to address a Korean with his or her given name. They should be addressed using
their professional titles, or Mr., Mrs., Etc., until permission is given otherwise.

MEETING & GREETING

- Bowing is the traditional way to greet in South Korea

- Handshakes often accompany the bow among men
- Your left hand should support your right forearm when shaking hands
- Korean women do not always shake hands and may slightly nod instead of a full bow
- Always bow to individuals when departing

COMMUNICATION STYLE

- Communication can be complicated in South Korea due to an inherent dislike of saying ‘no’ as it is considered
poor etiquette.
- Discussions can be prolonged due to the avoidance of declining or refusing.
- If disquiet is verbally or visibly displayed it is a sure sign that something is amiss.
- Good posture and positive body language is most beneficial in meetings; patience and politeness must be
maintained throughout.
- Do not use excessive or overt body language
- Use two hands, or support your right arm with your left, when passing on business cards, gifts, or when
receiving an item.
- Respect, trust and satisfaction are displayed through a deeper bow.

PERSONAL SPACE

- It is insulting for Koreans to be touched by someone with whom they are unfamiliar; don’t pat them on the
back or hug them.
 - Prolonged, direct eye contact can be inferred as a challenge and is seen as impolite, especially when dealing
with others of a higher social standing.
- Keep your body within its own personal space; avoid extended or crossed legs and limit arm movements when
explaining something so as to evade others’ personal space.
- If calling someone over to you do not point with your index finger, instead use your hand palm down in a claw
movement.
- In cities (especially Seoul) pushing, shoving and touching are regular occurrences – don’t be offended by the
lack of apologies.
- Friends of both sexes, will often walk arm in arm together, especially teenagers and the younger generations.

GIFT GIVING ETTIQUETTE

- Koreans are generous people and enjoy giving gifts.

- Accept the gift with both hands – but never open the gift immediately, wait until the giver is absent.
- Return the favor and offer something of a similar value. Koreans enjoy Western gifts and items so be prepared
before leaving home.
- If giving gifts be sure to wrap and present them in an attractive way. Avoid using dark wrapping paper,
especially red, instead choose bright yellow/green.
- If invited to a Korean home always take the hostess a gift; chocolates, sweets, cakes or flowers but preferably
not alcohol.
- Gifts are often given at the first business meeting and the host should present his first. To reciprocate, give
good quality alcohol such as scotch, or desk accessories.
- Do not give overly expensive gifts as Koreans feel indebted to give as they receive.
- Avoid gifts such as knives, scissors, sets of four, and red writing (these are seen as ‘cutting ties’ and signifying
death respectively)

DINING AND FOOD

- Always wait to be seated by your host. If given the seat of honor (looking at the front door) it is polite to
demonstrate a slight objection.
- Elders are served first and begin the dining process.
- Food and dining are important parts of Korean culture and are used to build relationships. Be sociable and work
at shaping good associations for pleasure and business as they interlinked.
- Don’t pour your own drink, although it is considered good manners to pour another’s. Women often pour for
men but not for other women. Rather than refuse more drink (remember, Koreans don’t like outright refusal)
simply leave your glass part full, as opposed to empty.
- Do not tip if you see a ‘no tipping’ sign.
- There are often prolonged periods of silence during Korean meals – socialising can happen once everyone has
feasted.
- Don’t forget to pass and receive food with two hands or with just your right if it is supported by your left.
- When it comes to settling the bill, the invitee may offer to pay but the host will generally pay for everyone.
- If you are invited to continue after dinner with drinks or a party, don’t refuse this invitation.
- On occasion you may be asked to sing a solo after dinner. Try not to refuse this request, instead sing with
enthusiasm and spirit.
- Do not point with your chopsticks, or leave them sticking out of your bowl.
- The national drink of Korea is ‘Soju’, a clear vodka-like drink that is generally 18-25% alcohol

VISITING A HOME

- Always remove your shoes before entering a Korean home (in recent years there has been an increase in
Western culture and this may not always be the case - follow the lead of your host if unsure)
- It is possible to arrive up to thirty minutes late without causing offence but punctuality is highly respected.
- Remember, never pour your own drink. The host will do this in your presence.
- Being invited into a Korean’s home is considered an honor (especially if it is for a meal) so it is essential to treat
it as such. Be polite, respectful and observe their customs.
- Bring a gift to reciprocate your host’s kindness.
- Once a gift to reciprocate your host’s kindness.
TABOOS IN SOUTH KOREAN CULTURE

- Do not wear your shoes in places of worship or peoples’ homes.

- Do not put your feet on furniture.
- Do not eat or drink in public places while walking.
- Do not place your thumb between your middle and index finger while making a fist as this an obscene gesture.
- Do not use red ink. This is a symbol of death and is reserved only for writing the names of the deceased. It is
considered unlucky and suggests you wish death to the recipient.
- Do not use the number four if at all possible – if giving gifts, do not give four of something. It is considered
unlucky due to the similarity between the Korean word for death and the pronunciation of the word ‘four’.
- Do not stand too close to people you are meeting for the first time – keep an arms length between you.

BUSINESS CULTURE, ETIQUETTE AND PROTOCOL

- Korean culture is profoundly influenced by Confucian principles and this pervades not only personal lives, but
also business. Confucianism supports group harmony, respect for elders and authority, the importance of
family, friendship and ancestors, and also, tradition. Kibun (equivalent to face, or honor) is highly significant to
Koreans and they will always attempt to maintain their Kibun, or personal dignity. Confrontation is to be
avoided at all cost as once Kibun is lost it cannot be regained.
- Good relationships are crucial to success both in personal and business circles, and these are assimilated within
the business world.
- To make the most of your business acumen you must also appear trustworthy, honorable and respectable in
social and business meeting.

WHAT TO WEAR?

- Dress is conventional and conservative for both women and men

- Dark suits, white shirt and tie are accepted as the norm for men.
- Suits, dresses, or blouse and skirt are acknowledged for women. Trousers are not generally worn for business.
- Women should avoid sleeveless, tight-fitting garments.
- Colors should be understated and traditional.
- Good quality accessories are accepted.
- Be aware that winter can be very cold, and summer very hot, in South Korea.

TITLES

- Koreans have three names; they are used in order of surname, generation name, and then given name.
- If unsure address people as Mr._____ (surname) or surname ______ and then their title (teacher, professor,
etc.)
- Koreans will offer you their name, which may be a westernized version of their Korean name.

BUSINESS CARDS

- Are considered important and ritualistic in Korea.

- It is advisable to have one side printed in English and the other in Korean.
- Give and receive cards with both hands, with the Korean side uppermost for ease of reading.
- Take time to read and examine the cards you are given – it is respectful.
- Place cards in a holder to keep them safe and show you are treating them well.
- Never write on or mark the cards you are given.

MEETINGS

- Organize your meeting ahead of time, giving plenty of notice.

- Arrive punctually and be prepared.
- The most senior Korean will enter and be seated first.
 - As Koreans live and conduct business within a Confucian framework, initial meetings are often used in an
introductory fashion and business may be instigated later.
- Do not show impatience at this stage as these pleasantries are a way of getting to know you.
- Only remove your jacket once the senior Korean does.
- Choose delegates who are on par with their Korean counterparts – this shows respect and knowledge.
- Exchange business cards in a respectful manner after the initial introductions.
- Ask open ended questions that do not require a yes or no answer as Koreans dislike refusals.

NEGOTIATING

- Allow the senior Korean to instigate business discussions.

- Phrase questions in a manner that allows for discussion (Ask ‘When can we expect delivery?’ And not, ‘Will
delivery be within two weeks?’)
- Avoid using an outright ‘No’ in response to questions.
- Be aware of others’ Kibun – do not force an issue if you sense reluctance as you may harm you own dignity and
lose their respect.
- Always show respect for senior colleagues and management.
- There are often times of silence during meetings, try not to break these as they are moments of contemplation
and show consideration for others.
- Avoid a hard sell and forceful negotiations – remember Kibun.

MANAGEMENT

- Koreans’ business and personal lives are based upon strict hierarchical structures
- Confucianism supports this structure within the family and workplace.
- Older and senior delegates should be deferred to at all times.
- “Sonsaengnim” means "respected person" and is frequently used when addressing someone of a higher
position.
- In South Korea managers take a paternalistic role with employees and may be familiar with staff in a personal
manner.
- This allows for a mutual respect and understanding so don’t be put off if asked questions of a personal nature.

UNITED ARAB EMERATES (UAE)

- The United Arab Emirates was formed as an independent federation on December 2nd, 1971 and originally
included six countries: Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm Al Quwain and Fujairah.
- The following year Ras al-Khaymah joined the federation. The Sheikhdoms also known as the Trucial States
were formerly a British Protectorate from 1820 until they achieved independence in 1971. In the 18th and early
19th Century, the Trucial coast (south-eastern Persian Gulf) was known in the West as the ‘Pirate Coast’ as
shipping vessels in the area were frequently targeted by local tribal inhabitants. The British Government
retaliated and were successful in bringing matters under control. These events led to the creation of the
‘General Treaty of Peace’ in 1820 which established Britain’s obligation to maintain peace in the Gulf.
- The discovery of oil has been a driving force in the economy of the UAE since the 20 th century
- The UAE is a member of the US-led anti-Islamic State coalition along with 61 other states.
- The international finance and banking crisis in 2008 saw a severe economic slump in UAE and they narrowly
avoided being caught up in the so called ‘Arab Spring’ that ricocheted around the Middle East in 2010.

FACTS & STATISTICS:

LOCATION: Middle East, bordering the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf, between Oman and Saudi Arabia.
CAPITAL: Abu Dhabi

FLAG: The flag of the United Arab Emirates was adopted in 1971. Its colors of red, green, white and black represent the
unity of the Arab countries.

NATIONAL ANTHEM: The National Anthem of the United Arab Emirates is also known as Ishy Bilady (Long Live my
Nation) It was adopted in 1971 when the UAE was first formed and composed by Mohammed Abdel Wahab as an
orchestral piece. It was not until 1996 that the lyrics written by Arif Al Sheikh Abdullah Al Hassan were officially
adopted.

NATIONALITY: Emiratis

ETHNIC MAKE-UP: Emirati 11.6%, South Asian 59.4% (includes Indian 38.2%, Bangladeshi 9.5%, Pakistani 9.4%, other
2.3%), Egyptian 10.2%, Philippine 6.1%, other 12.8% (2015 est.)

POPULATION: 6,072,475 (July 2017 est.)

POPULATION GROWTH RATE: 1.2% annual change (2016)

CLIMATE: Desert; cooler in the eastern mountain area

TIME ZONE: Gulf Time Zone – UTC+4:00

CURRENCY: Dirham

GOVERNMENT: Federal Constitution

INTERNET PENETRATION: 70.0% of the population – est. 2011

LANGUAGE IN UAE

- Arabic is the official language of the UAE although English is widely spoken and understood.
- Since the UAE is home to a large expatriate community, a number of other languages are widely spoken which
primarily include: Persian, Hindi, Urdu, Bengali and Chinese.
SOCIAL CUSTOMS & PROTOCOL

NAMING CONVENTIONS:

- The first name is the personal name followed by ibn which means son of and the name of the father, then
followed again by ibn meaning the name of the father of his father. This is then followed by the family name.
- Where a daughter is concerned the ibn becomes bint. Her first name followed by bint (daughter of) father’s
name, then ibn to indicate the grandfather’s name followed by the family name.
- When a couple marry, the wife retains her family name and children will take the name of the father.
- modern times ibn and bint are often only used in official circumstances. Additionally, addresses are likely to
only included son or daughter of the father as opposed to both father and grandfather.
Example: The first prime minister of the UAE was addressed as Sheikh Maktoum bin Rashid Al Maktoum

MEETING & GREETING:

- A long but steady handshake is common. Ensure you only use your right hand.
- Greetings between individuals of the same gender who know each other well are often warm and include hugs
and embraces.
- Arab men or women may decline to shake the hands of those from the other sex. This is a religious adherence
practiced by many male and female Muslims. It is not personal and it should not be taken offensively. We
suggest therefore, that men wait to see if a female offers her hand prior to offering his.
- If a female offers her hand and it is refused by a male, then we suggest the use of a gesture that is often used
across the Muslim world as an alternative greeting whereby the right hand is placed flat over the heart, coupled
with a brief nod of the head and a smile.
- It is polite to greet the oldest or most senior members of the group first.

COMMUNICATION STYLE:
 - Small talk is common, indeed expected, and is often the prelude to business discussion.
- Business is conducted on the basis of trust in the UAE and will fall short if individuals try to hurry on to business
matters to hastily. Take the time to get to know your counterpart by asking generic questions and showing an
interest in them personally. Ask about their children, their school, sporting interests, trips abroad etc.
- It may take a good few meetings and a restaurant visit before your counterpart will feel ready to move into any
business transactions with you.
- Genuine flattery will never go amiss.
- Be aware of hierarchal structures and show due respect to those in a higher position. Use titles where
appropriate.
- Never criticize Islam, the ruling classes or local traditions.
- Never sit in a position that shows the soles of the feet. To do so is an insult as feet are considered dirty.

PERSONAL SPACE:

- Maintain eye contact with people of the same sex.

- Men should show courtesy and respect for women. Never make prolonged eye contact with a woman or
compliment her on her appearance or dress.
- It is not uncommon for men to greet other men with a kiss or a nose rub. Male friends often link arms or hold
hands.
- Members of the opposite sex do not embrace or kiss in public

GIFT GIVING:

- All gifts should be of a high quality. Good perfume is acceptable even for men who take a pride in the
appearance and status but such a gift for a woman should only be given by another woman.
- Gifts with a personal touch that show thoughtfulness are very acceptable.
- Never give alcohol, pork products, knives or dog related items.

DINING & FOOD:

- Dining in the UAE is a very social affair and can be a means to doing business also.
- It is considered polite to arrive fifteen minutes late.
- Expect to eat with the right hand – the left hand is considered dirty. However, if you are left-handed, it is
acceptable to eat with a utensil in the left hand. Arabs may eat with their hand only and without utensils. Hand
cleanliness is therefore very important.
- Some families prefer to be seated on cushions on the floor.
- It is not considered polite to decline the offer of more food.
- If eating with utensils, place the cutlery facing up in the middle of the plate on finishing the meal.
- If dining in a restaurant give more than the service charge – up to 10% is acceptable.

TABOOS:

- Do not discuss religion or criticize Islam.

- Men should not stare at women or offer compliments.
- Do not go outside scantily dressed.
- Non-Muslims should not enter a mosque or touch a Qu’ran
- Kissing or cuddling in public is strictly prohibited and such conduct can result in arrest.

BUSINESS CULTURE & ETIQUETTE TIPS

WHAT TO WEAR?

⮚ Dress conservatively. Men should wear a neat suit and tie.

⮚ Women should dress smartly and modestly ensuring that their arms are covered regardless of temperature.

TITLES:

- The Emiratis expect formality and respect.

- Position is important and should be recognized.
 - Expect to be addressed by your title and be sure to research the position and titles of those with whom you do
business. It is polite for instance, to address the head of the department or company as ‘Sheikh’.

BUSINESS CARDS:

- Business cards are given before the meeting and should be printed in Arabic on one side. The Arabic side
should be presented first.
- Present and receive business cards with your right hand.

MEETINGS:

- Appointments should be made at least two weeks ahead and confirmed a day or two before the meeting is due
to take place.
- It is not unusual for a meeting to take place in a café or restaurant.
- Punctuality is important and deemed respectful.
- Informal ‘small talk’ prior to the start of business is common and is essential to building relationships.
- Face is important to the Emirates so that any criticism or conflict should be strictly avoided.
- It is not unusual for meetings to seem a little disorganized and interruptions are not uncommon. An individual
unrelated to the meeting may therefore join the meeting for a period and the subject may change accordingly.
You may also find that some individuals make or receive calls during the meeting.

NEGOTIATIONS:

- Building relations in UAE and personal contacts are paramount to successful business. If you have not taken the
time and made the effort to build a positive relationship with your counterpart then it’s unlikely that they will
trust you sufficiently to negotiate with you.
- Any business agreements should be passed by a lawyer before signing on the dotted line.
- If there is some doubt about the outcome of negotiations this should not be expressed too negatively and the
word ‘no’ is best avoided.
- Do not use high pressure tactics as these will not be tolerated and are likely to negatively impact proceedings.

MANAGEMENT:

- Be aware that the work week in the UAE runs from Sunday to Thursday. Friday and Saturday are weekend
days.
- Government office hours are typically between 07:30 and 15:00, although private office hours are typically
open for longer and often finish as late as 21:00. However, where this is the case, a three to four-hour break at
some point in the day is given.
- The boss often holds a fairly paternalistic role. As such, it’s not uncommon for conversations to be move to
more personal matters during discussions between boss and team member.
- Managers tend to be slightly more conservative in the UAE and, as such, this may affect the speed and nature
of change.
- Although timescales and deadlines are broadly adhered to, less priority is given to them compared to Western
cultures. If therefore, you are a Westerner doing business in the UAE, then you may wish to, gently and
politely, reinforce any deadlines.
- In family-owned companies, deference is paid to the head of the family who will also most likely be the key
decision maker.
- Managers will typically consult stakeholders during the decision-making process. Responsibility for
implementation will then be passed to subordinate team members.
- Do not question the boss in a way that puts him / her on the spot as this will potentially cause a loss of face and
will not be well received.
 UNITED KINGDOM (UK)

- The United Kingdom includes England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Historically the country was a
forerunner in the developing world and, at its peak during the 19th Century, had an empire that stretched
across the globe.
- They have led the way in science, literature and industry. However, the influence and power of Great Britain
began to erode in the first half of the 20th Century with two world wars. This had its consequences in the
gradual breakup of the Empire during the second half of the century since when, the UK has re modelled itself
into a leading, wealthy European nation.
- UK is one of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council which was created on 24th October 1945
and a founding member of NATO and the commonwealth. The UK takes a global stance in foreign policy.
- Until June 2016, the UK played an active part in the European Parliament after joining in 1973 although they
chose not to enter into the Economic and Monetary Union. Following a national referendum on June 23rd
2016, the UK narrowly voted to leave the EU (known as Brexit) although this will not be complete for some
years. It is largely thought the vote to leave was driven by perceived ‘bureaucracy’ in Brussels, the center of
the European Parliament and concerns regarding immigration.

LANGUANGE IN THE UK:

- English is the main language spoken by approximately 98% of the population in the UK with numerous dialects.
Accents can vary tremendously from south to north, even occasionally confusing Brits themselves.
- Some regional language speakers including Scottish Gaelic, Irish Gaelic and Welsh.
- As a multi-national country, the UK has a number of other languages spoken across the country. The second
most spoken, non-native language in the UK is Polish. The next commonly spoken languages come
from India and Pakistan: Punjabi, Bengali and Gujarati. These are followed by Arabic, Chinese, Portuguese and
French.

FACTS & STATISTICS:

LOCATION: Western Europe

CAPITAL: London

FLAG: The national flag for the UK is known at The Union Jack and represents the three older nations of Great Britain
with the red cross of St George (patron saint of England), the white saltire cross of St. Andrew (patron saint of Scotland),
and the red saltire of St. Patrick (patron saint of Ireland - Northern Ireland being part of the United Kingdom)

NATIONAL ANTHEM: God Save the Queen is the patriotic song dedicated to the reigning monarch of The United
Kingdom

NATIONALITY: English, Irish, Scottish or Welsh (or just British which covers all of them)

ETHNIC MAKE-UP: White 87.2%, black/African/Caribbean/black British 3%, Asian British: Indian 2.3%, Asian/Asian
British: Pakistani 1.9%, mixed 2%, other 3.7% (2011 census)

POPULATION: 65,511,098 – 2017

POPULATION GROWTH RATE: 0.8% annual change (2015)

CLIMATE: Temperate; moderated by prevailing southwest winds over the North Atlantic Current; more than one-half of
the days are overcast.

TIME ZONE: Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) Britain operates daylight saving time (DST) which begins on last Sunday in
March; ends last Sunday in October and puts the clock ahead of GMT by one hour

CURRENCY: Pound Sterling, known as the Pound or Great British Pound (GBP)

GOVERNMENT: Parliamentary Constitutional Monarchy

 SOCIAL CUSTOMS & PROTOCOL

NAMING CONVENTIONS:

- The first name is also known as ‘the Christian name’, although this has little to do with religion today. This is
traditionally followed by a middle name and then the family name which in the UK is known as the surname.
- In previous centuries children tended to be named after a member of the family or a religious figure. Catholic
families, in particular, tend to name their children after saints.
- In modern times, children are often given names that are liked by the parents and which have no particular
significance regarding family or religion. Some children are named after famous football stars, singers or film
actors.
- Traditionally when couples marry the woman takes her husband’s name as her surname but some couple now
choose to amalgamate their names which is referred to as a double-barreled name.

MEETING & GREETING:

- Although the British may appear on the surface to be reserved and perhaps even aloof, they are in fact friendly
people and welcoming to foreign visitors.
- The etiquette when greeting is to shake hands with all those present, even children.
- At social or business meetings, it is polite to also shake hands upon leaving. Hand-shakes should not be too
hearty, just a light friendly touch.
- Last names should be used with the appropriate title unless specifically invited to use the first name.

COMMUNICATION STYLE:

- The British have an interesting mix of communication styles encompassing both understatement and direct
communication.
- Many older businesspeople or those from the 'upper class' rely heavily upon formal use of established protocol.
- Most British are masters of understatement and do not use effusive language. If anything, they have a marked
tendency to use ‘qualifiers’ such as 'perhaps', ‘possibly’ or 'it could be'.
- When communicating with people they see as equal to themselves in rank or class, the British are direct, but
modest. If communicating with someone they know well, their style may be more informal, although they will
still be reserved.
- Written communication follows strict rules of protocol. How a letter is closed varies depending upon how well
the writer knows the recipient.
- Written communication is always addressed using the person's title and their surname. First names are not
generally used in written communication, unless you know the person well.
- E-mail is now much more widespread, however the communication style remains more formal, at least initially,
than in many other countries. Most British will not use slang or abbreviations and will think negatively if your
communication appears overly familiar.

GIFT GIVING:

- It is customary to take a small gift for the host if invited to their home. This is usually either a bottle of wine,
flowers or chocolates. Some people may send flowers in advance of a dinner party but it is equally acceptable
to take them on the day. Gifts are opened on receipt.
- It is not usual for gifts to be exchanged in a business setting.

DINING & FOOD:

- Table manners are Continental

Example: The fork is held in the left hand and the knife in the right while eating.
- The fork is held tines down so food is scooped on to the back of the fork. This is a skill that takes time to
master.
 - Remain standing until invited to sit down. You may be shown to a particular seat.
- Do not rest your elbows on the table.
- If you have not finished eating, cross your knife and fork on your plate with the fork over the knife.
- Indicate you have finished eating by laying your knife and fork together at the clock position of 6.30.
- Toasts are given at formal meals when the host will raise a glass (usually wine but a soft drink is acceptable) and
will invite the guests to commemorate a person or event. The guests then raise their glass and repeat the toast
before taking a sip of their drink.
- When in a pub, it is common practice to pay for a round of drinks for everyone in your group.
- If invited to a meal at a restaurant, the person extending the invitation usually pays. It is important to arrive on
time. Do not argue about the check; simply reciprocate at a later time.
- Do not wave your hand or call out to summons a waiter if in a restaurant.

VISITING A HOME:

- Unlike many European cultures, the British enjoy entertaining people in their homes.
- Although the British value punctuality, you may arrive 10-15 minutes later than invited to dinner.
- It is not always required to remove your shoes when entering a British home, but it is recommended that you
ask upon entry whether or not shoes can be worn.

TABOOS:

- Do not rest your elbows on the table.

- Do not stare.
- Do not be overly familiar with people you do not know well.
- Do not ask personal questions such as how much someone earns, who they voted for etc.
- Do not speak too loudly or cut into a conversation.

BUSINESS CULTURE & PRACTICE

WHAT TO WEAR?

⮚ Although the rules on business wear have changed in the last decade and some professions are less formal,
more conservative businesses still expect men to wear a suit and tie and women to dress smartly.
⮚ This may involve a smart, unfussy dress and shoes but it is also acceptable for women to wear trousers, a smart
blouse and jacket.

TITLES:

- An addition to formal professional titles, (such as doctor or professor), it is polite to refer to men with ‘Mr.’ and
women as ‘Mrs.’ (if married) or ‘Miss’ (if unmarried).
- Formal titles should be used in business unless otherwise stated.

BUSINESS CARDS:

- These are usually given at the end of a meeting.

- There is no ceremony as to business card giving in the UK.
- Do not be surprised if someone writes on your business card.

NEGOTIATING:

- Major decisions are made from the top and will be passed down the chain of management.
- Any hard selling or confrontation is ill-advised.

MEETINGS:

- Meetings always have a clearly defined purpose, which may include an agenda.
- There will be a brief amount of small talk before getting down to the business at hand.
 - If you make a presentation, avoid making exaggerated claims. Make brief eye contact with the team members
to encourage a feeling of inclusion.
- Make certain your presentation and any materials provided appear professional and well thought out.
- Be prepared to back up your claims with facts and figures. The British rely on facts, rather than
emotions, to make decisions.
- Maintain a few feet of personal space.
- Always be on time to a meeting if not a bit early.
- If you have hosted the meeting then you should send an email summarizing what was decided and the next
steps to be taken.

MANAGEMENT:

- The style of management in the UK has been changing over the past few decades from what may be perceived
to be stuffy, conservative values to a more open and progressive approach recognizing the significant role
played by the employees.
- Where meetings are concerned, it is important to treat all people with respect and deference and that time
should not be wasted.
- Always arrive promptly prepared for the discussions on the content of the business at hand.
- Although some organizations will appear to be hierarchical people within the company, whatever their
position, play an important role in the decision-making process for the greater good of the company.
- Employees expect to be consulted on issues that affect their working environment and morale.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA (USA)

- This is a country so large that it has six time zones – indicative of the many regional and geographical
distinctions.

FACTS & STATISTICS:

LOCATION: North America, bordering both the North Atlantic Ocean and the North Pacific Ocean,
between Canada and Mexico

CAPITAL: Washington, DC

NATIONAL ANTHEM: The Star-Spangled Banner

NATIONALITY: American

ETHNIC MAKE-UP: White American (72.4%), African American (12.6%), Native American (0.9%), Asian American (4.8%)
(2010 Census)

POPULATION: 324,700,000 (March 2017)

POPULATION GROWTH RATE: 0.75%

CLIMATE: mostly temperate, but tropical in Hawaii and Florida, arctic in Alaska, semiarid in the great plains west of the
Mississippi River, and arid in the Great Basin of the southwest.

TIME ZONE: There are 4 standard times zones as follows

Pacific Time UTC -8:00 / -7:00

Mountain Time UTC -7:00 / -6:00

 Central Time UTC -6:00 / -5:00

Eastern Time UTC -5:00 / -4:00

CURRENCY: US Dollar

GOVERNMENT: Constitution-based federal republic

INTERNET PENETRATION: 84.2%

LANGUAGE IN AMERICA

- There is no official language in the USA although English (specifically American English) is the primary language
used for legislation, regulations, executive orders, treaties, federal court rulings, and all other official
pronouncements.

Due to the large number of immigrants that make up the population America is very much a multilingual nation. Per the
American Community Survey 2011, endorsed by the United States Census Bureau, the top 5 spoken languages in
America are:

1. English – 230 million

2. Spanish – 37.58 million
3. Chinese – 2.88 million
4. French – 2.05 million
5. Tagalog – 1.59 million

SOCIAL CUSTOMS & PROTOCOL

NAMING CONVENTIONS:

- Family, friends and colleagues use first names.

- Nicknames are also common.
- In formal situations you would use your name & surname or that of the person you are introducing, for
example, “Please meet Jane Doe.” Mr or Mrs may also be used in more conservative states.
- Within work situations use professional titles when addressing others
Example: “Nice to meet you Professor Lacey.”
- Do not use professional titles when introducing yourself.

MEETING & GREETING:

- American greetings are generally quite informal and casual.

- It is becoming more common in social situations not to shake hands upon meeting and simply smile or nod.
- When people are introduced handshakes are common accompanied with a “How d’ya do?”, “How you doing?”
or “How are you”? depending on where in the US you are.
- Within business handshakes are generally expected when meeting and leaving.
- Pleasantries are exchanged out of courtesy rather than being genuine.
- Rather than say “bye” Americans may also use terms such as “call me some time,” “let’s do lunch” or “see you
around” as politer ways of departing.
- If introducing someone, use their full name and a bit of information about them.
Example: “This is Larry Whyte; he works at the local school as a science teacher.”

COMMUNICATION STYLES:

- Americans can come across as self-interested, aggressive and rude to some outsiders.
- This is down to the US communication style which is influenced by the need to be direct, clear, transparent and
open about matters.
- Plain and simple talk is very much valued in America.
- Americans see coded, indirect communication which relies on body language as confusing and unnecessary.
 - The emphasis within communication is on the facts at hand and not the relationships – thus the term, “It’s just
business.”
- Americans are much more open in conversation about private affairs than many other cultures and do not shy
away from asking direct questions.

PERSONAL SPACE:

- Americans do not tend to like close contact with others.

- 2-3 feet of personal space during conversations is the norm.
- For most Americans there is little or no touching ever with others although within some communities this may
be much more common within the community itself. This will also be different between good friends and
family.
- In public, such as in parks or on the bus, people try to give one another space.

GIFT GIVING:

- Americans do not really have any customs or taboos concerning gifts.

- Gifts are usually given for special occasions or between friends and family.
- Gifts within business are generally discouraged due to anti-bribery policies.
- Cash should never be given as a gift.
- If visiting a house, bring flowers, a potted plant, a fruit basket, chocolate, wine, a book or a small household
ornament like a vase.

DINING & FOODS:

- Americans socialize and do business over breakfast, lunch and dinner.

- If business is the goal, then socializing is kept to a minimum at the start and end.
- Social meals are more about eating that chatting and taking hours over the food.
- If you invite someone to a restaurant, you should pay.
- The fork is held in the left hand facing down with the knife is held in the right hand.
- Napkins if provided are placed on the lap.
- A toast might take place at the start of a formal meal or for a special occasion/guest.
- Feel free to refuse specific foods or drinks without offering an explanation.
- Many foods are eaten by hand.
- Food is often served family-style, which means that it is in large serving dishes and passed around the table for
everyone to serve themselves.
- Do not begin eating until the hostess starts or says to begin.
- Remain standing until invited to sit down.
- Do not rest your elbows on the table.

VISITING A HOME:

- Being invited to an American’s home can be fairly informal.

- One should dress casually but also smart and arrive no later than 10-15 minutes late without notifying your
host that you will be late.
- If an invite says 6pm-8pm it is polite to leave as close to 8pm as possible.
- It is a good idea to bring a gift or if there is going to be some food, then some drinks.
- Send a note of thanks after the occasion to your host.

TABOOS (in public):

- Do not spit.
- Do not discuss race, religion, politics or sex.
- Do not swear.
 - Do not discuss the wrong/rights of abortion.
- Do not assume you can smoke anywhere, even outside.

BUSINESS CULTURE, PRACTICE & ETIQUETTE TIPS

WHAT TO WEAR?

⮚ Dress code depends on where in the USA you are doing business. The weather and local culture will determine
what is appropriate or not.
⮚ People in the East dress more formally, while people in the West are known for being a bit more casual.

⮚ It is best to always dress conservatively until it is clear what the accepted dress code is.

⮚ Men should wear shirts with suits and shoes. Ties are generally worn but not in all States. Colors should be
traditional such as black, blue, grey, etc.
⮚ Women should wear modestly with not too much make-up or jewelry. Low-cut blouses, short skirts and tight
clothing are not appropriate.
⮚ ‘Casual Friday’ is common in many companies. High technology companies often wear casual clothes every day.

TITLES:

- Most Americans move to a first name basis pretty quickly.

- Always start by addressing people using Mr. /Mrs. /Miss + surname until you are invited to call them otherwise.
- Some, such as Doctors, will use their professional titles.

BUSINESS CARDS:

- Americans have no etiquette when it comes to giving and receiving business cards.
- They are swapped with no fanfare.
- It is quite common for the recipient to put your card in their wallet, which may then go in the back pocket of
their trousers. This is not an insult.

MEETINGS:

- Arrive on time for meetings since time and punctuality are so important to Americans.
- In the Northeast and Midwest, people are extremely punctual and view it as a sign of disrespect for someone to
be late for a meeting or appointment.
- In the Southern and Western states, people may be a little more relaxed, but to be safe, always arrive on time,
although you may have to wait a little before your meeting begins.
- Meetings may appear relaxed, but they are taken quite seriously.
If there is an agenda, it will be followed.
- At the conclusion of the meeting, there will be a summary of what was decided, a list of who will implement
which facets and a list of the next steps to be taken and by whom.
- If you make a presentation, it should be direct and to the point. Visual aids should further enhance your case.
- Use statistics to back up your claims, since Americans are impressed by hard data and evidence.
- With the emphasis on controlling time, business is conducted rapidly.
- Expect very little small talk before getting down to business. It is common to attempt to reach an oral
agreement at the first meeting.
- The emphasis is on getting a contract signed rather than building a relationship. The relationship may develop
once the first contract has been signed.

NEGOTIATING:

- Final decisions are usually made from the top down although group consensus is valued.
- Hard selling tactics are used from time to time.
- The deal at hand is always more important than then personal relationship.
- Americans sometimes start negotiations with excessive demands or a low price. They are usually taking a
starting position that gives them room to bargain.
 - Negotiations may seem rushed – always remember that "time is money" to Americans.

MANAGEMENT:

- There is a sense that all people in the organization have an important role to play and all are valued for their
input.
- Employees expect to be consulted on decisions that affect them and the greater good of the organization.
- American managers are viewed as facilitators--people who help employees do their best work--and not simply
decision makers.
- Missing a deadline is a sign of poor management and inefficiency.
MIDTERMS
Week 7-8: Expressing Opinion and Taking a Stand on an Issue: Critical Thinking, and Fallacies
Critical Thinking and Fallacies
Let’s start this chapter by looking into this mystery case.
Three friends went out to the forest. They found a dead body under a tree and called the police. Two detectives
arrived soon. They figured out that the man died a month ago. Detective 1 said, “There was a major hurricane
about a month ago. Perhaps, he was one of its victims.” Detective 2 on the other hand said, “I don’t think so. It
was a murder!” Who do you think is right?
What is your opinion about the mystery case above? Is it really an accident or a murder?
Actually, all of us can have our own opinion depending on how we perceive the case. However, voicing out
different opinions can lead to heated arguments. This usually happens especially when we fail to understand the
point of view of the other party. Expressing opinions and making a stand is not bad. We just need to listen,
respect, and accept other people’s views.
Engaging in a healthy discussion and exchange of views could actually help explore the different angles of an
issue. This will lead us to formulate or come up with a wise decision or conclusion. For example, you and your
friend might take different stance on the mystery case given. You might argue that detective 1 is right while
your friend might also assert that detective 2 is right and not detective 1. When the two of you will listen to each
other’s side, both of you will understand where each of you is coming from. With that, you can come up with a
final conclusion after assessing both of your views.
So who do you think is right? Is it detective 1 or detective 2? The answer is detective 2. It is a murder case.
Figure it out yourself why is it a murder case (Study the picture).

Lesson Proper:
When you make a stand and exchange views with other people, you are actually engaging yourself to
argumentation. There are many ways in engaging into an argumentation such as debate (more systematic or
structured way). One can also use argumentation in the editorial section of a newspaper, in an argumentative
essay, and position papers.
Argumentation as a way of expressing one’s view entails responsibilities. In expressing our views, we must
not fabricate information, promote discrimination and hatred, and violate one’s right to privacy, as cited by
Suarez (2018), (Burton, 1999).
Now, how do we assert our argument? We assert our argument by formulating our thesis statement. Thesis
statement, as defined by Excelsior Online Writing Lab (2020), is a one-to-two sentence statement that
presents the main idea and makes an assertion about your issue. Remember that your thesis statement is very
important in making your assertion. It identifies and organizes the content and the direction of your key ideas. It
also indicates your stand and the reason that supports it. It has two parts: the general subject (what you are
talking about) and the specific focus (what you want to say about it.) For example, you may claim that studying
abroad is more difficult (general subject) because it entails adjusting to a new culture and educational system
(specific focus, controlling idea) (Suarez, 2018).
How do you argue with other people? Do you argue like those two people in the picture below?
Take note that arguing does not necessarily mean quarrelling and yelling with the other party. We can have a
peaceful and logical way of arguing by following the steps provided below.
 HOW TO ARGUE LOGICALLY
(Suarez, 2018)
1. Examine an issue by doing relevant research on its different dimensions.
2. Choose the side you would like to support.
3. Formulate your argumentative thesis by identifying the general subject and the specific focus or
controlling idea.
4. Present your arguments and their corresponding evidence.
5. Listen to your opponents arguments and weigh their evidence. Acknowledge their valid points and point
out the weaknesses in weaknesses in their claims. Rebuild your arguments based on the counter-claims.
6. Make a summary of the key arguments. Conclude with a call to action.

Doing a research about your topic or issue will help a lot in establishing your stance; by researching you can
gather evidences that will help you prove your point. Remember that asserting your point/ claim without
evidence is useless. It is like erecting a building without a solid foundation.
Now let’s go back to the mystery case given in the introduction part of this module. How will you prove
that detective 2 is right - that indeed it was a murder? Of course as discussed above, you have to gather
evidences. In short, you have to investigate. You have to look into clues and evidences that will prove your
point that detective 2 is indeed right. You have to build a solid foundation that could back up your claim or
argument. You cannot just claim that detective 2 is right just because you feel that he is right. Thus, a sound
argument is evidenced-based and factual.
Solving the mystery case is like combining the missing pieces of a picture. Now, what does it take for a
detective to analyse a scenario and solve a crime? What do you usually use in analysing?
If your answer is critical thinking, then you are correct!

CRITICAL THINKING
(Suarez, 2018)
The foundation of argumentation is critical thinking. As cited in the Critical Thinking Community
(2015), Francis Bacon avowed in 1605 that “Critical thinking is a desire to seek, patience to doubt, fondness to
meditate, slowness to assert, readiness to consider, carefulness to dispose and set in order; and hatred for every
kind of imposture” (Suarez, 2018). It simply means that critical thinking involves being discerning,
skeptical and meticulous.
How do you know that you are thinking critically? You are a critical thinker if you:

● Question ideas first before you accept them.

● See beyond the information that is given to you.

● Open your mind to different possibilities.

● Listen to what the others have to say.

● Examine and re-examine an issue’s various dimensions before making conclusions.

● Substantiate your conclusions with valid and reliable proofs.

When you think critically, you use your higher order thinking skills. You usually use the questions “How? Why?
How come?” You ask for validations, either on other people’s claims or your own claim.
Now, in the process of critical thinking, a significant thing that one must use in order to arrive with a sensible
and sound argument is logic. Logic must come together with rhetoric in argumentation. What does it mean?
 LOGIC AND RHETORIC
(Suarez, 2018)
Logic refers to the science of thinking methodically while rhetoric refers to the art of communicating
persuasively. Both are important in arguing a point effectively. For example, a speaker or writer may sound
convincing with his use of catchy statements and moving narratives, but his argument may not be valid or
relevant (involves rhetoric only). On the other hand, another speaker or writer may offer sound claims, but he
lacks the skill to establish rapport with his audience, his arguments fall flat (involves use of logic only). What
does this imply? It means that we need both logic and rhetoric to make a sound argument that is effective
to convince our audience and prove our point.

DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE REASONING

(Suarez, 2018)
Aside from logic and rhetoric, another significant process in critical thinking and argumentation is the skill of
reasoning. Reasoning, according to Cavander and Kanahe (2010), is the essential ingredient in problem
solving. When you reason, you present a particular argument which has two parts: the conclusion that reflects
the main idea, the claim, thesis, or the proposed idea (Rudinow and Barry, 2008), and the premise that
indicates the basis of the conclusion and shows the reason behind it and/or the evidence to prove it (Cavender
and Kanahe, 2010).

Look at the examples below:

Sample A
Premises:
Air pollution is a big problem that should be reduced in Tuguegarao City.
With evidence
Smoking cigarettes is a major cause of air pollution.
Conclusion/ Thesis/ Claims:
Therefore, smoking should be banned in Tuguegarao City.

Sample B
Premises:
Leading companies across the globe hire many USL graduates.
Established higher education institutions accept many USL graduates.
Conclusion:
Therefore, USL produces top quality graduates.

As mentioned above critical thinking also involves skills in reasoning. Under this, we have the deductive and
inductive reasoning. Now, look again at the given examples above and study them closely. So what do you
think is the difference between Sample A and Sample B? Which argument is under deductive? And which
argument is under inductive? If your answer is, sample A is under deductive reasoning and sample B is under
inductive reasoning, then you are right! Let’s differentiate then deductive from inductive reasoning.
 Deductive reasoning is when you arrive at a conclusion based on a general idea that leads to a more specific
idea. For example in Sample A, the main idea implied in the premises is that, there is a need to reduce air
pollution (general idea) and it leads to the specific idea that to reduce pollution, smoking must be banned in
University A. On the other hand, Inductive reasoning is when you look at specific details and use them as bases
of your conclusion. For instance in sample B, the specific details given are: leading companies hire many
University A students, and established higher education accept them. These two specific details will lead you to
the general conclusion (idea) that University A produces top quality graduates.
In short, deductive reasoning is from general to specific while inductive reasoning is from specific to
general. Take note, you have to be very keen in identifying whether an argument is presented through deductive
reasoning or inductive reasoning. You have to evaluate well the given premises and conclusion.
Moving on, you can use the three types of rhetorical appeals or Aristotle’s modes of proof (Weida and
Stolley 2013; McCormack, 2014) in expressing and defending your arguments:
● Logos(logical appeal) – uses deductive and/or inductive thinking in presenting your view, makes use of
examples, consequences, and comparisons and contrasts, and uses academic or formal language
● Ethos(ethical appeal) – finds strength in the authority and credibility of the sources of information,
requires to present different sides of the argument and declare personal interest in the issue, uses
language that is suitable for a particular audience
● Pathos(emotional appeal) – involve audience by sharing specific narratives that can move them, use of
rhetorical questions and figurative language to catch attention and provoke insight about an issue, use
language that evokes strong feelings
We can use the combination of logos, ethos, and pathos in developing arguments.
Oftentimes, we confidently think that our arguments are strong enough to prove our point. However, we
sometimes overlook the simple things that make our arguments faulty or erroneous. We call those faulty
arguments or statements fallacies. Suarez (2018) defined fallacies as the statements that reflect flaws and
inconsistencies in your reasoning. In short, it involves weak reasoning in raising arguments. Here are the
different types of fallacies you might commit unknowingly:

FALLACIES
1. Hasty generalization
Making assumptions about a whole group or range of cases based on a sample that is inadequate (usually
because it is atypical or too small).

● For example: "My roommate said her philosophy class was hard, and the one I'm in is hard, too. All
philosophy classes must be hard!"
● Example 2: Two out of three patients who were given green tea before bedtime reported sleeping more
soundly. Therefore, green tea may be used to treat insomnia.
Two people's experiences are, in this case, not enough on which to base a conclusion.

2. Missing the point

The premises of an argument do support a particular conclusion—but not the conclusion that the arguer
actually draws.

● For example: "The seriousness of a punishment should match the seriousness of the crime. Right now, the
punishment for drunk driving may simply be a fine. But drunk driving is a very serious crime that can kill
innocent people. So the death penalty should be the punishment for drunk driving."
The argument actually supports several conclusions. "The punishment for drunk driving should be very
serious," in particular--but it doesn't support the claim that the death penalty, specifically, is warranted.

3. Post Hoc, ergo propter hoc (after this, therefore because of this)
Also called false cause
 Assuming that because B comes after A, A caused B.

● For example: "President Duterte raised taxes, and then the rate of violent crime went up. Duterte is
responsible for the rise in crime.
The increase in taxes might or might not be one factor in the rising crime rates, but the argument hasn't
shown us that one caused the other.

● Example 2: Drop-out rates increased the year after NCLB was passed. Therefore, NCLB is causing kids to
drop out.

4. Non- Sequitur (it does not follow)

This fallacy is revealed when you jump to conclusions.

● For example: Just because an anti-dengue campaign worked in one region, it does not mean it will work for
all regions.
Remember that one incident may not necessarily lead to another.

● Example 2: Professor Berger has published numerous articles in immunology. Therefore, she is an expert in
complementary medicine.

5. Slippery slope
The arguer claims that a sort of chain reaction, usually ending in some dire consequence, will take place, but
there’s really not enough evidence for that assumption. The arguer asserts that if we take even one step onto
the “slippery slope,” we will end up sliding all the way to the bottom; he or she assumes we can’t stop partway
down the hill.

● For example: "Animal experimentation reduces our respect for life. If we don't respect life, we are likely to
be more and more tolerant of violent acts like war and murder. Soon our society will become a battlefield in
which everyone constantly fears for their lives. It will be the end of civilization. To prevent this terrible
consequence, we should make animal experimentation illegal right now."
Since animal experimentation has been legal for some time and civilization has not yet ended, it seems
particularly clear that this chain of events won't necessarily take place.

● Example 2: If you continue to watch professional wrestling, your grades will drop, you will become violent,
and eventually you will end up in jail.

6. Weak analogy
Many arguments rely on an analogy between two or more objects, ideas, or situations. If the two things that
are being compared aren’t really alike in the relevant respects, the analogy is a weak one, and the argument
that relies on it commits the fallacy of weak analogy.

● For example: "Guns are like hammers--they're both tools with metal parts that could be used to kill
someone. And yet it would be ridiculous to restrict the purchase of hammers--so restrictions on purchasing guns
are equally ridiculous."
- While guns and hammers do share certain features, these features (having metal parts, being tools, and
being potentially useful for violence) are not the ones at stake in deciding whether to restrict guns. Rather, we
restrict guns because they can easily be used to kill large numbers of people at a distance. This is a feature
hammers do not share--it'd be hard to kill a crowd with a hammer. Thus, the analogy is weak, and so is the
argument based on it.

7. Appeal to authority
 Often we add strength to our arguments by referring to respected sources or authorities and explaining their
positions on the issues we’re discussing. If, however, we try to get readers to agree with us simply by
impressing them with a famous name or by appealing to a supposed authority who really isn’t much of an
expert, we commit the fallacy of appeal to authority.

● For example: "We should abolish the death penalty. Many respected people, such as actor Guy Handsome,
have publicly stated their opposition to it." - While Guy Handsome may be an authority on matters having to do
with acting, there's no particular reason why anyone should be moved by his political opinions--he is probably
no more of an authority on the death penalty than the person writing the paper.
● Example 2:“Bruce Willis supports Save the Whales International, so it must be a good cause.”

8. Ad populum
The Latin name of this fallacy means “to the people.” There are several versions of the ad populum fallacy,
but in all of them, the arguer takes advantage of the desire most people have to be liked and to fit in with others
and uses that desire to try to get the audience to accept his or her argument. One of the most common versions
is the bandwagon fallacy, in which the arguer tries to convince the audience to do or believe something because
everyone else (supposedly) does.

● For example: “Gay marriages are just immoral. 70% of Americans think so!”

While the opinion of most Americans might be relevant in determining what laws we should have, it certainly
doesn’t determine what is moral or immoral: there was a time where a substantial number of Americans were
in favor of segregation, but their opinion was not evidence that segregation was moral. The arguer is trying to
get us to agree with the conclusion by appealing to our desire to fit in with other Americans.

● Example 2:"The majority of Americans think we should have military operations in Afghanistan, therefore
it’s the right thing to do."

9. Ad hominem and tu quoque

Like the appeal to authority and ad populum fallacies, the ad hominem (“against the person”) and tu
quoque (“you, too!”) fallacies focus our attention on people rather than on arguments or evidence. In both of
these arguments, the conclusion is usually “You shouldn’t believe So-and-So’s argument.” The reason for not
believing So-and-So is that So-and-So is either a bad person (ad hominem) or a hypocrite (tu quoque). In an ad
hominem argument, the arguer attacks his or her opponent instead of the opponent’s argument.

● For Example (Ad hominem): “Andrea Dworkin has written several books arguing that pornography harms
women. But Dworkin is just ugly and bitter, so why should we listen to her?”
Dworkin’s appearance and character, which the arguer has characterized so ungenerously, have nothing to
do with the strength of her argument, so using them as evidence is fallacious.

● For Example (Tu Quoque): Imagine that your parents have explained to you why you shouldn’t smoke, and
they’ve given a lot of good reasons—the damage to your health, the cost, and so forth. You reply, “I won’t
accept your argument, because you used to smoke when you were my age. You did it, too!”
The fact that your parents have done the thing they are condemning has no bearing on the premises they put
forward in their argument (smoking harms your health and is very expensive), so your response is fallacious.

10. Ad Misericordiam (Appeal to pity)

The appeal to pity takes place when an arguer tries to get people to accept a conclusion by making them feel
sorry for someone.
● For example: “I know the exam is graded based on performance, but you should give me an A. My cat has
been sick, my car broke down, and I’ve had a cold, so it was really hard for me to study!”
● Example 2: A woman applies to college. When the Admissions Director asks about her grades, test scores,
and extracurricular activities, she states that she didn’t have much time to study because her mother has been
sick for several years and she has had to work through almost all of high school.
The arguers simply express their misery and uses emotion to convince people to accept their stance.

11. Appeal to ignorance

The arguer basically says, “Look, there’s no conclusive evidence on the issue at hand. Therefore, you should
accept my conclusion on this issue.
For example:

1. “People have been trying for centuries to prove that God exists. But no one has yet been able to prove it.
Therefore, God does not exist.”
2. Taking vitamin X is good for you since nobody taking it has become sick.

Not proven, therefore false.

12. Straw man

It occurs when someone takes another person’s point or argument, distorts it or exaggerates it in some kind
of extreme way, and then attacks the extreme distortion, as if this is really the claim the person is making.
For example:
Person 1: I think pollution from humans contributes to climate change.
Person 2: So, you think humans are directly responsible for extreme weather, like hurricanes, and have caused
the droughts in the south western U.S.? If that’s the case, maybe we just need to go to the southwest and
perform a “rain dance.”
Notice that the second person’s argument overstated the argument of the first person, and began attacking it
using his overstatement.

13. Red herring

Partway through an argument, the arguer goes off on a tangent, raising a side issue that distracts the audience
from what’s really at stake. Often, the arguer never returns to the original issue.

● For example: “Grading this exam on a curve would be the most fair thing to do. After all, classes go more
smoothly when the students and the professor are getting along well.”
When we lay it out this way, it’s pretty obvious that the arguer went off on a tangent—the fact that
something helps people get along doesn’t necessarily make it more fair; fairness and justice sometimes require
us to do things that cause conflict. But the audience may feel like the issue of teachers and students agreeing is
important and be distracted from the fact that the arguer has not given any evidence as to why a curve would be
fair.

● Example 2:"Air bags in cars do not really increase safety, and, besides, most cars with air bags are Japanese
imports. We all know that foreigners cannot be trusted."

14. False dichotomy

The arguer sets up the situation so it looks like there are only two choices. The arguer then eliminates one of
the choices, so it seems that we are left with only one option: the one the arguer wanted us to pick in the first
place. But often there are really many different options, not just two—and if we thought about them all, we
might not be so quick to pick the one the arguer recommends.
● For example: "Caldwell Hall is in bad shape. Either we tear it down and put up a new building, or we
continue to risk students' safety. Obviously we shouldn't risk anyone's safety, so we must tear the building
down."
The argument neglects to mention the possibility that we might repair the building or find some way to protect
students from the risks in question--for example, if only a few rooms are in bad shape, perhaps we shouldn't
hold classes in those rooms.
● Example 2: “To stop the spread of AIDS we must either quarantine all infected people or ban same sex
marriage. Since the first option is clearly impossible, we should make same sex marriage illegal.”

15. Begging the question (Circular Argument/ Circular reasoning)

It occurs when an argument’s premises assume the truth of the conclusion, instead of supporting it.
It is also called arguing in circle.

● For example: “Active euthanasia is morally acceptable. It is a decent, ethical thing to help another human
being escape suffering through death.”
If we “translate” the premise, we’ll see that the arguer has really just said the same thing twice: “decent,
ethical” means pretty much the same thing as “morally acceptable,” and “help another human being escape
suffering through death” means something pretty similar to “active euthanasia.” So the premise basically says,
“active euthanasia is morally acceptable,” just like the conclusion does. The arguer hasn’t yet given us any
real reasons why euthanasia is acceptable; instead, she has left us asking “well, really, why do you think active
euthanasia is acceptable?” Her argument “begs” (that is, evades) the real question.

● Example 2: Special education students should not be required to take standardized tests because such tests
are meant for non-special education students.

16. Equivocation
Equivocation is sliding between two or more different meanings of a single word or phrase that is important
to the argument.

● For example: “Giving money to charity is the right thing to do. So charities have a right to our money.”

The equivocation here is on the word “right”: “right” can mean both something that is correct or good
(as in “I got the right answers on the test”) and something to which someone has a claim (as in “everyone has
a right to life”). Sometimes an arguer will deliberately, sneakily equivocate, often on words like “freedom,”
“justice,” “rights,” and so forth; other times, the equivocation is a mistake or misunderstanding. Either way,
it’s important that you use the main terms of your argument consistently.
So how do I find fallacies in my own writing?

Here are some general tips for finding fallacies in your own arguments:
(The Writing Center • University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2020)
● Pretend you disagree with the conclusion you’re defending. What parts of the argument would now seem
fishy to you? What parts would seem easiest to attack? Give special attention to strengthening those parts.
● List your main points; under each one, list the evidence you have for it. Seeing your claims and evidence
laid out this way may make you realize that you have no good evidence for a particular claim, or it may
help you look more critically at the evidence you’re using.
● Learn which types of fallacies you’re especially prone to, and be careful to check for them in your work.
Some writers make lots of appeals to authority; others are more likely to rely on weak analogies or set up
straw men. Read over some of your old papers to see if there’s a particular kind of fallacy you need to
watch out for.
● Be aware that broad claims need more proof than narrow ones. Claims that use sweeping words like
“all,” “no,” “none,” “every,” “always,” “never,” “no one,” and “everyone” are sometimes appropriate—but
 they require a lot more proof than less-sweeping claims that use words like “some,” “many,” “few,”
“sometimes,” “usually,” and so forth.
● Double check your characterizations of others, especially your opponents; to be sure they are accurate
and fair.

Key Take-Aways:
● Argumentation involves critical thinking and evidences to prove your point.

● Critical thinking uses higher order thinking skills.

● Deductive reasoning is from general to specific while inductive reasoning is from specific to general.

● Fallacies are common errors in reasoning that will undermine the logic of your argument (The Writing
Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University, 2020).

Week 9-10: The Art of Selling your Ideas and Convincing your Audience
Introduction:
Last week’s lesson familiarized you with the different principles, techniques, and strategies of
persuasion and handling objections. We now live in a world where communication has seemingly become
complicated amidst the advent of technology with which human communication is somewhat at stake.
Everyone experiences speaking before an audience; and speaking to a target audience has its primary goal of
convincing the crowd. Speaking may be easy; but convincing may spell out the difference. Not all speakers and
authors may have a successful engagement with the target audience. Many believe that effective speaking is a
talent as many others, too, believe it to be a skill. Hence, there is a need to acquire and master the art of selling
ideas and convincing audience. BE PATIENT that you may learn the art and skills of selling ideas and
convincing audience through this module; and who knows you will become one of the great speakers and
authors of the time!
When we speak of the art of selling ideas and convincing audience, it is not just closing contracts and
pushing products; but there is something we mass-market more than anything else --- the ideas. While
intangible ideas are “sold” with nearly every interaction we have, we persuade people of the merits of our
opinions in conversation. By catering the conversation to your audience, you establish a stronger bond between
what you are selling and what they need. Everyone wants to know what is in it for them and how your idea is
going to deliver value.
Stay Connected and Enjoy learning amidst this pandemic!
Lesson Proper:
People communicate for a number of reasons – to teach/educate, to entertain, to inform, to express feelings or
emotions, to elicit reactions from another person, and ultimately to convince/persuade the target audience.
You learned from the previous lessons the different means/instruments that are used to communicate ideas
through oral and written discourses. You may have been very successful and effective with these
communication tasks primarily because you knew well your purpose, target audience, and context.
 Communicating with people or target audience does not end up with just expressing and sharing your
ideas and opinions with them; but how would you sell your ideas as well as how would your audience buy your
ideas may form the greater part of communication task. Hence, the lesson-discussion on “The art of selling
ideas and convincing audience”.
Lesson 9-10: The Art of Selling Your Ideas and Convincing Your Audience
It is crucial to master the art of selling your ideas and convincing your audience. Hence, your ultimate goal
when you communicate with people verbally and non-verbally as an author or a speaker is to persuade/convince
them. But how would you be able to know if you were able to convince your readers/audience?
Your audience must have been convinced when they consider, support, promote, use, and apply the
ideas you are sharing or the products you are selling.

In selling your ideas, remember the following:

1. Know what you are talking about.
Always remember this: “You CANNOT GIVE what you DO NOT HAVE as you CANNOT BE AN
AUTHORITY on a SUBJECT/ISSUE that you DO NOT KNOW.”
2. Prepare
Study all features of your product, proposal, or presentation.
If you are well prepared, you gain more confidence and it is easier for your audience to believe you.
3. Anticipate the needs, questions, concerns and expectations of your audience.
You are well-prepared with the topic you are sharing because you have explored it; thus, you are ready with
solutions and answers to questions/concerns/doubts of your audience – that you have already prepared for
answers and solutions that you believe will satisfy your audience.

Sincerity and Honesty: these are two important points in selling an idea.

When selling an idea:

1. Acknowledge the drawbacks to avoid people feel that they are cheated and short changed.
2. Make them aware of the constraints… As this may have an impact on your trustworthiness and credibility.

When selling product: EIA

Emphasize the benefits of the product.
(or what it can do)
Identify the limitations of the product.
(or what it cannot do)
Apply the principle of integrity
(how credible you are as a promoter of an idea or a product)

TAKE NOTE always of this:

“Communication is vital to outstanding service…
And in order to communicate, you’ll first have to win TRUST.”
Isadore Sharp, Founder of Four Seasons Hotel chain

Be sensitive to Verbal and Non-verbal cues

Examples:
 1. Clients giving short, noncommittal responses like “I’ll see” = this means that clients feel disinterested in
what you are talking about.
2. Clients suppressing yawns frequently = it may mean you are boring them with your speech.
3. Clients asking for more questions regarding the idea = it implies that they may be engaged in what you are
talking about.

Maintain respect at all times; hence, when you sell or share your ideas/thoughts about a topic or an issue,
please do take note of the following:
1. You are not there to argue with your audience but to sell your ideas to them.
2. Listen first to their views - see it from their perspective.
3. Acknowledge their valid points as they, themselves, have good ideas to share.
4. Express empathy with them (audience).

THEN after having listened to your audience, it’s your turn to explain your side and as you do this, you
have to be guided by the following:

1. Show your audience your perspective about the issue;

2. explain further your stand/side/point of view about the topic;
3. And encourage audience to see/consider your ideas/opinions from your point of view.

IN THAT WAY, [NEC]

1. You are able to negotiate ideas with your audience;
2. Expand your view about the topic to make your audience get satisfied with your claim;
3. And with such, you would convince your audience in the end.

Know and use the language they are most comfortable with.

1. Take into account the culture of the audience.

2. Know and understand who you are talking to and establish rapport with them.
3. Find a common ground that will help you create ties with them.
4. Present your ideas persuasively, acknowledge their limitations, give your audience to weigh the pros and cons
and allow them to draw conclusions for themselves.

After presenting your ideas, observe the following rules/standards:

1. Let your audience breath and think about it.

2. Give them time to let the ideas sink in.
3. Simply let them know that you are right there if they need further information or guidance on the matter.
In the previous lessons, you learned about the many ways or means of presenting/disseminating ideas which
include multimedia, power-point, overhead projector presentation, graphics, etc. Another means of
presenting/disseminating information or ideas is through launching a campaign.

Lesson 10: LAUNCHING A CAMPAIGN

Campaign is an organized effort which seeks to influence the decision making progress within a
specific group or audience and which may further make the audience accept your claims/views. It is also with
this means where you have the ability to relate to others in a way that it creates a level of trust and
understanding; thus, making the audience feel comfortable and relaxed… then eventually making the audience
persuaded/convinced of your claim/views.
 When you launch a campaign, do get focused with the following elements:
1. Theme or topic – this serves as the basis for developing campaign materials and for choosing
campaign endorsers.
Example: “Unity in Diversity”
2. Materials – these are the instruments/media through which the campaign/presentation of a particular
issue, topic, product is communicated or disseminated.
Examples: posters, videos, radio broadcast, TV, multimodal materials, etc.
3. Campaign Endorsers – these could be technology or famous persons that have strong appeal to
attract/convince the audience so as to “BUY” the idea/product you are selling.
Example: Icons and celebrities who can best represent the campaign
4. Campaign duration – this refers to how long should the campaign be undertaken. Campaign duration
depends on the length of the project and other factors; e.g. is budget.
Selling ideas and convincing audience may either be a talent or a skill; though, it could be both

How to Make a Campaign Poster

1. Launch Canva
Open the Canva app or launch a new web page. If you’re new to Canva, sign up using your Google or Facebook
account. Otherwise, just log in. After that, type “campaign poster” using the search tool to start designing.

2. Choose a template
Don’t want to start from scratch? No problem. You can browse hundreds of campaign poster templates for any
theme that fit what you’re looking for. Use the search tool to filter by color scheme, layout, or style.

3. Experiment with features

Access professionally designed stock photos, illustrations, images and other graphics. Use the drag-and-drop
tool to move design elements and layouts and transform your election, awareness, or environment campaigns.

4. Customize your design

Personalizing your campaign poster design is easy. Upload your photos, branding elements, charts, and other
graphics to fill out your design. Don’t forget to stick to your campaign goal or mission!
5. Share or print
Once your campaign posters are finished, it’s time to share them with the world. You can post them online
directly through social media, share them via email or make high-quality prints with Canva Print.

A promotional plan is a valuable marketing tool when it comes to launching a new service or product or
expanding your market reach into new verticals or demographics. When planning a promotional campaign, keep
in mind that a successful campaign achieves all of the following desired outcomes and goals:
● Your promotional message reaches your intended and targeted audience.

● Your audience understands your message.

● Your message stimulates the recipients, and they take action.

The question is how you achieve these outcomes with your campaign. The process is natural, but it takes
"planning" time. Here are seven steps that will get your campaign off to the right start.
Assess Marketing Communication Opportunities
It's essential to examine and understand the needs of your target market. Who is your message going out to?
Current users, influencers among individuals, decision-makers, groups, or the general public?
What Communication Channels Will You Use?
In the first step of planning, you should have defined the markets, products, and environments. This information
will assist you in deciding which communication channels will be most beneficial. Will you use personal
communication channels such as face to face meeting, telephone contact, or perhaps a personal sales
presentation? Or will the non-personal communication such as newspapers, magazines, or direct mail work
better?
Determine Your Objectives
Keep in mind that your objectives in a promotional campaign are slightly different from your marketing
campaign. Promotional objectives should be stated regarding long or short-term behaviors by people who have
been exposed to your promotional communication. These objectives must be stated, measurable, and
appropriate to the phase of market development.
Determine Your Promotion Mix
This is where you will need to allocate resources to sales promotion, advertising, publicity, and, of course,
personal selling. Don't withhold on either of these areas. You must create awareness among your buyers for
your promotional campaign to succeed. A well-rounded promotion will use all these methods in some capacity.
Develop Your Promotional Message
You will need to sit down with your team and focus on the content, appeal, structure, format, and source of the
message. Keep in mind that appeal and execution always work together in promotional campaigns.
Develop the Promotion Budget
You must now determine the total promotion budget. This involves determining cost breakdowns per territory
and promotional mix elements. Take some time to break down allocations and determine the affordability,
percent of sales, and competitive parity. By breaking down these costs, you will get a better idea of gauging the
success potential of your campaign.
Determine Campaign Effectiveness
After marketing communications are assigned, the promotional plan must be formally defined in a written
document. In this document, you should include situation analysis, copy platform, timetables for effective
integration of promotional elements with elements in your marketing mix. You will also need to determine how
you will measure the effectiveness once it is implemented. How did the actual performance measure up to
planned objectives? You'll need to gather this information by asking your target market whether they
recognized or recall specific advertising messages, what they remember about the message, how they felt about
the message, and if their attitudes toward the company were affected by the message.

Week 11: PERSUADING YOUR AUDIENCE AND HANDLING OBJECTIONS STRATEGICALLY

Introduction:
With the unprecedented event that has happened in the world today which has tremendously disturbed
the semester last school year until now, our university is all prepared to meet the academic challenges amidst
this pandemic for this school year. Though it may be difficult to convince you about this reality as you may
have some, if not many objections, we cannot do otherwise but to accept the challenges brought about by this
pandemic reality. To persuade/convince people to rally behind you and to stand with you for a cause without
any objection at all is no easy task – that you have to possess the necessary persuasive skills to do the task.
Actually, this is the focus of this chapter’s lessons. Hence, with these lessons on “persuasion” and “handling
objections”, you will be familiarized with the different tips and techniques on how to handle objections
strategically and on how to become an effective, influential, and inspiring speaker. So please follow through the
discussion of these lessons through this module very patiently.
Be ready and Enjoy!
Lesson Proper:
You learned from the previous lessons the different means/instruments that are used to communicate ideas
through written texts, communication tools that include audio-visual aids which may be developed through
digital means. You may have been very successful and effective with these presentations because you knew
well your purpose, target audience, and context.
In the academic context, one form of communication you have learned to express and share views with other
people is through written mode (1.e. writing effective communication); and other than this, you could also share
your opinions and ideas by way of multimedia presentations.
 However, it is not just enough that you were able to express and share your ideas and opinions with people,
what must also be important is you were able to influence or persuade them. Hence, the lesson on persuasion.

What is persuasion?
Persuasion is the act/process by which the speaker aims to convince the target audience to accept his/her point
of view about a particular topic/issue; which may be either to accept all or part of his/her expressed view. It is to
make the target audience believe in what the speaker says, to stand with the conviction of the speaker, to rally
behind the speaker in support of the speaker’s stand, and lastly to convince the audience to do something.

How can the speaker be persuasive? Actually, there are 3 types/techniques that could help the speaker become
persuasive in his/her communication presentations. These are the following:
● Ethos or ethical appeal. It is a means to persuade the target audience with the use of the author’s/speaker’s
character, credibility, or authority.
Examples:
A. Buy my old car because I am Tom Magliozi. (you may search on “who is Tom Magliozi)
B. A commercial about specific brand of toothpaste says that four out of five dentists use it.
● Pathos or the emotional appeal. It is a way of persuading the target audience by appealing to their
emotions. It is trying to persuade audience of something.
Examples:
A. A teenager begging for a brand name jeans so as not to feel left out by peers.
B. I like very much my friend though many hate him.
● Logos or appeal to logic. It is a means of convincing the target audience by use of logic or reason. It uses
facts, data, statistics, citations, etc. to back up claims, ideas, opinions, and views.
Examples:
A. World Health Organization has affirmed that COVID cases have already been in millions.
B. Based on the data provided, the earnings of the company has gone beyond 25% as projected in January
2020.

Indeed, each of these three principles plays a crucial role in persuading audience and the use of these three in an
argument may make persuasion work better.

The author/speaker may have been effective in expressing and sharing ideas or views with the target audience;
undeniably, objections are always expected to be raised by the audience. This must be a natural phenomenon;
but to handle these objections properly and strategically will surely make the communication task work well
toward an effective and a successful persuasive communication. So please follow through still the discussion of
the topic, “Handling Objections strategically.”
How do you understand “objection”?
Objection is a reason refuting against a premise, an argument, a conclusion, an idea/an opinion/view about a
particular topic/issue with which the audience would like to be satisfied about by the response of the
speaker/author. Objections, if not handled properly, disturb or distract or impede persuasion goal/objective that
will likely to result to disagreement. Hence, handling objections properly or strategically is deemed necessary.
How should objections of the audience be handled?

The following are some tips to handle objections strategically:

1. Let the audience feel they are heard. Listen to their ideas as if their ideas were as brilliant as it is thought of
by them – this is giving them (as person) and their ideas equal importance.
2. Explain to them how your solution helped others. Point out with them how could they be possibly benefited
as others have already been benefited.
3. Do not force them. Do not make them immediately believe you but through the process they will realize that
there is truth in what you say; thereby, influencing them to support your claim. Explore ideas with them.
4. Highlight strengths. Acknowledge weaknesses. You need to appreciate their brilliant ideas as well as to
empathize with their weaknesses. Learn to respond properly with all humility and respect.
5. Sell. Don’t Argue. If the audience oppose your ideas, don’t be too defensive; maintain respect at all times
because your purpose is to SELL your ideas; not to ARGUE with the audience.
6. Start with the end. Let them speak out freely their ideas but not to disrupt them at the very start of their
objections.
7. Prepare for every kind of conversation. You should be able to provide answers/solutions to every
question/objection raised by the audience and be sure they get satisfied with your responses. This can only be
done when you are well-prepared with the topic/issue to discuss. More importantly, when you are well-prepared
with what you do or say/share, you have the confidence that you can share much even beyond the expectation of
the audience.
8. Establish rapport. It is relating to the audience in a way that it creates a level of TRUST and understanding;
thus, making the audience feel comfortable and relaxed-open to suggestions and explanations will eventually
make them accept your claim/ideas/views.

To put everything in a nutshell, the following are the key terms to remember when handling objections:
LEARN TO: LISTEN, ACKNOWLEDGE, EXPLORE, RESPOND, PREPARE, BE CONFIDENT
With all mentioned above, as an author or speaker, there is no doubt that you would be able to negotiate ideas,
expand views, and eventually persuade/convince your audience in the end.

Week 12: OBTAINING AND DISSEMINATING INFORMATION

Introduction:
In learning, obtaining information is very significant since it is the first stage of cognitive or learning
process. After obtaining information, a learner can continue the cognitive process to varying levels. For
instance, he or she may accomplish basic cognitive processes by taking in information and simply storing it in
the memory for later recall or remembering.
Significantly, providing information plays a vital role in the field of education, career, life, business,
etc. As educators, one of the most important things is to provide relevance for students. This would give them a
context within which they can develop into engaged, motivated and self-regulated learners because relevance
can help students realize how useful all knowledge can be. Similarly, as a speaker, as a person, as a learner and
as a businessman, the information provided should be sufficient, reliable, valid and accurate. In this way, the
listeners and receivers of the message would believe the information given which may intellectually direct his
or her actions and decisions.
In like manner, disseminating information is equally important in learning, in life, in business and in
communication. The purpose of dissemination it to influence people’s behavior so that they will adopt or at
least become aware of a new idea, product or service which is being disseminated. The use of various kinds of
methods supporting each other is important when planning dissemination.

Lesson Proper:
 Obtaining Information from Available Sources
Obtaining information today using technology grants us access to secondary sources such as websites, books,
television, and radio programs. The information from these kinds of media may be just too handy. As such, you
have to be responsible and prudent in choosing, using, and spreading the information you get from these
sources.

Characteristics of Information
● Relevant information is capable of making a difference in making a decision.

● Valid information is more in-depth information that allows greater insight.

● Reliable information is authentic, consistent, infallible, or information that suggests dependability of

judgement or result.
● Factual information is something documented, established, confirmable, supportable, sustainable,
indisputable, irrefutable, undeniable, unquestionable and undoubted.
Aside from these, the five characteristics of high-quality information are accuracy, completeness, consistency,
uniqueness and timeliness. Information needs to be of high quality to be useful and accurate as well.

What To Do With Information That We Receive

1. Be sure that the sources you rely on are credible and accurate.
Effective sources usually have been reviewed and validated by experts on the topic. The number of relevant
references is also adequate and the author/s belong/s to a trustworthy organization. While Wikipedia and blogs
provide much information online, you cannot always rely on them because anyone can contribute to the
information too easily given their nature. When in doubt, check the background of the publishers and the
authors through online articles. For instance, there are a lot of online trolls who give misleading information.
Fortunately, there are various fact-checking websites that identify the sources of fake news or clarify false
information:
● snopes.com

● FactCheck.org

● Politifact )

2. Check that the information you have is current.

The date of publication or posting is significant. If it is dated, then the information you have may no longer be
relevant or accurate, unless you need a historical background or account of a particular subject. For example,
citing archival records of firsthand accounts of the Bataan Death March in 1942 may be effective for a history
paper. However, citing a 1942 study on how young Filipino males talk to their female counterparts to explain
relationships today may not be an accurate or relevant set of information.

3. Consider the perspective or worldview of your sources.

While some particular information may seem objective, sources of information tend to have a particular slant.
For instance, when it comes to election surveys, some newspapers may focus on figures that favor a particular
party or candidate, reflecting a hidden bias in their reports. Some authors may also choose to gloss over
significant moments in history. For instance, the holocaust or genocide committed against the Jews during
World War II and the brutal crimes that were suffered by political prisoners and activities during Martial Law in
the Philippines may be covered up or denied by some writers to provide a one-sided view of history. The truth
has many sides, and, as a reader, viewer, and listener, you have the duty to look at these various dimensions to
evaluate them more carefully and decide whether they are worth studying further and sharing.
4. When you do share the information that you have learned through various media platforms, you must
cite and acknowledge your sources.
Identify the author/s, the publisher/s, and the title of the article, magazine, book, website, periodical, or journal .
Doing this establishes your credibility and indicates your integrity. These original works warrant recognition,
and your readers deserve to know that your ideas came from various sources.

Indeed, you are bombarded with information every day on social media. Often, the clever use of language and
deliberate choice of words lead you to believing all too readily what you receive from various sites and outlets.
Evaluate messages constantly and diligently. This skill of evaluation is necessary when you need to disseminate
certain information yourself.

For starters, beware of chain emails, text messages, and status updates that compel recipients or
addressees to pass them to a bigger group of people. Usually, they are laced by desirable promises ("If you
pass this message, expect a good thing to happen to you in the next 20 minutes"), dire warnings ("If you do not
pass this message, you will encounter misfortunes next week"), or disturbing messages ("If you don't pass this
on, it means you don't care about people who suffer from depression").

If you do receive chain messages, do not pass it on. There is no scientific or logical basis for following their
hidden coercions. Similarly, avoid online click baits that lure you with intriguing, controversial, and sensational
images and texts that are only meant to sell you certain products and services. In addition, some advertisements
of these products and services may be misleading or downright false. Falling into these online traps only dulls
the mind and takes away time for more productive accomplishments.

When you are engaged in more constructive and creative activities in school, you are expected to craft
announcements about specific events. You may also hold positions that require you to disseminate important
information. As such, you have to be accountable for the information you spread.

Information Dissemination
Information dissemination means spreading of information, knowledge, opinions widely to a certain person,
people or to a bigger group of audience. The purpose of dissemination is to influence people’s behavior, so that
they will adopt or at least become aware of a new idea, product or service which is being disseminated. The use
of various kinds of methods supporting each other’s is important when planning dissemination.

Information dissemination is important when lives are affected. For example, public service announcements
during natural calamities such as typhoons can save lives. When you face an opportunity to help address the
general public, you have to use simple language that readers, listeners, and viewers may grasp right away
(Silver 2014).
Ulmer, et al (2015) suggests the following when informing the public in moments of crisis (58):

1. Inform the community immediately, acknowledge uncertainty, and assure the public that they will receive
regular updates on current and future risks.
2. The public needs useful and practical statements of managing difficulties during a crisis.

The impact of poor information dissemination may be illustrated in 2009 during the onslaught of Typhoon
Ondoy that resulted in death and devastation in the National Capital Region [NCR]. Many government officials
learned much from this experience and, consequently, became more organized and efficient in disaster
management. As one official stated, "The most important thing is communication. We have redundancy of
communication so that down to the lowest level, we will be able to inform these people” (Howard 2010).

When you disseminate information, your message should be correct, clear, and concise. Accuracy is
important. Avoid using vague terminologies that are open to various interpretations. Moreover, instead of using
lengthy paragraphs, use numbers or bullet points to make it easier and faster to read.
 Consider also the levels of communication involved in disseminating information. For instance, there is the
barangay or community level, the city level, the regional level, and the national level. Within these levels are
different types of audiences who use different types of languages and various modes of communication. Point
persons and specific organizations in charge of spreading information should be identified. In addition, they
have to coordinate their messages consistently.

Consider the following sample

Sample A:
The University of Knowledge needs student volunteers to help in packing relief goods for the typhoon victims in
Albay. If you would like to give donations, you are welcome to do so.
Sample B:
The University of St. Louis has organized a help center at Bulwagang Teodulfo Domingo for reaching out to
the typhoon victims in Albay. The help center welcomes donations (cash, medicine, and relief goods) and
student volunteers who would like to help in the packing of relief goods for the victims. The center will be open
for one week for this purpose from 8am-7pm. You may contact Mr. Cabrido at 09267755553 if you have
questions. Thank you

Message A lacks clarity because it has insufficient details, while Message B provides specific details that may
enable students to respond to the call for help promptly. In Message B, the 5 Ws (what, where, when, who,
why) and H (how) are answered:

What: A help center has been organized by the University of St. Louis.
Where: The help center is at Bulwagang Teodulfo Domingo.
When: The help center is open for one week from 8am-7pm
Who: Mr. Cabrido may be contacted for details.
Why: There is a need to support victims in Albay.
How: Students may give donations and/or do volunteer work.

Thus, when you disseminate information, include all the essential details. Conversely, if you receive a message,
evaluate it first based on the guidelines given previously. If you are not certain about its reliability, trace the
source of the message. Consult other credible sources of information such as school authorities, radio stations,
TV networks, online publications, and newspapers to verify the message you received. Disseminate only when
you are certain of the truthfulness of the message and the credibility of its source. In addition, in simplifying a
message that you wish to share, be sure not to omit important details nor include additional information that
may be inaccurate.
In some events, you may be expected to provide directives or instructions to organize and mobilize groups of
people through public service announcements or PSAs. Public service announcements (PSAs) inform people
about a particular event, raise awareness for a certain issue, and/or promote a campaign. Campaigns are
organized movements that boost and support a particular cause or advocacy such as the preservation of the
environment, the promotion of children's rights, or gender equality. PSAs may be in various modes and
presented through various media. In developing them, it is important to consider your audience, context, and
purpose.
PSAs promoting awareness campaigns may be shown through videos. These can make use of powerful words
and images to move an audience and encourage them to take concrete action in support of the advocacy.

Methods in Disseminating Information

Information should be disseminated properly and accurately. Exact and sufficient information are only the
things to be provided to the proper authority or person. The following are some methods for disseminating
information.

1. News release is a written or recorded communication directed at members of the news media for the purpose of
announcing something ostensibly newsworthy.
2. Blog is a regularly updated website or webpage, typically one run by an individual or small groups that is
written in an informal or conversational style.
3. Emails are messages distributed any electronic means from one computer user to more recipients via a network.
4. Text messages is a written message, often containing short forms of words, sent from one mobile phone to
another.
5. Social networking websites or social media in an online platform which people use to build social networks or
social relations with other people who share similar personal or career interests, activities, backgrounds or real-
life connections.
6. Public service announcement is a message in a public interest disseminated without charge, with the objective
of raising awareness of, and changing public attitude and behavior toward a social issue.
7. Door to door is a canvassing technique that is generally used for sales, marketing, advertising or campaigning
in which the person or persons walk from the door of one house to the door of another trying to inform,
announce, sell, or advertise a product or service to the general public or gather information.

FINALS
THE INFORMATIVE ESSAY
Writing the Informative Essay

1. Identify the salient parts of an informative essay;

2. Explain the important features of an informative essay;
3. Follow the steps in writing an informative essay;
4. Differentiate informative essay from other types of essay; and
5. Write own sample of a short informative essay.
INTRODUCTION:
How do we convey pieces of information? What are ways in conveying relevant pieces of information
to other people?
 Actually, there are many ways to convey significant information such as writing or delivering
news reports, and conducting a research and publishing the outcomes. However aside from these,
did you know that by just writing an essay we can also impart information? Yes, writing an informative
essay is also a way of conveying important information to other people.
Informative essays are useful as they impart sensible pieces of information to the readers.
They are different from other types of essays in terms of purpose. The main purpose of informative
essay is to enlighten, inform or educate other people about a certain topic while other essays such as
persuasive essays are used to convince or persuade readers to believe on their stand.

The Informative Essay

Source: Suarez et al. (2018)
The informative essay is written to provide information on topics that are not known to a vast
majority of readers. In this kind of writing, you are expected to do some research since you need to
give facts and evidence on your chosen topic. You are considered the expert, and your end goal is to
make sure your reader will understand your topic better. Your readers will expectt up-to-date
information, as well as explanations of complex terms.
Since the main purpose of informative essays is to educate others on a certain topic, these
essays will typically include one or more of the five Ws: who, what, when and why. They can also
answer “how”, indicating how to do something (Your dictionary,n.d.).

Features of Informative Essay

1. Provide concrete and purposeful information

As a writer, you are expected to present information in a straightforward but engaging way. Ideally,
you should not include your own opinion.
2. Topic must be clear and focused
Topic should be broken down into parts but at the same time narrow enough so that you will not end
up talking about everything related to that topic.
3. Use of facts about real people and events, and evidence in supporting the information.
Factual information can be verified by checking other sources about the topic. This means you need
to do research when you write your informative paper.
4. Use different rhetorical patterns
You will need to define complex terms and ideas. You may explain a process, analyze cause and effects,
define unique terminologies, or compare and contrast certain subjects. All these patterns for organizing
essay will help your reader gain a more informed understanding of your topic.

Writing the Informative Essay

Before you start writing your informative essay, consider the following:
1. Make sure you know why you are writing and the context in which you are writing it.
Why do you want to share this topic? Are you writing the paper to educate your readers? Is this
a final requirement for you to prove that you know how to apply research skills in your writing?
Is this part of a forum or information campaign?
2. Know your audience
How much do they know about your topic? You need to know how much background
information you will need to provide. You also need to determine what they will do with the
information they will get from your paper or presentation. Knowing your audience will also help
you decide on how much technical information you can include in your paper.
3. Consider how to present the information
 Will they understand the facts more if presented in a table, graph, chart, or a diagram?

Steps in Writing an Informative Essay:

1. Choosing or deciding on a topic

● One of the most difficult tasks when writing is coming up with a topic. Here is some general advice
when you are choosing a topic for your essay (Your Dictionary, n.d.):
● Choose a topic that you are interested in. Your interest in writing on the subject will make the essay
more engaging.
● Choose a topic that can explain something new or in a different way.

● Choose a topic that you can support with facts, statistics, and

● Choose a topic that is relevant to the subject.

2. Once you have decided on a topic, then start by generating ideas about it.

● What do you already know about it? What do you still want to know about it? What do you think your
audience would want to know about it? This will help you narrow down your focus, most especially if
you have been given a very general topic.
3. Conducting Research

● At this point, you can begin the research process and look for information that will first address the
questions that you asked. The sources that may be useful at the beginning are general references
like encyclopedias, magazine articles, or even Wikipedia sources just to provide you with a general
understanding of the topic and issues relevant to the topic. Once you have found an angle from which
you want to approach your paper, then you can look for sources that focus on a more specific
discussion of your chosen angle and come from more credible and specific sources.
4. Building a thesis statement

● Write a thesis statement that generally states what your topic is and what you want to discuss.
Remember that your thesis statement should be broad enough that it needs to be explained further,
but at the same time narrow enough for it to be manageable.
● Outline the different aspects of your topic that you plan to discuss. Remember to always go back to
your thesis statement to determine if you really need to talk about the aspects you identified. You may
need to do additional research to clarify a few more things about your topic and to finalize your thesis
statement.
5. Planning the structure of Introduction

● Always begin with a “hook” or statement that will grab your reader’s attention and make them
continue reading your paper. This may be in the form of a rhetorical question, a relevant quote, or a
short narrative related to the topic. Ideally, the introductory paragraph will contain your thesis
statement so that readers will know what to expect in your paper.

6. Writing the body of your paper

● As you write the body of your paper, remember to keep referring to your thesis statement. Whether
you are providing background information, defining key terms, comparing elements, analysing cause
and effects, or explaining processes, check if you are still keeping to the main idea or if you are
already straying far from your thesis statement. Also, consider if you need to translate some of your
information into diagrams, tables or charts-do you have to discuss the information in detail or can you
just give a general picture, and the refer reader to the specifics in the table or chart? Will photographs
help you readers understand the topic more?
7. Forming a satisfying conclusion
● Finally, make sure you have a clear ending of your paper. You may summarize the main points you
discussed, identify the implications of your paper, or pose a challenge to your readers.
8. Reviewing, Revising, Editing

● Once you are done writing your informative essay, it is important to review your output. Check the
grammar, vocabulary, coherence and organization of your essay. Also, have someone read your
essay. You may ask a friend to review it for you. Then, do the final touch of your output by editing or
revising it.

Parts of an Informative Essay

Source: Essaypro (2018 & 2020)
Just like the other types of essays, an informative essay also contains the three basic parts of an
essay which are the introduction, body, and conclusion.
The introduction

● The intro should start with ahook that grabs the reader's attention. A hook is a short piece of
information provided at the very beginning of an essay and is aimed to attract and hold readers’
attention. Usually, it is no longer than 1-2 sentences, but it should be so intriguing, interesting, or
impressive that readers naturally end up wanting to know more and read further.
● It must contain the thesis statement. A thesis statement serves as the root from where the rest of your
paper grows. A good thesis statement can help make your paper more logical and focused, and even
simplify the writing process for you. When you understand the main idea of your paper, you can
express it in a clear and intelligible manner throughout the paper.

Body Paragraphs

● Body paragraphs will be mainly used to support the thesis statement created in the introduction.

● First of all, each body paragraph must start with a topic sentence. Create a smooth transition from
your introduction by creating a topic sentence that links the thesis to your first main point. (A smooth
transition should also be created for the second and third body paragraph!)
● With each body paragraph, there must be a main idea sentence (topic sentence) and supporting
details. Main idea sentences are your main points to elaborate or explain further your thesis
statement in the introduction. Supporting details will explain further your main points.

The Conclusion

● It will wrap up the information and present its significance in the real world. In other words, explain
why the informative writing you just crafted has value and where this information can be applied. This
gives the work “real-world” value.
● In writing your conclusion, avoid presenting new ideas because your goal is to end your essay
already.

Key takeaways in writing an Informative Essay:

● Make sure that the information you gather are factual and accurate by checking if your sources are
credible.
● Use transitional words such as “first, then, finally, lastly” to ensure coherence and logical organization
of your informative essay.
● Brainstorming about the topic before writing your paper will help you a lot.

● Thesis statement will give direction to the overall content of your informative essay.

● It is important to catch the interest of the readers in the introductory part to convince them to read
more about your essay.
● Remember your essay must be based on facts not on your opinion since it is an informative essay.

Short Informative Essay on Smoking

Source: Writeawriting (2015)
Smoking is regarded as a fashion symbol in young boys. Despite the ill effects of smoking,
people still continue to smoke. Many young boys, who start smoking, feel that they look broadminded
and liberated if they smoke.
Most often, the teenagers adopt this habit just because of the company they enjoy.
Sometimes, they take a puff from their friend’s cigar. Later on, they develop the habit of smoking as
an indispensible part of their lives. With the passage of time, the followers of this bad habit turn into
chain smokers. It must be kept in mind that smoking is a toxic habit that may develop lungs’ cancer.
Moreover, the other toxic chemicals like arsenic, carbon Monoxide, methane, acetic acid, nicotine,
butane and cadmium present in cigarettes are also highly damaging for health.
Currently, cigarette manufacturing companies are doing very well all over the globe. Such
manufacturing companies also inscribe warnings on the packets of cigarettes; still people do not pay
any heed. On the other hand, every year government increases the price of cigarettes to discourage
people using tobacco. Yet smokers go on smoking and prove to be slaves of this bad habit.
The active smokers also harm other people around them known as passive smokers. Here, it
is significant on the part of the government to keep a ban on advertisements that allure people to
smoke. Moreover, the family members and close friends of the smoker should also play their part to
aware the smoker about the bad effects of this habit. Although it requires strong will to stop smoking
but once you plan to give up, you can definitely do.
 The Reflective Essay
The Personal Reflective Essay

1. Recognize the features of personal reflective essay through the text, “The Blind Man’s Massage”;
2. Identify the steps in writing a personal reflective essay; and
3. Write a personal reflective essay in relation to the question provided.

INTRODUCTION
The personal reflective essay presents your insights on a particular subject of life as you have
observed and experienced it. It can include a vivid description of what you have witnessed and gone
through. When you write this type of essay, it is like inviting your audience to enter your mind as you
narrate significant turning points and share your views with them. The process of reflection entails
recalling what happened to you in the past or looking at your present circumstances, unveiling what
this event or condition means to you, and revealing what you have realized because of this
occurrence. It is meant to enhance your perspective and inspire your readers to explore their own
thoughts about the subject you have presented.
Why do I consider this instance important? How did I feel while it was happening? Why did I
react that way? What lessons have I gained from it? What have I learned about myself, about other
people, and about the world?
These are some points of reflection that you may consider in developing your piece. The
subjects may range from daily incidents to special episodes in your life. It may be as simple bumping
into an old friend from high school on your way to your college class or as noble as helping out a
family in their time of crisis. What is important is that you consider it as a striking incident or a turning
point that made you pause and think about what it signifies.
To help you get started with reflective essay, please read the sample text below. As you read,
take down important details or any observations that you think might be helpful later on when you will
have to finally write your own essay.

READING TEXT
The Blind Man’s Massage
Exie Abola
He starts with the shoulders. He has just washed his hands with alcohol, pouring it from a bottle
he has in his pants pocket and wiping his hands together vigorously, and tentatively gropes for my
shoulders. My shoulders found, he squares himself against the chair, neither too near nor far, just
beyond the orbit of others like him working on other customers and circling their plastic chairs.
He puts both hands on me and begins.
It is a slow day, only two of us sitting on a monobloc chairs in a row of six men in black pants
and blue sport shirts in this passageway in a mini-mall at Philcoa. I face a window of Mercury Drug
displaying diapers for babies and adults, cans of milk, baby things. To the left are stairs to the second
floor and a passageway. Under the stairs is a small room where a small man with crossed eyes
emerges, clutching a broom and dustpan. Next to it is Arka Jewelry Shop. Made to order. Gold
plating. Repair. At the end of the passage is the back lot where delivery trucks unload, from which
men appear pushing large carts or grunting under boxes. On the left beyond the payphones are the
restrooms, which I don’t need to see for the smell.
I look at my watch. It’s five-thirty. The sun has disappeared. I take the watch off and put it in my
pocket.
The shoulders and back, these go first. The center of one’s exhaustion, then the periphery. The
hands and fingers are strong, they have been doing this for a while, and they push and knead and
squeeze along with the width of shoulders, down the length of spine, across the breadth of back. I
lean forward so the hands can press lower.
I can smell the alcohol on his hands, and the other things besides that those hands have held
over the long dark years, the hands that try to make up for what is denied the eyes. The smell of
alcohol comes mixed with food too quickly eaten, the leftovers in wrapper in small knapsacks on the
dusty floor. With the alcohol comes the scent of apology for not being clean enough.
What else can they no longer clean so well, having lost their sight?
There is no shortage of feet. They go from left to right, right to left, up the stairs, down. Trudging
or skipping, ambling or striding, sure or uncertain, light or heavy, they pick up the brown dust on the
black-pebbled floor and scatter it, rub it into the ground, take it elsewhere, thicken it with the surface
of other places and their slowly thinning soles. These people are just passing through – to the
photocopiers, to the computer terminals, to their haircuts, their burgers and Cokes and donuts to their
waiting futures – but their scents stay, the smell of their sweat and cheap perfume, their worries and
sudden glances, the day oozing from their pores.
The row is full now, and some mean are standing or sitting on the steps, waiting their turn. One
of them has slits for eyes. The man behind me has moved to the left. My back done, it is time to
knead my arm. I glance up at him. He is taller, slim, and confidently young.
On this day there are only four men in blue shirts, and the sky is the hazy shade of afternoons
blurring into each other.
To my right comes a woman’s voice, harsh distinct, probably of someone not old, a palengkera
voice. It is continuous, it cuts through the thick sounds of the street. She is complaining something to
someone, she won’t stop. Once in a while a man tries to hoot her down, a bellow. She keeps going. It
is the kind of talk that leads to fights but because she is a woman the men let her yap on. Onlookers
pause, glance, wondering what is the fuss about, then go about their business, picking up a
momentarily abandoned thought. Suddenly she is in my line of sight. She looks younger than she
sounds, seated by a cart of bananas, still talking, perhaps to everyone, and no one.
I blink and she is gone. The sidewalk is clear, the stalls peddling fishballs and squidballs and
sago gulaman are gone. There is only concrete and dust.
Then the emptiness of the sidewalk under the pedestrian overpass is filled again, this time
with fruit carts, crates of yellow and green and orange and brown, umbrellas, newspapers and
magazines, anything to bring away easily when the men in blue arrive with their clubs and cries.
The hands move from my arm to my hand and fingers. Fingers on the knuckles, the meat of
the thumb and palm, the wrist. I turn to my right. To my right tiangge stalls have disappeared. Only a
stretch of gray concrete exists, a driveway forbidden to cars.
Do image stored in their brains lose their vividness, like photographs rubbed to a
dullness by the slow fingers of time?
The rain begins suddenly, it slants into the vendors under the pedestrian overpass, and this
passageway fills with a rush of cart and baskets, boxes and crates, fruits and fruitsellers. The spray of
the rain hits us all, even those of us sitting far into the passageway, almost at the stairs. The infinity of
inbetweenness is engulfed by people waiting for the rain to subside. Smells blossom and mingle.
Children have arrived, in shorts and sandos, others in school clothes, all dirty. The slit-eyed man has
bought small bananas and begins to eat them, careful not to touch the meat with his fingers. Two
street kids ask for money. He gives them bananas. They leave him alone. He sits on the stairs and
shares in the weight of waiting.
Then my right arm. The hands belong to an older man, he has less hair, a protruding belly,
looks like someone’s uncle. The couple to my right both get up and pay the woman on the white T-
shirt, the one who looks after the blind men.
Can they feel the weight of a stare? Or are they free of the burden of self-
consciousness? Does the fear of being looked at the end when looking has ended?
Then the head and the scalp, the last part of the message.
When his hands go to my neck then the back of my head the world is not a place, just the
noise of busyness from a distance too indistinct to measure. His fingers gully my head, he rubs out
the heat of the afternoon and the smoke on the street, he pulls the hair lightly, kneads in the failing
light.
Were his eyes always dark, or did they let in light once, and the light faded as it is falling now in
front of mine? What is the color of evening’s permanent descent?
 Sometimes I see in front of me, in the glass, not diapers but an image of the glass behind me,
the window into Chowking, its bringht fluorescent lights, orange walls, the shimmer of metal chair
legs, the illuminated beings like clothed, wet slugs. A refuge of white light and clean tables. I close my
eyes.
When I open them the light is harsh, the slap of an early afternoon sun slanting in from the right.
It is Sunday, and there are only two men in blue shirts.
There are stalls again, but they are different. A rack of meat at a shawarma stand. Jugs of pink
and yellow fluid, plenty of ice. Tiangge stalls are back, and on their metal fences are dresses and
shorts and skirts and blankets and pillowcases. Stalls hawking cellphones, and accessories, their
posters in the vivid colors of consumer bliss.
There is a gate now, too, a large metal one that probably closes deep in the evening. I have not
imagined this passageway being blocked and closed, the plastic chairs empty, stacked together, the
blind men untimately an apparition.
Where do they go when they are not here to offer respite from the unrelenting and pitiless
notion of the world?
It is over.
I stand and fish change in my pocket but find only a large bill. The woman who attends to them
gives me change from the pouch hanging from her neck. She hands over a fifty to the man who
attended to me and utters her thanks. He stands behind his chair with head bowed, almost tucking his
chin into his chest, as if in perpetual apology.
When the eyes go, does the head go heavy and droop, as the rest of the body does? Does
one stand with gaze averted, perpetually deferential to those from whom pity is a most difficult
gesture?
I drop a twenty into the wooden donation box, padlocked and wrapped in Christmas wrapper on
a stool. I mutter my thanks to the woman, the man, to the slowly spilling afternoon, and start the walk
home, leaving the passage between light and dark, between past and possibility, leaving the men to
the questions we wish never to have to answer.

It is hoped that as you read the text, you reflected on the questions asked and you were able to
understand the features of a reflective essay.

Something to Ponder:

1. At which points in the essay do we see the writer’s reflections on the event’s significance?
2. What do these reflections reveal about the significance of the event to the writer?
3. Note how, more than just narrating his experience, the writer also describes the surroundings in
great detail. Why do you thin he does this?

FEATURES OF A PERSONAL REFLECTIVE ESSAY

In your personal reflective essay, you are not just narrating a story or an event that happened
to you, or describing a person or object. You are also reflecting on the significance of this subject on
your life. You want to share your insight/s on this subject with your audience because you recognize
its significance and, in doing so, you are actually revealing the kind of person you have become.

● A personal reflective essay begins with an intriguing topic – something that interests you, or
stirs something in you.
In the sample essay, Abola writes about his experience of getting a massage from a blind man
– the ones you see in open public spaces who offer their services at a much cheaper rate. This is not
an earth-shattering or life changing event, and what you might call an ordinary, everyday experience,
but as you have heard, it triggered several questions in the mind of the writer – questions that initially
were about general things about blind people
 What else can they no longer clean so well, having lost their sight?

– to questions that reflect on what life might be like for those who are blind –

Can they feel the weight of a stare? Or are they free of the burden of self-
consciousness? Does the fear of being looked at the end when looking has
ended?

● The main body of the essay needs to be interesting to your audience.

It can be structured in various ways, as long as the ideas relate to one another and to the main insight
of the essay.
Narrative Structure

● the most common structure sued that is told from the perspective of one who has learned or realized
something from the subject
You should also include vivid, descriptive details to help your audience visualize what you are
writing about and therefore understand the significance that you have reflected on.
In the sample essay, Abola narrates his experience of the message but at the same time
describes to us what he sees, smells, and hears around him.

He starts with the shoulders. He has just washed his hands with alcohol, pouring it
from a bottle he has in his pants pocket and wiping his hands together vigorously,
and tentatively gropes for my shoulders. My shoulders found, he squares himself
against the chair, neither too near nor far, just beyond the orbit of others like him
working on other customers and circling their plastic chairs.

He puts both hands on me and begins.

Note how such descriptions trigger the questions he asks in different parts of the essay –
questions that reveal thoughts and feelings.

The hands move from my arm to my hand and fingers. Fingers on the knuckles, the meat
of the thumb and palm, the wrist. I turn to my right. To my right tiangge stalls have
disappeared. Only a stretch of gray concrete exists, a driveway forbidden to cars.

Do image stored in their brains lose their vividness, like photographs rubbed to a dullness by
the slow fingers of time?
Note as well that his personal reflections have not been explicitly stated nor revealed in one go – but
they are given to us in bits and pieces, implicitly through the questions, so that toward the end we
realize why this event is significant to the writer.

I mutter my thanks to the woman, the man, to the slowly spilling afternoon, and
start the walk home, leaving the passage between light and dark, between past
and possibility, leaving the men to the questions we wish never to have to answer.

Abola’s insight not only gives us a glimpse of what he feels about the entire experience but also
lets us see the larger significance of the event. He makes us realize how lucky we are that we still
have our sense of sight, and invites us to feel empathy for blind people. By doing this, the narration of
the event becomes more than just about Abola and his experience of the massage. It is actually
about us and how little we understand about the experiences of people with disability.
 This is the heart of a personal reflective essay – an expanded, if not better, understanding of the
world through your subject, an insight from pondering and probing, which you want to share with the
rest of the world.
Writing the Personal Reflective Essay

● Purpose and Communication Context

Would you like to tackle a recent incident in your community or your country and think about
what it means to your personally? Would you like to talk about a childhood episode in your life that
made you who are today? Would you like to enlighten your audience about the undiscovered features
of your personal hobby such as the joys and paints of watching a telenovela orTV series?

● Audience and Mode of Language

Will you write primarily for young people from different backgrounds? Will your readers include a
local and international audience? Will your piece be read in class? Will you submit it to an online
publication?

STEPS IN WRITING A PERSONAL REFLECTIVE ESSAY

1. Brainstorming
Consider possible topics you can explore from your bank of experiences. Choose the one that is
closest to your heart so your ideas can flow smoothly. Remember that writers have different ways of
developing their ideas. Some writers come up with an outline or list down bullet points to help them
take off while others go straight to writing their paragraphs. Consider your writing style when you
brainstorm.
2. Writing the draft
Essay are conventionally structured according to the following order: introduction, body or
discussion, and conclusion.
Introduction

● provides a brief background of the topic and it is designed to catch your readers’ attention. For
example, you may begin with a rhetorical question (e.g., “Do you control your own life or do your life
control you?). The thesis statement or main idea is stated explicitly, and it is usually written in the
introduction (e.g., “While I cannot control the difficult circumstances in my life, I have the power to
overcome them.”) Sometimes it is written in the conclusion, or sometimes it is implied and the readers
are left to infer it based on the details given in the essay.
Body

● the thesis statement is elaborated in the body of the essay or the discussion paragraphs. Examples
or illustrations are provided to enable the audience to understand the main point of the essay.
Conclusion

● presents a summary of the essay and restates the thesis. It usually ends with a general statement
that persuades the readers to agree with the stance of the writer.
3. Revising the draft
After writing the draft, edit your statements in terms of grammar conventions and mechanics
(e.g., spelling, punctuation marks, etc.) to make your work more intelligible to your intended audience.
4. Presenting your work
After developing your draft which may entail multiple revisions, finalize your work. Present it to
your teacher, share it with your peers, or submit it to publications that welcome contributions.
 WRITING A PROBLEM SOLUTION PAPER
A Problem/Solution paper requires you to investigate a problem, examine alternative solutions, and propose the
most effective solution using supporting evidence.
Problem-solution paper considers the problems of a particular situation, and give solutions to those problems.
They are in some ways similar to cause and effect essays, especially in terms of structure. Problem-solution
paper is actually a sub-type of another type of essay, which has the following four components:

● Situation

● Problem

● Solution

● Evaluation

As we go through the process, we shall have the three stages of writing:

STARTING -----> WRITING -----> POLISHING

Starting the Paper

1. Identify the situation. The situation you are going to address in the problem solution paper should be stated
clearly in the prompt for the paper. You may be assigned a situation to address or be allowed to choose a
situation for the paper. Often the situation will address a social, cultural, or historical issue in society.
For example, you may have a main situation like, “obesity and poor fitness,” or “trigger warnings on college
campuses.”
If you get to choose the situation, make a list of groups you belong to, such as “school,” “family,” “race,”
“culture”,” or “local community.” Then, identify a situation or issue you have encountered as a member of one
of these groups.
2. In the problem component, you will state the problem or problems and explain what they are in your own
words. Determine the key components of the paper. A problem-solution paper will contain four main
components: the situation, the problem, the solution, and the evaluation. You should structure your paper so it
addresses these four components.- In the situation component- In the solution component, you will state your
solution or solutions to the problem. You will also explain how it will address the problem.- In the evaluation
component, you will list the main ideas in the paper and offer a prediction or recommendation based on your
solution to the problem.There will only be one situation presented to you in the prompt for the paper. You can
then have multiple problems and multiple solutions that link back to the situation.
3. Use the block structure for the outline. One way you can outline the paper is to use the block structure, where
you list the problems first in the paper, followed by the solutions. You will use the following outline for the
block structure:- Introduction section, where you discuss the situation- Problem 1- Problem 2- Transition
sentence or paragraph- Solution 1- Solution 2- Conclusion section, where you discuss the evaluation
4. Try the chain structure for the outline. Another possible structure you can use for a problem solution paper is
the chain structure, where you discuss a problem, followed by a solution to that problem. The chain structure is
used more often for short problem solution papers. You will use the following outline for the chain structure:-
Introduction section, where you discuss the situation- Problem 1 and Solution to Problem 1- Problem 2 and
Solution to Problem 2- Problem 3 and Solution to Problem 3- Conclusion section, where you discuss the
evaluation
The two types of structure, block and chain, are shown in the diagram below. This is for a short essay, which
includes the 'situation' in the introduction and 'evaluation' in the conclusion. A longer essay, for example one of
around 1,000 words, with citations, would probably have these two sections as separate paragraphs in the main
body.
 Writing the Paper

1. State the situation in your own words. Start by writing out the situation in your own words. You can do this
in the introduction section of the essay. Focus on a specific angle or perspective on the situation, especially if
the situation is broad.For example, if the situation in the paper prompt is “obesity and poor fitness,” you may
focus on specific aspects of the situation in the introduction. You may look at how the consumption of unhealthy
food and the overuse of cars plays into obesity and poor fitness in society.
2. Research the problem or problems. Read as much as you can about the problem, such as scholarly journals
online, print books, and academic texts. Look for articles at a national or state level that discuss the problem.
Check local publications for discussions about the problem. The more research you do, the stronger your
solutions to the problem will be in the paper.
If you cannot find a lot of outside material on the problem, you can collect your own data for the paper. Do this
by making a survey that you give to people who are affected by the problem. You can also interview people
associated with the problem, or with possible solutions.
For example, if you were researching the problem “trigger warnings on college campuses,” you may interview
college representatives at your university or college. You may also talk to students on campus.

Most problem solution papers written for exams do not require you to cite any outside sources. You may need
to cite your sources if you are writing the problem solution paper for a class.

3. Create a strong thesis statement.

For example, if you were writing about the situation “obesity and poor fitness,” you may have the following
thesis statement: “Obesity and poor fitness can lead to a decrease in life expectancy, and it is essential that
individuals and governments work together to tackle this issue by improving their citizen's diet and fitness.”

4. Identify your solutions. The best solutions to a problem will be easy to implement, effectively address the
problem, and be cost effective for all involved. Think about the problem and come up with one to two solutions.
You will then explore these solutions in your paper.

For example, you may come up with a solution that addresses a lack of resources by adding support, money, or
more staff. Or you may come up with a solution that addresses the problem by changing an existing practice or
habit.

5. Support your solutions with specific examples. Avoid simply listing problems and solutions in the essay in a
general way. Use specific examples that allow you to expand on your solutions. Do not use general or vague
language when discussing the solutions.

For example, if one of your solutions to the problem of obesity and poor fitness is to encourage people to cook
at home, you may list a few specific ways people can do this. You may suggest that national eating healthy at
home campaign is created, offering recipes online that take less than 30 minutes to prepare at home.

6. Wrap up the paper with an evaluation. Once you have outlined your solutions in the body of the paper, you
should end with the evaluation in the conclusion section. The evaluation should discuss your solutions briefly
and sum up the goal of your solution. It can also have a call to action, where you note the value of your solution.

For example, you may end up a call to action like, “With rising levels of obesity in our country, it is essential
that we take action now to address this serious issue.”
 Polishing the Paper

1. Confirm the paper follows a clear structure or outline. Review the paper and confirm it covering the four
components of a problem solution paper. Make sure it addresses the problem and the solution in detail. Check
that your thesis statement appears in the introduction and in the conclusion sections of the paper.You can create
a reverse outline using your paper as a guide, where you go through each section and confirm it follows the
outline you started with.
2. Check for spelling, grammar, and punctuation. Read the paper aloud to yourself to check for any misspelled
words or grammatical errors. Try reading the paper backward, starting at the end, to check for spelling mistakes.
Circle the punctuation in the paper and confirm you are using all punctuation correctly.You can also show the
paper to a peer, friend, or family member and get them to proofread it for you.
3. Revise the paper to fit the word count. If you are writing a problem solution paper for an exam, you will often
have a set word count. The word count is usually very short, around 250-500 words. Make sure the paper falls
under or at the word count. If it doesn't, you may need to revise it by shortening the sentences, tightening up the
language, and making your ideas more concise.If you are writing the problem solution paper for a class
assignment, you may still have a set word count. Check that your paper falls within this word count.
Thesis
The thesis is an essential part of the introduction of your problem solution essay, but it doesn’t mean you need
to write your paper, including the thesis, in a strict order. In fact, most students benefit from writing the thesis
last. By that time, they have already developed a thorough understanding of the problem and can form a clear
and concise thesis that will be supported by the rest of the work.
How to Find Solutions to Your Problems
Before you can propose your own solutions to the problems, you need to demonstrate your prior research on the
issue by offering some of the solutions previously designed by other scholars. Analyze whether they were
completely successful, and if not, what can be changed about them. Then you can move on to proposing your
own solutions to the problems highlighted in the earlier parts of the essay. The work on your solutions can be
divided into three easy steps:

● Offer a plan of action. Your solution needs to be simple and detailed, possibly in a step-by-step form. Think of
the potential criticism of your solution and address it in the same chapter.
● Support your solution with examples. Whether it’s pictures, statistics, or simply stories, there needs to be a
strong background for your newly designed solution. Only then will your solution seem feasible to the public.
● Provide a call to action. Instead of simply offering a conclusion to your solution, be proactive and encourage
your audience to take action. If the problem you’ve described is real and you’ve offered some genuine
solutions, the call to action will be very effective. The projection technique is very effective for this purpose.

Proofreading and Writing Tips

Here is how to make sure your writing meets the highest academic standards:

● After finishing the paper, leave it for one or two days before coming back and proofreading it with a fresh
outlook.
● Check whether your essay covers all four elements of a problem solution paper.

● Make sure the thesis clearly refers to the content of the essay.

● Confirm that you’ve done the most extensive research of the problem.

● Check whether the solutions offered to the problem are realistic and can be achieved.
● Pay special attention to the conclusion: it needs to not only summarize the text, but also offer a call to action.

● Use online services like Grammarly to check your spelling and punctuation.

● Ask one of your friends or family members to proofread your paper to make sure no grammar or logical
mistakes spoil your final grade.
Example:

PSYCHOLOGICAL ILLNESS AND TEENAGERS

Psychological illness is very common in today’s era, and especially among teenagers. Depression, anxiety,
personality disorders, and a lot more are common. More than 50% of teenagers are a victim of mental illness.
The question arises that “What is psychological health?” It is a general misconception that only psychological
illness is reflected in the form of disability. This is not the case. Any unusual or unexpected response from an
individual to very common activities is said to be “psychological illness.” For example, a boy/girl might show
aggression over a casual debate at his place. Psychological illness is damaging our youth and the major reasons
behind such illnesses are parental involvement, addictions, and traumas that might be due to any reason.
There are several solutions to this problem among which the following three can be very easily implemented.
Firstly, individuals must be more active by doing exercise. They should get enough sleep and have a balanced
diet. Their stress must be reduced. Exercise helps in better hormonal secretions that help in reducing stress and
anxiety. It also helps in quitting addictions which most teenagers adopt due to low morale.
Secondly, parents should be better involved in their child’s life. It is the utmost duty of parents to help their
children in facing all the problems with courage rather than leaving them on their own in such a crucial
situation. They should help their child in quitting all sorts of addictions. Generally, teenagers find drugs very
attractive and a symbol of classiness. Some parents do not focus on their children at all and some parents are
over-involved that annoys children.
Thirdly, parents should cut off the communication gap. They should talk to their children about their life. If a
teen is in depression, it is the duty of parents to talk to them because talking about the problem releases stress
and helps in coming back to life.
Teenage is a very crucial phase of life and its handling is similar to that of a fragile good. The above-stated
solutions will help you in handling a depressed teenager. The solutions have no tough schedule. It is all a matter
of time. The solutions have worked for a relative of mine and I hope that these solutions will help you too.

PLAGIARISM AND DOCUMENTATION STYLES

Most of us in the academic world were brought up to believe that originality was the supreme virtue. We looked
on plagiarism as the primal sin, as little short of a fall from grace. Proof of plagiarism used to end professorial
careers and warrant the immediate failure of students in courses and, on occasion, their expulsion from an
institution.
Throughout history, plagiarism has always been present, but never more so than in the current digital age.
Where the internet is filled to the brim with content, with more being posted each and every day, it can be
difficult to truly know whether what you are reading is original content.
However, while most plagiarism cases are dealt with easily or float under the radar, there are some higher
profile cases that certainly haven’t had that benefit!
MELANIA TRUMP
While this one might not be the tip of the ice-burg when it comes to thinking about the most words plagiarised,
it certainly does for one of the worst possible places to do it. Also taking place in 2016, Melania Trump’s
plagiarism scandal came about when she took to the stage to give a speech on the President’s behalf at the
Republican National Convention. However, as great as the speech may have appeared to some, it pricked the
ears of Obama fans, who quickly realised that Melania’s speech sounded strangely similar to Michelle Obama’s
speech that was given in 2008 at the Democratic National Convention. Melania’s speech writer was blamed,
and while she apologised and went on to try and resign, Trump refused to accept it anyway.
VLADAMIR PUTIN
1997 brought about Putin’s turn to face public criticism following accusations of plagiarism. Putin’s 1996
dissertation titled ‘Strategic Planning of Mineral Resources Replenishment at a Regional Level in Market
Economy’ fell under scrutiny when it appeared to bear unavoidable resemblance to a book written by William
Kind and David Cleland’s book ‘Strategic Planning and Policy’. Granted, no one’s approached Putin to
question it directly, but the accusations have been made all the same.

The gist: Tourism slogan “Pilipinas Kay Ganda” drew criticism a week after its launch in 2010 after its logo
had a striking similarity to Poland’s “Polska,” from the font and the colors to the use of a tree. An application
where users can make a personalized name logo with the tagline “Kay Ganda” then made the rounds on social
media sites as Filipinos made fun of the alleged plagiarism committed by the advertising agency tapped by
DOT.
What DOT did: Then-DOT Undersecretary Vicente “Enteng” Romano III, who was in charge of DOT’s
planning and promotions section, took full responsibility for the campaign and left his post. He also apologized
to then-President Benigno Aquino III, then-Tourism Secretary Alberto Lim and to the public over the
controversy.
What happened next: The “Pilipinas Kay Ganda” campaign was scrapped and eventually replaced by the “It’s
more fun in the Philippines” slogan, which became an Internet hit.

The gist: Just after its launch in January 2012, the Department of Tourism’s (DOT) “It’s more fun in the
Philippines” slogan was criticized for allegedly being a copycat of a 1951 Swiss tourism slogan that read “It’s
more fun in Switzerland.”
What DOT did: Tourism Secretary Mon Jimenez took to Twitter to react on the issue, saying that the similarity
is just a coincidence.
What happened next: The plagiarism issue eventually died down, especially after Swiss Ambassador to
Manila Ivo Sieber expressed his support for the “It’s more fun in the Philippines” campaign.

The gist: Parts of Sotto’s two speeches on his stand on the controversial RH bill were lifted from different
online sources, drawing an online firestorm.
What Sotto did: While Sotto initially denied plagiarizing parts of his first RH bill speech (saying “blogger lang
iyon,” drawing even more flak), his then-chief of staff, Atty. Hector Villacorta, admitted that they copied the
work of American blogger Sarah Pope. A day later, it was found that Sotto’s staff writers also copied from
different websites for the senator’s second speech. But this time, Villacorta defended the senator and stressed
that “blogs are public domain.”
What happened next: Like Sotto, Villacorta saw himself at the receiving end of criticism, with netizens calling
him “stupid” and “arrogant.”
The necessity to acknowledge others’ work or ideas applies not only to text, but also to other media,
such as computer code, illustrations, graphs etc. It applies equally to published text and data drawn from books
and journals, and to unpublished text and data, whether from lectures, theses or other students’ essays. You
must also attribute text, data, or other resources downloaded from websites.
The best way of avoiding plagiarism is to learn and employ the principles of good academic practice
from the beginning of your university career. Avoiding plagiarism is not simply a matter of making sure your
references are all correct, or changing enough words so the examiner will not notice your paraphrase; it is about
deploying your academic skills to make your work as good as it can be.
 This module will enlighten your thoughts about the dreadful word “PLAGIARISM.” Many would use
the terms “inspired” “benchmarked” and “derivative” to justify an imitated concept or idea. But in this world of
uniqueness and duplication, when do you say that you have actually crossed the line?
Don’t be confused. We’ll be focusing plagiarism in the context of academic writing.

#CopyCatOrNot?
Plagiarism is a breach of academic integrity. It is a principle of intellectual honesty that all members of
the academic community should acknowledge their debt to the originators of the ideas, words, and data which
form the basis for their own work. Passing off another’s work as your own is not only poor scholarship, but also
means that you have failed to complete the learning process. Plagiarism is unethical and can have serious
consequences for your future career; it also undermines the standards of your institution and of the degrees it
issues.
According to the University of Oxford, the plagiarism definition is that you're presenting someone else's
ideas as your own, whether deliberately or because you didn't know any better. Business plagiarism is common,
but it's still unethical.
Plagiarism happens when you present someone else's designs, words, code or visuals as your own
without their permission. Even if you do this unintentionally, it's still unethical and could lead to a lawsuit.
At University of North Carolina, plagiarism is defined as “deliberate or reckless representation of
another’s words, thoughts, or ideas as one’s own without attribution in connection with submission of academic
work, whether graded or otherwise”
Plagiarism is presenting someone else’s work or ideas as your own, with or without their consent, by
incorporating it into your work without full acknowledgement. All published and unpublished material, whether
in manuscript, printed or electronic form, is covered under this definition. Plagiarism may be intentional or
reckless, or unintentional. Under the regulations for examinations, intentional or reckless plagiarism is a
disciplinary offense.
According to the Merriam-Webster online dictionary, to "plagiarize" means:

● to steal and pass off (the ideas or words of another) as one's own

● to use (another's production) without crediting the source

● to commit literary theft

● to present as new and original an idea or product derived from an existing source

● In other words, plagiarism is an act of fraud. It involves both stealing someone else's work and lying about it
afterwards.

#CopyCatQuestion1
Can words and ideas really be stolen?
 According to U.S. law, the answer is yes. The expression of original ideas is considered intellectual property
and is protected by copyright laws, just like original inventions. Almost all forms of expression fall under
copyright protection as long as they are recorded in some way (such as a book or a computer file).

#CopyCatQuestion2
When do you say that someone has plagiarized?
All of the following are considered plagiarism:
● turning in someone else's work as your own

● copying words or ideas from someone else without giving credit

● failing to put a quotation in quotation marks

● giving incorrect information about the source of a quotation

● changing words but copying the sentence structure of a source without giving credit

● copying so many words or ideas from a source that it makes up the majority of your work, whether you give
credit or not (see our section on "fair use" rules)
Most cases of plagiarism can be avoided, however, by citing sources. Simply acknowledging that certain
material has been borrowed and providing your audience with the information necessary to find that source is
usually enough to prevent plagiarism.

#CopyCatQuestion3
What about images, videos, and music?
Using an image, video or piece of music in a work you have produced without receiving proper permission or
providing appropriate citation is plagiarism. The following activities are very common in today’s society.
Despite their popularity, they still count as plagiarism.

● Copying media (especially images) from other websites to paste them into your own papers or websites.

● Making a video using footage from others’ videos or using copyrighted music as part of the soundtrack.

● Performing another person’s copyrighted music (i.e., playing a cover).

● Composing a piece of music that borrows heavily from another composition.

● Certainly, these media pose situations in which it can be challenging to determine whether or not the copyrights
of a work are being violated.
For example:

● A photograph or scan of a copyrighted image (for example: using a photograph of a book cover to represent that
book on one’s website)
● Recording audio or video in which copyrighted music or video is playing in the background.

● Re-creating a visual work in the same medium. (for example: shooting a photograph that uses the same
composition and subject matter as someone else’s photograph)
● Re-creating a visual work in a different medium (for example: making a painting that closely resembles another
person’s photograph)
● Re-mixing or altering copyrighted images, video or audio, even if done so in an original way.

The legality of these situations, and others, would be dependent upon the intent and context within which they
are produced. The two safest approaches to take in regards to these situations is: 1) Avoid them altogether or
2) Confirm the works’ usage permissions and cite them properly.
 #CopyCatQuestion4
Why are my instructors so concerned about plagiarism?
In order to understand plagiarism, it helps to understand the process of sharing and creating ideas in the
university. All knowledge is built from previous knowledge. As we read, study, perform experiments, and
gather perspectives, we are drawing on other people’s ideas. Building on their ideas and experiences, we create
our own. When you put your ideas on paper, your instructors want to distinguish between the building block
ideas borrowed from other people and your own newly reasoned perspectives or conclusions. You make these
distinctions in a written paper by citing the sources for your building block ideas. Providing appropriate
citations will also help readers who are interested in your topic find additional, related material to read—in this
way, they will be able to build on the work you have done to find sources.
Think of it this way: in the vast majority of assignments you’ll get in college, your instructors will ask you to
read something (think of this material as the building blocks) and then write a paper in which you analyze one
or more aspects of what you have read (think of this as the new structure you build). Essentially, your
instructors are asking you to do three things:

● Show that you have a clear understanding of the material you’ve read.

● Refer to your sources to support the ideas you have developed.

● Distinguish your analysis of what you’ve read from the authors’ analyses.

When you cite a source, you are using an expert’s ideas as proof or evidence of a new idea that you are trying to
communicate to the reader. Documentation Styles will be presented on a latter part.

#CopyCatQuestion5
What about “common knowledge”?
In every professional field, experts consider some ideas “common knowledge,” but remember that you’re not a
professional (yet). In fact, you’re just learning about those concepts in the course you’re taking, so the material
you are reading may not yet be “common knowledge” to you. In order to decide if the material you want to use
in your paper constitutes “common knowledge,” you may find it helpful to ask yourself the following questions:

● Did I know this information before I took this course?

● Did this information/idea come from my own brain?

If you answer “no” to either or both of these questions, then the information is not “common knowledge” to
you. In these cases, you need to cite your source(s) and indicate where you first learned this bit of what may be
“common knowledge” in the field.

#CopyCatQuestion6
What about paraphrasing?
Paraphrasing means taking another person’s ideas and putting those ideas in your own words. Paraphrasing does
NOT mean changing a word or two in someone else’s sentence, changing the sentence structure while
maintaining the original words, or changing a few words to synonyms. If you are tempted to rearrange a
sentence in any of these ways, you are writing too close to the original. That’s plagiarizing, not paraphrasing.
Paraphrasing is a fine way to use another person’s ideas to support your argument as long as you attribute the
material to the author and cite the source in the text at the end of the sentence. In order to make sure you are
paraphrasing in the first place, take notes from your reading with the book closed. Doing so will make it easier
 to put the ideas in your own words. When you are unsure if you are writing too close to the original, check with
your instructor BEFORE you turn in the paper for a grade. So, just to be clear—do you need to cite when you
paraphrase? Yes, you do!

#CopyCatQuestion7
How can I tell whether I’ve plagiarized?
If you’ve followed the above guidelines but still aren’t sure whether you’ve plagiarized, you can double-check
your work using the checklist below.
You need to cite your source, even if:

● you put all direct quotes in quotation marks.

● you changed the words used by the author into synonyms.

● you completely paraphrased the ideas to which you referred.

● your sentence is mostly made up of your own thoughts, but contains a reference to the author’s ideas.

● you mention the author’s name in the sentence.

** When in doubt, give a citation.**

#CopyCatQuestion8
What are other forms of plagiarism?

1. Verbatim (word for word) quotation without clear acknowledgementQuotations must always be identified
as such by the use of either quotation marks or indentation, and with full referencing of the sources cited. It
must always be apparent to the reader which parts are your own independent work and where you have drawn
on someone else’s ideas and language.
2. Cutting and pasting from the Internet without clear acknowledgementInformation derived from the
Internet must be adequately referenced and included in the bibliography. It is important to evaluate carefully all
material found on the Internet, as it is less likely to have been through the same process of scholarly peer review
as published sources.

3. ParaphrasingParaphrasing the work of others by altering a few words and changing their order, or by closely
following the structure of their argument, is plagiarism if you do not give due acknowledgement to the author
whose work you are using.A passing reference to the original author in your own text may not be enough; you
must ensure that you do not create the misleading impression that the paraphrased wording or the sequence of
ideas are entirely your own. It is better to write a brief summary of the author’s overall argument in your own
words, indicating that you are doing so, than to paraphrase particular sections of his or her writing. This will
ensure you have a genuine grasp of the argument and will avoid the difficulty of paraphrasing without
plagiarizing. You must also properly attribute all material you derive from lectures.
4. CollusionThis can involve unauthorized collaboration between students, failure to attribute assistance received,
or failure to follow precisely regulations on group work projects. It is your responsibility to ensure that you are
entirely clear about the extent of collaboration permitted, and which parts of the work must be your own.
5. Inaccurate citationIt is important to cite correctly, according to the conventions of your discipline. As well as
listing your sources (i.e. in a bibliography), you must indicate, using a footnote or an in-text reference, where a
quoted passage comes from. Additionally, you should not include anything in your references or bibliography
that you have not actually consulted. If you cannot gain access to a primary source you must make it clear in
your citation that your knowledge of the work has been derived from a secondary text (for example, Bradshaw,
D. Title of Book, discussed in Wilson, E., Title of Book (London, 2004), p. 189).
6. Failure to acknowledge assistanceYou must clearly acknowledge all assistance which has contributed to the
production of your work, such as advice from fellow students, laboratory technicians, and other external
sources. This need not apply to the assistance provided by your tutor or supervisor, or to ordinary proofreading,
but it is necessary to acknowledge other guidance which leads to substantive changes of content or approach.
7. Use of material written by professional agencies or other personsYou should neither make use of
professional agencies in the production of your work nor submit material which has been written for you even
 with the consent of the person who has written it. It is vital to your intellectual training and development that
you should undertake the research process unaided. Under Statute XI on University Discipline, all members of
the University are prohibited from providing material that could be submitted in an examination by students at
this University or elsewhere.
8. Auto-plagiarismYou must not submit work for assessment that you have already submitted (partially or in
full), either for your current course or for another qualification of this, or any other, university, unless this is
specifically provided for in the special regulations for your course. Where earlier work by you is citable, ie. it
has already been published, you must reference it clearly. Identical pieces of work submitted concurrently will
also be considered to be auto-plagiarism.

#CopyCatQuestion9
Does this mean that I shouldn’t use the work of other authors?
On the contrary, it is vital that you situate your writing within the intellectual debates of your discipline.
Academic essays almost always involve the use and discussion of material written by others, and, with due
acknowledgement and proper referencing, this is clearly distinguishable from plagiarism. The knowledge in
your discipline has developed cumulatively as a result of years of research, innovation and debate. You need to
give credit to the authors of the ideas and observations you cite. Not only does this accord recognition to their
work, it also helps you to strengthen your argument by making clear the basis on which you make it. Moreover,
good citation practice gives your reader the opportunity to follow up your references, or check the validity of
your interpretation.

#CopyCatQuestion10
What if it’s unintentional plagiarism?
Not all cases of plagiarism arise from a deliberate intention to cheat. Sometimes students may omit to
take down citation details when taking notes, or they may be genuinely ignorant of referencing conventions.
However, these excuses offer no sure protection against a charge of plagiarism. Even in cases where the
plagiarism is found to have been neither intentional nor reckless, there may still be an academic penalty for poor
practice.
It is your responsibility to find out the prevailing referencing conventions in your discipline, to take adequate
notes, and to avoid close paraphrasing. If you are offered induction sessions on plagiarism and study skills, you
should attend. Together with the advice contained in your subject handbook, these will help you learn how to
avoid common errors. If you are undertaking a project or dissertation you should ensure that you have
information on plagiarism and collusion. If ever in doubt about referencing, paraphrasing or plagiarism, you
have only to ask your tutor.

Plagiarism Hacks: Ways to Avoid Lawsuit Case on Plagiarism

Now that you understand what plagiarism is, you’re ready to employ the following steps to avoid plagiarizing in
your written work.
Step 1: Accentuate the positive. Understand the value of citations.
Do you feel that you use too many citations? Too few? Many students worry that if they use too many citations
their instructors will think that they’re relying too heavily on the source material and therefore not thinking for
themselves. In fact, however, using citations allows you to demonstrate clearly how well you understand the
course material while also making clear distinctions between what the authors have to say and your analysis of
their ideas.
Thus, rather than making your paper look less intellectually sophisticated, using citations allows you to show
off your understanding of the material and the assignment. And instead of showing what you don’t know, citing
your sources provides evidence of what you do know and of the authority behind your knowledge. Just make
sure that your paper has a point, main idea, or thesis that is your own and that you organize the source material
around that point.
Are you worried that you have too few citations? Double-check your assignment to see if you have been given
any indication of the number or kind of source materials expected. Then share your writing with another reader.
Do you have enough evidence or proof to support the ideas you put forward? Why should the reader believe the
points you have made? Would adding another, expert voice strengthen your argument? Who else agrees or
 disagrees with the ideas you have written? Have you paraphrased ideas that you have read or heard? If so, you
need to cite them. Have you referred to or relied on course material to develop your ideas? If so, you need to
cite it as well.
Step 2: How can I keep track of all this information? Improve your note-taking skills.
Once you’ve reconsidered your position on using citations, you need to rethink your note-taking practices.
Taking careful notes is simply the best way to avoid plagiarism. And improving your note-taking skills will also
allow you to refine your critical thinking skills. Here’s how the process works:
(1) Start by carefully noting all the bibliographic information you’ll need for your works cited page. (See #3 for
more details on how to determine exactly what information you’ll need for different kinds of sources.) If you’re
photocopying an article or section out of a book or journal, why not photocopy the front pages of the source as
well? That way you’ll have the bibliographic information if you need it later. If you forget to gather the
information for a book, you can usually get it from the library’s online card catalogue. Simply pull up the entry
for the book you used to see the bibliographic information on that source. If you’re working on an article from a
journal, you can return to the database from which you got the original citation to find the bibliographic
information.
(2) Next, try thinking about your notes as a kind of transitional space between what you’ve read and what
you’re preparing to write. Imagine yourself having a conversation with the author of the
story/novel/play/poem/article/book you’re reading, in which you repeatedly ask yourself the following
questions:

● What is the author trying to explain?

● Why does s/he think these points are important?

● How has s/he decided to construct the argument?

● How does the structure of the argument affect the reader’s response to the author’s ideas?

● How effective is the author’s argument?

Adopting this “conversational” approach to note-taking will improve your analysis of the material by leading
you to notice not just what the author says, but also how and why the author communicates his or her ideas.
This strategy will also help you avoid the very common temptation of thinking that the author’s way of
explaining something is much better than anything you could write. If you are tempted to borrow the author’s
language, write your notes with the book closed to ensure that you are putting the ideas into your own words. If
you’ve already taken a step away from the author’s words in your notes, you’ll find it easier to use your own
words in the paper you write.

Step 3: So many details, so little time! Locate the appropriate style manual.
Don’t worry—no one can remember all the different citation conventions used in all the different university
disciplines! Citing your sources appropriately is a matter of:

● determining which style your instructor wants you to use,

● finding the appropriate style manual, and

● copying the “formula” it gives for each type of source you use.

First, carefully read the assignment to determine what citation style your instructor wants you to use (APA,
MLA, Chicago, and CSE are the most common). If s/he doesn’t specify a citation style in the assignment, check
your syllabus, course pack, and/or Sakai site. If you can’t find the citation style in any of those places, ask your
instructor what style s/he prefers.
Second, academic citation styles follow specific formats, so making an educated guess about how to structure
your citations and works cited page is usually not a good idea. Instead, find the specified style manual in the
reference section of the library, on the reference shelf in the Writing Center, or online.
Finally, style manuals provide easy-to-follow formulas for your citations. For example, the MLA handbook
provides the following format for citing a book by a single author:
Author’s name. Title of the book. Publication information.
You can use this formula for your own citation by simply plugging in the information called for, following the
format of the formula itself. Here’s an example of how that might look:
Berlage, Gai Ingham. Women in Baseball: The Forgotten History. Praeger, 1994.
MLA Style
In MLA, in-text citations are inserted in the body of your research paper to briefly document the source of your
information. Brief in-text citations point the reader to more complete information in the Works Cited list at the
end of the paper.
APA Style
APA style is a set of guidelines for writing in psychology and related fields. These guidelines are set
down in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA, 2006)
APA style is best thought of as a “genre” of writing that is appropriate for presenting the results of
psychological research—especially in academic and professional contexts.
Journal Articles
For journal articles, the generic format for a reference is as follows:
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Title of article. Title of Journal, xx(yy), pp–pp.
doi:xx.xxxxxxxxxx