Review Journal of Biosystems Engineering

J. of Biosystems Eng. 41(4):365-372. (2016. 12) eISSN : 2234-1862

https://doi.org/10.5307/JBE.2016.41.4.365 pISSN : 1738-1266

A Review of Withering in the Processing of Black Tea

1 2
Saptashish Deb , K. R. Jolvis Pou *
1
Koomber Tea Estate, Goodricke Group Limited, Silchar-788108, Assam, India
2
Department of Agricultural Engineering, School of Technology, Assam University, Silchar-788011, Assam, India

Received: August 22nd, 2016; Revised: September 12nd, 2016; Accepted: October 28th, 2016

Purpose: Tea is the most frequently consumed drink worldwide, next to water. About 75% of the total world tea production
includes black tea, and withering is one of the major processing steps critical for the quality of black tea. There are two types
of tea withering methods: physical and chemical withering. Withering can be achieved by using tat, tunnel, drum, and trough
withering systems. Of these, the trough withering system is the most commonly used. This study focuses on the different
types of withering, their effect on the various quality attributes of tea, and other aspects of withering methods that affect
superior quality tea. Results: During physical withering, tea shoots loose moisture content that drops from approximately
70-80% to 60-70% (wet basis). This leads to increased sap concentration in tea leaf cells, and turgid leaves become flaccid.
It also prevents tea shoots from damage during maceration or rolling. During chemical withering, complex chemical
compounds break down into simpler ones volatile flavor compounds, amino acids, and simple sugars are formed. Withering
increases enzymatic activities as well as the concentration of caffeine. Research indicates that about 15% of chlorophyll
degradation occurs during withering. It is also reported that during withering lipids break down into simpler compounds
and catechin levels decrease. Improper withering can cause adverse effects on subsequent manufacturing operations, such
as maceration, rolling, fermentation, drying, and tea storage. Conclusion: Freshly harvested leaves are conditioned
physically and chemically for subsequent processing. There is no specified withering duration, but 14-18 h is generally
considered the optimum period. Proper and even withering of tea shoots greatly depends on the standards of plucking,
handling, transportation, environmental conditions, time, and temperature. Thus, to ensure consumption of high quality tea,
the withering step must be monitored carefully.

Keywords: Biochemical changes, Black tea, Chemical withering, Withering, Physical withering

Introduction plant C. sinensis is native to Southeast Asia but is currently

cultivated in more than 30 countries around the world
Tea is manufactured from the young shoots of the tea (Chaturvedula and Prakash, 2011). In India, tea was used
plant Camellia sinensis, which consist of two or three leaves as a medicinal plant before the British arrived and
and an unopened terminal bud. Tea is a non-alcoholic introduced it as a drink for pleasure in the 19th century
aromatic beverage and it is generally accepted that, next to (Bhagat et al., 2010). India is the second largest producer
water, it is the most frequently consumed beverage in the of tea next to China. It occupies an important place in the
world. It is also one of the lowest cost beverages and is worldwide production of tea and plays a very vital role in
consumed by a large number of people around the world India’s national economy. Tea is perhaps the o n ly
(Katiyar and Mukhtar, 1996; Heneberry, 2006). The tea industry for which India has retained its leadership over
the last 150 years (Gupta and Dey, 2010; Jolvis Pou, 2016;
Kumar and Jolvis Pou, 2016).
*Corresponding author: K. R. Jolvis Pou
Tel: +91-3842-270989; Fax: +91-3842-270802 There are two major methods for manufacturing tea:
E-mail: jolvispou@gmail.com the crush, tear, and curl (CTC) method and the orthodox
Copyright ⓒ 2016 by The Korean Society for Agricultural Machinery
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0)
which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
 Deb and Jolvis Pou. A Review of Withering in the Processing of Black Tea
Journal of Biosystems Engineering • Vol. 41, No. 4, 2016 • www.jbeng.org

method. CTC tea processing involves using a suitable Withering process

maceration device like the vertical maceration machine, Withering or partial desiccation is the first important
horizontal maceration machine, or the rotorvane, and the step for improving the quality of final tea. The picked
orthodox method involves using a roller or manual hand leaves are usually spread in a series of enclosed/open
rolling (Jolvis Pou, 2016). Tea is processed in different trough fitted with perforated trays under forced air
ways in different countries as per the tasters’ requirements circulation (Baruah, 2003; Fard et al., 2015). Withering is
and depending on the factory and region. The general one of the processed requiring the most space (Owuor
stages in the processing of tea include plucking (picking), and Orchard, 1992). The freshly harvested leaves are
withering, macerating, rolling, fermenting (oxidizing), and conditioned physically and chemically for the next
drying (firing). All types of tea are produced from the same operation (maceration or rolling) (Ghodake et al., 2006).
plant and the differences among them result from the different During this period, the shoots partially loose moisture
processing procedures used while producing the tea. The with moisture levels dropping from approximately
major steps in tea manufacturing and the corresponding types 70-80% to 60-70% (wet basis), and the turgid shoots
of tea produced are shown in Figure 1 (Jolvis Pou, 2016). In become flaccid. The rigid leaf becomes flexible and the
India, black tea of both the CTC and the orthodox type are shoots can now be twisted or rolled without breaking or
produced, which need proper control of process parameters becoming damaged into pieces. Withering increases the
to produce quality tea. Appearance (grain size, shape, and hydrolytic activity due to water loss, which increases
liquor color), aroma, and taste are the three main quality hydrolysis and tea extract activity (Belitz et al., 2009).
attributes that determine the quality of manufactured tea Ultimately, this activity catalyzes the oxidative reaction,
(Yan, 2007; Chen et al., 2008; Sharangi, 2009). The quality which is mainly responsible for the quality of the product
of tea is further governed by crop quality, standard of (Belitz et al., 2009; Fard et al., 2015). Withering brings
plucking, and various post-harvest unit operations. about biochemical changes in tea leaves. To acquire the
Withering is the first processing step in the factory for improved aroma, flavor, and other benefits in black tea,
black tea production. During this process, the fresh tea the proper withering of leaves is exceedingly important
leaves are conditioned physically and chemically for the (Ravichandran and Parthiban, 1998).
subsequent processing steps. It begins from the moment Various ingenious withering systems, namely trough
the leaves are picked to the time of rolling or maceration. withering, tunnel withering, tat withering, and drum
This study focuses on the various aspects of withering in the withering systems have been in use. Of these, the trough
manufacturing of black tea including the types of withering withering system is most commonly used in tea manufacturing
(physical and chemical), their effect on the various quality factories. In most of the factories mainly two types of trough,
parameters of tea, the roles of withering in different types of open trough and enclosed trough, are commonly used
tea manufactured, and the fundamentals of good withering (Sanyal, 2011), as shown in Figure 2 and 3, respectively.
practice. In open troughs, leaves are spread at a particular

Figure 1. Major steps in tea manufacturing and the corresponding types of tea.

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Journal of Biosystems Engineering • Vol. 41, No. 4, 2016 • www.jbeng.org

Figure 2. Open trough withering system (Source: Koomber Tea Estate, Goodricke Group Limited, Silchar).

Figure 3. Enclosed trough withering system (Source: Koomber Tea Estate, Goodricke Group Limited, Silchar).

thickness and air is blown in an upward direction from the more convenient for loading and unloading, and it is
bottom to the top layers, and in this way, the bottom layers easier to inspect the progress of the withering process
of the leaves become withered. In order to minimize leaves (Sanyal, 2011).
handling and to reduce leaves damage by avoiding the
leaves turning operation, the provision is made to move the Types of withering
fan both in forward and reverse directions. Therefore, the There are mainly two types of withering: chemical
leaves in the upper layer also become withered as air is withering and physical withering (Baruah et al., 2012;
drawn into the leaf bed. However, during the reverse Fard et al., 2015). Both withering processes are equally
rotation the fan efficiency is drastically reduced to about important and it is difficult to get good aroma and
60% as compared to the efficiency in the forward direction, flavored tea from un-withered or unevenly withered
thus consuming more power (Sanyal, 2011). leaves (Bhatia, 1962; Saijo, 1977; Dev Choudhury and
In the case of using an enclosed trough, leaves are spread Bajaj, 1980; Takeo, 1984; Baruah et al., 2012).
enclosed by the raised sides of the trough and a cover on top
of the bed is used. In this system, a fan is forcing air only in the Chemical withering
forward direction, and simultaneously air is passing through
Chemical withering begins immediately after the tea
both the top and bottom of the leaves using a damper. As the
leaves are plucked from the bushes. Chemical withering
handling of the leaves is less, the chances of leaves damage
is independent of the rate of moisture removal and is a
in enclosed troughs are much lower. In addition, the leaves
function of temperature and time. During the process,
do not get affected from the sudden variation in conditions
the complex chemical compounds are breaking down
of the outside environment. However, open troughs are still
into simpler compounds. The dehydration shock during
more popular in tea processing factories because they are

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 Deb and Jolvis Pou. A Review of Withering in the Processing of Black Tea
Journal of Biosystems Engineering • Vol. 41, No. 4, 2016 • www.jbeng.org

chemical withering triggers enzymatic ripening and Proteins and amino acids
produces floral flavor in the tea leaves (Sakata et. al., 2004). Amino acids are formed during withering by approximately
It is reported that for making good quality black tea proper 1.2% breakdown of proteins and are involved in aroma
chemical withering is highly necessary (Bhatia, 1962; Saijo, formation. This breakdown occurs because of the
1977; Dev Choudhury and Bajaj, 1980; Takeo, 1984). The peptidase present in the tea shoots (Bhatia, 1962; Perera
optimum duration for chemical withering has been and Wickremasingh, 1972; Motoda, 1979; Sanyal, 2011).
reported to be 14 h (Ullah, 1984). Experimental studies Peptidase increases the levels of free amino acids
have shown that the withering time beyond 20 h leads to particularly those of glutamine, glutamic acid, aspartic acid,
the deterioration of the quality of black tea (Owuor, and valine, serine, lysine, alanine, thromine, phenylalanine, and
Orchard, 1989), and hence, withering time should be tyrosine (Senderson and Graham, 1973; Tomlins and
limited to 18 h (Owuor and Orchard, 1992; Omiadze et al., Mashingaidze, 1996; Panda, 2011; Sanyal, 2011). Pheny
2014). lacetaldehyde, which is formed and reduced to alcohol, is
reported to be involved in the improvement of tea aroma.
Physical withering In contrast, formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, isobuty raldehyde,
Physical withering refers to the removal of moisture isovaleraldehyde, 2-methylbutanal, and methional are
from the tea leaf. During this process, the turgid leaf reported to cause poor flavor in tea (Senderson and
becomes flaccid. This process also leads to the concentra- Graham, 1973). The partial breakdown of proteins to amino
tion of sap in the cells of the tea leaf. The desired level of acids acts as a precursor for aroma.
moisture can be removed by passing air through the piled
leaves. Studies have shown that during physical withering Carbohydrates and simple sugars
the moisture content of green leaves is reduced to 60-70% There is a conversion of carbohydrates to simple sugars
(Yamanishi, et al., 1966; Omiadze et al., 2014, Jabeen et al., during withering. Simple sugars content increases and
2015). Time, temperature, and relative humidity are the carbohydrate content gradually decreases (Roberts, 1962).
major factors affecting physical withering (Obanda et al., Simple sugars formed from the breakdown of carbohydrates
2004). Tocklai (Tea Research Association, Assam, India) react with amino acids to produce the flavor in black tea
has reported that physical withering requires shorter (Dev Choudhury and Bajaj, 1980; Sanyal, 2011).
duration as compared to chemical withering. Thus, physical
withering is regulated at a slower rate for a longer period to Lipids and fatty acids
achieve withering in the same duration as that required for
During the withering process, lipids and fatty acids
chemical withering. This can be regulated by monitoring
are broken down into simpler compounds and volatile
the airflow rate and changing the air temperature during
compounds are formed. There are mainly two types of fatty
withering of tea leaves.
acids: saturated fatty acids and unsaturated fatty acids. It has
been previously reported that the levels of saturated fatty
Biochemical changes during chemical acids decrease during withering, but their effects on
withering black tea aroma are unknown (Selvendran et al., 1969;
Chemical withering plays a vital role in increasing the level Wright and Fishwick, 1979). Whereas, the effects of
of caffeine content (Sanderson, 1964), polyphenol oxidase unsaturated fatty acids on black tea aroma are much
activity (Ullah and Roy, 1982), amino acids, and sugars more documented, and the aroma formed from the
(Owuor and Orchard, 1989; Tomlins and Mashingaidze, breakdown of unsaturated fatty acids contributes to a
1997). Chemical withering results in the reduction of negative odor effect. It has been reported that grassy
chlorophyll content (Wickremasinghe, 1975) and leads to the aroma released from the withering trough is the result of
formation of different kinds of volatile flavor compounds aroma compounds produced from fatty acids (Takeo and
(Mahanta and Baruah, 1989; Ravichandran and Parthiban, Tsushida, 1980; Tomlins and Mashingaidze, 1997).
1998). The breakdown of proteins into amino acids during
chemical withering is one of the most important biochemical Catechins and enzyme activity
changes occurring during the process (Hussain et al., 2006).
Moisture removal during withering leads to an increase in

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Journal of Biosystems Engineering • Vol. 41, No. 4, 2016 • www.jbeng.org

the concentration of cell sap. As a result, the concentration highly necessary to form a good amount of caffeine in
of enzymes increases and results in the formation of high black tea. Teas with low levels of caffeine content show
molecular units from low molecular subunits. The withering inefficient creaming properties (Roberts, 1963; Bhatia,
of tea leaves activates the activity of catechol oxidase of 1964; Dev Choudhury and Bajaj, 1980; Tomlins and
phenol oxidase. Consequently, the oxidative reactions Mashingaidze, 1997), and these types of teas do not
take place, which are responsible for the quality of black receive good market value. Normally physically withered
tea (Omiadze et al., 2014). Catechin content decreases leaves show comparatively more caffeine concentration
during withering (Bokuchava and Skobeleva, 1980) and than forced physically withered tea leaves (Senderson
theaflavins (TF) and thearubigins (TR) (Omiadze et al., 2014) and Graham, 1973; Dev Choudhury and Bajaj, 1980;
are formed. TF and TR are the key parameters for brightness, Bhuyan and Mahanta, 1989; Tomlins and Mashingaidze,
briskness, color, and strength of black tea. 1997; Sanyal, 2011). Generally, in tea processing factories
during rainy days, the withering process is achieved with
Volatile flavor compounds (VFC) the application of hot air, and this makes the tea incapable
During withering, the levels of amino-acid derived of showing good creaming liquor. Therefore, it is always
aldehydes like methyl butanol, phenyl-acetaldehyde, and preferred to wither tea leaves normally below 38°C (Dev
n-hexanol increase, but carotenoid levels decrease (Panda, Choudhury and Bajaj, 1980).
2011). VFCs highly influence the quality and aroma of black
tea. There are mainly two types of VFC: Group I VFC, such Carotenoids
as hexanal and E-2-hexenal, and group II VFC, such as Carotenoids get degraded and volatile flavor compounds
linalool and geraniol. Group I VFC imparts inferior aroma, are formed during withering and fermentation (Hazarika
whereas group II VFC contributes to a positive effect on aroma. and Mahanta, 1983; Sanyal, 2011). Carotenoids are the
Research indicates that withering reduces the total amount of yellow pigments present in the green leaves, which assist
group I VFC, and increases the total amount of group II VFC with photosynthesis. Carotenoids degradation was found to
(Sanyal, 2011; Zheng et al., 2016). be more significant during physical withering as compared to
chemical withering.
Chlorophyll
A high amount of chlorophyll content is not desirable Roles of withering in different types of tea
during black tea production. It has been reported that processing
high chlorophyll content at the time of fermentation and The withering step plays a vital role for quality black
drying produce inferior liquor quality with a grassy tea manufacturing (Dev Choudhury and Bajaj, 1980). At
aroma (Tomlins and Mashingaidze, 1996; Sanyal, 2011). the same time withering is less important for producing
About 15% of chlorophyll degradation has been reported plain teas, which are mainly produced in Kenya and Malawi,
to occur during withering (Sanyal, 2011). Although high (Hilton, 1975; Owuor and Orchard, 1989; Orchard, 1991).
chlorophyll presence induces inferior liquor quality, However, it is recommended that there should be less
degradation of chlorophyll is recommended by proper handling of tea leaves during withering to minimize cell
withering, but high levels of chlorophyll degradation damage, so that negative effects on the subsequent step of
should be avoided. The conversion of chlorophyll to oxidation can be avoided (Sanyal, 2011). Nevertheless,
phaeophytin during fermentation and drying results in turn over treatment of leaves along with solar withering is
the black color of the CTC tea (Dev Choudhury and Bajaj, found to be necessary for the development of aroma
1980; Taylor et al., 1992; Tomlins and Mashingaidze, constituents in pouching tea. Research suggests that the
1997; Sanyal, 2011). withering process should be carried out below 38°C for
quality black tea, but for oolong tea, withering at 40°C
Caffeine results in more volatile compounds compared to normally
Caffeine is a very good stimulator of the central nervous withered leaves at ambient temperature. The withering step
system (Sanyal, 2011). The creaming property of black tea is not performed during production of green tea.
is an indication of caffeine content. Sufficient withering is

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Journal of Biosystems Engineering • Vol. 41, No. 4, 2016 • www.jbeng.org

Effects of withering on other processing Fundamentals of good withering

parameters in black tea production For high quality tea production, even and proper
Maceration/rolling withering are essential. Even and proper withering depend
Experiments indicate the problem in processing over- highly on the plucking (picking) standards, leaf handling, and
withered as well as under-withered leaves. The over-withered transportation. Compact leaf handling and packing increases the
leaves become hard and cause the maceration device or roller leaf temperature followed by significant decrease in TF content.
to get blunt if not used for an optimum period. This results in After plucking, if the leaves are kept in a basket for a long
additional fiber content in the final product; further, the period, the degradation of TF to TR increases. Eventually, this
likelihood of over-fermentation followed by over-firing of the may have adverse effects on the brightness, briskness, and
final product increases. On the other hand, it is reported that other quality parameters of manufactured tea. As recommended,
the rotor vane and CTC machine become clogged if an excessive the optimum ratio of TF and TR should be 1:10 for mellow
amount of moisture is present in withered leaves (Owuor et al., liquor and bright infusion. If the TF and TR ratio is less than
1987). There is no specified degree of withering; it depends on 1:10, it results in raw liquor and green infusion, whereas a
requirements, leaf quality, and ambient weather condition. ratio of more than 1:10 gives soft liquor and dark infusion
However, 68-72% of moisture content is recommended for (Sanyal, 2011; Jolvis Pou, 2016). Therefore, careless handling,
maceration (Choudhury, 1970; Tomlins and Mashingaidze, delayed transportation, leaves damage, compaction in basket
1997). for long duration, and over exposure to sunlight should be
avoided to control all aspects of quality deterioration (Sanyal,
Fermentation (oxidation) 2011). Only because of poor handling from plucking until
Even fermentation depends on proper withering, most arrival to the factory, about 25% of the market value of
importantly on physical withering. Uneven withering or manufactured tea can be lost (Burton, 1995; Wilkie, 1995).
less withering and excessive moisture content reduce the
aeration and temperature control, which results in
uneven fermentation (Sanderson and Graham, 1973; Conclusion
Tomlins and Mashingaidze, 1997). Over-withering also
should be avoided, as it hinders the enzymatic activities About 75% of total world tea production is processed as
that are responsible for color, brightness, aroma, and black tea and withering is one of the major processing steps
other quality attributes. for making quality black tea. Withering involves both
physical and chemical changes and plays a vital role for the
Drying (firing) development of quality attributes of black tea. Generally, the
Excessively withered tea may burn during drying, as trough withering system is used to carry out the withering
less amount of moisture is present in the dhool. At the process, involving open trough or enclosed trough systems.
same time, less or uneven withering should be averted as During the process, the moisture content of the tea leaves is
the wet dhool has a tendency to clump and stick to the usually reduced to 60-70% wet basis and the leaves turn from
surface of the dryer bedplate especially in fluidized bed turgid to flaccid. This further results in an increase in the
dryers (Owuor and Orchard, 1992; Tomlins and concentration of cell sap. Chemical withering brings about the
Mashingaidze, 1997). breaking down of complex chemical compounds into simpler
compounds. Biochemical changes occurring during chemical
Storage of manufactured tea withering include changes in the concentration of proteins,
The withering of tea leaves for short duration reduces lipids, carbohydrates, volatile flavor compounds, chlorophyll,
the conversion of TF to TR, and tea made from short caffeine, carotenoids, catechins, and enzyme activities etc.
duration-withered leaves deteriorates more rapidly. Results from previous studies indicate that the withering
Previous studies recommend that for long-term storage, duration of 14-18 h is optimum. The withering operation has
special attention should be given to physical withering. great effects on the subsequent processing steps (maceration,
Insufficient withering of tea leaves causes the greenish rolling, fermentation, drying, and storage). Furthermore, the
color in manufactured tea. withering process can be influenced by standards of plucking,
handling and transportation, ambient conditions, time, and

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Journal of Biosystems Engineering • Vol. 41, No. 4, 2016 • www.jbeng.org

temperature. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the recognition. Food Research International 41(5):500-504.
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Conflict of Interest 27:13-16.
Fard, F. S., H. R. Ghassemzadeh and S. B. Salvatian. 2015.
The authors have no conflicting financial or other Impact of withering time duration on some biochemical
interests. properties and sensory quality attributes of black tea.
Biological Forum-An International Journal 7(1):1045-1049.
Ghodake, H. M., T. K. Goswami and A. Chakraverty. 2006.
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