Chapter 20

Remote Sensing and GIS in Mapping

and Monitoring of Land Degradation

G. P. Obi Reddy, Nirmal Kumar, and S. K. Singh

Abstract The information on the extent and spatial distribution of various kinds of
degraded lands is essential for strategic planning and development of degraded
lands. Processes of land degradation can be broadly grouped into physical, chemical,
and vegetal (biological) degradation. The physical processes include land degrada-
tion mainly due to water and wind erosion, compaction, crusting, and waterlogging.
The chemical process includes salinization, alkalization, acidification, pollution, and
nutrient depletion. The vegetal or biological processes on the other hand are reduc-
tion of organic matter content in the soils and degradation of vegetation. The use of
remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS) techniques makes land
degradation estimation and its spatial distribution feasible with reasonable costs and
better accuracy in larger areas. The use of spaceborne multispectral data shown
its potential in deriving information on the nature, extent, spatial distribution, and
magnitude of various kinds of degraded lands. Assessment and monitoring of land
degradation through remote sensing offer a series of advantages such as consistency
of data, fairly near real-time reporting, and a source for having spatially explicit data.
The integration of high-resolution remote sensing data and digital elevation models
derived from satellites data like Cartosat-1 and Cartosat-2 and Light Detection and
Ranging (LiDAR) with ground data has immense potential in assessment and
monitoring of land degradation in local scales. In this chapter, application of remote
sensing and GIS in assessment and mapping of physical, chemical, and vegetal
degradation has been discussed. The study indicates that integrated remote sensing
and GIS applications have immense potential in assessment, mapping and monitor-
ing of land degradation with reasonable cost and better accuracy in larger areas that
would otherwise require large inputs of human and material resources.

Keywords Remote sensing · Geographic information system · Land degradation ·

Physical degradation · Chemical degradation · Vegetal degradation

G. P. O. Reddy (*) · N. Kumar · S. K. Singh

ICAR-National Bureau of Soil Survey & Land Use Planning, Nagpur, India

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 401

G. P. O. Reddy, S. K. Singh (eds.), Geospatial Technologies in Land Resources
Mapping, Monitoring and Management, Geotechnologies and the Environment 21,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-78711-4_20
402 G. P. O. Reddy et al.

20.1 Introduction

Land degradation remains a challenge in the twenty-first century for many devel-
oping countries across the globe because of its effect on the sustainability of
agricultural production and impacts on livelihoods among the marginal and rural
poor. Bai et al. (2008) reported that more than 20% of all cultivated areas, 30% of
forests, and 10% of grasslands in the world undergo various categories of land
degradation. About a quarter of world population is threatened by the effects of
degradation (Eswaran et al. 2001), which affect nearly 84% of agricultural lands
(FAO 2008a). Land degradation means reduction or loss of the biological or
economic productivity and complexity of rainfed cropland, irrigated cropland, or
range, pasture, forest, and woodlands resulting from land uses or from a process or
combination of processes, including processes arising from human activities and
habitation patterns. Land degradation is the temporary or permanent lowering of
the productive capacity of land. UNEP define it as a rate of adverse changes in soil
quality resulting in decline in productivity of lands (UNEP 1992). It thus covers the
various forms of soil degradation, adverse human impacts on water resources,
deforestation, and lowering of the productive capacity of rangelands. Land degra-
dation includes soil erosion due to wind and/or water; deterioration of the physical,
chemical and biological, or economic properties of soil; and long-term loss of
natural vegetation. Land degradation is an obstacle to sustainable development due
to its impact on the environment, food security, agroecosystem services, and
people’s livelihoods (UNCCD 2015). Metternicht (2006) considers that land
degradation is the “reduction in the capability of the land” to produce benefits
from a particular land use under a specified form of land management. In some
cases, the cause for land degradation could be solely natural or purely human, but
often both human and natural causes combine to land degradation. On-site effects
of land degradation are the lowering of the productive capacity of the land, causing
either reduced outputs (crop yields, livestock yields) or the need for increased
inputs. Off-site effects of water erosion occur through changes in the water regime,
including decline in river water quality and sedimentation of riverbeds and
reservoirs.
There is a large variation in estimations of extent and rate of land degradation at
global scale due to variation in definitions and methodologies adopted. It varied from
3.6 billion ha (Dregne and Chou 1994) to 1.9 billion ha (Oldeman 1994). Many
methods have been applied to assess land degradation through different approaches,
which use either qualitative or quantitative measures or both. GLASOD (Global
Assessment of Soil Degradation) approach mapped the status of global soil degra-
dation at a scale of 1:10 million by indicating type, extent, degree, rate, and main
causes of degradation (Oldeman et al. 1991). LADA (Land Degradation Assessment
in Drylands) developed an integrated assessment methodology for land degradation
20 Remote Sensing and GIS in Mapping and Monitoring of Land Degradation 403

to understand the degradation processes at different scales (global, national, and

local) by identifying the status and trends of land degradation, root causes, effects,
and consequences (LADA 2009). In India, the earliest assessment of the area
affected by the land degradation was made by the National Commission on Agri-
culture at 148 Mha (NCA 1976). The National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use
Planning (NBSS&LUP) estimated an area of 187 Mha (Sehgal and Abrol 1994)
under various categories of degraded lands by using GLASOD methodology
(Oldeman 1988). Nearly 175 Mha hectares of land in India is subject to one or
other kind of degradational process (Das 1985). About 150 Mha of land are suffering
from different types of erosion, out of which 69 Mha are in severe deterioration
phase (Anonymous 1976). The salt-affected soils and waterlogged areas are reported
as 7 Mha and 6 Mha, respectively (Bali 1985). The National Wasteland Develop-
ment Board (NWDB 1985) estimated an area of 123 Mha under wastelands.
National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) (formerly known as NRSA) followed
the remote sensing data-based assessment in preparation of wasteland maps with
adequate field checks on 1:50,000 scale and reported that 63.85 Mha area in India is
under various categories of wastelands (NRSA 2005). These estimations are due to
the use of varying definitions of land degradation, data sources, classification
systems, methodologies, and scales (Gautam and Narayan 1988). Maji et al.
(2010) harmonized the land degradation and wasteland datasets of India by adopting
systematic approach in GIS environment and reported that about 120.72 Mha area is
suffering from various kinds of land degradation. It includes 82.57 Mha area affected
by water erosion, 12.4 Mha by wind erosion, 6.74 Mha by salinity/alkalinity, and
17.94 Mha by soil acidity, and 1.07 Mha is under other complex problems
(Table 20.1).
Remotely sensed data was effectively used in identifying and mapping of land
degradation risks (Lu et al. 2007; Reddy et al. 2002). Satellite sensor data provide
spatially continuous, replicable, and homogenous information on the condition,

Table 20.1 Extent of degraded and wastelands in India

Degradation type Area (in Mha) Open forest (<40% canopy) (Mha)
Water erosion 73.27 9.30
Wind erosion 12.40 –
Chemical degradation soils
Exclusively salt-affected soils 5.44 –
Salt-affected and water-eroded soils 1.20 0.10
Exclusively acidic soils (pH < 5.5) 5.09 –
Acidic and water-eroded soils 5.72 7.13
Physical degradation
Mining and industrial waste 0.19 –
Waterlogging 0.88 –
Total 104.19 16.53
Grand Total 120.72
Source: Maji et al. (2010)
404 G. P. O. Reddy et al.

distribution, and dynamics of vegetation status and land degradation in a cost-

effective manner and over large areas. Remote sensing applications are often
considered as cost-effective and time-efficient procedures for the collection of data
over large areas that would otherwise require a very large input of human and
material resources. The integrated remote sensing and GIS technologies helps
immensely to spatially analyze and improve the understanding of causative factors
in land degradation assessment. Qualitative assessment, delineation, and mapping of
eroded lands were attempted using Landsat, MSS/TM, SPOT-PLA/MLA, and IRS
LISS-I/II data (Dwivedi et al. 1997a, b). Landsat MSS data have been used for
predicting soil loss in the rangelands of Western Australia (Pickup and Chewings
1986). Landsat MSS/TM data have been used for mapping ravines (Karale et al.
1987; Singh and Dwivedi 1989). Raina et al. (1991) have used Landsat TM data to
map the type, extent, and degree of degradation. NDVI derived from temporal
satellite data has been widely used in studies of land degradation from the field
scale to the global scale (Wessels et al. 2004; Singh et al. 2006). Many studies used
Landsat TM and ETM+ data in assessment of soil erosion, soil salinity, and crusting
in drylands (Metternicht et al. 2009; Vrieling et al. 2008; Vågen et al. 2013; Nawar
et al. 2014). Pandey et al. (2013) have used spectral indices such as CI (Crust Index),
NDSDI (Normalized Difference Sand Dune Index), and GSI (Topsoil Grain Size
Index) and compared with NDVI (normalized difference vegetation index) to assess
land degradation and sand encroachment in Western India.

20.2 Methods in Assessment of Land Degradation

There are many methods used to assess land degradation, viz., expert opinions, land
users’ opinions, field monitoring, observations and measurement, modeling, esti-
mates of productivity changes, and remote sensing (Kapalanga 2008). The important
methods like expert opinions, field monitoring, observations, and remote sensing
have been discussed below in detail.

20.2.1 Expert Opinion

Early land degradation assessments were essentially based on expert opinion/judg-

ment, as in the case of the GLASOD. The expert-based GLASOD (Oldeman et al.
1991) approach maps the status of global soil degradation at a scale of 1:10 million
by indicating type, extent, degree, rate, and main causes of degradation based on
responses to a questionnaire, which was sent to recognized experts in countries
around the world. GLASOD survey provides basic data on distribution and intensity
of erosional, chemical, and physical types of degradation at global scale (Bridges
and Oldeman 1999). A total of 1965 Mha land of the world was found to be degraded
and out of which water erosion affecting 1094 Mha of the land. Sehgal and Abrol
20 Remote Sensing and GIS in Mapping and Monitoring of Land Degradation 405

(1992) following the criteria and guidelines of the GLASOD methodology estimated
an area of 187 Mha under various categories of degraded lands in India. Another
example of an expert approach is the soil erosion risk map of Western Europe
(De Ploey 1989). Kessler and Stroosnijder (2006) utilized historical data and
farmers’ knowledge to identify eroded lands and severity of erosion in the Bolivian
mountain valleys based on indicators of soil, productivity, and vegetation cover loss.
Soil degradation in South and Southeast Asia (ASSOD) is another approach in
which the degree of soil degradation is expressed by degradation subtypes using
qualitative terms such as impact on productivity (Van Lynden and Oldeman 1997).
LADA considers both biophysical factors and socioeconomic driving forces for
assessing the land degradation (FAO 2008b). Koohafkan et al. (2003) developed
the guidelines for a methodological approach for assessing land degradation under
LADA project to assess the causes, status, and impact of land degradation and
possible responses. The approaches based on experts and users’ opinion are subjec-
tive and qualitative (Bai et al. 2008) and have proven inconsistent and hardly
reproducible (Sonneveld and Dent 2009).

20.2.2 Field Monitoring and Observation

The assessment of land degradation requires reliable analyses based on field mon-
itoring and observations. It is thus necessary to accurately describe the different
types of degradation and quantify the degree and extent of each type of degradation
using relevant indicators for targeted applications through using geospatial technol-
ogies like satellite imaging, GIS, and global positioning system (GPS) at different
scales. A systematic field survey is necessary to determine the extent of a given type
of land degradation. During the field surveys, surveyor can pinpoint the areas in the
field affected by the type of degradation, transferring the observations on a large-
scale map, and then calculate the degraded area in GIS to determine its extent. The
visual observations can be supplemented by legacy data and available high-
resolution satellite images. GPS can be used in the field to accurately locate the
observations. The collected field samples can be analyzed in the laboratory to
determine various chemical properties of soils relevant to land degradation. These
types of field surveys can also be supplemented by surveys of farmers/inhabitants to
determine the cropping practices and history of the crops cultivated. Through such
field surveys and observations, various subtypes of chemical and biological degra-
dation can be assessed and mapped. In India, based on soil resource mapping on
1:250,000 scale, it was reported that strongly acidic soils (pH <4.5) and moderately
acidic soils (pH 4.5–5.5) cover 1.9% and 7.4% of TGA of India, respectively (Maji
et al. 2012). In the recent times, high-resolution satellite images are being widely
used in mapping of land degradation through field surveys and observations.
406 G. P. O. Reddy et al.

20.2.3 Remote Sensing

Land degradation monitoring through remote sensing could be achieved through two
approaches through the comparative analysis of independently produced classifica-
tion for different dates and the simultaneous analysis of multi-temporal satellite data.
Different change detection techniques include univariate image differencing, vege-
tation index differencing, image regression, image ratioing, principal component
analysis, post-classification comparison, direct multi-date comparison, change vec-
tor analysis, and background subtraction which could be used to assess the land
degradation. Many authors adopted various approaches such as visual interpretation,
unsupervised and supervised classification, and remote sensing-derived indices for
mapping of land degradation (Gupta et al. 1998; Saini et al. 1999; Jafari et al. 2008).
Though researchers devised best techniques to derive the results, these techniques
seem to yield different levels of results for different environmental features and
applications. Image fusion techniques such as image sharpening, improvement of
registration accuracy, creation of stereo data sets, feature enhancement, improved
classification, temporal aspect for change detection, and overcoming data gaps due
to clouds could improve and yield more information than a single sensor data can
provide (Pohl and Van Genderen 1998). Metternicht and Zinck (1998) investigated
synergistic use of JERS-1 and Landsat TM for mapping water-induced surface
erosion features. Metternicht and Zinck (1997) found out the highest separability
between erosion classes upon integration of seven bands of the Landsat TM and
JERS-1 SAR with an overall classification accuracy of 87%. Dwivedi et al. (1997a,
b) revealed that fusion of Landsat TM and SPOT MSS data provided an overall
accuracy of 92% for erosion mapping.

20.3 Remote Sensing and GIS in Mapping and Monitoring

of Land Degradation

Various processes of land degradation have been broadly grouped into physical,
chemical, and vegetal degradation. Remote sensing and GIS technologies have
immense potential in mapping and monitoring of land degradation with adequate
field surveys.

20.3.1 Physical Degradation

Physical degradation covers land degradation due to water erosion, wind erosion,
waterlogging, lowering of the water table, mining and quarrying, and urban and
industrial waste. Global water erosion and wind erosion affect 1094 and 549 Mha,
respectively (Lal 2003).
20 Remote Sensing and GIS in Mapping and Monitoring of Land Degradation 407

20.3.1.1 Water Erosion

The information on extent and spatial distribution of soil erosion is essential for
formulating effective mitigation strategies and implementing appropriate conserva-
tion measures (Vrieling 2006; Panagos et al. 2015). Water erosion covers all forms
of soil erosion by water, including sheet and rill and gully erosion. Soil erosion by
water involves the processes of detachment and transportation by impact of raindrop
and flowing water (Wischmeier and Smith 1978). Soil erosion is a natural process
that removes soil particles and deposit as sediment in some other location. Out of
total 1965 Mha of degraded lands in the world, 1094 Mha is under soil erosion due to
water, and it accounts for 55% and causing up to a 17% reduction in crop produc-
tivity (Oldeman et al. 1990). Dhruvanarayana and Ram Babu (1983) reported that in
Indian conditions about 16.4 t ha
1 year.
1 of top soil, of which 29% is lost
permanently into the sea, 10% gets deposited in the reservoirs reducing their
capacity by 1–2% every year, and the remaining 61% gets displaced from one
place to another. Mandal and Sharda (2011) reported that soil erosion caused by
water is a major factor contributing to land degradation in India and many other
countries, as it exceeds the natural soil formation rates.
Remote sensing and GIS techniques make soil erosion estimation and its spatial
distribution feasible with reasonable costs and better accuracy in larger areas
(Millward and Mersey 1999; Wang et al. 2003). Integrated remote sensing, GIS,
and RUSLE provide the potential to estimate soil erosion loss on a cell-by-cell basis
(Millward and Mersey 1999). Wang et al. (2003) demonstrated that integration of
ground dataset, Thematic Mapper (TM), and digital elevation model (DEM) data
through geostatistical methods provides significantly better results than using tradi-
tional methods in predicting soil erosion loss. Remote sensing data has immense
potential to develop the cover management factor through land cover classifications
(Reusing et al. 2000; Ma et al. 2003), whereas GIS tools could be effectively used to
integrate the USLE factors in calculation of soil erosion (Bartsch et al. 2002; Wang
et al. 2003). The utility of GIS capabilities increased when they coupled with
empirical and predictive models in assessment of soil loss (Reddy et al. 2004,
2013, 2016; Srinivas et al. 2002). Wilson and Lorang (2000) reviewed the applica-
tions of GIS in estimating soil erosion, discussed the limitations of previous
approaches, and identified that GIS provided tremendous potential for improving
soil erosion estimation.
Many researchers used soil erosion models such as the Universal Soil Loss
Equation (USLE) (Wischmeier and Smith 1978) and its subsequent Revised Uni-
versal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) (Renard et al. 1997) and GIS techniques to make
soil erosion estimation and its spatial distribution (Wang et al. 2003; Fu et al. 2005).
In practice, the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) (Wischmeier and Smith 1978)
and later the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) (Renard et al. 1997)
has been the most widely used model in predicting soil erosion loss. The use of
remote sensing and GIS techniques makes soil erosion estimation and its spatial
distribution feasible with reasonable costs and better accuracy in larger areas
408 G. P. O. Reddy et al.

(Millward and Mersey 1999; Wang et al. 2003). The integrated use of GIS and
erosion models, such as USLE/RUSLE, has been proved to be an effective approach
for estimating the extent, magnitude, and spatial distribution of erosion (Mitasova
et al. 1996; Molnar and Julien 1998; Millward and Mersey 1999; Fernandez et al.
2003). Availability of spatial databases in GIS, digital elevation models (DEMs),
and temporal satellite imageries have immense potential to predict erosion potential
on a cell by cell (Reusing et al. 2000).
In both models, the average soil erosion per year is computed from the product of
six factors, namely, rainfall erosivity (R), soil erodibility (K), slope length (L), slope
steepness (S), vegetation cover (C), and support practice factor (P). In the RUSLE,
the mean annual soil loss is expressed as a function of six erosion factors:

A¼RKLSCP ð1Þ

where A is the computed amount of the average soil loss in tons per hectare per year,
R the rainfall erosivity factor in megajoules per millimeter per hectare per hour per
year, K the soil erodibility factor in tons per hour per megajoules per millimeter, L
the slope length (meters), S the slope steepness (%), C the crop management factor,
and P the erosion control practice factor. Factors C and P are dimensionless. R factor,
in the USLE and RUSLE models, is an index of rainfall erosivity, which is the
potential ability of the rain to cause erosion. The soil erodibility factor (K) represents
both susceptibility of soil to erosion and the amount and rate of runoff, as measured
under standard plot conditions. The cover factor (C) is an index which reflects, on the
basis of the land use, the effect of cropping practices on the soil erosion rate. After
computation of R, K, LS, C, and P maps as data layers, they can be multiplied in the
GIS to assess spatial distribution of soil loss. Other than the USLE and RUSLE,
other erosion models such as the Morgan and Finney method (Morgan et al. 1984),
ANSWERS (Beasley et al. 1980), WEPP (NSERL 1995), and PCARES
(Paningbatan 2001) were also used to predict soil erosion.

20.3.1.2 Wind Erosion

It refers to loss of soil by wind, occurring primarily in dry regions. Wind erosion
process is often found to be one of the major causes of land degradation in arid and
semiarid regions. In wind-induced land degradation mapping, sand dunes, wind
streaks, paleo-aeolian features, desert pavements, sand encroachments, blowouts,
and changes in the vegetation cover are indicators commonly to be considered. Wind
erosion is controlled by several factors such as wind velocity, rainfall pattern,
stability of the surface on which wind is acting upon, vegetation cover, and also
socioeconomic condition of the region. Wind erosion not only impacts just the land
but also the whole ecosystem and adversely affects socioeconomic conditions of the
population. The focus of wind erosion has gradually been shifted from qualitative
studies to semiquantitative and quantitative wind tunnel studies (Steffens et al.
2009). Over the past decades, the significance of the wind erosion problem is
20 Remote Sensing and GIS in Mapping and Monitoring of Land Degradation 409

increased because of the changing agricultural practices (Riksen et al. 2003), and
further increase can be expected due to the projected climate change (IPCC 2014).
Therefore, it is important to precisely map the extent and spatial distribution of wind
erosion.
Many authors used remote sensing techniques to monitor trends of land degra-
dation as well as to identify and characterize sand dunes and their temporal dyna-
mism (Chen et al. 1998; Tucker et al. 1994). Some of the other techniques applied for
extracting data on wind erosion indicators are image transformation techniques
(Carneiro and Zinck 1994), digital image classification using neural networks
(Collado 2000), spectral mixture analysis (Collado 2000), and supervised maximum
likelihood classification (Carneiro and Zinck 1994; del Valle et al. 2008). The
satellite data based derived products subsequently used as input in GIS analysis to
estimate sand mobilization rates and sand dune migration (del Valle et al. 2008).
Image segmentation and object-oriented classifications of Terra-ASTER and textural
details derived from RADARSAT were applied to discriminate desert pavements,
active and stabilized dunes, and shrub encroachment (Blanco et al. 2009). Ajai et al.
(2007, 2009) demonstrated applications of remote sensing data and GIS in land
degradation and desertification mapping and reported about 105.48 Mha of India is
undergoing the process of land degradation. The causative factors for desertification
include overgrazing, cultivation on marginal lands and high slopes, non-sustainable
land use practices, wrong agricultural management, mining, urbanization, and other
activities that disturb the natural ecosystem. In addition to these factors, frequent
droughts, extreme weather conditions, climate change, etc. are natural causes of land
degradation and desertification. The socioeconomic condition of the local population
also contributes to the land degradation/desertification process. The unstabilized
longitudinal sand dunes in part of Jaisalmer district of Rajasthan mapped through
analysis of sentinel 2 data (10 m) of February 10, 2016, is shown in Fig. 20.1.

20.3.1.3 Waterlogging

Waterlogging and subsequent salinization and/or alkalization are the major land
degradation processes in irrigated agricultural lands of arid and semiarid regions.
Waterlogging is the rise of the water table into the root zone of the soil profile, such
that plant growth is adversely affected by deficiency of oxygen. Waterlogging
lowers the land productivity through the rise in groundwater close to the soil surface.
It also included surface ponding, where the water table rises above the surface.
Waterlogging is linked with salinization, both being brought about by incorrect
irrigation management. Waterlogging should be distinguished from naturally occur-
ring poorly drained areas and also from the different problems of flooding. In the
GLASOD estimate, waterlogging affects 4.6 Mha, largely in the irrigated areas of
India and Pakistan. It is closely linked with salinization. In India, Ahmad and
Kutcher (1992) monitored the progressive rise in the water table beneath the Indo-
Gangetic plains since the commencement of large-scale irrigation schemes in the
1930s.
410 G. P. O. Reddy et al.

Fig. 20.1 Unstabilized longitudinal sand dunes in part of Jaisalmer district of Rajasthan mapped
through analysis of sentinel 2 satellite data of February 10, 2016

Choubey (1997) used temporal IRS-IA-LISS-I, land use, and drainage data to
delineate waterlogged areas and area sensitive to waterlogging in the Tawa com-
mand, and results were validated with water table data. He demonstrated that since
the water table cannot be detected directly from satellite observations, the best
integrative indicator can be the crop stress due to high-water table. Choubey
(1998) made an attempt to identify waterlogged areas in Sriram Sagar command
area by using remote sensing data. Barret and Curtis (1976) indicated that stream
channel development and network, stream length, and the location of ponds and
lakes can be mapped from Landsat-MSS data and it can be integrated in GIS to
assess the waterlogging and drainage problems by identifying the drainage network
and its characteristics in a basin besides the information on presence of high-water
table, high morphology, soil color, plant stress, and drainage water collection in
lower spots. The permanent waterlogged areas in the part of Sultanpur district of
Uttar Pradesh, India, as appeared in Resourcesat-2 LISS-IV (5.8 m) of October 2016
are shown in Fig. 20.2.
20 Remote Sensing and GIS in Mapping and Monitoring of Land Degradation 411

Fig. 20.2 Permanent waterlogged areas in the part of Sultanpur district of Uttar Pradesh as
appeared in Resourcesat-2 LISS-IV (5.8 m) of October 2016

20.3.1.4 Lowering of the Water Table

It is a self-explanatory form of land degradation, brought about through tube well

pumping of groundwater for irrigation exceeding the natural recharge capacity. In
areas of deep alluvial deposits and where the groundwater has not become saline,
tube well irrigation has become widespread and has led to substantial increases in
crop production. In many parts of Northwestern India, due to overextraction of
groundwater, its level has been progressively lowered. Singh (1992) reported that
in parts of the Punjab, the water table has fallen by between 0.5 and 4.0 m in the
8 year period (1978–1986) and is receding at 0.3–0.5 m per year. Joshi and Tyagi
(1991a, b) indicated that in the Sudhar block of Ludhiana district, groundwater has
fallen from 3 m to 11 m during 1965 and 1989 and in Haryana from 4.8 m to 7.7 m
during 1974 and 1989. Rodell et al. (2009) used GRACE (Gravity Recovery and
Climate Experiment) data to monitor groundwater storage changes for long term in
high plains aquifer in the Central United States. Noomen (2007) also presented the
groundwater monitoring techniques using both GRACE and ERS satellite images in
continental or global scale. Suphan et al. (2004) also proposed a method for
estimation of spatial variation of subsurface water level change caused by crop
growth from Landsat TM data and its relationship with groundwater level in an
irrigation project in Thailand.

20.3.1.5 Mining and Industrial Waste

A major problem across the globe is the loss of prime agricultural land for housing,
industry, roads, and other nonagricultural purposes. As urban centers expand, good
quality land is converted, usually permanently, to other uses. To compensate for this,
412 G. P. O. Reddy et al.

farmers are forced on to poorer land – frequently steeply sloping ground with
shallow, poor soils, which can quickly erode and lead to land degradation, flooding,
siltation of dams and waterways, and an accompanying cycle of poverty. During the
mining operations, removal of vegetation cover results in soil degradation due to
accelerated water erosion, soil compaction, and soil crusting, which affects the land
productivity. Mining activities also disturb large tract of land due to overburden
dumps, which change the natural topography and drainage pattern of the area (Dhar
et al. 1991). Remote sensing and GIS have been widely used in mapping land
use/land cover changes and environmental degradation caused by mining activities.
Remote sensing provides multi-temporal data, which gives valuable temporal infor-
mation about the process and pattern of land use/land cover change, and it may be
analyzed and mapped in GIS to find the impact of mining and industrial activities on
land degradation.

20.3.2 Chemical Degradation

20.3.2.1 Salt Affected Soils

Salinization is defined as the presence of excessive salts on the top layer of the soil,
resulting in deterioration of its chemical and physical properties. Soil salinization not
only causes the destruction of land and plant resources and immense decline of
agricultural productivity, but also threatens the ecosystem of the region. It often
occurs in areas where soil’s evaporation is very intense, and the water table is high
and contains high dissolubility salt. Soil salinization is a serious issue, particularly in
Argentina, Egypt, India, Iraq, Pakistan, Syria, and Iran (Rhoades 1990). Soil salinity
is a prevalent environmental hazard in arid and semiarid regions of the world (Hillel
2000). Koohafkan and Stewart (2012) reported that saline soils covered 397 Mha of
the total land area of the world. Ghassemi et al. (1995) estimated approximately one
billion hectares of the earth’s continental extent is affected soil salinity. Landsat data
have been extensively used for separating different levels of soil salinity/sodicity in
the United States (Wiersma and Horton 1976), India (Venkatratnam 1983), Iraq
(Al Mahawili 1983), and Canada (Sommerfeldt et al. 1985). Most of the authors are
able to distinguish only 2–3 classes (strong and medium) of salinity levels with
errors between moderately saline and normal soils. Rao and Venkataratnam (1991)
studied the spectral behavior of salt-affected soils of Indo-Gangetic alluvial plain and
concluded that salt-affected soils as compared to normal cultivated soils showed
relatively higher spectral response in visible and near-infrared regions. Further,
strongly saline-sodic soils were found to have higher spectral response as compared
to moderately saline-sodic soils. Joshi and Sahai (1993) compared the accuracy of
TM, MSS, and SPOT and found TM to be the superior multispectral radiometer for
soil salinity mapping. Metternicht and Zinck (1996) mapped salt- and sodium-
affected surface by combining digital image classification with field observations
of soil degradation features and laboratory determination.
20 Remote Sensing and GIS in Mapping and Monitoring of Land Degradation 413

Remote sensing technology, with its unique characteristics of systematic, synop-

tic, rapid, and repetitive coverage, has emerged as a cost-effective and time-efficient
approach for studying and mapping salt-affected soils and other degraded lands in
space and time domains (Navalgund et al. 2007; Metternicht and Zinck 2008).
Johnston and Barson (1993) reported that the use of satellite data in discriminating
the saline areas was the most successful approach during the peak vegetation growth.
Goossens and Van Ranst (1996) demonstrated that the combination of remote
sensing with GIS is very promising, especially for the monitoring of soil salinization.
Goossens and Van Ranst (1998) reported that single image may be suitable for
detecting severely salinized soils, but more gradations can be determined by using
temporal images. Goossens and Van Ranst (1998) monitored and predicted soil
salinity in the Nile Delta, Egypt, using GIS and remote sensing techniques. Khan
et al. (2001) used IRS-LISS-II digital data and different remote sensing-derived
indices such as salinity index (SI), normalized difference salinity index (NDSI),
brightness index (BI), and normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) for
mapping salt-affected soils in Punjab, Pakistan. Koshal (2010) used wetness index
(WI), soil brightness index (SBI), and soil-adjusted vegetation index (SAVI) for
degraded land characterization and delineation with emphasis on salinity and
sodicity problems.
In Indian conditions, Seghal et al. (1988) applied Landsat MSS data for mapping
salt-affected soils in the frame of the reconnaissance soil map of India. Dwivedi
(1992) used Landsat MSS and TM data for more detailed mapping and monitoring of
the salt-affected soils in the Indo-Gangetic alluvial plains of India. Many authors
reported that the delineation of saline soils using remote sensing data and GIS
techniques has been proved efficient (Dwivedi 1992; Dwivedi and Sreenivas 1998;
Rao et al. 1991; Sharma et al. 1988). Verma et al. (1994) demonstrated that the
addition of the thermal band of Landsat TM to the visible NIR bands helped
overcome spectral similarity issues with saline soils. Dwivedi et al. (2008) reported
that fusion of IKONOS imagery with IRS-ID LISS-III sensor data significantly
improves the overall accuracy in soil salinity mapping and detection. The first
systematic mapping of salt-affected soils of the country has been carried out in
1996 with various project partners including NRSA, CSSRI, NBSS&LUP, all India
soil and land use survey, state soil survey departments, and state/regional remote
sensing application centers (NRSA 1996, 2008). To address the problem of diverg-
ing national estimates by remote sensing for arriving at an acceptable figure, CSSRI,
NRSA, and NBSS&LUP held a series of consultations and have developed a
GIS-based approach to reconcile the national estimates as 6.73 Mha (CSSRI 2007;
Maji 2007). Maji et al. (2010) harmonized land degradation datasets of
India and reported that exclusively salt affected soils and salt affected soils with
water covers 5.44 and 1.30 Mha, respectively. The planners and decision-makers are
using this information for planning reclamation programs. Salt-affected soils in the
part of Sultanpur district of Uttar Pradesh as detected on Resourcesat-2 LISS-IV
(5.8 m) on May 27, 2016, are shown in Fig. 20.3.
414 G. P. O. Reddy et al.

Fig. 20.3 Salt-affected soils in the part of Sultanpur district of Uttar Pradesh as detected on
Resourcesat-2 LISS-IV (5.8 m) on May 27, 2016

20.3.2.2 Soil Fertility Decline

It is used as a short term to refer to what is more precisely described as deterioration

in soil physical, chemical, and biological properties. While decline in fertility is
indeed a major effect of erosion, the term is used here of cover effects of processes
other than erosion. The main processes involved in soil fertility decline are lowering
of soil organic matter, with associated decline in soil biological activity; degradation
of soil physical properties, as brought about by reduced organic matter; and adverse
changes in soil nutrient resources, including reduction in availability of the major
nutrients, onset of micronutrient deficiencies, development of nutrient imbalances
and buildup of toxicities, primarily acidification through incorrect fertilizer use.
GLASOD defines this form of degradation as “loss of nutrients and/or organic
matter”. The GLASOD assessment shows 65% of agricultural land in Bangladesh
and 61% in Sri Lanka affected by this type of degradation. In Bangladesh, the
average organic matter (presumably of topsoils) is said to have declined by 50%,
from 2 to 1%, over the past 20 years (Bangladesh 1992). For the Indian state of
Haryana, soil test reports over 15 years show a decrease in soil carbon (Chaudhary
and Aneja 1991). Decreased organic matter leads to degradation of soil physical
properties, including water holding capacity, reduced nutrient retention capacity, and
longer release of nutrients, including micronutrients, from mineralization of organic
matter. Negative soil nutrient balances have been reported for all three major
nutrients in Bangladesh and Nepal, for phosphorus and potassium in Sri Lanka,
and a large deficit for potassium in Pakistan (FAO 1986). Nutrient depletion has
been reported for each of the 15 agroclimatic regions of India (Biswas and Tewatia
1991; Tandon 1992). For India, a deficiency between nutrient removal and addition
of 60 kg/ha per year, or 9 Mt for the whole country, has been estimated (Tandon
1992). As per secondary and micronutrient deficiencies are concern, sulfur defi-
ciency has been reported for India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka and zinc deficiency for
20 Remote Sensing and GIS in Mapping and Monitoring of Land Degradation 415

India and Pakistan (FAO/RAPA 1992; Bowonder 1981; Chaudhary and Aneja 1991;
Abrol 1990). For Bangladesh, 3.9 Mha are reported deficient in sulfur and 1.75 Mha
in zinc, including areas of continuous swamp rice cultivation (Bangladesh 1992).
Pakistan, because of its generally alkaline soils, is particularly liable to micronutrient
deficiencies, which are being increasingly reported (Twyford 1994).

20.3.3 Vegetal Degradation

Vegetal degradation basically covers deforestation, overgrazing, and shifting

cultivation.

20.3.3.1 Deforestation

Deforestation is one of causes of land degradation, firstly, when the land that is
cleared is steeply sloping or has shallow or easily erodible soils and, secondly, when
the clearance is not followed by good management. Deforestation and forest degra-
dation lead to water erosion in steeply sloping humid environments. It is also a
contributory cause of wind erosion, soil fertility decline, and salinization. The
drivers and intensity of forest degradation vary by region (Kissinger et al. 2012),
but the severity and impact of forest loss and degradation can be observed at all
scales, from global climate change to declining economic value of forest resources
and biodiversity and threatened local livelihoods. The impact of forest degradation
varies from fine-scale structural changes in canopy cover and height (Franke et al.
2012; Hirschmugl et al. 2014), or subtle disruptions to ecosystem services, to broad-
scale loss of biomass (Miettinen et al. 2014). These changes can occur over a range
of spatial and temporal scales, which can be mapped and monitor through temporal
satellite data. Many authors used satellite data to analyze the spatial and temporal
patterns of deforestation and the identification of key variables related to deforesta-
tion and identify the driving forces behind changes to forest cover (Jha et al. 2000,
Gautam et al. 2003; Panta et al. 2008).

20.3.3.2 Overgrazing

Overgrazing is the status of grazing of natural pastures as stocking intensifies above

the livestock carrying capacity. Overgrazing adversely affects soil properties, which
result in reduced infiltration, accelerated runoff, and soil erosion. Oldeman et al.
(1991) reported that overgrazing is considered to be the major cause of soil degra-
dation worldwide especially widespread in Australia and Africa, where it accounts
for 80.6% and 49.2%, respectively, of all soil degradation (Warren and Khogali
1992). Degradation of vegetation cover and erosion leads to decline of soil organic
matter and physical properties. Overgrazing especially in arid regions reduced
416 G. P. O. Reddy et al.

infiltration and accelerated runoff and soil erosion. Results of several studies
conducted in Argentina and India indicate that at the macro- and mesoscales, soil
erosion can increase dramatically due to overgrazing, causing increases of 5–41
times over the control at the mesoscale and 3–18 times at the macroscale (Sharma,
1997).

20.3.3.3 Shifting Cultivation

In the past, shifting cultivation was a sustainable form of land use, at a time when
low population densities allowed forest fallow periods of sufficient length to restore
soil properties. Population increase and enforced shortening of fallow periods have
led to it becoming non-sustainable. Shifting cultivation is found in the hill areas of
Northeast India, where it is a cause of water erosion and soil fertility decline. In
Northeast India, out of the total forest cover, 1.5 Mha is currently managed by
shifting cultivation (Roy et al. 2012). Shifting cultivation in Northeast India not only
degrades land productivity but also causes excess runoff and accelerates soil erosion
in steep slope regions and deposit sediments on the riverbed in the adjoining basins
and lowlands.

20.4 Management of Degraded Lands

GIS based reliable data on extent and spatial distribution on nature and degree of
degraded lands; it includes soils, climate, vegetation, and topography which are
needed to develop land management strategies and sound land use plans. This
information can provide the background to the policies and strategies that are
required by planners and policy makers to develop policies and programs in man-
agement of land degradation hazards. Subsidies, incentives, and taxes can all have an
effect on what crops are grown, where, and whether or not the land is well managed.
The best way to protect soil from erosion is through a dense cover of living or dead
vegetation. Healthy, densely growing crops not only produce high yields but they
also provide good ground cover and protection from erosion. Any conservation
program should therefore promote good crop management. There is considerable
potential for increasing the use of green manures in order to improve soil fertility and
improve levels of organic matter in the soil.
Land degradation has been fairly high in Northeastern states of India like
Nagaland, Sikkim, and Meghalaya and in some cases, it accounts for 50% of the
total geographical areas. So development, reclamation, and management of degraded
lands should be prioritized through proper land conservation programmes with
an aim to encourage land users, at the level of the farm unit, to adopt land use
systems and management practices that will lead to conservation. In order to impart
essential knowledge and skills in conservation program, practical training on con-
servation program needs to be conducted. Overexploitation of groundwater has
20 Remote Sensing and GIS in Mapping and Monitoring of Land Degradation 417

reached danger levels in Punjab, Haryana, and Tamil Nadu. For sustained agriculture
and livelihood security in the future, rational planning and utilization of groundwater
resources are essential. Salinized soils can be restored to productive use, although at
a high cost, through salinity control and reclamation projects. In other cases, the land
can only be restored by taking it out of productive use for some years, as in
reclamation forestry. The cost of reclamation, or restoration to productive use, of
degraded soils is invariably less than the cost of preventing degradation before it
occurs.

20.5 Conclusions

In order to acquire more accurate data, it is necessary to define the type and degrees
of land degradation in terms that offer practical means of observation, monitoring,
and mapping. The study indicates that remote sensing technology, with its unique
characteristics of systematic, synoptic, rapid, and repetitive coverage, has emerged
as a cost-effective and time-efficient approach for studying and mapping land
degradation in time and space domains. Remote sensing and GIS techniques have
immense potential to map and monitor various types of physical degradations due to
water erosion, wind erosion, waterlogging, mining and quarrying, and urban and
industrial waste. The use of remote sensing and GIS techniques makes soil erosion
estimation and its spatial distribution feasible with reasonable costs and better
accuracy in larger areas. The temporal remote sensing data has immense potential
to monitor and characterize sand dunes and their temporal dynamism. Integrated
remote sensing and GIS could be effectively used to map and monitor the water-
logged- and salt-affected soils. The spatiotemporal patterns of deforestation and
identification of key driving forces behind changes in forest cover could be effec-
tively mapped and monitored.
Reclamation and management of degraded lands should be a priority through
proper land conservation program with the aim to adopt suitable land use systems
and management practices. The information generated through integrated remote
sensing and GIS on extent and spatial distribution of degraded lands could be
effectively used in watershed management programmes for soil and water conser-
vation, reclamation of salt-affected soils, afforestation towards sustainable manage-
ment of land resources and improvement of the status of soil organic matter. In
general, lightly degraded soils can be improved by crop rotation, minimum tillage
techniques, and other on-farm practices. Moderately damaged land takes more
resources to restore the land resources. More severely degraded soils could be
used for afforestation and mechanical measures. In developing countries like
India, the program of reclamation and management of degraded lands could be
effectively linked with government-run employment guarantee schemes to provide
employment to the landless and rural poor for effective management of land
resources toward sustainable agriculture and livelihood security.
418 G. P. O. Reddy et al.

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