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VARIETY OF ORGANISMS

To be considered a living organism, an organism must be able to…

Move
Respiration
Sensitivity
Control of internal conditions (homeostatis)
Growth
Reproduction
Excretion
Nutrition

Viruses cannot do these things and therefore are not considered living.

Living organisms can be either eukaryotic or prokaryotic. Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus
however, prokaryotic cells do not have. These are
eukaryotic organisms:

Plants
● Multicellular (made of many cells)
● Have chloroplasts which contain chlorophyll
● Photosynthesise to produce glucose
● Cell walls made from cellulose
● Store carbohydrates as starch (& Sucrose)
● Examples: Maize + legumes

Animals
● Multicellular (made of many cells)
● No chloroplasts - they do not photosynthesise
● No cell walls
● Have nervous coordination
● Move from place to place
● Store carbohydrates as glycogen
● Examples: Human + mosquito

Fungi
● Some are multicellular (body called a mycelium)
● Some are unicellular
● Cannot photosynthesise
● Cell walls made from chitin
 ● Store carbohydrates as glycogen
● Feed by saprotrophic nutrition (food digested outside body and nutrients absorbed
with extracellular enzymes in hyphae)
● Examples: Yeast(unicellular) + mucor (multicellular)

Protoctists

● Unicellular (single celled)

● Some have chloroplasts (like plant cells)
● Others more like animal cells (no chloroplasts)
● Examples: Chlorella (plant like) Amoeba (animal like)

These are the prokaryotic organisms:>

Bacteria

● Single celled
● No nucleus (prokaryotes)
● Circular chromosome of DNA
● Some can photosynthesise
● Usually feed off other organisms
(decomposer)
● Examples: Lactobacillus (used in yoghurt) and Pneumococcus (causes pneumonia)

Viruses

● Particles, much smaller than bacteria

● Reproduce inside living cells (parasites)
● Protein coat surrounding genetic material
● Examples: Influenza virus (causes Flu), HIV (causes AIDS)

IMPORTANT:
ALL LIVING ORGANISM CELLS HAVE RIBOSOMES

A pathogen is an organism which can cause disease.

Bacteria - Pneumococcus (causes pneumonia)

Protoctists - eg Plasmodium (causes malaria)
Viruses - Influenza virus (causes flu), HIV (causes aids) and TMV (a virus which affects
plants)
Some fungi are also pathogenic - Athlete’s foot
The order of living organisms is: cell →tissue →organ →organ system →organism

The organelles inside a cell (bold = only in plants):

Nucleus: Contains genetic material that controls cells activities
Cell membrane - controls what enters and leaves the cell
Cytoplasm - where chemical reactions take place
Mitochondria - Where aerobic respiration takes place
Ribosomes - where proteins are synthesised
Chloroplasts - contain chlorophyll which trap light energy, where photosynthesis
occurs
Cell wall - made of cellulose - provides structure for the cell
Vacuole - contains cell sap, to support the cell by keeping it turgid

There are 3 ways substances move in/out of cells:

● Diffusion - Diffusion is the passive movement of particles from an area of higher

concentration to an area of lower concentration

● Osmosis - Osmosis is the passive movement of water from an area of high water
concentration to an area of low water concentration across a partially permeable
membrane

● Active transport - Active transport is the active movement of particles against a

concentration gradient (from low to high concentration)

There are factors which affect the rate of diffusion (and osmosis and active transport)

● Temperature - Increasing temperature increases rate of diffusion, Particles gain

energy, Move faster and collide more frequently.

● Distance - Increasing diffusion distance decreases rate of diffusion, longer distance

for molecules to move over

● Concentration - Increasing concentration increase rate of reaction as more particles

available to move across cell membrane, (Steeper concentration gradient) THIS
DOES NOT APPLY TO ACTIVE TRANSPORT

● Surface area to volume ratio - Increasing surface area to volume ratio increases the
rate of diffusion - substances can reach the centre of these objects faster

HUMAN NUTRITION

Carbohydrates contain oxygen, carbon and hydrogen.

Starch is a long and insoluble molecule, made up of glucose molecules in a long chain

Lipids contain oxygen, carbon and hydrogen. Lipids are made from 3 fatty acid chains and
glycerol.
Proteins contain oxygen, carbon and hydrogen and nitrogen. They are built up of amino
acids.

A balanced diet contains the correct proportions of:

Nutrient Function Source

Carbohydrates (starch and Provide energy Rice, pasta, fruit

sugars)

Lipids (fats and oils) Energy store, insulation Butter, dairy

Proteins Growth and repair Meat and fish

Vitamins and minerals For overall health Varoius foods (veg, fruits)

Fibre Aid peristalsis to keep food Wholemeal foods such as

moving through gut brown bread

Water Overall health Food and drink

Specific vitamins:
Vitamin A (found in liver) - needed for vision
Vitamin C (found in oranges) - prevents scurvy
Vitamin D (found in eggs) - needed for calcium absorption

Specific minerals:
Calcium (found in milk) - needed to make bones and teeth
Iron (found in red meat) - needed to make haemoglobin

Energy requirements differ depending on:

Activity levels: More activity = more energy required for muscle contraction
Age: Children and teens need energy to grow
Pregnancy: Need to eat more to provide energy for the baby to grow and develop

To test for starch use iodine solution in solid foods

Yellow-brown → blue-black

To test for glucose use benedict’s solution and heat it in a water bath
Trace of glucose: clear blue → green
Low glucose: clear blue →yellow
Moderate glucose: clear blue →orange
High glucose: clear blue → red brick

To test for protein use biurets solution

Blue →purple salivary glands
Chewing breaks
secrete
To test for lipids use ethanol. down food into
amylase, an
It will form an emulsion enzyme
Sudan III is also an indicator. It will form
a red layer at the top.
The
oesophagus
Stomach acid:
The pH of the stomach is about pH 2 (acidic).
This is due to the hydrochloric acid
there.
Stomach acid has 2 main functions Sphincter
muscles hold
● Provides optimum conditions for The liver makes a
protease enzymes in the digestive juice, called bile.
stomach. They work at optimum
in acidic conditions
● Kills bacteria
Peristalsis
Peristalsis describes the
movement of muscles to move
food along the gut. The pancreas
Circular muscles contract, causing the produces digestive
gut to get narrower, squeezing food
along.

Bile:
Produced in liver The large
Stored in gallbladder intestine is
Works in small intestine The small where water is
Bile has 2 main functions intestines is
● Alkaline to neutralise acidic
contents entering from stomach
(actually slightly alkaline in small
intestine)
● Emulsifies fats - breaks them
down into small droplets, to
provide a larger surface area for
lipase enzymes to work

Key words:
Ingestion: Food enters the mouth
Digestion: The break down of large, insoluble molecules into small soluble ones
Absorption: Small molecules move from the small intestine into the blood
Assimilation/synthesis: Small molecules are used to build large molecules
Egestion: Removal of undigested food (faeces)

Absorption of food takes place in the small intestines. Digestion ends here.
It has villi - increase the surface area of the small intestine

● Each villi has microvilli, to further increase surface area so more space for absorption
● Their walls are thin (1 cell thick) - shorter distance for products of digestion to be
absorbed through
● Lots of capillaries - a good blood supply to maintain concentration gradient.
● A lacteal, to absorb products of fat digestion
● Partially permeable
Enzymes
Enzymes are biological catalysts made out of proteins. Enzymes have an active site, which is
a specific shape for the corresponding substrate.

Enzyme Production site Role

Amylase Salivary glands, pancreas Starch →Maltose

and small intestine

Maltase Salivary glands, pancreas Maltose →Glucose

and small intestine

Protease Stomach Protein →amino acids

Lipase Pancreas and small intestine Lipids →fatty acids and

glycerol

At low temps:
Particles have less energy, collide less frequently,
slow rate of reaction.
At too high temps:
Enzymes denature as their active site changes and
the substrate can’t fit.

Method:
Set up a water bath at 20oC.
Add amylase to one boiling tube, and starch to
another.
Place these in the water bath.
Leave for 5 minutes
While waiting, add a drop of iodine to each dip in
the spotting tile. To test for
Add the amylase to the starch, and leave in the starch
Water bath
water bath. at a specific
Immediately, use a pipette to transfer a small
sample of the mixture to the first drop of iodine in
the spotting tile.
Record the colour.
Repeat this step every 30s, until the iodine solution
remains yellow.
Record the time it took for the solution to remain
yellow. (Max 10 mins)
Repeat at 30oC, 40oC, 50oC and 60oC

At low temperatures: Iodine keeps turning blue black - rate of enzyme activity too low so
starch remains as it is not broken down
At optimum: Iodine remains orange - starch broken down to glucose so not present
At high temps: Remains blue black - enzymes denatured so starch is not broken down.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis is the process by which light energy is transferred into chemical energy to
produce glucose in plants.

Carbon dioxide + water → Glucose + Oxygen

6 CO2 + 6 H2O → C6H12O6 + 6 O2
Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts (an organelle found only in plant cells).

Inside chloroplasts there is a green pigment called chlorophyll. These absorb light.

Plants need the glucose for:

● Respiration (to release energy for growth and active transport)

● Stored as starch

● Make amino acids (with nitrate ions) to build proteins

● Make cellulose for cell walls

● Make lipids (store of energy in seeds)

Light intensity
Limiting to rate of photosynthesis as it provides energy
Increasing light intensity increases rate of photosynthesis, while it does this,light is the
limiting factor (while the graph increases)
After a point, it no longer increases rate of photosynthesis, another factor has become
limiting (CO2 or temp - when the graph is constant)

Carbon dioxide availability

Limiting to rate of photosynthesis as it is a reactant
Increasing CO2 increases rate of photosynthesis, while it does this, CO2 is the limiting factor
(while the graph increases)
After a point, it no longer increases rate of photosynthesis, another factor has become
limiting (light or temp - when the graph is constant)

Temperature
Limiting to rate of photosynthesis as it affects enzymes
Increasing temp at first increases rate of photosynthesis, as enzymes / particles have more
energy (collide more)
It reaches an optimum for rate of photosynthesis
At too high temps, enzymes denature (active site changes shape) so rate decreases.

To measure the rate of photosynthesis, count the number of bubbles produced by a

pondweed in a certain amount of time. The temp, species, amount of pondweed should be
control variables. To improve reliability repeat 3 times. To improve accuracy use a gas
syringe to measure the volume of oxygen gas produced.

Starch is stored in cells which can photosynthesise as it is how plants store carbohydrates.
If starch is present, it indicates a leaf can photosynthesise, as it is producing glucose, which
is converted into starch and stored.
If a plant cannot photosynthesise, starch is broken back down into glucose, and used for
respiration, so none will be present.
● Chemical reactions denature enzymes
● Ethanol removes chlorophyll
● Ethanol safety: Flammable - do not heat with a flame, use a water bath
● Iodine - turns blue black is starch is present

To prove chlorophyll is needed for photosynthesis, test a variegated leaf for starch
No starch as white parts of the leaf do not contain chlorophyll, so do not photosynthesise, so
do not produce glucose to store as starch.

To prove light is needed for photosynthesis, cover part of a leaf with foil (or leave in a dark
room) for 24 hours, then test for starch. No starch on the covered part, as no light available
means photosynthesis is not occuring, so do not produce glucose to store as starch. Any
stored starch has been broken back down to glucose for respiration
To prove carbon dioxide is needed for starch to be present, place a leaf in a sealed container
containing soda lime.The leaf would not test positive for starch, and no carbon dioxide
means photosynthesis is not occuring, so the plant does produce glucose to store as starch.
Any stored starch has been broken back down to glucose for respiration

Prevent any carbon dioxide from

the air entering the bell jar Absorbs carbon dioxide

Leaf adaptations
● Large area to absorb more light
● Waxy cuticle to prevent water loss
● Upper epidermis transparent
● Palisade cells near surface and tightly packed, to absorb as much light as possible
● Air spaces to allow movement of carbon dioxide
● Vascular bundle where water transported to leaf in the xylem
● Stomata (holes in the bottom of the leaf) are the site of gas exchange
● Guard cells to open stomata in day for photosynthesis, and close them at night to
prevent water loss.

Plants need CO2 for photosynthesis, and produce oxygen. (happens in light) Plants need
oxygen for respiration (Aerobic) and produce carbon dioxide (happens all the time) Any CO2
a plant needs, or O2 as a waste product of photosynthesis, diffuses through the stomata.

Mineral ion Use Deficiency symptoms

Nitrate Making amino acids to form Limited growth, yellow

proteins leaves

Phosphate Making DNA Poor root growth, purple

leaves

Potassium Needed for enzymes to work Yellow leaves with dead

spots
 Magnesium Making chlorophyll Yellow leaves

Plants can be grown without soil, as long as they are provided with mineral ions in a culture
solution(and conditions for photosynthesis). You could demonstrate the effect of a specific
mineral ion on growth, by creating a solution without that mineral ion, and growing a plant in
it and observing the results.

Mineral ions are needed for a plant to be healthy. These are absorbed by root hair cells from
the soil, by active transport. Movement from low to high concentration, requiring energy.Root
hair cells have a large surface area for maximum absorption.

Movement of water through a plant is called the transpiration stream through the xy
Phloem vessels transport amino acids and sucrose to other parts of the plant.

Movement of sugars / amino acids is called translocation. Plants rely on transport systems as
substances need to be transported greater distances, as they are larger than
microorganisms. Relying on diffusion alone would be too slow.

RESPIRATION
Energy transferred by respiration is used to make a substance called ATP.
ATP stores the energy, and when required, it is broken down into ADP, and energy is
released

Anaerobic respiration occurs without oxygen.

In animals: Glucose → Lactic acid

In plants and yeast: Glucose →Ethanol + carbon dioxide
This occurs in the cytoplasm.

Aerobic respiration

● Requires oxygen and glucose

● Produces carbon dioxide and water

● Occurs in the mitochondria

● Occurs all the time

● Efficient - releases lots of energy

● Glucose is completely broken down

Anaerobic respiration in muscle cells in animals:

● Produces lactic acid →lowers pH →enzymes denature

● Occurs in the cytoplasm

● Occurs during intense exercise, when muscle cells cannot get the oxygen fast
enough

● Releases much less energy

● Glucose is only partially broken down

Anaerobic respiration in yeast:

● Uses glucose

● Occurs without oxygen

● Ethanol is used in brewing

● Carbon dioxide is used in making bread

Keeps the test tube air tight - no CO2 can enter of leave

Respire, producing CO2

Stop them falling in the

solution

Test for CO2 - changes

colour from orange to

Method
Fill a boiling tube with a small amount of hydrogen carbonate indicator.
Place a small gauze above the indicator, and place small organisms on top of the gauze.
Stopper the boiling tube.
Observe the colour change of the hydrogen carbonate indicator, from orange to yellow.
 Insulates contents,
Reduces loss of heat

Respire, producing
heat
Control - shows
Allows CO2 the result is from
to escape
Measure temp
change in flask

Method:
Soak a batch of peas in water for 24 hours so they start to germinate
Boil a second batch to kill them
Soak each set of peas in bleach, to kill any bacteria on the surface of peas
Rinse in distilled water to remove bleach
Place each batch of peas in an inverted vacuum flask, leaving some air in each flask.
Record starting temperature
Leave for a couple of days, then measure the final temperature.

During exercise:

● Breathing rate increases, muscles contract more, require more energy - more oxygen
needs to be supplied due to increased rate of respiration, and CO2 needs to be
removed

● Heart rate increases to pump more blood to muscle cells to provide them with more
oxygen and glucose

● Temperature increases - respiration releases heat (link to homeostasis - this causes

us to sweat, which evaporates from skin transferring energy away from the body)

To measure breathing rate,

● Count the number of breaths

● In 1 minute
 Using lime water to test for carbon dioxide in breath

Lime Lime
water water
remains turns
colourle cloudy -
ss - no CO2

Organism
respires,
releasing
CO2

Lungs are split into two tubes called bronchi which branch into bronchioles, and at the end
there are small air sacs called alveoli (where gas exchange occurs).
Blood arriving here has a low concentration of oxygen, so oxygen diffuses into the blood.
It has a high concentration of carbon dioxide, so carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood.
Alveoli are adapted by:

● Having a large surface area

● Thin walls (short diffusion distance)

● Lots of capillaries giving them a good blood supply to maintain concentration gradient

● Moist lining for gases to dissolve in

The airways are lined with ciliated cells, which are covered in tiny hairs called cilia.
Goblet cells produce mucus, which traps any bacteria (and dust) in the airways, and cilia
remove this mucus, preventing lung infections.

When we breathe in (inhale):

● Diaphragm contracts and flattens

● Intercostal muscles contract

● Ribcage pulled upwards and outwards

● Thorax volume increases

● Which causes pressure to decrease

● Air is drawn into the lungs

When we breathe out (exhale):

● Diaphragm relaxes and becomes dome shaped

● Intercostal muscles relax

● Ribcage pulled downwards and inwards

● Thorax volume decreases

● Which causes pressure to increase

● Air is forced out of the lungs

Tobacco smoke contains many harmful chemicals, some of which can damage the lungs.

● Smoking damage alveoli, reducing surface area for gas exchange, which can cause
emphysema

● Tar damages cilia, which means mucus containing bacteria cannot be removed from
the airways, risking lung infection

● Tar also irritates bonchi, causing smokers cough and bronchitis

● Substances called carcinogens can cause lung cancer

● Carbon monoxide binds to haemoglobin in blood, reducing oxygen capacity

Note - this is not a direct effect on the lungs.

BLOOD AND ORGANS

The blood has 4 main components:

Red blood cells

Oxygen is transported from lungs to cells in the body for it to be used for aerobic respiration.
Adaptations
- Biconcave shape for large surface area to absorb and release oxygen
- Contains haemoglobin, which binds to oxygen
- No nucleus - more space for haemoglobin + oxygen

White blood cells

They are part of your immune system and defend the body against pathogens.
Phagocytes are non specific and they engulf and digest foreign organisms (pathogens)
Lymphocytes destroy specific pathogens, they identify the antigens and release antibodies
which attach to the surface of a pathogen so other white blood cells can destroy them.

Memory cells remain in the body and remember a specific antigen, meaning they can
produce antibodies faster.
This is how you become immune to a disease.

Plasma
A straw-coloured liquid which carries dissolved substances in the blood. Transports: carbon
dioxide, glucose, amino acids, urea and hormones.

Platelets are also part of the blood.

The heart
The heart is divided by a septum. Blood passing through the right side of the heart is
deoxygenated and the left side of the heart pumps oxygenated blood to the body which is
why it has a thicker muscle as it requires more force to generate higher pressures.

The heart can also be divided into four chambers.

The right ventricle, the right atrium, the left ventricle and the left atrium. (remember atrium
→hallway, first place where blood goes through)

The heart contains valves. These prevent the backflow of blood. The semilunar valves, the
tricuspid valve (right side) and the bicuspid valve (left side).

Arteries have thick, muscular walls, a very narrow lumen and the blood is at high pressures
as they carry blood away from the heart.

Veins have thin walls, a wider lumen, the blood is at lower pressures and they have valves to
prevent the backflow of blood as they carry blood to the heart.

Capillaries are much smaller - they carry blood close to every cell. Walls are 1 cell thick and
permeable so substances can diffuse in and out
During exercise
● Muscles require more energy
● More respiration
● More oxygen required, and CO2 needs to be removed
● Blood needs to flow faster
● Heart rate increases, muscles contract more frequently and with greater force
Measuring heart rate

● Place fingers on neck or wrist

● Count the number of beats in 1 minute.

Adrenaline is a hormone produced by the adrenal glands when an organism feels

threatened. This binds to receptors on the heart, causing an increase in heart rate to
increase oxygen supply to body tissues, preparing the body for action.

CHD
Coronary heart disease is when a buildup of fatty deposits in the coronary arteries get
narrower. This means the heart muscles receive less blood, less oxygen, reduced aerobic
respiration, so muscle cells have to respire anaerobically, releasing less energy for muscle
contraction, leading to a heart attack.
Risk Factors: diet high in fats, lack of exercise and smoking.
Anaerobic respiration also produces lactic acid, which lowers pH and can result in enzymes
becoming denatured.
CHD can be treated with stents.

Some babies are born with a hole in the heart.

This means oxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood can mix, meaning that less oxygen is
transported around the baby's body. This leads to less respiration, so less energy available
for growth. It may also cause cell death.

Excretory product
An excretory product is the removal of waste products from chemical reactions in the body.

Excretory products include:

● Urea

● Carbon dioxide

● Waste products in sweat

Urea is a waste product from excess amino acids. It is produced in the liver, then transported
to the kidneys in the plasma in the blood. The kidneys are the excretory organ for urea (as
well as ions and water) and they are all removed in urine.

Carbon dioxide is an excretory product from respiration.This is produced in cells, and is

transported back to the lungs in the plasma in the blood.The lungs are the excretory organ
responsible for removing carbon dioxide from the body

The skin is also an excretory organ, which removes products when we sweat, which is
mainly water but also contains some waste products such as urea.
Sweat also helps cool us down when we are hot, we sweat more which evaporates from the
skin transferring heat energy away from the body
Waste products from respiration and photosynthesis in plants are removed through the
stomata.

COORDINATION

A change in the environment is called a stimulus - this could be internal (such as blood
glucose levels) or external - such as a temperature change
The nervous system consists of neurones & the CNS. The central nervous system (CNS)
consists of the brain and spinal cord. The CNS coordinates a response between receptors
and effectors. Neurones (nerve cells) transmit electrical impulses around the body

There are 3 neurones:

● Sensory neurones (from receptors in sense organs to CNS)

● Relay neurones (around CNS)

● Motor neurones (from CNS to an effector)
Long axon to transmit impulses
Myelin sheath for insulation

Direction
of impulse is from left to right

An effector brings about a response to a stimuli.

An effector may either be:
A muscle - contract to bring about movement
A gland - secrete hormones

Changes in the environment are detected by receptors - such as receptors sensitive to heat
in the skin, or to light in the retina of our eyes (rods and cones)
These detect the stimuli, and convert the energy into an electrical impulse, which is
transmitted by neurones to the central nervous system.

How it works:

1) Receptors detect a stimulus and convert its energy into an impulse

2) Sensory neurones transmit this electrical impulse to the CNS

3) Impulse transmitted through CNS by a relay neurone & CNS coordinates a response

4) Impulse transmitted to effector along a motor neurone

5) Effector brings about the response

A synapse is a gap/junction between 2 neurones.

Instead of electrical impulses, chemicals called neurotransmitters diffuse across the

synapse and generate a new electrical impulse the next neurone

This is the structure of the eye:

Sclera

Conjunctiva: Lubricates and protects eye surface

Sclera: Tough outer white layer protecting eye
Cornea: Transparent, refracts light entering eye
Iris: Coloured part of eye, controls size of pupil, therefore how much light enters eye
Pupil: Hole in the middle of the eye where light enters
Lens: Focuses light onto the retina
Retina: contains light receptors (photoreceptors) - rods for dim light and cones for color
Fovea: Area of retina with lots of photoreceptors
Optic nerve: Carries impulses from receptors to brain

THE IRIS REFLEX

In bright light (reverse for dim light)

● Circular muscles in iris contract

● Radial muscles relax
● Pupil constricts (gets smaller) - the opposite of this is dilates
● Less light allowed into eye

FOCUS
For a nearby object (reverse for far away)

● Ciliary muscles contract

● Suspensory ligaments slacken - the opposite is tighten
● Lens becomes more convex
● Light refracted more

People with short-sightedness refract too much while people with long-sightedness reflect
too little.

HORMONES

The hormonal system is another way our bodies respond to stimuli.

It involves a system of glands - organs which produce chemicals
And hormones - chemical messengers which are produced in a gland and travel in the
blood, targeting cells or organs

Nervous coordination Hormonal coordination

Electrical Impulses Chemical - Hormones

 Travel along neurones Travel in the blood

Rapid Slower response

Short lasting Longer lasting

Precise target More generalised target

Hormone Released from Job

Insulin Pancreas Lower blood glucose levels

Adrenaline Adrenal glands Prepares body for fight or flight

Testosterone Testes Promotes sperm production and male

Males secondary sex characteristics (such as facial
hair, voice breaking)

Oestrogen Ovaries Controls menstrual cycle and development of

Females female secondary sex characteristics (hips
widening, breasts growing)

Progesterone Ovaries Maintains uterus lining if pregnant

Females

INSULIN

When blood glucose levels are too high

● The pancreas detects this and releases insulin

● Insulin stimulates the uptake of glucose by liver and muscle cells
● Glucose is converted into glycogen and stored
● Blood glucose levels return to normal

Glycogen is large and insoluble, so can be stored, where as glucose is smaller and soluble

ADRENALINE

● Prepares the body for fight or flight by increasing heart rate, and diverts blood flow to
muscles

● This provides muscles with more glucose and oxygen for aerobic respiration, so they
can contract for movement faster.
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment
Thermoregulation: Maintenance of a constant body temperature
Osmoregulation: Maintenance of water levels in the body (we lose water in urine, when
breathing and in sweat)

Too hot Too cold

More sweat is produced Very little sweat is produced

This evaporates from the skin's surface, Instead, you shiver, muscles contract
transferring away energy and cooling you down meaning more respiration, releasing heat
energy

Blood vessels close to skin's surface widen Blood vessels close to skin's surface
Called vasodilation constrict
This increases blood flow to skin's surface, so Vasoconstriction
more energy is transferred to surroundings This reduces blood flow to skin's surface,
Cooling you down so less energy transferred to the
surroundings

Hairs lie flat, no insulating layer of air around Hairs stand up, trapping an insulating layer
skin, increasing heat loss of air keeping you warm

Animals are adapted for homeostasis:

Animals in a cold climate are larger to have a small surface area to volume ratio, which
reduces heat loss. They also have lots of fur to trap insulating air and fat for insulation.
Animals in a warm climate are smaller to have a large surface area to volume ratio, which
increases heat loss. Also large ears - large surface area

Plant coordination:
Plants also respond to stimuli (changes in the environment). Sometimes they also respond to
protect themselves from predators.

Plants show phototropism - where light is the stimulus

Shoots are positively phototropic - they grow towards the light
More light = More photosynthesis

And geotropism - where gravity is the stimulus

Roots are positively geotropic - they grow towards the direction of gravity

Allows them to acquire more minerals and water from the soil

Auxin is a plant hormone which controls growth in shoot and root tips.
Auxin in shoots:

● Auxin is produced in shoot tips

● It diffuses away from the direction of light (to the shaded side)

● It stimulates cell elongation just below shoot tips, promoting growth

● It causes the shoot to grow faster on the shaded side

Auxin in roots:

● For a root on its side, there will be more auxin on the lower side

● In roots, it inhibits (slows down/stops) root growth

● Cells on the upper side, with no auxin, will elongate faster

● The root will bend downwards

USE OF BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES

Glass houses and polytunnels are used to create the ideal conditions for photosynthesis.
Optimum rate of photosynthesis means higher yield of crops - they can produce more
glucose, to provide energy needed for growth (through respiration)

Light can be optimised - more light = more photosynthesis = more glucose = more energy =
increased yield.
Temperature can be controlled - provides the optimum temperature for enzymes to work,
therefore more photosynthesis
Carbon dioxide can be controlled - more reactants available for photosynthesis (more
glucose, more energy for growth)
Water can also be supplied, fertilisers added and the crops are protected from pests and
diseases.

Farmers also add fertilisers to their crops, which provide the mineral ions needed for growth.
These can be natural (ie manure) or artificial.
Problems with artificial fertilisers is that they can leach into water supplies and lead to
eutrophication.They are also more expensive than natural ones.

Pesticides are chemicals used to kill pests.

Pests include:

● Insects (killed by insecticides) - eat crops

● Weeds (killed by herbicides) - compete for light, space and minerals

● Fungi (killed by fungicides)

Disadvantages of pesticides:

● Nonspecific - can kill other important organisms

●
● Affect food chains

● Risk of insecticide resistance

Links to natural selection: Random mutation results in some insects becoming
resistant, survive, reproduce, pass on allele for resistance

A biological control is where an organism's natural predator is introduced to help kill the pest.
These are longer lasting, and do not have the same negative effects on food chains as
pesticides.

Anaerobic respiration in yeasts

Glucose → Carbon dioxide + ethanol (fermentation)

Carbon dioxide from respiration in yeast can be used in baking to make bread rise:
1) Bread dough is made, which is a mixture of yeast, flour, water and some sugar.
2) Dough is left to rise
3) Enzymes break down carbs in the flour to sugars
4) Yeast respire aerobically at first, as there is oxygen present, then when this runs out,
respire anaerobically, both types of respiration produce carbon dioxide
5) CO2 gets trapped in dough, and these pockets of gas expand, causing the dough to
rise.
6) Dough placed in oven, and high temps kill yeast. Any ethanol produced by anaerobic
respiration also evaporates.
7) Pockets are left in bread where the CO2 was
If conditions are kept anaerobic (in a fermenter), yeast respire anaerobically, and the ethanol
produced can be used to make alcohol. Brewing is the process to describe the production of
beer

Prevents Test for CO2

oxygen Limewater -

Sugar
needed for

Also needed:
Stopwatch to measure time it takes

Method:
Add water to a boiling tube, and gently boil (removed any oxygen dissolved in water)
Dissolve sugar in the water
Add yeast to the mixture
Stir.
Connect to a delivery tube feeding into hydrogen carbonate indicator solution
Time how long it takes for the indicator to change from orange to yellow.
Repeat for different sugar concentrations

Image/ actual size = magnification