Principles of Organization

Cells  tissue  organs  organ system  organism

Cells – basic structural & functional unit of living organism

Muscular  Contracts to move things attached to it

 In stomach, contracts to move food
Glandular  Contains secretory cells
 Produce & release substances (enzymes, hormones)
Epithelial  Covers outside of body & internal organs

Tissues – A group of cells with similar structure & function working together

Muscular  Contract to churn food

Glandular  Produce digestive juice to digest food with enzymes & HCI (hydrogen
chloride)
Epithelial  Covers outside & inside of stomach

 Organs – aggregations of different tissues working together to perform specific function

 Organ system - a group of organs working together to perform specific functions
 Organisms - a group of organ system working together

Living organism has 7 features that include (multicellular):

Did you know?
 Movement: Ability of organism to move. (plants or cow)
 Respiration: Set of chemical reaction that take place in Single-celled organisms do
our cells to break down nutrient molecules and release not have tissues.
energy for metabolism.
Some simple animals do not
 Sensitivity/control: Ability to detect and respond to
have organs, only tissues.
changes in the internal and external environment

 Growth: Organisms can grow, a permanent increase in size and dry mass, “mass if water is
removed”
 Reproduction: The process that makes more of the sane kind of organism.
 Excretion: The removal of waste products of metabolism and substance in excess of
requirements.
 Nutrition: Taking in of materials for energy, growth, and development. (eating or absorbing
nutrients through consuming food for animals, and absorbing nutrients from surrounding
through active transport or diffusion for fungi )

The Human Digestive System

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Digestive system is an organ system in which several organs work together to digest & absorb food

Digestion is the breakdown of food from large, insoluble molecules, to small, soluble molecules.

Mouth  Teeth breaks down food

Salivary  Produces saliva which contains salivary amylase
gland
Oesophagus  Muscular tube which moves food to stomach
Stomach  Pummels food with muscular wall
 Produce protease, pepsin & HCl
 Gastric juice
 Water to moisten food
 HCl (pH2) to kill bacteria & help protease to work
 Pepsin to break proteins into amino acid
 Mucus to lubricate surface & protect from digestive enzyme & HCl
Bile  Made in liver & store in gall bladder
(alkaline)  Neutralise HCl from stomach to provide alkaline condition
 Emulsifies fats to break large lipid droplets into small droplets to increase
SA
 The alkaline conditions and large surface area increase the rate of fat
breakdown by lipase.
Small  Digestion completed
intestine  Absorb digested food & nutrients to blood through diffusion
 Small molecules diffuse through villi walls into blood for respiration

Adaptation
 Small intestine is very long, which gives plenty of time to complete
absorption
 Villi are covered with microvilli, which increases SA to absorb quicker

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  Villi contain blood capillaries, which provide rich blood supply to maintain a
steep concentration gradient to assist quick absorption
 Villi have thin walls for short diffusion pathways into blood
 Have lots of mitochondria to provide energy from respiration

Coeliac disease
 Damage villi ↓SA for absorption
 ↓ amino acid & glucose absorb
 ↓ amino acid available to build new tissues
 ↓ glucose ↓energy transfer from respiration
Large  Absorb excess water from blood
intestine  Form faeces
Rectum  Store faeces

Food Chemistry

Carbohydrates (amylase)

Use  Provide energy for metabolic reactions in cells in cellular respiration

Digestion  Starch → amylase (enzyme) → maltose (sugar) + simple sugars
Made in  Salivary glands, pancreas & small intestine
Digestion site  Mouth & small intestine

Proteins

Use  Build new tissues & cells (grow)

 Basis of cell enzymes
Digestion  protein → proteases → amino acids
Made in  Stomach (pepsin), pancreas & small intestine
Digestion site  Stomach & small intestine

Lipids (fats (solid at room temperature) and oils (liquid at room temperature))

Use  To provide energy & insulation to keep us warm and protect organs
 Forms part of cell membrane
Digestion  Lipids → lipases → fatty acids (fatty acids lowers the pH) + glycerol
Made in  Pancreas & small intestine
Digestion site  Small intestine
The products of digestion are used to build new carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. Some glucose
is used in respiration.

Vitamins (organic molecules)

 Vitamin A: For good vision, healthy skin and hair.

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  Vitamin C: Prevent from disease like scurvy
 Vitamin D: Body can make using sunlight, helps to absorb calcium

Minerals: (inorganic)

 Calcium: Strong bones, lack of it can cause a condition called rickets where bones can be
deformed.
 Iron: Important component for haemoglobin, lack of it can cause Anemia where sufficient
oxygen isn’t transported to tissues.

Biological molecules (nutrients)

 Fibre: A type of carbohydrate, which is not absorbed by human body; helps food move
through our intestine properly = prevents us from having diarrhoea and constipation
 Water: Needed for chemical reactions, most of our body (70%) is made of water, where
water is lost and replaced all the time.

Biochemical test
Starch Iodine solution (orange) +ve black/blue
-ve orange
Glucos Benedict’s Solution (blue) boil 2 minutes at 65 C or + +ve orange
e -ve blue
Protein Biuret’s solution (blue) shake +ve purple
-ve blue
Lipids Ethanol (shake) +ve cloudy
-ve clear

Enzymes

Enzymes are biological catalysts with a specific active site that increases rate of reaction, it’s a
protein

Digestive enzymes are produced by specialised cells in glands and in the lining of the gut:

1) The enzymes pass out of the cells into the digestive system
2) They come into the contract with food molecule.
3) They catalyse the breakdown of large insoluble food into smaller soluble molecules.
 The digestive enzymes, protease, lipase and carbohydrase, digest proteins, lipids (fats and
oils) and carbohydrates to produce smaller molecules that can be easily absorbed into the
bloodstream.
 The products of digestion are then transported and used as building blocks for new
carbohydrates, lipids and proteins.
 Some of the glucose is used in respiration.

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Properties of enzymes:

- They are all large proteins.

- There is space within protein molecule called active site.
- Each enzymes catalyses a specific reaction.
- They work best at a specific temperature and pH called the optimum.

How do enzymes work?

‘Lock and key theory’
 Enzymes act as a lock, substrates (molecule on which the enzymes act on such as starch) act
as key
 Shape of substrate collides with active site of enzyme, which has a complementary shape to
substrate
 If substrate fits into active site, they bind together, reaction happens quickly & substrate
splits into products to be released
 After reaction, products leave active site & enzyme is ready to used again

Factors that affect the rate of reaction

Temperatur  ↑temp ↑KE, cells move faster, ↑ chance of collision of substrate with
e enzymes, therefore ↑ rate of reaction
 Optimum temp (37°C) - where enzyme work fastest
 High temp than optimum
 Causes protein chains to unravel changing the shape of active site of
enzyme
 Active site no longer fit substrate's shape
 Enzymes are Denatured
pH  Too low / high interferes with bonds holding enzyme together
 Change shape of enzyme's active site
 Active site no longer fit substrate's shape
 Enzymes are Denatured
 Optimum pH (pH8)
 Different part produces different pH
 Pepsin in stomach - pH2
 Pancreatic amylase in duodenum - pH8

amount of produced formed ∨reactant used

Rate of reaction =
time
In a person with CF, cells lining the lungs and digestive system create too much mucus which blocks
the duct leading from the pancreas to the small intestine and the tube leading to the alveoli in the
lungs. Explain why children with CF grow more slowly than children without CF. (6)

Fewer (digestive) enzymes enter small intestine

 (so) enzymes break down / digest less food

 (therefore) less absorption of nutrients

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  (so) less glucose can enter the blood(stream)
 (so) less (glucose) available for respiration
 (less absorption of nutrients so) fewer amino acids can enter the blood(stream)
 (so) less protein is made (for growth) ignore ref to bile

less oxygen enters blood(stream) / reaches cells / organs / tissues (ignore body / lungs)

 (so) less (oxygen) available for (aerobic) respiration

 (so) less energy released / available (for growth)
do not accept energy produced

There are many different types of enzymes why does each different type of enzyme act only on
one specific type of enzyme molecule? (1)

 Each active site has specific shape.

Describe the affects of liver failure in human body (4)

Responses may refer to either total or partial liver failure

 no bile made (in the liver)

 fats / lipids are not emulsified
 surface area of fats / lipids not increased
 pH of small intestine will not be alkaline / neutralised
 enzymes (in small intestine) will not work effectively or (named) food not digested /
absorbed
 so may lose weight

 lactic acid not broken down / oxidised

 accumulation of lactic acid in blood / body
 lactic acid is toxic or body will be poisoned
 oxygen debt higher / prolonged
 so, muscle pain / fatigue

 proteins / amino acids will not be broken down (in liver)

 (amino acids) not deaminated
 amino acids not made into urea or will not form ammonia
 (however) any ammonia formed is toxic
 so, accumulation of amino acids in blood / body

 liver does not break down / remove other toxins (like alcohol)
 toxins accumulate in blood / body
 body will be poisoned
 so, pain or jaundice or swollen liver or portal hypertension occurs

 glycogen stores will not be formed

 cannot control blood glucose

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  so, hyperglycaemia / hypoglycaemia / diabetes / coma may occur

Table shows some information about burgers made from meat and meat-free burgers.

Mass per 100 g of burger

Burgers made from meat Meat-free burgers
Protein in g 14 9
Fibre in g 0.9 5.5
Fat in g 16 5.2
Carbohydrates in g 15.5 15.1
Cholesterol in mg 120 0

Evaluate the use of burgers made from meat compared with meat-free burgers in providing
humans with a healthy, balanced diet. (6)

Use information from Table and your own knowledge.

Indicative content

 meat-free burgers contain more fibre

 aids digestion or prevents constipation
 meat burgers contain more protein
 for growth
 meat burgers contain more fat
 can cause CHD or heart attack or narrowing of arteries
 may lead to needing a stent
 may lead to obesity
 obesity is a risk factor for (type 2) diabetes
 meat burgers contain more cholesterol
 can cause narrowing of arteries or CHD or heart attack
 may lead to needing a stent
 may need to take statins
 both burgers have similar amounts of carbohydrate
 good for providing energy
 no information on vitamins / minerals provided for either burger
 meat burgers require animals to be farmed
 increase in methane in atmosphere
 (methane) contributes to global warming
 meat burgers require animals to be slaughtered
 ethical issues
 some people won’t eat meat-free burgers
 (because) some people don’t like the idea of eating fungus
 (because) some people prefer the taste of meat

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Many people suffer from stomach ulcers caused by a species of bacteria called Helicobacter pylori.

The stomach is lined with a protective lining of mucus.

Helicobacter pylori are acid-tolerant bacteria which can damage this mucus lining.

Suggest how an infection with Helicobacter pylori might result in a stomach ulcer developing. (2)

 bacteria not killed (by stomach acid / HCl) and so they damage mucus lining
 so, acid / HCl damages stomach tissue / causes an ulcer

Helicobacter pylori can also cause stomach cancer.

Describe how a person infected with Helicobacter pylori could also develop liver cancer (5)

 If the cancer is malignant

 (cancer) cells can spread to other organs
 via the blood forming a secondary tumour

The Heart & Blood vessels

Blood vessels

Arteries

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 Function  Transport oxygenated blood under high pressure from heart to organs of
body

Adaptations  Thick walls compared to lumen - withstand high pressure

 Thick layers of elastic tissue - stretch & return to original shape
 Thick layer of muscle - maintain force on blood flow

Capillaries

Function Transport blood to cells

Adaptations  Thin permeable walls (1 cell thick) for short diffusion pathway
 Substances e.g. O2 to diffuse easily out of blood into cell
 Waste e.g. CO2 produced by cells diffuse easily into blood
 Narrow so blood cells pass through them one by one so more O2 released
to tissues & taken up from lungs, more time available, shorter distance for
exchange, more SA exposed

Veins

Function  Transport deoxygenated blood under high pressure from organs of body to
heart
 Low pressure because long way & more friction reduces speed

Adaptations  Thin walls due to low pressure

 Large lumen helps blood flow despite low pressure
 Small layer of elastic fibres + smooth muscles
 Have valves that close to prevent backflow of blood

Blood
Blood - a tissue consisting of plasma, in which the red blood cells, white blood cells & platelets are
suspended.

Blood contains:

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Red blood cells (it’s half of human’s blood volume)

Function Transport oxygen from lungs to all cells in body for cellular respiration
Adaptatio  Biconcave discs - increase SA to vol ratio for diffusion
n  No nucleus - more space for haemoglobin & O2 for absorbing oxygen
 Contain red pigment - haemoglobin
 In lungs, combines with O2 to form oxyhaemoglobin
 In body tissues, oxyhaemoglobin splits up into haemoglobin & O2 to release
O2 to cell
 Small & flexible to fit through narrow blood vessels

White blood cells (makes up <1% of blood)

Function  Defend body from infection by phagocytosis, produce antibodies &

antitoxins
Adaptatio  Have a nucleus to encode instructions for WBC to do their job
n

Platelets - Small fragments of cells produced by giant cells in bone marrow, don't have nucleus

Function  Help blood to clot at wound by holding cells together to stop bleeding &
microorganisms getting in (platelets float in the blood)
Adaptatio  Produce protein fibre to capture RBC & platelets to form clot, which plugs
n wound

Plasma – Yellow liquid (it’s half of human’s blood) ; makes the blood watery so that it can flow

Function  Transport blood cells & different substances around body

 Transports RBC, WBC & platelets
 Nutrients e.g. glucose, amino acid & proteins
 CO2 from organs to lungs
 Urea from liver to kidney
 Hormones
 Antibodies & antitoxins produced by WBC

Blood transfusion (donated blood) Risk

 Replace blood lost from injury  If different blood type, immune system
 Given platelets to help clotting reject blood & patient could die
 Diseases can be transmitted through
blood

Coronary Heart Disease

Heart

 Heart is an organ that pumps blood around the body in a double circulatory system
 Right ventricle pumps blood to lungs where gas exchange takes place

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  Left ventricle pumps blood around the rest of the body

Aorta  Transport oxygenated blood under high pressure away from left ventricle
of heart
Vena cava  Return deoxygenated blood from the body to right atrium of heart
Pulmonary  Transport deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs
artery
Pulmonary  Transport oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart
vein
Valves  Close to prevent backflow of blood
Deoxygenated  Organs → vein → vena cava → right atrium → right ventricle →
blood (right)  pulmonary artery → lungs
Oxygenated  Lungs → pulmonary vein → left atrium → left ventricle → aorta → artery
blood (left) → organs
Coronary  Branch off aorta, surround heart
arteries  Carry blood to heart
 Supply O2 & nutrients for heart to function
 If narrow/blocked - coronary heart disease

 Muscle wall of left ventricle is thicker because it allows left ventricle to develop pressure
needed to force blood through arterial system all over body

Circulatory system – Is an organ system which transports oxygen and nutrients to body’s tissue,
which relies on 3 main things:

 Blood – Carries oxygen and nutrient

 Blood vessel – hold the blood
 Heart – pumps the blood

Double Circulation

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  Blood enters heart twice for one circuit around the body
 blood is pumped to the lungs by one / right side of the heart
 blood is pumped to the body by the other / left side of the heart
 Efficient, pressure stay high so blood flows quickly

 Natural heart rate is controlled by a group of cells located in the right atrium that act as a
pacemaker
 Artificial peacemaker is an electrical device used to correct irregularities in the heart rate by
sending electrical signals to heart

Blood flow explained

Deoxygenated Blood Flow (Right Side of the Heart):

1. Body's organs use up oxygen from the blood and produce deoxygenated blood.

2. This deoxygenated blood is collected by veins and transported back to the heart.

3. The deoxygenated blood enters the heart through the vena cava into the right atrium.

4. The blood moves from the right atrium to the right ventricle.

5. The right ventricle pumps the blood into the pulmonary artery.

6. Pulmonary artery carries the deoxygenated blood to the lungs where it picks up oxygen.

Oxygenated Blood Flow (Left Side of the Heart):

1. The lungs oxygenate the blood.

2. The oxygen-rich blood returns to the heart via the pulmonary vein into the left atrium.

3. The blood moves from the left atrium to the left ventricle.

4. left ventricle pumps the oxygen-rich blood into the aorta.

5. aorta distributes the blood through arteries to all parts of the body.

6. body's organs receive the oxygenated blood and use it to function.

Cardiovascular diseases
People have coronary heart disease such as cardiovascular disease because: (4 marks)
 Layers of fatty material build up inside coronary arteries
 Narrow arteries
 Reduce blood flow
 Reduce O2 supply for heart muscles

What are treatments for coronary heart disease? (6)

Stents Statins

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  Keep coronary arteries open  Reduce blood cholesterol levels
 Increase blood flow  Slows down rate of fatty material
 More O2 supply for heart muscles deposit (of LDL cholesterol)
How?  Reduce risk of develop heart attack
 Metal mesh with balloon inside
 Balloon inflated to open stent & blood Advantages Disadvantages
vessel  Reduce risk  Produce side
 Balloon deflated & removed but stent of heart effects e.g.
remains in place attack liver
Advantages Disadvantages  Increase problems,
 Effective in  Risk of heart levels of HDL kidney
lower risk of attack or cholesterol failure or
heart attack infection headache
 Quick during  Need to take
recovery operation statins
time from  Risk of blood continuously
surgery clots form
near stent
(thrombosis)

Heart failure
What are treatments for heart failure? (6)

Heart Transplant Artificial heart

 Keep patients alive while waiting for
Advantages Disadvantages heart transplant
 Only solution  Hazards of  Allow heart to rest as aid to recovery
 Better life operation
quality after  Shortage of Advantages Disadvantages
transplant donors  Won't reject  Increase risk
 Risk of by immune of blood
rejection by system clots
immune  Readily  Increase risk
system available of infection
while
operation

Why do people have heart failure? (1)

 Heart can't pump enough blood around body

Faulty heart valves

Why do people have faulty heart valves? (3)

 Faulty heart valves prevent valve from opening fully

 Heart valves develop a leak
 Become breathless

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What are the treatments for faulty heart valves? (6)

Biological valve Mechanical valve

 Valves taken from animals  Made of titanium or polymers
Advantages Disadvantages
 No  Last for 10- Advantages Disadvantages
medication 20years  Last a  Increase risk
 Low risk of  Expensive lifetime of blood
blood clot  Risk of blood  Cheap clots
clot  Take
anticlotting
drugs every
day for the
rest of their
life

Risk factors of coronary heart disease includes: Symptoms for coronary heart disease includes:
 Poor diet  Pain
 Smoking  Heart attack
 Lack of exercise  Fatal

Key Information
Volume of blood Artificial blood can be given to patient running
Rate of blood flow =
Number of minutes low in blood which consists of salt water that
adds volume to the circulatory system that
keeps the vessels full and allows heart to keep
pumping. However, it doesn’t contain any RBC
meaning no oxygen is transported therefore
only 1/3 of the blood is replaced

A valve in the heart can start to leak,

Explain why a person with a leaking heart valve has difficulty exercising. (4)

 backflow can occur or some blood flows backwards

 less blood leaves the heart or less blood is pumped around the body or some blood stays in
the heart (instead of being pumped out) or reduced blood pressure or reduced flow rate
 less oxygen supplied to muscles / cells
 (so) less aerobic respiration
 (so) less energy released
 (so) less (efficient) muscle contraction

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  anaerobic respiration takes place
 less (efficient) removal of lactic acid or lactic acid builds up or oxygen debt occurs
 (lactic acid building up) causes muscle fatigue
 less (efficient) removal of carbon dioxide (from blood)

To gain full marks response should refer to both respiration and the effects of exercise.

Why having 1 ventricle makes the circulatory system less efficient than having 2 ventricles. (2)

 oxygenated and deoxygenated blood mixes

 (so) less oxygen reaches the body / tissues / cells

Explain the effect of a partly blocked coronary artery on human body (6)

 reduced blood flow to heart (muscle / tissue / cells)

 (so) less oxygen to heart (muscle / tissue / cells)
 (so) less glucose to heart (muscle / tissue / cells)

 (so) less (aerobic) respiration (in heart / body cells)

 (more) anaerobic respiration
 (so) less energy (released)

 (so) less muscle contraction

 (so) less blood / oxygen / glucose around the body (from heart) or slower flow of blood /
oxygen / glucose to body (from heart)
 less carbon dioxide removed from body (muscle / tissue / cells)
 (resulting in) breathlessness
 (resulting in) tiredness
 (anaerobic respiration causes) production of lactic acid
 (build-up of lactic acid) causes muscle fatigue / pain or chest pain For Level 3, students must
explain the effect of reduced oxygen / glucose on respiration or energy release and its
consequence

Explain how the human circulatory system is adapted to: (6)

 supply oxygen to the tissues

 remove waste products from tissues.

 It has a double circulatory system, allowing higher blood pressure and faster blood flow to
tissues.

 The heart’s cardiac muscle cells contract to pump blood, sending it to the lungs where
oxygen diffuses into the blood at the alveoli.

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  Oxygen-rich blood returns to the heart and is pumped throughout the body via the aorta.

 Red blood cells carry oxygen bound to haemoglobin, and their lack of a nucleus provides
more space for oxygen.

 Arteries transport oxygenated blood to tissues, and capillaries with thin walls and a large
surface area enable oxygen diffusion to cells for respiration.

 Waste like CO₂ diffuses from cells into the blood, returning to the heart through veins with
valves to prevent backflow.

Level 3: A detailed and coherent explanation is provided with most of the relevant content, which
demonstrates a comprehensive understanding of the human circulatory system . The response
makes logical links between content points.

Health Issues
 Health is the state of physical and mental well being
 Communicable disease is caused by pathogens that can be passed from one person to
another.
 Non communicable diseases cannot spread from one person to another
 Disease: Conditions that can cause ill health.
 Risk factors: Anything that increases the chance that a person will develop a certain disease.

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 What causes ill health? (5) Different types of diseases may interact
 Communicable & non-communicable  Defects in immune system - more likely
diseases to suffer from infectious diseases
 Diet, stress & life situation e.g.  Viruses living in cells - trigger for
accessibility to medical attention cancers
 Immune reaction initially caused by
pathogen - trigger allergies e.g. skin
rashes & asthma
 Severe physical ill health - metal illness
e.g. depression

What are the effects of smoking? (4)

 Cardiovascular diseases - damage arteries lining, raise blood pressure, increase cholesterol
 Emphysema (lung diseases) - damage bronchioles & alveoli - shortness of breath
 Lung cancer - carcinogen causes mutation & uncontrolled growth of cells, damage cell lining
in lungs
 Chemicals in smoke damage cilia - cause mucus production to increase - cause shortness of
breath & increases risk of infection
 Reduce O2 supply for unborn babies - cause health issues/death

Explain how a foetus may be affected if a mother smokes during pregnancy

The cigarette smoke will contain carbon monoxide which occupies the mothers red blood cells and so
reduces the amount of oxygen that the mothers blood contains. This means that the foetus receives
less oxygen which reduces the rate of respiration in the foetus which causes the birth mass of the
baby to be less.

Effects of alcohol (3) Why are carcinogens including ionising

radiation, risk factors in cancer? (2)
 Liver disease - damage liver cells when liver  Damage cell's DNA
break down alcohol  Makes cell divide
 Affect brain function - damage nerve cells uncontrollably
 Damage unborn babies' cells - affect
development & cause health issues
Design an investigation that would allow to test the hypothesis that “during exercise, the heart
rate of smokers increases more than the heart rate of non-smokers.” (6)

 Two groups of people - non-smokers and smokers

 have at least five people in each group or large groups
 get each person to do (named) exercise
 controlled variables:
 same number of people in each group or large groups
 same gender - same level of activity / exercise
 same age
 no health issues / illnesses
 same type of exercise

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  same time for exercise
 record heart rate for each person before and after exercise
 calculate increase in heart rate for each person after exercise
 compare results for each group

Cancer
Define cancer (1)

 Changes in cells that lead to uncontrolled growth & division

 Form tumour

Types of tumours

Benign tumours Malignant tumours

 Growths of abnormal cells  Growths of abnormal cells
 Contained in one area, usually within  Cells split up, invade neighbouring
membrane tissues & spread to other organs

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  Do not invade other parts of body, not through blood
cancerous  Form secondary tumours in other
organs
 Causes a lot of fatal damage to body

Smoking Obesity
Lung, mouth, cervical, stomach cancer Bowel, liver and kidney cancer
Ultra violet light Consuming alcohol
Skin cancer Liver cancer

Risk factors aren’t always lifestyle choices and is often the genes inherited from parent that makes
someone more susceptible to certain cancers, e.g. BRCA genes; develops breast & ovarian cancer.

One symptom of pancreatic cancer is weight loss. Explain how pancreatic cancer may cause a
person to lose weight. Do not refer to hormones in your answer.

 reduced / no enzyme production / release (from pancreas)

 food is not broken down fully or food is not digested fully
 plus, any one of the following routes for max 2 marks:
 less glucose / sugar absorbed or less glucose / sugar passes into the blood(stream)
 (so) less glucose available for respiration so more (body / stored) fat used up in metabolism /
respiration

or

 fewer amino acids absorbed or fewer amino acids pass into the blood(stream) (1)
 (so) fewer amino acids are available for making new protein for repair / replacement (1)

or

 fewer fatty acids absorbed or fewer fatty acids pass into the blood(stream) (1)
 (so) fewer fatty acids available so less fat is stored in the body (1)
 or chemotherapy / radiotherapy causes nausea / loss of appetite (1)
 (so) less intake of food (1)

Plant Tissues, Organs and

System
Plant tissues

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  Water enters the plant from the soil, through the root hair cells, by osmosis.
 Water is taken up by roots which is transported to the leaf via the xylem
 In the leaf water evaporates through tiny pores called stomata, a process known as
transpiration.
 This evaporation creates a negative pressure that helps pull more water up from the roots.
 At the same time, carbon dioxide (CO2) enters the leaf through these stomata and is utilized
in photosynthesis.
 This process produces sugars, which are then transported throughout the plant via the
phloem, ensuring that the plant's energy needs are met and growth is supported

Root  Anchorage (the process of providing stability to the plant.) &

absorption of water & mineral ions
 Root hair cell
 Adapt to absorb water by osmosis & mineral ions by active transport
from soil efficiently
Xylem  Transport water & mineral ions from root to stems & leaves
Upper epidermis  Cover the leaf – transparent
 Sunlight pass through them to get to chloroplast in palisade cells.
Waxy cuticle  Reduce water loss by evaporation
 So, it doesn't wilt
Guard cells  Small pores on the underside of the leaf that control gas exchange &
water loss by diffusion
High light intensity High temperature
 Guard cells swells & cause  Guard cells may close
stomata to open stomata to reduce water
 Absorbs CO2 for loss by transpiration
photosynthesis  Even if this means less CO2
 This process releases water is available for
vapor and oxygen photosynthesis.
 But stomata remain open If
the plant needs to continue
photosynthesis and can
afford some water loss.

Low light intensity (night) Low temperature (night)

 Guard cell closes stomata  Guard cells typically close
since CO2 is not needed for stomata to conserve water
photosynthesis, which helps  CO2 absorption is reduced
reduce water loss by since photosynthesis slows
transpiration down
 Reduces water loss and
maintains internal
hydration.

Lower epidermis  Protect internal tissues.

 Contain stomata, which regulate gas exchange and water vapor
through transpiration.
Spongy  Air space - CO2 in, O2 out (gas exchange)
mesophyll  Cells packed loosely to allow gaps between cells

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  Cells are covered by a thin layer of water which gases dissolve in
Palisade  Close towards upper surface of leaf, packed with chloroplasts & are
mesophyll arranged closely together
 Chloroplast - absorb light for photosynthesis
Phloem  Transport dissolved sugar through translocation from leaves to rest of
plant for immediate use or storage

Why more stomata on lower surface of leaf? (3)

KEY POINT
 Cooler & more humid around lower surface
 Less water evaporate so won't wilt (dry off due to lack of In most plant, the
water) stomata are mainly
found on the bottom
surface of the leaf.
This means that the
Explain why leaf in light may contain both glucose and starch but
sun does not shine
without light may contain only glucose but no starch. (5)
directly on them
Leaf in light: Contains glucose from photosynthesis, extra glucose in reducing water loss.
converted to starch, where as in leaf without light starch are converted
to glucose which can used for respiration as there is no light to make glucose by photosynthesis.

Adult hornet moths lay eggs box that hatch into larvae.

The larvae of the hornet moth:

live inside the roots of trees

use the tree roots as a source of food

cause damage to the tree roots.

Explain why a tree might die if the roots of the tree are damaged. (6)

 less absorption of water

 less water so lower rate of photosynthesis
 so less glucose produced
 for respiration / energy release
 so less cellulose produced so fewer cells walls / cells made
 so fewer amino acids produced to make new proteins
 cells lose turgidity

 less absorption of (named) ions / minerals

 fewer nitrates so fewer proteins made for growth
 fewer magnesium ions so less chlorophyll produced
 so lower rate of photosynthesis

 damage to phloem
 less transport of sugars to root cells

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  for respiration / energy release

 damage to xylem
 less water transported (to cells)
 fewer nitrates reach cells
 so fewer proteins made for growth
 fewer magnesium ions reach cells
 so less chlorophyll produced
 less magnesium / chlorophyll so lower rate of photosynthesis

 less anchorage

Describe how water moves from roots to the leaves (2)

By transpiration stream in xylem/

Translocation & Transpiration

Transpiration (2) Transpiration stream (2)
 Water loss from plant by evaporation  Movement of water from roots to
through stomata leaves through xylem
 The transport of water through the
xylem from root to leaf, doesn’t require
energy

Process of transpiration (4)

1. Water evaporates from leaves through stomata, causing a pull

2. Water from soil moves up through roots → stem → leaves by osmosis as transpiration
stream in xylem to replace water loss

What factors & explain how these factors affect the rate of transpiration (4)

 ↑ temp / air movement / ↓ humidity = ↑ evaporation from cell surfaces ↑ rate of

transpiration
 ↑ light intensity = ↑ rate of photosynthesis = stomata open wider = ↑ rate of transpiration

What happens to the rate of  Rate of transpiration increases

transpiration if temperature is  Because, there is increase evaporation from cell
increased and why? surfaces
 So, the rate of diffusion of water from the leaf
increases.
What happens to the rate of  Rate of transpiration increases
transpiration if humidity is  Decreased humidity increases the concentration

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decreased and why? gradient between water in the leaf and water in the air
 Meaning If the air is dry, there’s a big difference
between the water inside the leaf and outside so water
moves out of the leaf faster
 So, the rate of diffusion of water from the leaf
increases.
What happens to the rate of  Rate of transpiration increases
transpiration if air movement  The air flow removes water vapour from leaf surfaces
increases and why?  So, the rate of diffusion of water from the leaf
increases.
What happens to the rate of  Rate of transpiration increases
transpiration if light intensity  The light intensity increases the rate of photosynthesis
increases and why?  Increased rate of photosynthesis widens the stomata to
absorb more CO2
 So, the rate of diffusion of water from the leaf
increases.

 Translocation is the transport of dissolved sugar from leaves to rest of plant through phloem
both upwards & downwards for immediate use/storage 4 growth, which requires energy
 In phloem tubes there are pores enabling movement of cell sap; mixture of H2O & sugar.

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