Introduction To Name Resolution: Netbios

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Introduction to Name Resolution

In computer systems, name resolution refers to the retrieval of the underlying numeric values
corresponding to computer hostnames, account user names, group names, and other named
entities.
Computer operating systems commonly employ multiple key/value lists that associate easily
remembered names with the integer numbers used to identify users, groups, other computers,
hardware devices, and other entities. In that context, name resolution refers to the retrieval of
numeric values given the associated names, while Reverse name resolution refers to the
opposite process of finding the name(s) associated with specified numeric values:

 In computer networking, it refers to processes used to obtain the assigned IP


addresses needed to communicate with devices whose host or domain names are
known. Examples include the Domain Name System (DNS), Network Information
Service and Multicast DNS (mDNS). IP addresses for devices on the local segment
can in turn be resolved to MAC addresses by invoking the Address Resolution
Protocol (ARP).
 Unix operating systems associate both an alphanumeric name and
a user or group ID with each user account or defined group of user names.
The GNU C library provides various operating system facilities that shell commands and other
applications can call to resolve such names to the corresponding addresses or IDs, and vice
versa. Some Linux distributions use an nsswitch.conf file to specify the order in which multiple
resolution services are used to effect such lookups.

Name resolution is a method of reconciling an IP address to a user-friendly computer


name. Originally networks used host files to resolve names to IP addresses. They came
in the form of a text file that the computer accessed if name resolution was required. All
the computers on the network and their IP address mappings had to be entered
manually. The file was then copied to all the machines on the network. When a resource
was required, by the user typing its name, the machine referred to the host file to find the
IP address.
This is the HOSTS file which is located inside the windows\system32\drivers\etc folder.
A computer can still use the hosts file if needed. The LM host file was a windows specific
version of the standard host file and enabled Microsoft’s NT LAN Manager to perform
name resolution tasks The LMHOSTS file is located inside the windows\system32\
drivers\etc

With the advent of larger networks the text based hosts and lmhosts files became large,
unwieldy and required too much maintenance. With the advent of dynamically assigned
IP addresses, IP to name mappings took on a transient nature with the possibility of IP
addresses changing on a weekly basis. The days of the host/lmhost file’s were
numbered as the primary tool of name resolution.

NetBIOS
Microsoft developed a system for name resolution for small networks called NetBIOS
where a broadcast with the required computer name was sent to all computers on the
network segment. All the computers received the request but only the named machine
responded. This system was easy to use because it was self-configuring and required
no maintenance. However with larger, routed networks NetBIOS fell down as the
broadcast would not be passed by a router. Using NetBIOS broadcasts restricted a
machine to resources on it’s own network segment.

Microsoft developed the Windows Internet Naming Service (WINS) to overcome this
problem of broadcasts not being passed by routers. Every machine is given the IP
address of a WINS server in its network properties. When the machine boots up it sends
the WINS server its IP address along with its NetBIOS name.

WINS
The WINS server stores these entries in the wins.mdb database file. Name resolution
queries are sent to the WINS server which then searches the wins.mdb, resolves the
query and then sends the details back to the client. This removes the need of a NetBIOS
broadcast
Because the client can send the NetBIOS query directly to the WINS server and the
WINS server sends the result direct to the client by IP address. The packets will also
pass over a router.

NetBIOS
NetBIOS is still used to provide name resolution for certain applications and for
workgroups that do not utilize the Domain Naming Service (DNS) covered next.
NetBIOS allows network browsing via my network places, computers near me or
Microsoft Windows Network. Any name to IP address mappings resolved by NetBIOS
are stored on the local machine in a cache file to speed up access to that resource in the
future. NetBIOS is enabled by default but can be disabled. This improves network
security by removing the ability to view the contents of the network by browsing. The
disadvantage of this is the inability to view the contents of the network by browsing and
the fact that the network loses a backup name resolution service.

Resource contention
In computer science, resource contention is a conflict over access to a shared
resource such as random access memory, disk storage, cache memory,
internal buses or external network devices. A resource experiencing ongoing
contention can be described as oversubscribed.
Resolving resource contention problems is one of the basic functions of operating
systems. Various low-level mechanisms can be used to aid this,
including locks, semaphores, mutexes and queues. The other techniques that can be
applied by the operating systems include intelligent scheduling, application mapping
decision, and page coloring.[1][2]
Access to resources is also sometimes regulated by queuing; in the case of
computing time on a CPU the controlling algorithm of the task queue is called
a scheduler.
Failure to properly resolve resource contention problems may result in a number of
problems, including deadlock, livelock, and thrashing.
Resource contention results when multiple processes attempt to use the same
shared resource. Access to memory areas is often controlled by semaphores, which
allows a pathological situation called a deadlock, when
different threads or processes try to allocate resources already allocated by each
other. A deadlock usually leads to a program becoming partially or completely
unresponsive.
In recent years, research on the contention is more focused on the resources in
the memory hierarchy, e.g., last-level caches, front-side bus, memory socket
connection.

What is OSI model?


The OSI stands for Open System Interconnection, which was developed in 1980s. It is a
conceptual model used for network communication. It is not implemented entirely, but it
is still referenced today. This OSI model consists of seven layers, and each layer is
connected to each other. The data moves down the OSI model, and each layer adds
additional information. The data moves down until it reaches the last layer of the OSI
model. When the data is received at the last layer of the OSI model, then the data is
transmitted over the network. Once the data is reached on the other side, then the
process will get reversed.

Fig 1: OSI model

What is TCP/IP model?


The TCP model stands for Transmission Control Protocol, whereas IP stands
for Internet Protocol. A number of protocols that make the internet possibly comes
under the TCP/IP model. Nowadays, we do not hear the name of the TCP/IP model
much, we generally hear the name of the IPv4 or IPv6, but it is still valid. This model
consists of 4 layers. Now, we will look at the diagrammatic representation of the TCP/IP
model.
Fig 2. OSI vs TCP/IP

As shown in the above diagram, the TCP/IP model has 4 layers, while the OSI model
consists of 7 layers. Diagrammatically, it looks that the 4 layers of the TCP/IP model
exactly fit the 7 layers of the OSI model, but this is not reality. The application layer of
the TCP/IP model maps to the first three layers, i.e., application, session, and
presentation layer of the OSI model. The transport layer of the TCP maps directly to the
transport layer of the OSI model. The internet layer of the TCP/IP model maps directly to
the network layer of the OSI model. The last two layers of the OSI model map to the
network layer of the TCP/IP model. TCP/IP is the most widely used model as compared
to the OSI model for providing communication between computers over the internet.

Similarities between the OSI and TCP/IP model


The following are the similarities between the OSI and TCP/IP model:

o Share common architecture

Both the models are the logical models and having similar architectures as both the
models are constructed with the layers.

o Define standards

Both the layers have defined standards, and they also provide the framework used for
implementing the standards and devices.

o Simplified troubleshooting process

Both models have simplified the troubleshooting process by breaking the complex
function into simpler components.
o Pre-defined standards

The standards and protocols which are already pre-defined; these models do not
redefine them; they just reference or use them. For example, the Ethernet standards
were already defined by the IEEE before the development of these models; instead of
recreating them, models have used these pre-defined standards.

o Both have similar functionality of 'transport' and 'network' layers

The function which is performed between the 'presentation' and the 'network' layer is
similar to the function performed at the transport layer.

Differences between the OSI and TCP/IP


model

OSI(Open System Interconnection) TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol)

1. OSI is a generic, protocol independent standard, acting as a 1. TCP/IP model is based on standard protocols around which the Internet has
communication gateway between the network and end user. developed. It is a communication protocol, which allows connection of hosts
over a network.

2. In OSI model the transport layer guarantees the delivery of 2. In TCP/IP model the transport layer does not guarantees delivery of packets
packets. Still the TCP/IP model is more reliable.

3. Follows vertical approach. 3. Follows horizontal approach.

4. OSI model has a separate Presentation layer and Session 4. TCP/IP does not have a separate Presentation layer or Session layer.
layer.

5. Transport Layer is Connection Oriented. 5. Transport Layer is both Connection Oriented and Connection less.

6. Network Layer is both Connection Oriented and Connection 6. Network Layer is Connection less.
less.

7. OSI is a reference model around which the networks are built. 7. TCP/IP model is, in a way implementation of the OSI model.
Generally it is used as a guidance tool.
8. Network layer of OSI model provides both connection oriented 8. The Network layer in TCP/IP model provides connectionless service.
and connectionless service.

9. OSI model has a problem of fitting the protocols into the 9. TCP/IP model does not fit any protocol
model.

10. Protocols are hidden in OSI model and are easily replaced 10. In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not easy.
as the technology changes.

11. OSI model defines services, interfaces and protocols very 11. In TCP/IP, services, interfaces and protocols are not clearly separated. It is
clearly and makes clear distinction between them. It is protocol also protocol dependent.
independent.

12. It has 7 layers 12. It has 4 layers

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