2019/20

Pocket Guide
Environment • Radiation • Reactors • Uranium
Nuclear Power,
Energy and the
Environment
Energy and emissions, selected
countries (2016)
CO2 Energy
GDP
Population (billion emissions use per
Location (million) (million capita
US$)
tonnes) (toe*)

Australia 25 1,522 392 5.3

Austria 9 420 63 3.8
Bangladesh 163 168 73 0.2
Belgium 11 515 92 5.0
Brazil 208 2,330 417 1.4
Bulgaria 7 57 41 2.6
Canada 36 1,828 541 7.7
China 1,379 9,505 9,057 2.2
Colombia 49 366 86 0.8
Congo (DR) 79 31 2 0.4
Croatia 4 60 16 2.0
Czech Republic 11 231 101 3.9
Denmark 6 348 34 2.9
Egypt 96 261 205 0.9
Ethiopia 102 52 11 0.5
Finland 6 253 46 6.2
France 67 2,811 293 3.7
Germany 82 3,782 732 3.8
Hungary 10 147 44 2.6
Iceland 0 16 2 15.8
India 1,324 2,465 2,077 0.7
Indonesia 261 1,038 455 0.9
Iran 80 487 563 3.1
Ireland 5 332 37 3.0
Italy 61 2,081 326 2.5
Japan 127 6,053 1,147 3.4
 CO2 Energy
GDP
Population (billion emissions use per
Location (million) (million capita
US$)
tonnes) (toe*)
Lithuania 3 46 11 2.5
Mexico 122 1,259 446 1.5
Myanmar 53 75 21 0.4
Netherlands 17 890 157 4.4
New Zealand 5 176 31 4.5
Nigeria 186 457 86 0.8
North Korea 25 27 25 0.4
Norway 5 473 36 5.2
Pakistan 193 228 155 0.5
Philippines 103 285 115 0.5
Romania 20 199 68 1.6
Russia 144 1,628 1,439 5.1
Saudi Arabia 32 691 527 6.5
Slovakia 5 105 30 3.0
Slovenia 2 51 14 3.3
South Africa 56 420 414 2.5
South Korea 51 1,306 589 5.5
Spain 47 1,465 239 2.6
Sweden 10 560 38 5.0
Switzerland 8 642 38 2.9
Thailand 69 406 245 2.0
Turkey 78 1,123 339 1.8
UAE 9 379 192 8.0
UK 66 2,758 371 2.7
Ukraine 45 124 198 2.1
USA 323 16,920 4,833 6.7
Vietnam 93 164 187 0.9
World 7,429 77,362 32,316 1.9

*Tonnes of oil equivalent Source: IEA

CO2 emissions per capita (2016)

tonnes tonnes tonnes

Location Location Location
/capita /capita /capita

Saudi Arabia 16.3 Slovenia 6.6 Mexico 3.6

Australia 16.0 China 6.6 Thailand 3.6

New
USA 15.0 6.5 Romania 3.5
Zealand

Canada 14.9 Iceland 6.2 Egypt 2.1

South Korea 11.5 Denmark 5.8 Vietnam 2.0

Taiwan 11.0 Bulgaria 5.7 Brazil 2.0

Russia 10.0 UK 5.7 Colombia 1.8

Czech
9.6 Slovakia 5.6 Indonesia 1.7
Republic

Netherlands 9.2 Italy 5.4 India 1.6

Japan 9.0 Spain 5.1 Philippines 1.1

North
Germany 8.9 Switzerland 4.5 1.0
Korea

Finland 8.3 Hungary 4.5 Pakistan 0.8

Belgium 8.1 Ukraine 4.4 Nigeria 0.5

Ireland 7.9 France 4.4 Bangladesh 0.5

South Africa 7.4 Turkey 4.3 Cote d'Ivoire 0.4

Austria 7.2 Sweden 3.8 Myanmar 0.4

Iran 7.0 Croatia 3.8 Ethiopia 0.1

Norway 6.9 Lithuania 3.8 Congo (DR) 0.0

World 4.4

Source: IEA
CO2 emissions per GDP (2016)

kg/ kg/ kg/

Location Location Location
US$ US$ US$

Congo (DR) 0.06 Japan 0.19 Bangladesh 0.44

Czech
Switzerland 0.06 Nigeria 0.19 0.44
Republic

Sweden 0.07 Ethiopia 0.21 Indonesia 0.44

Norway 0.08 Colombia 0.23 South Korea 0.45

Denmark 0.10 Lithuania 0.24 Taiwan 0.50

France 0.10 Australia 0.26 Thailand 0.60

Ireland 0.11 Croatia 0.26 Pakistan 0.68

Iceland 0.13 Slovenia 0.27 Bulgaria 0.72

Cote
UK 0.13 0.28 Saudi Arabia 0.76
d'Ivoire

Austria 0.15 Myanmar 0.28 Egypt 0.79

Italy 0.16 Slovakia 0.29 India 0.84

Spain 0.16 USA 0.29 Russia 0.88

New Zealand 0.17 Canada 0.30 North Korea 0.94

Belgium 0.18 Hungary 0.30 China 0.95

Finland 0.18 Turkey 0.30 South Africa 0.99

Netherlands 0.18 Romania 0.34 Vietnam 1.14

Brazil 0.19 Mexico 0.35 Iran 1.16

Germany 0.19 Philippines 0.40 Ukraine 1.59

World 0.42

Source: IEA
Global CO2 emissions (2016)

 44.1% Coal
 34.8% Oil
 20.4% Gas
 0.7% Other
Total emissions
32 billion tonnes per year

Source: IEA

Emissions intensity by energy source

1200

1000

800
g/kWh

600

400

200

0
al

il

as

ar

o
la
O

dr
in
Co

e
G

So

W
cl

Hy
Nu

Source: IPCC
Countries with nuclear electricity
Nuclear capacity % share of
Location
MWe electricity, 2018
USA 98,699 19
France 63,130 72
China 43,028 4
Japan 36,147 6
Russia 29,139 18
South Korea 23,231 24
Canada 13,553 15
Ukraine 13,107 53
Germany 9,444 12
UK 8883 18
Sweden 8376 40
Spain 7121 20
India 6219 3
Belgium 5943 39
Czech Republic 3932 35
Switzerland 3333 38
Finland 2764 33
Bulgaria 1926 35
Brazil 1896 3
Hungary 1889 51
South Africa 1830 5
Slovakia 1816 55
Argentina 1667 5
Mexico 1600 5
Pakistan 1355 7
Romania 1310 17
Iran 915 2
Slovenia 696 36
Netherlands 485 3
Armenia 376 26
Total* 397,529 10.3

* Includes six reactors on Taiwan with total of 3719 MWe.

Sources: World Nuclear Association, IAEA
as of 07.06.2019
Electricity generation by fuel (2016)

 38.4% Coal
 23.2% Gas
 16.3% Hydro
 10.4% Nuclear
 3.7% Oil
 8.0% Other
Total generation
24,973 TWh

Source: IEA

Nuclear and climate change

Electricity from nuclear power plants generates
significantly lower emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2)
compared with fossil fuel plants.

A study by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)

puts greenhouse gas emissions from nuclear generation
at between 9 and 21 tonnes CO2-equivalent per GWh of
electricity produced. This compares with between 385
and 1343 tonnes for fossil fuel and between 9 and 279
tonnes for renewable energy sources.

Nuclear power accounted for about 10.3% of global

electricity production in 2018. The current use of nuclear
energy avoids the emission of about 2.1 billion tonnes of
CO2-equivalent every year.

According to the International Energy Agency (IEA),

nuclear energy has avoided the emission of some 56
gigatonnes of CO2, the equivalent of two years’ global
emissions at today’s rate. It is estimated that, at current
nuclear usage and CO2 emission levels, almost four
years’ worth of CO2 emissions will be avoided by 2040.

The IEA predicts that global electricity demand will

increase by between 80% and 130% by 2050. Studies
show that significant reductions in carbon emissions,
while also meeting this growing demand, cannot
happen without nuclear as a major component of the
energy mix.

At least 80% of the world’s electricity must be low-

carbon by 2050 if the world is to keep global warming
within 2°C, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPPC).

Harmony
The nuclear industry believes a diverse mix of low-
carbon generating technologies is needed in order for
the 2°C goal to be met. Its target for nuclear energy is to
provide 25% of electricity in 2050, requiring some 1000
GWe of new nuclear capacity to be constructed. The
build rate required to meet this goal is: 10 GWe per year
between 2018 and 2020; 25 GWe per year between
2021 and 2025; and 33 GWe per year between 2026
and 2050.

To realise the Harmony goal, the global nuclear industry

should seek to create: a level playing field for all low-
carbon technologies; harmonized regulatory processes;
and an effective safety paradigm.

Achieving 1000 GWe of new nuclear build by 2050

will require a cooperative effort by the whole nuclear
community - from industry to research, governments
and regulators - to focus on removing the real barriers
to growth. Harmony provides the framework for the
nuclear industry to deliver its potential.
Radiation
What is radiation?
Radiation is energy being transmitted through space.
Visible light, ultra-violet light and transmission signals for
TV and radio communications are all forms of radiation
that are common in our daily lives. There are two types
of radiation: ‘ionizing’ and ‘non-ionizing’. Ionizing
radiation is electromagnetic radiation with sufficient
energy to remove tightly bound electrons from atoms,
thereby creating ions capable of breaking chemical
bonds, and thus causing ionization of the matter through
which it passes. Non-ionizing radiation has sufficient
energy to move atoms but not create ions.

Types of ionizing radiation

Alpha (α) • Particles (helium nuclei) consisting of
particles two protons and two neutrons.
• Emitted from naturally-occurring heavy
elements such as uranium and radium,
as well as from some man-made
unstable elements (formed artificially
by neutron capture and possibly
subsequent beta decay).
• Densely ionizing but can be readily
stopped by a few centimetres of air, a
sheet of paper, or human skin.
• Only dangerous if alpha-emitter is
inhaled or ingested and released inside
the body at high exposures.
• Alpha-emitters can be safely stored in a
sealed container.
• Measurement of exposures from alpha
particles requires special detector
systems.
Beta (β) • Either electrons or positrons emitted by
particles many radioactive elements.
• Can be stopped by wood, aluminium or
glass a few millimetres thick.
• Can penetrate into human skin but
generally less so than gamma radiation.
• High exposure produces an effect like
sunburn, but which is slower to heal.
• Can be safely stored in appropriate
sealed containers.
• Measurement of exposures from beta
particles requires special detector
systems.

Gamma (γ) • High-energy beams similar to X-rays.

rays • A form of electromagnetic radiation.
• Emitted during radioactive alpha and
beta decays.
• Very penetrating so need dense
materials such as water, glass, lead,
steel or concrete to shield them.
• Poses the main hazard to people when
a container holding radioactive materials
becomes unsealed.
• Gamma activity can be measured with a
scintillation detector or Geiger counter.
• Doses can be assessed by the small
badges worn by workers handling
radioactive materials.

X-rays • Similar to gamma rays, but originate

from the electron cloud.
• A form of electromagnetic radiation.
• X-ray photons carry enough energy to
ionize atoms and disrupt molecular
bonds.
• Higher energy X-rays can traverse
relatively thick objects without being
absorbed or scattered much.
Neutrons • A free neutron usually emitted as a result
of spontaneous or induced nuclear fission.
• Can be shielded by light atoms,
particularly those containing hydrogen.
• Indirectly ionizing and hence can be
destructive to human tissue.
• Can be slowed down (or ‘moderated’)
by graphite or water.
• Measurement of exposures from neutrons
requires special detector systems.

Types of radiation and penetration

α γ n
Alpha Gamma Neutron
β x
Beta X-ray

Paper

Thin plates made of glass,

wood, aluminium, etc.

Lead, iron, other thick metal plates

and water.

Water, concrete, etc.

Measuring radiation
The becquerel (Bq) is the SI derived unit of
radioactivity. One becquerel is defined as the activity of
a quantity of radioactive material in which one nucleus
decays per second. A kilogram of granite might have
1000 Bq of activity.

The amount of ionizing radiation absorbed in tissue can

be expressed in grays (Gy): 1 Gy = 1 joule per kilogram.
Since neutrons and alpha particles cause more damage
per gray than gamma or beta radiation, another unit, the
sievert (Sv), is used in setting radiological protection
standards. Total dose is measured in sieverts: as this
unit is so large, millisieverts (mSv) and microsieverts
(μSv) are often used. One gray of beta or gamma
radiation has one sievert of biological effect; one gray
of alpha particles has a 20 Sv effect; and one gray of
neutrons is equivalent to around 10 Sv (depending on
their energy).

Background radiation
Everyone is exposed to low levels of ionizing radiation.
Naturally-occurring background radiation resulting from
radioactive materials in the ground (mainly radon gas),
cosmic rays and natural radioactivity in our bodies are
the main sources of exposure for most people. Annual
doses typically received range from about 1.5 to 3.5
mSv, but can be more than 50 mSv.

Natural radiation contributes about 80% of the annual

dose to the population. The remaining 20% come from
a range of medical, commercial and industrial activities.
The most familiar of these sources of exposure is
medical X-rays. The nuclear power industry accounts
for less than 0.1% of background radiation. A 2012
UNSCEAR report confirmed that radiation from the
normal operation of nuclear power plants poses no
increase in risk to public health.
Key points
• Radiation exists naturally everywhere at widely
varying levels. In some places, due to radioactive
materials in the ground, natural background radiation
is 10 times higher-than-average.
• Humankind exists and thrives in a world with strongly
differing background radiation, while experiencing no
detrimental effects to human health.
• Radiation has always been around, and has been
used and studied for more than 100 years.
• Radiation resulting from the use of nuclear energy
accounts for only a minute fraction of background
radiation.
• Scientific advancements demonstrate that there is
no increased health risk from exposure to low-dose
radiation.

Sources of exposure to radiation

 20% Medicine  13% Cosmic

 <0.1% Nuclear Industry  9% Food and
 42% Radon Drinking Water
 16% Soil 80% Natural Radiation

Source: UNSCEAR
Protection against radiation
Radiation has always been present in the environment
and in our bodies. However, we can and should minimise
unnecessary exposure to significant levels of man-made
radiation. Radiation can be very easily detected. There
are a range of simple, sensitive instruments capable
of detecting minute amounts of radiation from natural
and anthropogenic sources. There are three ways
in which people can be protected from identified
radiation sources:

Time: Dose is reduced by limiting exposure time.

Distance: The intensity of radiation decreases with

distance from its source.

Shielding: Barriers of lead, concrete or water give good

protection from penetrating radiation such as gamma rays.
The International Commission for Radiological Protection has
developed a system for protection with three basic principles:
Justification: No practice involving exposure to radiation
should be adopted unless it produces a net benefit to those
exposed or to society generally.
Optimization: Radiation doses and risks should be kept
“as low as reasonably achievable” (ALARA), whilst taking
into account economic and social factors.
Limitation: The exposure of individuals should be subject
to dose or risk limits, above which the radiation risk would
be deemed unacceptable.
These principles apply to normal exposures. A similar system
applies for accidental exposures but where it is not possible
to limit doses, a target ‘reference’ level is suggested instead.
Underlying these principles is the application of the ‘linear
hypothesis’ based on the idea that any level of radiation dose,
no matter how low, involves the possibility of risk to human
health. However, the weight of scientific evidence has never
established any cancer risk or other health effects at doses
below 50 mSv over a short period or at about 100 mSv/yr.

Nuclear accidents and radiation release

The exposure levels during normal operation of civil
nuclear facilities are very low. However, there have been
some serious accidents, which received extensive public
attention and whose consequences have been reviewed by
the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of
Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR).
• A 2017 report from UNSCEAR concluded that the majority
of cases in an observed increase of thyroid cancer in adults
- who were under the age of 18 - in the exposed area at the
time of the April 1986 Chernobyl accident in Ukraine cannot
be “attributable to radiation exposure”. Thyroid cancer is
usually not fatal if diagnosed and treated early.
• A May 2013 UNSCEAR report observed that radiation
exposure following the March 2011 accident at the
Fukushima Daiichi plant in Japan “did not cause any
immediate health effects” nor would it be likely “to be
able to attribute any health effects in the future among
the general public and the vast majority of workers” to the
accident. A White Paper published by UNSCEAR in 2017
reaffirmed the earlier report’s conclusions.
Some comparative whole-body
radiation doses

Can cause symptoms of radiation

sickness (1000 mSv)

Average annual exposure to

astronauts working on the
International Space Station (150 mSv)

Maximum annual dose limit for

nuclear energy worker (50 mSv)

Typical annual dose to a worker in a

uranium mine (<5 mSv)

Typical annual dose received by

worker in a nuclear power plant
(1 mSv)

Typical chest X-ray (0.1 mSv)

Typical dose from living within a few

kilometres of an operating nuclear
power plant for one year (0.001 mSv)
1,000
Recommended maximum
dose for persons carrying out
emergency work (500 mSv)

500
Recommended five-year
dose limit for nuclear
energy workers (100 mSv)

100

Typical chest CT scan

(7 mSv)

50
Average total global dose
from natural background
radiation (2.4 mSv)

10

Annual public dose limit

(1 mSv)

1
Typical dose received
during flight from New York
to Tokyo (0.1 mSv)

0
IMAGE
Nuclear Power
Reactor
Characteristics
Nuclear power & reactors worldwide
Nuclear Share of Number Nuclear
electricity total electricity of generating
Location
generation, 2018 production, operable capacity*
(billion kWh) 2018 (%) reactors* (MWe)
Argentina 6.5 4.7 3 1667
Armenia 1.9 25.6 1 376
Belgium 27.3 39.0 7 5943
Brazil 14.8 2.7 2 1896
Bulgaria 15.4 34.7 2 1926
Canada 94.5 14.9 19 13,553
China 277.1 4.2 43 50,900
Czech Rep 28.3 34.5 6 3932
Finland 21.9 32.5 4 2764
France 395.9 71.7 58 63,130
Germany 71.9 11.7 7 9444
Hungary 14.9 50.6 4 1889
India 35.4 3.1 22 6219
Iran 6.3 2.1 1 915
Japan 49.3 6.2 37 36,147
Mexico 13.2 5.3 2 1600
Netherlands 3.3 3.1 1 485
Pakistan 9.3 6.8 5 1355
Romania 10.5 17.2 2 1310
Russia 191.3 17.9 36 29,139
Slovakia 13.8 55.0 4 1816
Slovenia 5.5 35.9 1 696
South Africa 10.6 4.7 2 1830
South Korea 127.1 23.7 24 23,231
Spain 53.4 20.4 7 7121
Sweden 65.9 40.3 8 8376
Switzerland 24.5 33.7 5 3333
Ukraine 79.5 53.0 15 13,107
UK 59.1 17.7 15 8883
USA 808.0 19.3 97 98,699
Total** 2563.0 10.3 446 397,529
*as of 07.06.2019 Sources: World Nuclear Association, IAEA
**The world total includes six reactors on Taiwan with a combined capacity of
3719 MWe, which generated a total of 26.7 billion kWh in 2018, accounting for
11.4% of its electricity generation.
 Pressurizer
Control rods Steam
Steam
generator

Steel
pressure
vessel
Water
Fuel elements

Reinforced concrete
containment and shield

Pressurized water reactor (PWR)

Steel
pressure Steam
vessel

Fuel
elements

Water
Control
rods
Pump

Boiling water reactor (BWR)

 Steam
generator Steam

Control rods
Calandria
Heavy
water

Fuel elements

Pressure tubes

Pressurized heavy water reactor

(PHWR/Candu)

Concrete
Control rods pressure
vessel

Steam
generator

Carbon
dioxide

Fuel
elements

Graphite moderator

Advanced gas-cooled reactor (AGR)

 Concrete shield

Control rods
Steam
generators

Graphite
moderator
Fuel
elements

Pressure tubes

Light water graphite-moderated reactor

(LWGR/RBMK)

Control rods

Reactor
vessel

Helium

Graphite Steam

Steam
generator

Fuel pebbles
Water

High-temperature reactor (HTR)

Nuclear fission and types of
nuclear reactor
• Like all other thermal power plants, nuclear reactors
work by generating heat, which boils water to produce
steam to drive the turbogenerators. In a nuclear
reactor, the heat is the product of nuclear fission.
• Uranium and plutonium nuclei in the fuel are
bombarded by neutrons and split usually into two
smaller fragments, releasing energy in the form
of heat, as well as more neutrons. Some of these
released neutrons then cause further fissions, thereby
setting up a chain reaction.
• The neutrons released are ‘fast’ neutrons, with high
energy. These neutrons need to be slowed down by a
moderator for the chain reaction to occur.
• In BWRs (boiling water reactors) and PWRs
(pressurized water reactors), collectively known as
LWRs (light water reactors), the light water (H2O)
coolant is also the moderator.
• PHWRs (pressurized heavy water reactors) use heavy
water (deuterium oxide, D2O) as moderator. Unlike
LWRs, they have separate coolant and moderator
circuits. Coolant may be light or heavy water.
• The chain reaction is controlled by the use of control
rods, which are inserted into the reactor core either to
slow or stop the reaction by absorbing neutrons.
• In the Candu PHWR, fuel bundles are arranged in
pressure tubes, which are individually cooled. These
pressure tubes are situated within a large tank called a
calandria containing the heavy water moderator. Unlike
LWRs, which use low enriched uranium, PHWRs use
natural uranium fuel, or it may be slightly enriched.
Candu reactors can be refuelled whilst on-line.
• A PWR generates steam indirectly: heat is transferred
from the primary reactor coolant, which is kept liquid
at high pressure, into a secondary circuit where steam
is produced for the turbine.
• A BWR produces steam directly by boiling the water
coolant. The steam is separated from the remaining
water in steam separators positioned above the core,
and passed to the turbines, then condensed and
recycled.
• In GCRs (gas-cooled reactors) and AGRs (advanced
gas-cooled reactors) carbon dioxide is used as the
coolant and graphite as the moderator. Like heavy
water, a graphite moderator allows natural uranium (in
GCRs) or very low-enriched uranium (in AGRs) fuel to
be used.
• The LWGR (light water graphite reactor) has enriched
fuel in pressure tubes with the light water coolant.
These are surrounded by the graphite moderator.
More often referred to as the RBMK.
• In FBR (fast breeder reactor) types, the fuel is a mix
of oxides of plutonium and uranium; no moderator
is used. The core is usually surrounded by a ‘fertile
blanket’ of uranium-238. Neutrons escaping the
core are absorbed by the blanket, producing further
plutonium, which is separated out during subsequent
reprocessing for use as fuel. FBRs normally use liquid
metal, such as sodium, as the coolant at low pressure.
• High temperature gas-cooled reactors (HTGRs),
not yet in commercial operation, offer an alternative
to conventional designs. They use graphite as the
moderator and helium as the coolant. HTGRs have
ceramic-coated fuel capable of handling temperatures
exceeding 1600ºC and gain their efficiency by operating
at temperatures of 700-950ºC. The helium can drive a
gas turbine directly or be used to make steam.
• While the size of individual reactors is increasing to
well over 1200 MWe, there is growing interest in small
units down to about 10 MWe.

Reactor facts and performance

• Electricity was first generated by a nuclear reactor on
20 December 1951 when the EBR-I test reactor in the
USA lit up four light bulbs.
• The 5 MWe Obninsk LWGR in Russia, which commenced
power generation in 1954, was the first to supply electricity
to a grid system. It was shut down on 30 April 2002.
• Calder Hall, at Sellafield, UK, was the world’s first
industrial-scale nuclear power station, becoming
operational in 1956. The plant finally shut down on 31
March 2003.
• Grohnde, a 1360 MWe German PWR which first
produced power in 1984, has generated over 376
billion kWh of electricity, more than any other reactor.
• With a cumulative load factor of 93.6% since first power
in 2007, the Cernavoda 2 PHWR in Romania leads the
way on lifetime performance, followed by Germany’s
Emsland, a PWR.
• On 31 December 2018, unit 1 of the Kaiga plant in
India - a 220 MWe PHWR - set a new world record of
962 days continuous power production, breaking the
previous record of 940 days set in 2016 by unit 2 of
the Heysham II AGR plant in the UK.
• In 2018, 40 nuclear power reactors achieved load factors
of more than 95%, compared with 50 the previous year.
• Over 17,880 reactor-years of operating experience
have so far been accumulated.
• Nuclear electricity supplied worldwide in 2018 was
2563 billion kWh, about 10.3% of the total.

Nuclear fuel performance

• The amount of electricity generated from a given
amount of fuel is referred to as burn-up, expressed in
megawatt days per tonne of fuel (MWd/t).
• Typically, PWRs now operate at around 40,000 MWd/t,
with an enrichment level of about 4% uranium-235.
• Advances in fuel assembly design and fuel
management techniques, combined with slightly
higher enrichment levels of up to 5%, now make burn-
ups of up to 50,000 to 60,000 MWd/t achievable.
• With a typical burn-up of 45,000 MWd/t, one tonne of
natural uranium made into fuel will produce as much
electricity as 17,000 to 20,000 tonnes of black coal.
Nuclear power reactor types: typical characteristics
Characteristic PWR BWR AGR PHWR (Candu) LWGR (RBMK) FBR
Active core height, m 4.2 3.7 8.3 5.9 7.0 1.0
Active core diameter, m 3.4 4.7 9.3 6.0 11.8 3.7
Fuel inventory, tonnes 104 134 110 90 192 32
Vessel type Cylinder Cylinder Cylinder Tubes Tubes Cylinder
Fuel UO2 UO2 UO2 UO2 UO2 PuO2/UO2
Form Enriched Enriched Enriched Natural Enriched -
Coolant H 2O H 2O CO2 D2O H2O Sodium
Steam generation Indirect Direct Indirect Indirect Direct Indirect
Moderator H2O H 2O Graphite D2O Graphite None
Number operable* 298 73 14 49 14 3
*
as of 31.12.18 Source: IAEA
Uranium, from
Mine to Mill
Mineralogy and ore grade
• Uraninite is the most common primary uranium
mineral; others of economic interest include coffinite
and brannerite. The most common form of uraninite
is pitchblende, which is sometimes associated with
colourful secondary uranium minerals derived from
weathering.

• The average abundance of uranium in the Earth’s

crust is 2.7 parts per million, making it more common
than tin.

• The concentration of uranium needed to form an

economic mineral deposit varies widely depending on
its geological setting and physical location. Average ore
grades at operating uranium mines range from 0.03% U
to as high as 24% U, but are most frequently less than
1% U. Lower uranium grades are viable as by-product.

Mining methods
• Open pit: used to mine relatively shallow deposits.
Economics depend on the ratio of ore to waste, higher
grade ores having lower ratios.

• Underground: used to mine deposits too deep

for open pit mining. For mining to be viable, these
deposits must be comparatively high grade.

• In-situ leach: this method is applicable only to

sandstone-hosted uranium deposits located below
the water table in a confined aquifer. The uranium is
dissolved in acid or alkali injected into and recovered
from the aquifer by means of wells. The geology
remains undisturbed.

• By-product: uranium often occurs in association with

other minerals such as gold (South Africa), phosphates
(USA and elsewhere) and copper (Australia).
Top uranium mines in 2017-2018
% of world
Production (tU)
Mine Country Main owner Mine type production
2017 2018 2017 2018
Cigar Lake Canada Cameco/Orano Underground 6924 6924 12 13
Olympic Dam Australia BHP Billiton By-product (copper) 2381 3159 4 6
Husab Namibia Swakop Uranium (CGN) Open pit 1141 3028 2 6
Inkai Kazakhstan Kazatomprom/ Cameco ISL 2116 2643 4 5
Rössing Namibia Rio Tinto Open pit 1789 2102 3 4
Budenovskoye 2 Kazakhstan Uranium One/ Kazatomprom ISL 2352 2081 4 4
Tortkuduk Kazakhstan Orano/ Kazatomprom ISL 3519 1900 6 4
Arlit (Somair) Niger Orano Open pit 2116 1783 4 3
Ranger Australia Rio Tinto/ERA Open pit 1945 1695 3 3
Kharasan 2 Kazakhstan Kazatomprom ISL 1762 1631 3 3
Total from top mines 31,458 26,945 53 50
Uranium output by producer*
2018 production
Company
Actual (tU) World share (%)
Kazatomprom 11,704 22
Orano 5809 11
Cameco 4613 9
Uranium One 4385 8
CGN 3185 6
BHP Billiton 3159 6
ARMZ 2904 5
Rio Tinto 2602 5
Navoi Mining 2404 5
Energy Asia 2204 4
CNNC 1983 4
General Atomics/Quasar 1663 3
VostGok 1180 2
Sopamin 1002 2
Sub-total 48,797 91
World total 53,498 100
*based on ownership share

Processing and extraction

• Crushing and grinding: breaks down the ore to fine
particles.
• Leaching: acid or alkali dissolves the uranium, and
the uranium-bearing solution is separated from the
leached solids.
• Extraction: ion exchange or solvent extraction methods
are used to separate the dissolved uranium.
• Precipitation and drying: uranium is precipitated from
solution using one of several chemicals. Dewatering,
filtration and drying complete the process. The final
product is sometimes known as yellowcake, although
it is typically khaki in colour.
World uranium production (2018)

 41% Kazakhstan  7% Others

 16% Africa  5% Russia
 13% Canada  4% Uzbekistan
 12% Australia  1% USA

Mining method (2018)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

53%
In-situ leach

40%
Conventional

7%
By-product
Milling
Simplified flow chart of uranium ore processing from
mining to the production of concentrate. These processes
are commonly known as milling and the product –
uranium oxide concentrate – is the raw material for
making nuclear fuel.

Open pit Underground

mining mining
Crushing
& grinding

Leaching

Tailings disposal Separate solids

Recycle
barren liquor

In-situ Extract U
leach mining in liquor

Precipitate Recycle
uranium barren liquor

Separate solids

Drying

Uranium oxide concentrate, U3O8

(yellowcake) contains approximately 85%
uranium by weight
Uranium production and resources
Uranium
2018
Country resources (tU)*
production (tU)
<US$260/kg

Australia 6517 2,055,000

Canada 7001 846,000

China 1885 290,000

India 423 157,000

Kazakhstan 21,705 905,000

Namibia 5525 541,000

Niger 2911 426,000

Russia 2904 657,000

South Africa 346 449,000

Ukraine 1180 219,000

USA 582 101,000

Uzbekistan 2404 139,000

Other 116 1,203,000

Total 53,498 7,988,000

*OECD/NEA Reasonably Assured Resources category

Sources: World Nuclear Association & OECD/NEA
Uranium history
• In 1789, Martin Klaproth, a German chemist, isolated
an oxide of uranium while analyzing pitchblende
samples from silver mines in Bohemia.
• For over 100 years uranium was mainly used as a
colorant for ceramic glazes and for tinting in early
photography. Uranium was produced in Bohemia,
Cornwall (UK), Portugal and Colorado and total
production amounted to about 300-400 tonnes.
• The discovery of radium in 1898 by Marie Curie led
to the construction of a number of radium extraction
plants processing uranium ore (radium is a decay
product of uranium).
• Prized for its use in cancer therapy, radium reached a
price of 750,000 gold francs per gram in 1906 (US$10
million). It is estimated that 754 grams were produced
worldwide between 1898 and 1928. Uranium itself was
treated simply as a waste material.
• With the discovery of nuclear fission in 1939, the
uranium industry entered a new era. On 2 December
1942, the first controlled nuclear chain reaction was
achieved in Chicago. Although nuclear fission was
first used for military purposes, the emergence of civil
nuclear power reactors in the 1950s demonstrated the
enormous potential of nuclear fission for supplying
electricity.
• From a small beginning in 1951, when four lightbulbs
were lit with nuclear electricity, the nuclear power
industry now supplies about 10.3% of world electricity.
• Between the mid-1940s and the late-1980s, uranium
supply exceeded reactor requirements. However, the
gap between requirements and production since 1990
has been filled by secondary supplies, mostly from
stockpiles including military inventory. Going forward,
the gap will increasingly be filled by higher primary
production, as secondary supplies diminish.
Front cover image: EDF Energy
World Nuclear Association +44 (0)20 7451 1520
Tower House www.world-nuclear.org
10 Southampton Street info@world-nuclear.org
London WC2E 7HA UK

This pocket guide covers:

Nuclear Power, Energy and
the Environment
How much carbon dioxide does each
energy source emit? Which countries
have the highest and lowest emissions
of CO2? How can nuclear energy help
combat climate change?

Radiation
What is radiation? Where does it come
from? How can it be measured? What
steps can be taken to protect against
high doses of radiation?

Nuclear Power Reactor

Characteristics
How do nuclear power plants work?
What are the different types of reactors
in use? Which countries have chosen
nuclear to meet their electricity needs?

Uranium, Mine to Mill

Where does uranium come from? Which
countries are the largest producers?
How is uranium extracted and
processed to produce nuclear fuel?

Pocket Guide 2019/20 Edition

© World Nuclear Association 2019
Registered in England and Wales, company number 01215741