Meterial 20240208 192456

Text Book for
INTERMEDIATE
Second Year
HISTORY
Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi

Andhra Pradesh
Intermediate
Second Year Text Book
History
Pages : xx + 156 + iv
© Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi

Andhra Pradesh
Reprint: 2023
Copies: 2000 + 1000
 Published by Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi, Andhra Pradesh under

the Centrally Sponsored Scheme of Production of Books and Literature
in Regional Languages at the University level of the Government of
India in the Ministry of Human Resource Development, New Delhi.
 All rights whatsoever in this book are strictly reserved and no portion
of it may be reproduced by any process for any purpose without the
written permission of the Copyright Owners.
Rate : 87.00
Printed in India
Laser Typeset by Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi
Published and Printed by
M/s. GBR Offset Printers & Publishers
Surampalli, NTR Dist.
on behalf of Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi, Andhra Pradesh
SRI. Y.S. JAGAN MOHAN REDDY
CHIEF MINISTER
ANDHRA PRADESH AMARAVATI
MESSAGE
I congratulate Akademi for starting its activities with printing of Intermediate

textbooks from the academic year 2021 – 22.
Education is a real asset which cannot be stolen by anyone and it is the
foundation onwhich children build their future. As the world has become a global
village, children will have to complete with the world as they grow up. For this there
is every need for goodbooks and good education.
Our government has brought in many changes in the education system and
more are to come. The government has been taking care to provide education to the
poor and needy through various measures, like developing infrastructure, upgrading
the skills of teachers, providing incentives to the children and parents to pursue
education. Nutritious mid-day meal and converting Anganwadis into pre-primary
schools with English as Medium of instruction are the steps taken to initiate children
into education from a young age. Besides introducing CBSE syllabus and Telugu as
a compulsory subject, the government has taken up numerous innovative programmes.
The revival of the Akademi also took place during the tenure of our government
as itwas neglected after the State was bifurcated. The Akademi, which was started on
August 6, 1968 in the undivided state of Andhra Pradesh, was printing text books,
works of popular writers and books for competitive exams and personality
development.
Our government has decided to make available all kinds of books required for
studentsand employees through Akademi, with headquarters at Tirupati.
I extend my best wishes to the Akademi and hope it will regain its past glory.
Y.S. Jagan Mohan Reddy

Dr. Nandamuri Lakshmiparvathi
M.A. M.Phil., Ph.D.
Chairperson, (Cabinet Minister Rank)
Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi, A.P.
Message of Chairperson, Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi, A.P.
In accordance with the syllabus developed by the Board of Intermediate,

State Council for Higher Education, SCERT etc., we design high quality Text
books by recruiting efficient Professors, department heads and faculty members
from various Universities and Colleges as writers and editors. We are taking steps
to print the required number of these books ina timely manner and distribute
through the Akademi’s Regional Centers present across the Andhra Pradesh.
In addition to text books, we strive to keep monographs, dictionaries, dialect
texts, question banks, contact texts, popular texts, essays, linguistics texts, school
level dictionaries, glossaries, etc., updated and printed and made available to students
from time to time.
For competitive examinations conducted by the Andhra Pradesh Public
Service Commission and for Entrance examinations conducted by various
Universities, the contents of the Akademi publications are taken as standard. So,
I want all the students and Employees to make use of Akademi books of high
standards for their golden future.
Congratulations and best wishes to all of you.
Nandamuri Lakshmiparvathi
Chairperson, Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi, A.P.
J. SYAMALA RAO, I.A.S.,
Principal Secretary to Government Higher Educational Department
Government of Andhra Pradesh
MESSAGE
I Congratulate Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi for taking up the initiative

of printing and distributing textbooks in both Telugu and English media within
a short span of establishing Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi.
Number of students of Andhra Pradesh are competing of National Level

for admissions into Medicine and Engineering courses. In order to help these
students Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi consultation with NCERT redesigned
their Textbooks to suit the requirement of National Level Examinations in a
lucid language.
As the content in Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi books is highly informative

and authentic, printed in multi-color on high quality paper and will be made
available to the students in a time bound manner. I hope all the students in
Andhra Pradesh will utilize the Akademi textbooks for better understanding
of the subjects to compete of state and national levels.
(J. SYAMALA RAO)

THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
PREAMBLE
WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having

solemnly resolved to constitute India into a
[SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC] and to secure to all
its citizens:
JUSTICE, social, economic and political;
LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith

and worship;
EQUALITY of status and of opportunity;

and to promote among them all
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the

individual and the [unity and integrity of the
Nation];
IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this
twenty-sixth day of November, 1949 do HEREBY
ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES
THIS CONSTITUTION.
Textbook Development Committee
AUTHORS
Dr. G. Somasekhara Sri. L. Srinivasarao

Asst. Professor, GJC Pamarru,
Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur Krishna Dt.
Dr. J. Krishna Prasad Babu Sri. P. Baburao

Lecturer, Jawahar Bharathi College, Rc Jr College,
Kavali Deenapur, Guntur Dt
Sri. D. Giri Dr. A. Amareswara Rao

Sri Satyadeva Junior College, Sri Chaitanya IAS Academy,
Annavaram Vijayawada
CHIEF EDITOR
Prof. G.Sambasiva Reddy

Yogi Vemana University, Kadapa
EDITOR
Dr. M. Srinivasa Reddy

Reader, Loyola College,
Vijayawada
Coordinating Committee of
Board of Intermediate Education, A.P.
Sri M.V. Seshagiri Babu, I.A.S.

Secretary
Board of Intermediate Education,
Andhra Pradesh
Educational Research & Training Wing (Text Books)
Dr. A. Srinivasulu
Professor
Sri. M. Ravi Sankar Naik

Assistant Professor
Dr. M. Ramana Reddy

Assistant Professor
Sri J.V. Ramana Gupta

Assistant Professor
Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi, Andhra Pradesh
Coordinating Committee
Sri V. Ramakrishna, I.R.S.

Director
Dr. M. Koteswaramma, M.Com., Ph.D.

Research Officer
Dr. S.A.T. Rajyalakshmi, M.Sc., B.Ed., M.A., Ph.D.

Research Assistant
Dr. K. Glory Sathyavani, M.Sc., Ph.D., M.Ed.

Research Assistant
Foreword
The role played by the Akademi in stabilizing Telugu Medium at the level of Higher
Education since its inception (1968) is well known. The Akademi has rendered needful
services by publishing a number of Text Books, Reference Books, Translations, Popular
Series, Monographs, Dictionaries, Glossaries, Readings, etc., over the years. Many among
the above mentioned books werealso reprinted as per the demand. Sincere effort is being
made to improve the quality of these books by conducting workshops, refresher courses
and also by taking suggestions given by the intellectuals in general and the students and the
teachers in particular.
Akademi has been revising and updating its publications in accordance with the prescribed
syllabi, as and when necessary. Akademi is publishing Text Books for Intermediate in Telugu
Medium since its inception. In addition,the Akademi has entered a new phase of activity
with the publication of language books from the year 1995, and preparation and publication
of IntermediateText books in English medium from the year 1998, as entrusted by the
Board of Intermediate education.
For the academic year 2014-15, the Board of Intermediate Educationhas revised the
syllabus of all Humanities Text Books for first year of Intermediate and entrusted the
preparation, printing and distribution of Text Books to Akademi. Accordingly, Akademi
prepared this Text Book strictly in accordance with the prescribed syllabus for the academic
year 2014-15.
We are indeed very much grateful to the Government of India, State Government,
State Universities, the Board of Governors of Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi. We also thank
the Commissioner, Intermediate Education and Secretary, Board of Intermediate Education
of Andhra Pradesh. We are also very much grateful to Text Book Development Committee
of the subject concerned for their valuable cooperation.
Constructive suggestions are solicited for the improvement of this book. The suggestions
received will be examined and incorporated in the sub sequenteditions.
Sri. V. Ramakrishna, I.R.S.

Director
Telugu and Sanskrit Akademi,
Andhra Pradesh
Preface
Following the direction from Government of Andhra Pradesh, the Board of Intermediate
has accomplished the work of printing of text books for the II year Intermediate students in
History in the state of Andhra Pradesh.
This book is one of the Text Books printed by BOIE during the Academic Year 2015-16.
The Book covers broad themes of the world History from the earliest times to the present. The
content is distributed in 13 chapters.
The authors and the editors have kept in mind the standards at all India level for the plus
two students. The pattern of the book is modeled on NCERT text books.
The authors have followed a Evolutionary, Scientific objective and holistic approach to
the themes dealt by them, there by deviating from the earlier traditional descriptive method of
narration of events chronologically.
The first chapter of the book gives the early History of mankind from the pre Historic
Times to the stage of Homosapiens. An account of Worlds earliest civilization, Namely the
Mesopotamia is described in the second chapter. Life and cultural glory of Ancient Greco Roman
empires is described in the third chapter. The Fourth chapter dealt with the contributions made
by the Islamic culture and tradition to the world. The Fifth chapter gives an account of nomadic
empires and their rollers such as Changiskhan. Bushes.
The life of the people during the medieval feudal Europe is described in the sixth chapter.
The Seventh chapter speaks about the new advancements made by man on account of the
renaissance in different fields such as Art, Architecture, Music, Painting, Sculpture Science and
Technology. The revolutionary ideas of equality, liberty, fraternity, which altered the medieval
Social order are dealt in the eighth Chapter on French Revolution. Industrial revolution that
occurred first in England and the results which spread to the entire Europe is presented in the
Ninth chapter. The Tenth chapter focuses on the liberation and Nationalist movements of Italy
and Germany during the 18th century. The methods resorted by the imperialist powers and the
way the colonization took place, the methods of exploitation and displacement of the indigenous
people forms the contents of the Eleventh chapter. The attempts made by the oriental countries
such as China & Japan to modernize and face the challenges are brought out in the Twelveth
chapter. Efforts made after the post second world war period by the peace loving people and
countries in the world in preserving the world from destruction is dealt with in the Thirteen
Chapter. This chapter closes with the description of work carried out by UNO, NAM and other
regional World organizations for ensuring world peace.
Thus the authors in this book succeeded in presenting broad themes in the world History
in a scientific and rationalistic approach.
This book will not only serve as the text book of the second year Intermediate History
Students, but also prove as useful reference book for those preparing for competitive examination.
Chief Editor
CONTENT
Chapter -1 : Early story of Mankind 1 - 13
1.1 Our Ancestors – Classification of
Our Ancestors .................... 2
1.2 Austrolopithecus Homo .................... 3
1.3 The Evolution of Human Being .................... 4
1.4 Early Humans: Shelter, Making Tools .................... 6
1.5 Modes of Communication Language and Art .................... 7
1.6 Hunter – Gatherer Societies .................... 7
1.7 Conclusion .................... 8
How to read timelines .................... 9
Questions and Exercise .................... 13
Chapter - 2 The Oldest Civilization in World - Mesopotamia- Writing and City Life 14 - 22
2.1 Meaning of Mesopotamia .................... 14
2.2 Mesopotamia Period of Time .................... 15
2.3 Geogrphical Condition
2.3.1 Languages
2.3.2 Political Conditions & Cities .................... 16
2.4 Economic Conditions .................... 18
2.5 Society .................... 19
2.6 Temples - Ziggurats .................... 19
2.7 Cultural Condition .................... 20
2.8 Ancient Mesopotamia’s Place in World History .................... 22
Questions .................... 22
Chapter 3 : An Empire Across Three Continents 23 - 31
3.1 Roman Emprie across three continents .................... 24
3.2 Julius Caesar .................... 24
3.3 Successors of Augustus .................... 26
3.4 Social Order .................... 27
3.5 The Legacy of Rome .................... 28
Questions .................... 31
viii
Chapter 4 : The Central Islamic Lands 32 - 41
4.1 Rise and Exapanison of Islam .................... 32
4.2 The Crusades .................... 36
4.3 Legacy of Islam .................... 37
4.4 Madrasa of Baghdad in 1233 .................... 38
Questions .................... 41
Chapter 5 : Nomadic Empries : Mongols, Chenghis Khan 42 - 54
5.1 About Nomadic Empires .................... 42
5.2 The Great Wall of China .................... 44
5.3 The Life and Career of Chenghis Khan .................... 45
5.4 The Mongol Dynasty .................... 46
5.5 Conclusion : Chenghis Khan and
The Mongols in World History .................... 51
5.6. Chronology of Mongol Dynasty .................... 52
Questions .................... 54
Chapter 6 : Feudalism in Europe 55 - 66
6.1 Introduction to Feudalism .................... 55
6.2 The Three orders .................... 57
6.3 Factors Affecting Social and
Economic Relations .................... 62
6.4 A Fourth Order .................... 63
6.5 The Crisis of the Fourteenth Century .................... 64
6.6. Conclusion .................... 66
Questions .................... 66
Chapter 7 ; The Beginning of Modern Age 67 - 80
7.1 Introduction .................... 67
7.2 Humanism .................... 68
7.3 Study of Greek Literature .................... 69
7.4 Impact of Renaissance .................... 77
7.5 Reformation .................... 77
7.6 Condition of Women .................... 75
ix
7.7 Counter Reformation .................... 79
7.8 Conclusion .................... 79
Questions .................... 80
Chapter 8 : French Revolutions 1789 80- 95
8.1 The Regime of Bourbon Dynasty .................... 81
8.2 Social Division .................... 82
8.3 Influenct of Literary men .................... 84
8.4 Financial condition .................... 86
8.5 Assembly of Notables : 1787 .................... 86
8.6 Estates General of 1789 .................... 87
8.7 The Storming of Bastille .................... 88
8.8 Abolition of feudalism .................... 88
8.9 Declaration of the rights of man .................... 89
8.10 Assembly - The Legislative Assembly .................... 89
8.11 The March of Women to Versailles .................... 91
8.12 Rule fo National Convention .................... 91
8.13 Reign of Terror .................... 92
8.14 Achievement of Convention .................... 93
8.15 Diectorate .................... 93
8.16 Napoleon as Consul .................... 94
8.17 Results of the French Revolution .................... 95
Questions .................... 95
Chapter 9 : Industrial Revolution 96 - 112
9.1 Meaning and Definition .................... 96
9.2 Consequences of the Industrial Revolution
and Imperialism .................... 107
9.3 Over Crowded towns .................... 108
9.4 Women - Children and Industrialisation .................... 109
9.5 Protest Movements .................... 109
9.6 Reforms Through Loss .................... 110
9.7 Conclusion .................... 111
Question .................... 112
Chapter 10 : Liberation (Unification) Movements In Germany and Italy 113 - 125
10.1 Contribution of Napoleon I .................... 113
10.2 Carlsbad Decrees, 1819 .................... 114
x
10.3 Impact of Revolution of 1830 on Germany .................... 115
10.4 The Establishment of Zollverein .................... 115
10.5 German Response to the Revolt of 1848 .................... 115
10.6 Frankfurt Parliament .................... 116
10.7 Influenct of Italian Developments of 1859 - 61
on Germany .................... 116
10.8 Role of William I, the king of Prussia in 1861 .................... 116
10.9 Otto - Von Bismarck (1815 - 1898) .................... 116
10.10 Treaty of Prague August 1866 .................... 118
10.1.1 Geographical Diversity or Disunitys
10.1.2 Role of Leaders .................... 121
Questions .................... 125
Chapter 11 : Displacing Indigenous Peoples 126 - 132
11.1 European Imperialism .................... 126
11.2 Mutual Perceptions .................... 128
11.3 The European who settled in America
from 17th centuary .................... 128
11.4 The Native Peoples Lose their Land .................... 129
11.5 Constitutional Rights .................... 130
11.6 The Winds of Change - Australia .................... 130
11.7 The Development of Australia .................... 131
11.7.1 About Original Natives and Natives .................... 132
Questions .................... 132
Chapter 12 : Paths of Modernisation 133 - 137
12.1 Introduction .................... 133
12.2 China Dynasities .................... 134
12.3 The Ages of the Philosophers .................... 134
12.4 Confucius .................... 134
12.4 Nationalism in China .................... 134
12.4 The Opium Trade .................... 134
12.5 Establishing the Republic .................... 135
12.6 The Raise of the Communist party of China .................... 135
xi
12.7 Japan - Political System .................... 136
12.8 The Meiji Restoration .................... 137
Questions .................... 137
Chapter 13 : Contemporary World 138 - 156
13.1 Organizing United Nations .................... 139
13.1.1 Atlantic Charter .................... 139
13.1.2 Washington Declaration 1942 .................... 139
13.1.3 Mascow Declaration (1943) .................... 140
13.1.4 Dumbartion Oaks conferences .................... 140
13.2 The United Nations organization .................... 140
13.3. Organs of U.N.O .................... 141
13.3.1 General Assembly .................... 142
13.3.2 Security Council .................... 142
13.3.3 Economic and Social Council .................... 143
13.3.4 Trusteeship council .................... 143
13.3.5 The International Court of Justice .................... 144
13.3.6 The Secretariat .................... 144
13.4 Achievements of U.N.O .................... 144
13.4.1 Kashmir Issue .................... 145
13.4.2 Other Activities of the United Nations. .................... 146
13.5 Cold War .................... 146
13,6 Non - Alignment Movement (NAM) .................... 149
13.7 The Common Wealth .................... 151
13.8 The World Organisation .................... 152
13.9 European Economic Community .................... 152
13.10 The Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Countries (OPEC) .................... 153
13.11 South West African people’s Organization
(SWAPO) .................... 153
13.12 South Asian Association for Regional
Co - operation (SAARC) .................... 155
Question .................... 156
xii
C H A P T E R
1 EARLY HISTORY OF
MANKIND
Introduction
It is known to every one that God has created Man and a beautiful garden, later woman was
created by him ,but the two couple did not satisfy with what has given to them. They went against
God’s word. So, God had punished them and sent them to the earth. Present day, human
population was their children according to one religious belief, almost all religions say the same thing
about the origin of man. The truth is something different. The Archeaeologists, Anthropologists,
Sociologists and Historians together have come to some reasonable conclusion. Presently, we are
going to know in this lesson about their findings, Social Anthropologists study and analysis the
human existence. They say that the beginning of human existence can be traced back to 5.6 million
years ago (mya). Human beings resembling us originated about 1,60,000 years ago. Discoveries
of human fossils, stone tools and cave paintings help us to understand early human history. The
evidence for human evolution comes from fossils can be dated either through direct chemical
analysis or indirectly by dating the sediments in which they are buried.
AP History chapter1.pdf 1 6/4/2015 12:52:35 PM

2 History
OUR ANCESTORS
It is possible to trace the human developments
back between 36 and 24 mya. During 36 mya, the
primates a category of mammals emerged in Asia and
Africa. Subsequently, by about 24 mya, there
emerged a subgroup amongst primates, called
hominoids, this includes apes. And much later, about
5.6 mya, we find evidence of the first hominids.
Though hominids have evolved from hominoids with
some common features, a few major differences can Recovering Fossils
be observed as shown below:-
CLASSIFICATION OF OUR ANCESTORS
Our Ancestors
PRIMATES
HOMONOID HOMONID
(24 million years ago; mya) (5.6 mya)
AUSTROLOPITHECUS HOMO
5 mya 2.5 mya
HOMO HOMO HOMO

Habilies erectus sapien
2.5 – 1.5 m 1 – 45,000 y 45,000 y
Difference between Hominoids-Hominids
HOMINOIDS HOMINIDS
1) A smaller Brain 1) Big Brain

2) They are Quadrupeds Walking on all 2) They have upright posture and walking on
four, but with flexible forelimbs two feet
3) Hand is not so flexible 3) Specialisation of the hand is different
Hominids belong to a family known as Hominidae, which includes all forms of humans beings.
The distinctive features of hominoids include a large brain size, upright posture, bipedal locomotion
and specialization of the hand. Again Hominids are classified into two parts. They are:
Austrolopithecus, Homo.

EARLY HISTORY OF MANKIND 3
HOMINIDS
Differences
AUSTROLOPITHICUS HOMO
1) Small Brain 1) Big Brain
2) Heavy Jaws 2) Small Jaws
3) Lengthy Teeth 3) Small Teeth
(a) Austrolopithecus
The name Austrolopithicus comes from a Latin and Greek words, Latin word ‘austral’
means ‘southern’ and a Greek word, ‘pithekas’ meaning ‘ape’ means southern ape. Austrolopithecus
bipedalism enabled hands to free for carrying infants or objects. In turn, as hands were used more
and more, upright walking gradually became more efficient, less energy is consumed while walking
as compared to the movement of Quadrauped. However, the advantage in terms of saving energy
is reserved while running. The evidence of bipedalism comes from the fossilized hominid foot prints
at Laetoli, Tanzania. Fossil limb bones recovered from Hadar. Ethiopia provides more direct evidence
of bipedalism.
Around 2.5 mya due to major climatical changes grassland areas expanded at the expense
of forests, gradual extinction of the early forms of Austrolopothecus and the replacement by species
for drier conditions. Among these the earliest ones are genus HOMO.
HOMO
Homo is a Latin word, meaning ‘man’ as well as woman. Fossils are Homo classified into
three characteristics. The names for fossils are derived from the places where the first fossils of a
particular type were found.
TYPES OF HOMO
HOMO habilies HOMO erectus HOMO sapien
(Tool Maker) (upright walker) (wise man)
OMO (Ethiopia) Koobi Fora, west Turkama
Oldurai Gorge(Tanzania) Kenya, Modjokerto-Africa
Sangiran,Java- Asia
Fossils found in Heidelberg, a city in Germany, were called HOMO heidelbergensis, while
those found in the Neander Valley were categorized a Homo neanderthalensis. Homo heidelbergenisis
belong to 0.8 – 0.1 mya, having been found in Africa, Asia and Europe. The Neanderthals occupied
Europe and western and central Asia from roughly 1,30,000 – 35,000 years. They disappeared

4 History
abruptly in western Europe by 35,000 years ago.
In general, compared with Austrolopthecus, Homo have a larger brain, jaws with smaller
teeth. An increase in brain size is associated with more intelligence and a better memory. The
changes in the jaws and teeth were probably related to differences in dietary habits. The Homonid
families spread to Europe, Asia and Africa in different timings as the chart shown below:-
PEOPLING OF THE WORLD
WHEN WHERE WHO
5.1 million years ago Sub-Saharan Africa Austrolopithecus,

Homo, Homo erectus
1 mya – 40,000 years Africa, Asia and Europe Homo erectus, archaic
In mid-latitudes Homosapiens,
Neanderthals
45,000 years ago Australia Homosapiens
(modern humans)
40,000 years ago Europe in high-latitudes Late Neanderthals to
to present and Asia-Pacific islands Modern humans
North and South America
in deserts, rain forests
THE EVOLUTION OF HUMAN BEING

THE EARLIEST FOSSILS OF MODERN HUMANS
WHERE WHEN
ETHIOPIA Omo Kibish 1,95,000-1,60,000 years ago
SOUTH AFRICA 1,20,000 - 50,000
Border Cave, Die Kelders
Klasies River Mouth
MOROCCO Dar es Solton 65,000 – 50,000
ISREAL Qafzeh Skhul 1,00,000 – 80,000
AUSTRALIA Lake Mungo 45,000 – 35,000
BORNEO Niah Cave 40,000
FRANCE Cro-Magnon 35,000
Near Les Eydes

From the above chart one can notice that some of the earliest evidence for HOMO Sapiens
have been found in different parts of Africa. The latest views on the issue of the place of origin of
modern views:
(1) Regional Community Model (with multiple regions of origin)
(2) Replacement Model (with a single origin in Africa)
1) Regional Community Model

Visualizes the old Homo Sapiens in different regions gradually evolved at different rates into
modern humans. So, the variations are found in the first appearance of modern humans in different
parts of the world. They say that the dissimilarities are due to differences between the pre-existing
Homo Erectus and Homo heidelbergensis populations that occupied the same regions.
2) The Replacement Model
It reveals that the complete replacement everywhere of all older forms of humans
with modern humans. These people argue that the enormous similarity amongst modern humans is
due to their descent from a population that originated in a single origin Africa.
FOOD
The early humans obtained food through a number of ways, such a gathering, scavenging,
hunting, fishing.
Gathering:
It is collecting plant foods such as seeds, nuts, berries, fruits and tubers. We get a fair amount
of fossil bones. Fossil plant remains are relatively rare. So far archaeologists have not found much
evidence of carbonized seeds of this very early foods.
Scaveging or Foraging:
The early hominids scavenged or foraged for meat and marrow from the carcasses
of animals that had died naturally or had been killed by other predators. eg: small mammals like
rodents, birds, reptiles and even insects.
Hunting:
Hunting probably began later about 5,00,000 years ago. The earliest clear evidence
for deliberate planned hunting and butchery of large mammals comes from two sites:
Eg: Boxgrave in south England (5,00,0000 years) and Schoningen in Germany (4,00,000 years)
planned hunting began from 35,000 years ago at Dolni Vestonice (Czech Republic)
Fishing :
It was also important food. Fish bones at different sites are found.

6 History
EARLY HUMANS – SHELTER (trees, caves, open air sites)
For the period 4,00,000 – 1,25,000 years ago, the patterns of residence can be suggested
by plotting the distribution of artefacts. eg: Thousands of flake tools and hand axes have been
excavated at Kilombe and Olorgesaile(Kenya). In the Lazaret cave in southern France, a 12x4
meter shelter was built against the cave wall. Another site, Terra Amata on the coast of southern
France, flimsy shelters with roofs of wood and grasses were built for short-term seasonal visits.
Caveman Shelter
MAKING TOOLS
One has to remember that tool making was not confined to only humans. Birds are known
to make objects to assist them with feeding, hygiene. Some chimpanzees use tools that they have
made. The earliest evidence for the making and use of stone tools comes from sites in Ethiopia and
Kenya. It is likely that the earliest stone tool makers were the Austrolopithecus. It is possible that
stone tool makers were both women and men. Women in particular may have made and used
tools to obtain food for themselves as well as to sustain their children after weaning.
Punch Blade technique

About 35,000 years ago, we see improvements in the techniques for killing animals. The
tools such as spears, the bow and the arrow were developed. The meat thus obtained was
probably processed by removing the bones, followed by drying, smoking and storage. Thus, food
could be stored for later consumption. There were other changes, such as trapping of fur-bearing
animals and the invention of sewing needles. The earliest evidence of sewn clothing comes from
about 21,000 years ago. Besides, the introduction of punch blade technique to make small chisel-
like tools.
MODES OF COMMUNICATION; LANGUAGE and ART
The modes of communication of human beings are several ways: (i) Hominid language
involved gestures or hand movements (2) Spoken language by vocal but non-verbal (singing; humming)
(3) Speech sounds in a small number. It has been suggested that the brain of Homo habilis would
have made possible for them to speak. The language may have developed as early as 2,00,000
years ago. Some people argue that language developed around 40,000-35,000 at the time of birth
of art. Hundreds of paintings of animals have been discovered in the caves of LASCAUX a
CHAUVET, both in France and Altamira in Spain. These includes depictions of bison, horses,
ibex, deer, mammoths, rhinos, lions,bears, painters, hyenas and owls. The Art or painting was
confined some places only. The reason for this might be that the caves were possibly meeting
places for small groups of people or locations for group activities. The reasons for the painting of
animals was probably their association with ritual and magic.
Cave Paintings
HUNTER-GATHER SOCIETIES; From the present to the past

As our knowledge of present-day hunter-gatherers increased through studies by
Anthropologists a question the began to be posed was whether the information about living hunters
and gatherers could be used to understand past societies. Currently, there are two views: (1)
These scholars directly apply specific data from present-day hunter-gatherer societies to interpret
the archaeological remains of the past.eg: some archaeologists suggested that the hominid sites,

8 History
dated 2,00,000 years ago along the margins of Lake Turkana could have been dry season camps of
early humans, because such a practice has been observed among the Hadze and Kungson. (2) On
the other side scholars who feel that ethnographic data cannot be used for understanding past
societies as the two are totally different eg: present-day hunter-gatherer societies pursue several
other economic activities such as engaging in exchanging and trade in minor forest produce along
with hunting and gathering. Moreover, the conditions in which they live are very different from
those of early humans. Although present day generally women gather and men hunt but there are
ocieties, where both women and men hunt and gather and make tools. The role of women in
contributing to the food supply in such societies cannot be denied. However, it is difficult to make
any such inference for the past.
CONCLUSION
In this chapter we tried to learn certain concepts on one side viz., the origin of man, his
body structure, his movements to different areas in different timings. The other side we came to
know with the help of the archaeologists, anthropologists, sociologists and historians the early man’s
techniques in tool making for food, his shelter areas and how he began communication such as
gestures, hummings, singing and speech sounds in a small number and cave paintings.
For several million years, humans lived by hunting wild animals and gathering wild plants.
Then, between 10,000 and 4,500 years ago, people in different parts of the world learnt to
domesticate certain plants and animals. This led to the development of farming and pastoralism as
a way of life. The shift from forging to farming was a major turning point in human history. This
change take place at the last ice age came to an end about 13,000 years ago and with that warmer,
wetter conditions prevailed. As a result, conditions were favourable for the growth of grasses such
as wild barley and wheat. At the same time, as open forests and grasslands expanded, the population
of certain animals such as wild sheep, goat, cattle, pig and donkey increased. What we find is that
human societies began to gradually prefer areas that had an abundance of wild grasses and animals.
Now, relatively large, permanent communities occupied such areas for most parts of the year. With
some areas being clearly preferred, a pressure may have built up to increase the food supply. This
may have triggered the process of domestication of certain plants and animals. It is likely that a
combination of factors which included climatic change, population pressure, a greater reliance on
and knowledge of a few species of plants, and animals played a role in this transformation.
One such area where farming and pastoralism began around 10,000 years ago was the
Fertile Crescent, extending from the Mediterranean coast to the Zagros mountains in Iran. With
the introduction of agriculture, more people began to stay in one place even longer periods that they
had done before. Thus permanent houses began to be built of mud, mud bricks and even stone.

These are some of the earliest villages known to archealosists. Farming and pastoralism led to the
introduction of many other changes such as the making of pots in which it store grain and other
produce, and to cook food. Besides, new kinds of stone tools came into use. About 5,000 years
ago, even larger concentrations of people began to live together in cities. How did this happen?
What are the differences these settlements and cities?. For these questions the answers we will find
in the the next Theme:

10 History


12 History

QUESTIONS
Short Answer Questions (5 marks)
1. Write the differences of the Homonoids and Homonids.
2. Write the Food Habits of early human being.
Very Short Questions (2 marks)
1. Austrolopithicus
2. Homosapiens
3. Foraging
4. Neanderthal Man
Exercise
Collect early human being tool making phots or objects in and around surrounding area

14 History
C H A P T E R
2 THE OLDEST CIVILIZATION

IN WORLD-MESOPOTAMIA
-WRITING AND CITY LIFE
Civilization means an advanced state of intellectual, cultural, material development in human

society marked by progress in the art and sciences, the extensive use of record keeping including
writing and the appearance of complex political and social institutions. In the course of human
evolution, at a certain point in time, the idea of living in a group with mutual understanding and
dependency became a very useful and practical life style. From such small isolated groups,
communities were formed . Then came the societies which in due time became a civilization, a mong
the oldest civilizations in the world civilization.
MEANING OF MESOPOTAMIA
Mesopotamia civilization was a beginner of city life in ancient civilizations. The name
Mesopotamia is derived from the Greek word ‘ Mesos’ and ‘potamos’ which means middle of
rivers. Mesopotamia was a land between two rivers, Euphrates and Tigris. This area is now a part
of the Republic of Iraq. Mesopotamian civilization is known for its prosperity, city life, and rich
literature. Mesopotamians contributed for mathematics and astronomy. Mesopotamia’s writing
system and literature spread to the eastern Mediterranean northern Syria and Turkey. So the
language of Mesopotamia spread to those regions.

The oldest Civilization in World-Mesopotamia -Writing and City Life 15
Ancient world four sisters 1. Mesopotamia –invented-Agriculture 2. Egypt civilization-Zamatric

3. Harappa civilization-Engineering and Town planning. 4. Chaina-Science and Technology.
Period of Time
In course of time civilization of Mesopotamia spread to different regions. In the beginning,
the civilization was confined to south and the Sumer and the Akkad were the centers of civilization.
After 2000 B.C., Babylon became an important city and the southern part was termed as Babylonia.
From about 1100 B.C., Assyrians established their kingdom in the northern Mesopotamia.This
region became known as Assyria.
MESOPOTAMIA TIMELINE
3500B.C Cities growing across Mesopotamia

3200B.C. Pictogrfic Record keeping Tablets
3000B.C. Sumarians used signs to write
2800B.C. Legendary Ruler Gilgamesh
2400B.C. Cuneiform
2300B.C. Sumarian cities united by Akkadians
1900B.C. Akkadian language becomes main spoken and writing
1800B.C. Hamurabi unites Mesopotamia
400B.C. Alexander defeats Perians, Mesopotamia

16 History
1. Geographical conditions
The environment of Mesopotamia is diverse. In the North Eastern life, green, undulating’s plains,
gradually raising to trees covered mountain ranges with clear streams and wild flowers, with enough
rainfall to grow crops reflect the life of people. Between 7000B.C. and 6000B.C. agriculture began
..Another livelihood for the people was animal herding. Sheep and goats in large number feed on
the grasses and many people depended on herding.
The south of the country is a desert. In the mountains of north the rivers Euphrates and
Tigris begin and they carry fertile soil and thus making plain land to cater the needs of agriculture.
2. Language
The first known language of the Mesopotamians was Sumerian. It was gradually replaced by
Akkadian around 2400 B.C. This language flourished till Alexander’s time of 323B.C., with some
regional changes. Aramaic, a language similar to Hebrew, became widely spoken after 1000 B.C.
and it is still spoken in parts of Iraq.
3. Political Conditions & Cities

Gilgamesh Epic
In the history of Mespotamia this was really a great real episode.This was written on twelve
tablets .Gilgamesh,a rulerof Uruk city, was a great hero, who helped many poor people. He was
shocked with the death of his best friend and he set out to find the secret of immortality. But he
found no answers to his questions and returned back to his capital city .Then he consoled himself by
walking along the city wall. He takes consolation in the city that his people had built.
City of Ur
In 1930 excavations, one of the earliest cities have been found, Ur town is one .The silent
features of the town were narrow winding streets indicate that wheeled carts could not have reached
many of the houses. Bags of grains and fire wood were carried on donkey back. It is observed that
there was no proper town planning. The roofs of houses were sloped inwards and rainwater channeled
via drain pipes into sumps, in the inner courtyards. The houses were planned so as to light come
from doorways, but not from windows. In constructions of houses superstitions recorded in many
tablets. There was a town cemetery at Ur in which the graves of royalty and commoners have been
found.
Babylon City
Babylon was a premier city of the world, spread over more than 850 hectares. This was a
city with triple wall, great palaces and temples and ziggurat or stepped tower. In 539 B.C

Achaemenids of Iran conquered Babylon and until 331 B.C when Alexander conquered Babylon
was a great city.
Other towns and the Palace of Mari:
Another town excavated in this civilization was Abu Salabikh. It belongs to 2500 B.C with
10,000 population and expanded about10 hectares. The archaeologist excavated very deep into
the soil and found that large quantity of fish bones was found. Archaeologists also recognized that
pigs must have roamed free here. In one house burial, it is found some pig bones which must have
given to a dead person as nourishment.
Another great excavation- the palace at Mari, the royal residence of king Zimrillian dated
1810-1760 B.C this palace was hub of administration, a place for production and especially of
precious metal ornaments. Huge quantity of food was prepared for the king daily and he used to eat
in the company of many others. The palace had only one entrance on the north. A beautifully paved
hall was constructed and the king would have received foreign dignitaries. The palace was a sprawling
structure, with 260 rooms and covered an area of 2-4 hectares.

18 History
4. Economic Conditions
Occupations
Of all ancient systems, it was agriculture of southern Mesopotamia was most productive,
even though the region did not have sufficient rainfall to grow crops. The river Euphrates flows
towards east and crops like wheat, barley, peas are grown on its either side of banks.
Mesopotamians grazed sheep and goats on the steppe, north eastern plains and the mountain
slopes. They produced meat,milk and wool in abundance. Fish was available in rivers and date
palms are availablefruits in summer.
Foreign Trade
Ancient Mesopotamians have trade relations with Turkey and Iron. They exchanged
abundant textiles and agricultural produce for wood, copper, tin, silver, gold,shell and various stones.
For making carts, cart wheels or boats, they depended on wood of other countries.
Transport
For urban development, transport is most important. The cheapest mode of transport is
over water. River boats or barges loaded with grain bags were used for transport. Natural channels
and canals of ancient Mesopotamia were the routes of goods transport. In the time of Zimrillim,
Mari became an important center for river transport and through Euphrates a clear route to the
world formed.
City Life
The ancient Mesopotamians lived in cities, which formed the core of the city states. These
cities, were surrounded by numerous satellite villages, and in the case of larger cities, smaller towns
were also under their authority .A typical city may have 20,000 population, and a larger one
50,000.Babylon, , the chief city of southern Mesopotamia could have a population of 1,00,000.
Uruk, one of the earliest temple towns may be traced around 3000 B.C. Uruk city extended
to 250 hectares and it was twice as large as Mohenjo-Daro of our County. Many Village people
shifted their lives to cities and from 4200 B.C. to 2800 B.C. The Uruk city had expanded to 400
hectares. In building of temples, war captives and local people compulsorily were engaged. Those
who were put to work were paid rations. Food grains, cloth,oil were allotted as ration for them. It
was estimated that one of the temples took 1500 men working 10 hours a day and a span of 5 years
to build. In sculpture, there was technical land mark, appropriate to urban economy i.e. the potter’s
wheel. In the long run, the wheel enables a potter’s workshop to mass produce dozens of similar
pots at a time.

5. Society
A close watch of life style in Mesopotamian Civilization, we can observe a rich and elite
class of people enjoyed the major share of wealth. Jewelry, gold, wooden musical instruments etc.
were buried with some kings and queens at Ur city.
Ordinary people
In Mesopotamian society, nuclear families exist. A nuclear family comprises a man, his wife and
children. The father was the head of the family. In the process of marriage, both the parties give a
declaration of willingness. Exchange of gifts, a grand get – together and visiting a temple are the formalities
of the day .Only sons inherit the property of the father and female get only a small gift of share.
6. Temples-Ziggurats
Early Settlers of south Mesopotamia began to build temples at selected spots in their villages.
Temples were the residence of various gods. We can identify the ancient gods of that period as Ur-
god of moon, Innanna – the goddess of love and war. Ziggurats were built by Sumarians, Babilonians,
Akkadians for local religions. Each Ziggurat was part of a complex which included other buildings.
The earliest Ziggurats began near the end of the early dynastic period.An example of simple Ziggurat
is the White Temple of Urak in ancient Sumeria. The Ziggurat itself is the base on which the White
Temple is set. The purpose of Ziggurat was to get the temple closer to the heaven and provide
access from ground to heaven via steps. The Ziggurat Babilonia was known as Etmenankia. The
meaning of this word in Sumarian language was “House of the platform between Heaven and
Earth”.
The Great Ziggurat of Ur was located in temple complex of the city state, who was patron
deity of the city. As the Mesopotamian gods were commonly linked to the eastern moutains, the

20 History
Ziggurat may have functioned as a representative of their homes.The people of Mesopotamia belived
that their gods had needs just like their mortal subjects. Hence a bed chamber was provided for
Innanna in shirine on top of his Ziggurat.
The construction of the Ziggurat was started by the third dynasty.This was dedicated to god
of Moon-Innanna. The Earliest temple was a small shrine made of un backed bricks. Construction
of temples became larger over time, with several rooms around open court yards. Temples always
had their outer walls going in and out at regular intervals, which no ordinary building ever had .War
captives were employed for temple construction and they were given ration. Captives and local
people were ordered to fetch stones or metal ores, make bricks or lay bricks for temple. In and
around 3000 B.C. bronze tools came into use for various crafts. Architects learn to constructs brick
columns, there being no suitable wood to bear the weight of the roof of halls. In construction of
walls steles were used steles are slabs with inscriptions or carvings.
7. Cultural Condition
The development of writing
All ancient societies have languages in which certain
spoken sounds were discovered to convey certain
meanings.when we talk about writing or script, writing or
script, means spoken sounds represented by visible
signs.Mesopotamians were the first people to have initiated
writing and first to record their deeds.
Over five thousand years ago ,people living in
Mesopotamia developed a form of writing to record and
communicate different types of information. The earliest
writing was based on pictograms. Pictograms were used
to communicate basic information about crops and taxes overtime, the need for writing changed
and signs developed into a script and was called cuniform.
The first Mesopotamian tablets were written around 3200 B.C. Tablets are clay tablets or
stone tablets, a flat piece of clay or stone which people used to write on before paper was invented.
They contained picture like signs and numbers. We found number of tablets belongs to Uruk, a city
in the south. Writing began when society needed to keep records of transactions. Because of city
life in Mesopotamian civilization, different transactions at different times occurred and people made
transactions with different occupations and of variety of goods.
Tablets
Thousands of years ago, Mesopotamians started recording daily events, trade, astronomy
and literature on clay tablets. Mesopotamian used tables of clay made. A scribe would wet clay and

pat it into a size one could hold comfortably in one hand. The surface of the tablet would be
carefully smoothened. With a sharp end of a reed cut obliquely, he would press wedge – shaped
signs cuneiform on the smoothened surface while it was still moist. Once dried in the sun, the clay
would harden and tablets would be almost as indestructible as pottery. Once the surface dried,
signs could not be pressed on to a tablet. So each transaction however minor required a separate
written tablet. That is the reason for getting hundreds of tablets at Mesopotamian sites. Of course
that is also an advantage for our historians to get more information about Mesopotamia civilization.
Cuneiform
By 2600 B.C. the system of writing becomes Cuneiform. And the language was Sumerian.
Writing was now used for preparing records and also making dictionaries. For land transfers, king
made laws and customs of the local area, all were recorded in the writing system of cuneiform.
Sumerian the earliest known language of Mesopotamia was gradually replaced after 2400 B.C by
the Akkadian language. Cuneiform writing in the Akkad Ian language continued in use until the first
century A.D. that is for more than 2000 years.
Contribution to Mathematics
Science requires written texts that generation of scholars can read and build up on. The
greatest legacy of Mesopotamia to the world is its scholarly tradition of time reckoning and
mathematics. The Mesopotamians are credited with inventing Mathematics.Their numerical system
was based on 6 and 10. The first round of numbers were based on ten ,like ours, but the next
round were based on multiples of six ,sixty, six hundrend. Perhaps it is because the number 60 can
be divided by many numbers 2,3,4,5,6,12,15,20, and 30. Tablets dating around 1800 B.C reveal
the facts of Mesopotamian mathematical system of multiplications, divisions, square, square root
tables. For example the square root of 2 was given as.

22 History
Another example of mathematics was:
Student had to solve problem : a field of area such and such is covered one finger deep in
water; find out the volume of water.
Time Calculation:
Calculation of months, week, day and hours has come to use from the Mesopotamians.
Division of a year in to 12 months, according to revolution of the moon around the earth , division
of a month in to 4 weeks, a day in to 24 hours, and sixty minutes an hour ,all these time divisions
were adopted by the successors of Alexander and from there transmitted to the Roman world ,
then to the world of Islam and then to Medieval Europe. Solar and Lunar eclipse were observed
and positions of stars and constellations in the dark night Sky.
8. Ancient Mesopotamia’s place in world History

Ancient Mesopotamia must surely be the most influential civilization in world history. For a start, it
was the start. The Mesopotamian’s were the first to build cities, use the potter’s wheel, develop
writings, use bronze in large quantities and so on.
QUESTIONS
Essay Questions (10 marks)
1. What are the salient features of the Mesopotamia Civilization?
2. What is the contribution of Mesopotamians to writing system?
3. Write about the features of city life in Mesopotamians?
1. What are the geographical conditions of Mesopotamian?
2. Write about the significance of Babylon City.
3. What were Tablets?
4. Give brief details of social conditions of Mesopotamia?
5. Write briefly about the system of writing of Mesopotamia
1. Cuneiform.
2. Akkad Ian Culture.
3. Palace of Mari.
4. Uruk City.
5. Mathematical Invention.
6. Euphrates and Tigris
7. Time Calculation.

An Empire Across three continents 23
C H A P T E R
3
AN EMPIRE ACROSS
THREE CONTINENTS
The Roman Empire covered a vast stretch of territory that included most of Europe, a
large part of the Fertile Crescent and North Africa. In this chapter, the political forces that shaped
the destiny of Roman Empire, the social groups, the cultures and languages and the economy are
looked at.
During the ancient period, Europe was dominated by the Roman Empire which controlled
much of Europe, Turkey and Egypt for a long time. Great cities like Rome and Alexandria flourished.
The culture that had been developed in Greece and Rome – the sculpture, painting, buildings as well
as literature, philosophy and science was of a very high order. When the Roman Empire declined
after 400 A.D there were no large empires in Western Europe. Old Roman style used tall pillars
arches and domes in buildings. The imperial Roman style was called classical. Many of these
features were copied by 16th century successors of modern period. The Roman Empire was very
large spreading across three continents. After the disintegration of Alexander’s empire, Rome
established control over North Africa and the eastern Mediterranean from 2nd Century B.C.
The early history of Rome was profoundly influenced by geographical factors. The Alps
Mountains in the north and the seas surrounding the Adriatic, and the Mediterranean have given
Italy its natural protection. Mild climate and fertile soil proved to be congenial for the growth of
agriculture. The central plains of Italy lay south of the river Tiber. The people speak Latin. They

24 History
belong to the tribes Latin Etruscans, the Greeks and in north the barbaric
Gauls. By 509 B.C a republic was established in Rome.
The Roman republic was aristocratic in character. Patricians
enjoyed political, social and economic privileges. The most important
political body was the Senate. The Common people were known as
plebeians. The fusion between the two classes the Patricians and the
Plebeians made the Roman Republic truly democratic in character. By
270 B.C Rome became the mistress of Italy. Gradually Rome also became
the mistress of Mediterranean world. Her merchants became prosperous.
By 146 B.C, Macedonia and Greece became Roman provinces. But,
way was paved for the dictatorship of Julius Caesar because of civil
wars.
Roman Empire across 3 continents :
Julius Caesar conquered Gaul (Modern France and Belgium)
and Britain. Egypt under Queen Cleopatra became an ally of Rome.
The Roman Empire covered a vast stretch of territory that included most
of Europe and a large part of Fertile Crescent (west Asia) and North
Africa.
The Roman Empire was a mosaic of territories and cultures
that were chiefly bound together by a common system of government. Greek and Latin were the
most widely used languages, though many languages were spoken in the empire. All those people
who lived in the empire were subjects of a single ruler, the emperor regardless of where they lived
and what language they spoke.
Julius Caesar :
Julius Caesar was a world renowned conqueror. He was born in 102 B.C in Rome in a
wealthy family. He was a student of Antonius. Caesar exhibited extra ordinary courage and wisdom.
He was a high born military commander. He acted as judicial officer, head priest and also governor
of Spain. Among the Roman Generals who became the triumvirate – Pompey, Julius Caesar and
Crassus, Julius Caesar became famous. Although he ruled the Roman Empire like a virtual dictator,
Julius Caesar showed respect to the republican traditions and form of government, Egypt under
Queen Cleopatra became an ally of Rome. Caesar had a son through Cleopatra.
After putting down the revolts in Spain and Africa he inaugurated his rule with a series of
reforms. His reforms included improvement in agriculture, reduction of taxes, removal of corrupt
and oppressive governors, granting of citizenship rights to the people of Gaul and Sicily, distribution
of public lands, inauguration of public work programs, improving the coinage system and introducing
the Julian Calendar. He had many plans such as to bring about a legal code and construction of a

library but he did not live to complete them. A few of his enemies led by Brutus (who felt quite
jealous of Caesars popularity with the masses) assassinated him in 44 B.C.
The assassination plunged Rome into a civil war. Octavian, a grand nephew of Julius
Caesar and Mark Antony joined to crush those who murdered Caesar. They were jointed by
Lepidus, a great politician of Rome to form a second Triumvirate. They defeated Brutus and
Cassius who were the chief conspirators. Roman empire was divided into three parts – the eastern
province including Egypt came under Mark Antony and the Western provinces were ruled by
Octavian. Sicily and Africa came under Lepidus. Mark Antony fell madly in love with the Egyptian
queen Cleopatra and neglected state affairs. So Octavian proceeded with his army and defeated
Antony in the naval battle of Actium. Antony committed suicide. Queen Cleopatra too committed
suicide by consuming poision. Egypt became a Roman province. Lepidus too was defeated by
Octavian. Octavian became the undisputed master with such titles as Augustus and Princeps (27
BCE).
The Augustan is described as the golden age in the history of Rome. It was known for
peace and prosperity. The emperor kept the poor people happy by supplying food grains free
during difficult times and provided for their free entertainment. He provided employment to the
poor by undertaking public works construction of buildings, road bridges, amphitheatres and
fountains. The most prominent among them were the colosseum, the large amphitheatre (which
accommodated 50,000 to 60,000
peple) and the Baths of Caracalla.
Rome under his rule became the nerve
centre of all trade and commerce in the
Mediterranean world. The Roman
Empire under Augustus maintained
diplomatic and commercial contacts
with a number of countries including
China and India. He encouraged arts
and literature. Livy, a Roman historian
wrote ‘Annals’(history of Rome). Virgil The Colosseum built in 79AD
wrote an epic poem, Aeneid. Other
famous writers who enriched the Latin literature with their important contributions were Ovid, Horace,
Pliny, Juvenal and Tacitus. Augustus takes the credit for establishing Pax Romana (Roman peace)
which lasted for nearly five centuries. One of the most important event which took place in his
glorious reigh was the birth of Jesus Christ 4 BC in Bethlehem, near Jerusalem. It was in the
Roman Empire that Christianity grew into a great religion.

26 History
Successors of Augustus :
The successor of Augustus was his son, Tiberius who proclaimed himself as the Roman
Emperor. The republic came to an end and the empire witnessed the rule of one man. There were
good and bad emperors. The bad emperors included Caligula and Nero. Marcus Aurelius was
among the good emperors. The decline of the Roman Empire commenced after the death of
Marcus Aurelius. Constantine shifted the capital of the empire from Rome to Byzantium (300-350
AD) which was renamed after him as Constantinople. After the death of Constantine Roman
Empire got separated into two halves (400 AD). The east with capital Constantinople and west
with Rome as capital. The great Eastern Roman Emperor was Justinian (527 AD 565 AD).
Collapse :
Some of the successor of Augustus were incompetent and weak. There was lack of
leadership and discipline in the army. People could not bear the brunt of many taxes. There were
many causes far the fall of the Roman empire.
Polity :
Although, the ruler was real source of authority, he was actually the leading citizen (Princep
in Latin) not the absolute ruler. The senate had existed in Rome for centuries. Senate was a body
dominated by a small group of wealthy families who formed the nobility. In practice the Republic
represented the government of the nobility exercised through the body called senate. The republic
lasted from 509 BC to 27 BC, when it was overthrown by Octavian, the heir of Julius Caesar who
changed his name to Augustus.
Army was important element of the imperial rule. Romans had a paid professional army,
an organized body. The Senate hated and feared the army for its violent nature.
The provincial upper classes supplied most of the cadre that governed the provinces and
commanded the armies. This class became powerful than the senatorial class because they had
backing of the emperors, gradually senators were forbidden from serving in the army.
The emperor, the aristocracy and the army were the three main players in the political
history of the empire. Succession to the throne was based on family descent either natural or
adoptive and even the army was strongly wedded to this principle. The Augustan age is remembered
for the peace it ushered in.
Economy :
The Roman Empire was having economic infrastructure of harbours, mines, quarries,
brickyards, oil factories (olive oil). Brisk trade continued regarding wheat, wine and olive oil.
Liquids were transported in containers called amphorae. Asia Minor (Turkey), Syria and Palestine
were major exporters of wine and olive oil. The best kinds of wine came from Campania. Sicily
and Byzacium exported large quantities of wheat to Rome. The empire had many regions of

exceptional fertility. Galilee was densely cultivated. The empire was so advanced in adopting
hydraulic mining techniques in the Spanish gold and silver mines. The existence of well organized
commercial and banking networks and the wide spread use of money are noticed. Rural indebtedness
was more widespread. Big landowners from different regions of the empire competed with each
other for control of the main markets for the goods they produced. Demarius was a Roman silver
coin containing about 4 ½ gm of pure silver. Roman engineers built massive aqueducts over three
continents to carry water. Carthage, Alexandria, Antioch were the great urban centers along the
shores of the Mediterranean. It was through the cities that government was able to tax the provincial
country sides which generated much of the wealth of the empire. Public baths were a striking
feature of Roman urban life. Urban populations enjoyed a much higher level of entertainment.
Spectacula (shows) were frequently arranged. The Amphitheatre at the Roman cantonment town
of Vindonissa (in modern Switzerland) was used for military drill and for staging entertainments.
The colosseum built in 79 CE could accommodate 60,000 people where gladiators fought with
wild beasts.
Social Order :
In Roman society, there was widespread prevalence of nuclear family. Married girl retained
the full rights in the property of her natal family. Wife enjoyed complete legal independence. Divorce
was relatively easy. Marriages were generally arranged. Wife beating was common. Bishops were
Aqueduct Amphitheatre in Vindonissa
the most important religious figures and often were very powerful. Fathers had substantial legal
control over their children.
Slavery was a deep rooted institution. Roman upper classes were often brutal towards
their slaves. The Roman society was divided into three classes – senators (aristocrats), middle
class and humiliators (lower class). The lower class comprised of rural labour force. The equities
(knights or horsemen) were traditionally the second most powerful and wealthy group. Most of the

28 History
knights were landowners.
Literacy was certainly more widespread among certain categories such as soldiers, army
officers and estate managers. We find in the society cultural diversity like diversity of religious cults
and local deities, plurality of languages that were spoken, the styles of dress and costume, the food
people ate. The different languages spoken were – Aramic, Coptic and ofcourse, Latin was
widespread.
The Legacy of Rome :
The Roman imbibed from the Greeks the ideas on religion, philosophy, art and architecture,
learning and science. Organization of central and provincial governments, laws, principles of taxation,
citizenship rights, hospital and sanitation systems, construction of public works like roads, the fountains,
theatres, baths and bridges.
Pax Romana (Roman Peace)
The most lasting contribution of the Romans was made in the field of law. Their laws had
made profound impact on almost all the civilized nations of the world today. The first written code
came in the form of 12 tables in 150 BC which were inscribed on the 12 tables of bronze and
publicly displayed in the forum (market place). The rulings of the judges and the decisions of the
magistrates remained as unwritten laws. The great Roman emperor Justinian under took the enormous
task of completing the code of laws named after him – the Justinian code. As the Roman law
proved to be just and humane in character, it was adopted by many civilized nations. Roman law
gave an opportunity to the accused to defend his case. Unless his guilt was proved beyond any
reasonable doubt in a court of law he was not punished. Another salutary principle that they
adopted was that all citizens however high or low they may be, were equal before law.
Religion :
The ancient Romans worshiped gods and spirits. God Jupiter was the sky god whom the
Romans considered as almighty. The most important Goddess was Juns. Mars became the God of
War. Ceres became popular with the farmers for, this deity gave good crops. Venus became the
Goddess of love. Neptune was the Sea God. Mysticism persisted in the Roman Empire. The
Roman Emperors like Augustus and Diocletian (284-305) encouraged people to worship them like
gods. The other religious tradition was Judaism, with the Teaching of Jesus Christ, Christianity
spread among the poor and the helpless.
Philosophy :
In the realm of philosophy, Rome had great thinkers who subscribed to either Stoicism or
Epicureanism. Lucretius advocated Epicureanism. Among the stotic philosophers, the most prominent
were Panaetius of Rhodes, Seneca of Rome and emperor Marcus Aureleius (author of Mediliations).

EVENTS
27 BCE 'Principateb founded by Octavian, now calls himself Augustus
C 24-29 Life of the Elder Pliny, dies in the volcanic eruption of Vestuvius, Which also buries
the Roman town of Pampeli
66-70 The great Jewish revolt and capute of Jerusalem by Roman forces
c.115 Greatest extent of the Roman Empire, following Trajan's conquests in the East.
212 All free inhabitants of the empire transformed into Roman citizens
224 New dynasty founded in Iran, called 'Sasanians' after ancestor Sasan
250s Persians invade ROman territories west of the Euphrates
258 Cyprian bi9ship of Carthage executed
260s Gallienus eorganises the army
273 Carvavan city of Palmyra destroyed by Romans
297 Diocletion reorganises empire into 100 provinces
c 310 Constantine issues new gold coinage (the 'solidus')
312 Constantine converts to Christianity
324 Constantine now sole ruler of empire: founds city of Constantinople
354-430 Life of Augustine, bishop of Hippo
378 Goths inflict crushing defeat on Roman armies at Adrianople
391 Destruction of the Serapeum (temple of Serapis) at Alexandria
410 Sack of Rome by the Visigoths
428 Vandals capute Africa
434-53 Empire of Attila the Hun
493 Ostrogoths establish kingdom in Italy
533-50 Recovery of Africa amd Italy by Justinian
541-70 Outbreaks of bubonic plague
568 Lombards invade Italy
c 570 Birth of Muhammad
614-19 Persian ruler Khusro II invades and occupies eastern Roman territories
622 Muhommad and companions leave Mecca for Medina
633-42 First and crucial phase of the Arab conquests; Muslim armies take Syria. Palestine,
Egypt, Iraq and parts of Iran
661-750 Umayyad dynasty in Syria
698 Atabs caputre Carthage
711 Arab invasion of Spain
30 History
Literature :
Romans were fond of learning. Rhetoric grammar and logic were taught. Subjects like
astronomy mathematics, medicine were also included. In the time of Augustus Latin Literature
reached highest watermark. Julius Caesar, Cisero, Virgil Horace, Livy sullust and Ovid, Tacitus,
Juvenal, Plutarch, Seneca were all the eminent writers of the period.
Science :
Galen was the greatest physician of the Roman Empire. He wrote more than 500 books
on human anatomy and physiology. The science of surgery also made considerable advance. Pliny
the elder wrote the Naturalis Historia (Natural History), a large compendium of all known sciences.
The Julian calendar was prepared by Sosigenes an astronomer of Alexandria.
Thus the Romans played greater role in building a vast empire welding listless subjects
into a powerful nation. They enriched the world culture with their art, architecture and literature.
The Roman law served as a model to many civilized nations.
Identify Important Places Rome, Sicily, Carthage Alexandria,
Fayyum Gaul, Hisponia Constantiople, Damasens, Mecca, Medina, Palestina, Antioch,

Baghdad, Clesiphon, Edessa, Bukhara, Somarquand Tiber, Syracuse Vierna.

QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the legacy of Rome to mankind.
2. What were the basic features of Roman Society and Economy?
1. The twelve Tables.
2. Write about the sources to Roman Empire.
3. Julius Caesar.
4. Urbanisation in Roman Empire.
1. Papyrus
2. The Republic
3. Slave breeding
4. The colosseum
5. Augustus
6. Emperor Constantine

32 History
C H A P T E R
4 THE CENTRAL ISLAMIC

LANDS
(600 A.D -1200 A.D)
In this chapter we are going to read about the history of more than one billion Muslims
living in all parts of the world. They are citizens of different nations, speak different languages and
dress differently. These people had their roots in a more unified past commenced 1400 years ago
in the Arabian peninsula. The rise of Islam and its expansion over a vast territory and the core area
of Islamic civilization (600 to 1200) are looked at.
Rise and Expansion of Islam
The Arabian peninsula as early as 1400 years ago gave birth to Islam. Islam had its
expansion over a vast territory extending from Egypt to Afghanistan. The people who inhabited this
land were known as Arabs. The Arabs were nomadic (nick named as Bedouins). Our understanding
of the history of the central Islamic lands (600 AD – 1200 AD) is based on number of sources like
chronicles or (tawarick), biographies (Sira) commentaries on the Quran (tafsir). Tarikh of Tabari
(923 AD) is in Arabic. Besides Chronicles legal texts, geographies, travelogues and literary works
such as stories and poems throw interesting light on the history of early Islam.
Life of Prophet Mohammad (570-632)
Mohammad was born at Mecca in 570 and belonged to the Hashmite family of Quraishi
tribe. He lost his parents early in his childhood. As a youth he spent most of his time in travelling

The central Islamic lands (600 A.D -1200 A.D) 33
with caravans into Southern Arabia and Syria. He married Khadija, a wealthy widow merchant. He
spent most of his time in religious meditations. At his fortieth year Mohammad realized the full
impact of the divine messages. He was messenger (Rasul) of God. He declared that there was no
god, but Allah and Mohammed was his prophet. Mohammed preached the worship of a single
god, Allah and the membership of a single community of believers (Umma). This was the origin of
Islam (612).
Islam means peace with God. The worship involved simple rituals such as daily prayers
(salat) and moral principles such
as distributing alms and abstaining
from theft. Those who accepted
this doctrine were called Muslims.
The affluent Meccans took offence
to the preachings of Mohammad.
When his life was in danger he had
to retreat to Medina in 622. This
retreat to Medina constituted a
most important year for Islam and
it was called Hejira (reckoning of
a new year in the Muslim
calendar). At the time of his death
in 632AD, Arabia was practically
united under his able leadership
and his followers (Mohammadans)
having a great zeal to spread their
new faith.
Islamic Calendar
The Hijri era started with the first year falling in 622 AD. A date in the Hijri calendar is
followed by the letters AH. The Hijri year is a Lunar year.
Teachings of Mohammad, the Prophet
The gist of this new religion Islam is found in the sacred book called Koran or Quran (in
Arabic meaning recitation). Mohammad condemned idol worship. All those who believe in Allah
should live like brothers. All are equal in the eyes of God. Mohammadans should recite la Illah illa
Allah, Muhammad rasul Allah (i.e., there is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is his prophet). This
recital of the creed is called Kalma. Mohammad’s own tribe quraysh lived in Mecca and controlled
the main shrine, a cube like structure called Kaba. Mohammadans should perform the salat or

34 History
recite prayers five times in a day. Every time believer should go to the mosque to offer his prayer
and listen to the discussion of the Koran. Every Mohammadan should fast from sunrise to sunset
during the lunar month of Ramzan. All believers in Islam should give alms to the poor. The practice
of this virtue is known as Zaqqat. A true Muslim should undertake a Pilgrimage to the holy city of
Mecca at least once in his life time. This pilgrimage is known as Hajj. Mohammad asked his
followers to practice many other virtues like humility, charity and honesty, respect for women and
parents, kindness to slaves and animals and avoiding gambling and drinking were also proscribed
by the prophet. Islam combined in itself some of the best democratic principles such as equality of
man, universal brotherhood and direct communion between God and man. It is no wonder that it
became one of the worlds’ great religions in course of time.
Spread of Islam.
Many tribes
mostly Bedouins of
Arabia joined the
community by converting
to Islam. Medina
became the
administrative capital of
the emerging Islamic state
with Mecca as its
religious centre. In a
short space of time
Mohammad was able to
unite a large part of Arabia under a new faith, community and state.
After Mohammad’s death in 632, Chiefs of Arabia chose the prophet’s friend Abu Bakr
(632-634) to succeed him. He became the first caliph or Khalifa (successor of Mohammad, the
prophet and head of the Muslim theocratic state). During his very short term of rule Islam spread to
the neighbouring country Syria. The next Caliph was Omar (634-44) who was mainly responsible
for building a large Islamic Empire. Iraq, Iran, Egypt along with Syria were brought under the
control of Medina. Military strategy, religious fervour and the weakness of the opposition contributed
to the success of the Arabs. Further campaigns were launched by the third caliph Uthman (644-56)
to extend the control to central Asia. Within a decade of the death of Mohammad the Arab Islamic
state controlled the vast territory between Nile and the Oxus. These lands remain under Muslim
rule to this day. After Egypt was conquered, Islamic empire began to spread towards the east with
the conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia. During the next hundred years, the Arabs conquered
North Africa and Spain. In the east they conquered Sindh (712). They attempted to capture

constantinople twice (673 & 717) but failed. They also failed in France. The Arabs succeeded in
conquering Sicily and southern part of Italy. In due course of time Islam spread to eastern Africa,
Malaya, Indonesia, some parts of western China and India. Muslim traders and missionaries also
contributed much to the spread of Islam in many countries of Africa and Asia. The non-Muslim
population in the conquered areas retained their rights to property and religious practices on payment
of taxes (Kharaj and Jizia). Jews and Christians were declared protected subjects of the state
(dhimmis) and given a large measure of autonomy in the conduct of these communal affairs.
Sunnis & Shias :
The rifts among the Muslims deepened after Ali (656-61) the fourth Caliph. Disputed
succession and civil strife became endemic. It divided the Muslims into two sects - the Sunnis and
the Shias. The Sunnis strictly conform to the Sunna (custom, usage and form) regarding all matters
and look to the Koran for direction. The Shias hold the opinion that Abu Bakr and his two successors
were usurpers. They maintain that Ali was the legitimate successor (Ali married the prophet
Mohammad’s daughter Fatima). The Shias also observe the martyrdom of Hussain (son of Ali) at
Karbala during the first ten days of Muharram.
The Umayyads and the Abbasids :
The conquest of large territories destroyed the Caliphate based in Medina and replace it
with an increasingly authoritarian polity. The Umayyad caliphs retained power for 90 years and
Abbasids for two centuries. The umayyads always appealed for unity and suppressed rebellions in
the name of Islam. The capital of Umayyads was Damascus. Under Umayyads Arabic was the
language of the administration. The gold dinar and silver dirham had been in circulation. The
Umayyad dynasty remained in power till 750 and subsequently it was overthrown by Abbasids
(descendants of the prophets uncle Abba). They shifted the capital from Damascus to Baghdad.
Under Abbasid rule Arab influence declined, while the importance of Iranian culture increased. The
most celebrated ruler among the Abbasids was Caliph Haroun-Al-Raschid who figures prominently
in the ‘Thousand and One Nights’.
Break-up the Caliphate and the Rise of Sultanates :
The Abbasid state became weaker from 9th century because Baghdad’s control over the
distant provinces declined and because of conflict between pro-Arab and pro-Iranian factions in
the army and bureaucracy. Abbasid power was soon limited to control Iraq and Western Iran. A
new power bloc of Turkish slave officers (mamluk) sprang up. The Turks were nomadic tribes
from the central Asian steppes (grass lands) of Turkistan, Islamic society was held together not by
a single political order or a single language of culture (Arabic) but by common economic and
cultural pattern. Persian was developed as a language of Islamic high culture. Scholars, artists and
merchants moved freely within the central Islamic lands and assured the circulation of ideas and
manners. The Muslim population increased enormously.

36 History
The Crusades :
In medieval Islamic societies Christians were regarded as the people of the Book, since
they had their own scripture (the new testament or Injil). Christians were granted safe conduct
(aman) while venturing into Muslim states as merchants, pilgrims, ambassadors and travellers. These
territories also included those which were once held by the Byzantine Empire, notably the Holy land
of Palestine. Jerusalem was conquered by the Arabs in 628 but the Christian pilgrims were permitted
to visit places associated with the life of Jesus Christ – the birth, crucifixtion and resurrection. But
conditions changed in the middle of the 11th century. There were series of conflicts between European
Christians and the Arab States.
Crusades mean only wars waged by the European Christians from the tail end of the 11th
century to the close of 13th century with the purpose of liberating the holy land from Muslim domination.
The pope ordered the ceremonial granting of crosses to those who had sworn to fight.
The First Crusade (1098-99) :
The Seljuk Turks happened to be new converts to Islam and adopted a hostile attitude
towards the Christian pilgrims visiting the Holy places under their control. Pope Urban II was
deeply disturbed by the tragic tales of the Christian pilgrims, gave a call to all Christians of Europe
to fight the Turks and recover the Holy land. Nobles, merchants, knights, crooks and criminals
joined the wars – wars of the cross. In the first crusade soldiers from France and Italy captured
Antioch in Syria and claimed Jerusalem in 1099 after heavy fighting.
Second Crusade (1145-49) :
The Christian disunity became apparent to the Turks when they fought among themselves.
Taking advantage of this opportunity, the Turks captured Edessa, a key outpost of the Christians in
1144. Pope Eugenius called on Christians for a second crusade. However, emperor Saladin finally
succeeded in capturing Jerusalem in 1187, and Jerusalem became a Muslim city.
Third Crusade (1189-91) :
The loss of Jerusalem was a terrible blow to the western Christendom and the third Crusade
got underway. The third crusade is considered famous since it included mighty rulers of Europe and
their common enemy Saladin the Great of Egypt who united all the Muslims of the near cast and
west Asia. From the beginning King Richard the lion heart of England, king Philip Augustus of
France and Emperor Frederick Barbosa of Germany hated one another. Jerusalem could not be
captured. However, Saladin signed a treaty with Richard permitting Christian pilgrims to visit the
holy places.
The fourth crusade (1202) :
The fourth crusade 1202 turned out to be most disgraceful for the Christians since they
fought not with the enemy but among themselves.

Children’s and other Crusades )1217, 1228 and 1270) :

The fifth crusade was called the Children’s crusade. It was thought from the bitter experience
of the fourth crusade, that children would not be selfish like the adults and they should try to recover
the Holy land. About 30,000 children led by a German youth by the name Nicholas marched
towards the Holy land. They perished on their way due to hunger and disease. There were two
more crusades but none of them succeeded in recovering the Holy land. The Egyptian rulers finally
drove the crusading Christians from all of Palestine in 1299.
Results :
Islam continued to spread everywhere. Byzantine Empire declined and Constantinople
was captured by the Ottaman Turks in 1453. In the wake of demand for oriental products in
Europe, the European merchants established trade relations with the East. Venice, Genoa, Pisa,
Berne, Frankfurt, Flanders & Warwick became great centers of commerce. One of the most
important results of crusades was the decline of feudalism. Many nobles and Barons who joined
crusades either they got killed or became paupers. The power of the remaining nobles was crushed
by the Kings. National monarchies developed. With the decline of feudalism the Serfs became
free. Crusades encouraged adventurous spirit among the Europeans. One of the famous merchants
who went to the East breaking all odds was Marco Polo. The crusaders were influenced by the
knowledge and scientific discoveries of the Orient. They came to know of the Arabic numerals,
algebra and oriental philosophy . Papacy lost its popularity influenced by the oriental culture, a few
scholars began to increasingly question the infallibility of the Popes and the church. Crusades
precipitated the transformation of medieval life in Europe. Europe gradually lost military interest in
Islam and focused on its internal political and cultural development. The crusades left a lasting
impact on two aspects of Christian – Muslim relations. One was the harsher attitude of the Muslim
State towards its Christian subjects which resulted from the bitter memories of the conflict as well
as the needs for security in areas of mixed populations. The other was the greater influence of
Italian mercantile communities (from Pisa, Genoa and Venice) in the trade between the East and the
West even after the restoration of Muslim power.
Legacy of Islam :
Like the Roman Empire which was known for its vast size variety of peoples, the Arab or
Islamic empire included in its fold subjects living in Spain, North Africa, the Middle East and South
Asia. The Muslims produced enlightened rulers. The most distinguished Muslim rulers of the time
were Harun-Al-Raschid and his son Mamun. The caliphs not only worked hard to propagate the
new faith but tried to bring about equality and universal brotherhood among Mohammdans. Harun-
Al-Raschid created opportunities for the poor and downtrodden to live in solace and comfort. He
encouraged learning, art, literature, science, trade and commerce.

38 History
Madrasa of Baghdad in 1233
Learning :
The Islamic
Empire built by the
Arabs could boast of
great centers of
learning like Baghdad,
Cairo, Damascus,
Cordova Seville and
Barcelona.
Universities were
established. The
Madrasa of Baghdad in 1233
Arab scholars in
Baghdad translated all the ancient Greek classics and also the Hindu books on mathematics. The
learned Muslims who required and organized knowledge of different kinds strengthened the social
identity of the community. In framing Islamic law jurists made use of reasoning. Four schools of law
were developed. These were the Maliki, Hanafi, Shafii and Hanbali schools. Sharia (a body of
Laws) provided guidance on all possible legal issues. The Quran is a book in Arabic divided into
114 chapters (suras). According to Muslim tradition, the Quran is a collection of messages
(revelations ) which God sent to the prophet Mohammad between 610 and 632 first in Mecca and
then in Medina. The oldest complete Quran we have today dates from 9th century. Quran is
ranked as one of the worlds greatest classics.
Madrasas, colleges of learning were started. These were attached to mosques.
Mustansiriya Madrasa of Baghdad was founded in 1233. In the schools of Alexandria, Syria and
Mesopotamia Greek philosophy mathematics and medicine were taught. Translation became a
well organized activity. The works of Aristotle, the elements of Euclid and Ptolemy’s almagest were
brought to the attention of Arabic reading scholars. Indian works of astronomy, mathematics and
medicine were also translated into Arabic. These works reached Europe. Dr.Ibn Sina’s (980-
1037) medical writings were widely read. Al-Qanunfil Tibb (Canon of medicine) lists 760 drugs,
pointed the importance of dietetics (healing through dietary regulation). The canon was used as a
text book in Europe. The author was known as Avicenna. The Europeans learnt from Arabs (who
were much indebted to India) the mathematical terms like zero, cipher and algebraic equations.
They made improvements in Trigonometry by introducing tangent and cotangents. They knew the
principle of pendulum in physics. Al Hasan of Basra distinguished himself with an original work on
optics (which was later translated into Latin as Opticae Thesaurus).

Manufactures :
Arabs learnt the art of manufacturing paper and block printing from China and introduced
them to Europe. They discovered many chemicals and knew the technique of preparing alcohol,
sulphuric acid and nitric acid. The art of dyeing clothes were known to them. The work of Muslim
craftsmen particularly in handicrafts came to be very much appreciated. Persian carpets and leather
works became world famous. Their textiles like Muslin, gauze and damask attained great fame.
They also produced beautifully decorated weapons such as daggers, swords and knives.
Travel and Trade :
The Arabs proved to be habitual travellers. They undertook long voyages by land and
sea and made notes on what they had seen and heard. Some of the most famous travellers of the
period were Alberuni (a famous astromemer, physician, historian and geographer all rolled into
one), Ibn Batuta, Al Idrisi, Ibn Hakaul and a host of others. Their travels were followed by
extensive trade with the countries such as India, China and the coastal countries of Africa. They
bought large amounts of spices from the east, diamonds from Golconda, pearls from Ceylon and
musks from Tibet. They sold their specialties such as fine rugs and carpets, Baghdad perfumes,
Muslin, guage, mohair, damask and fruit syrups. It is no wonder that Baghdad became a great city
and capital known for its fabulous wealth. In a way the Arabs can be called “the Phoenicians of the
Middle Ages, since they carried on a brisk intercontinental trade”.
Art and Architecture :
Like the Romans the Arabs became great builders. Most of their cities were adorned
The Dome built by Abdal Malik in Jerusalem The Minar is 50 meters

Height built in samarra

40 History
with great places, tombs, mosques and other structures. Under royal patronage beautiful buildings
came up such as the Al Hambra palace at Granada (in Spain), Alczar at Seville and the Great
Mosque of Baghdad. Their style of architecture included in its fold the dome, the arch and the
minarets. As Quran forbade the representation of human beings and animals, the Muslim artists
decorated the outer as well as the inner walls of the palaces and mosques with intricate carvings and
designs. Mosques and palaces were surrounded by beautiful gardens and fountains.
The palaces modelled on Roman and Sasanian architecture were lavishly decorated with
sculptures, mosaics and paintings of people. The Abbasids, built a new imperial city in Samarra
amidst gardens and running waters. Two art forms were developed – calligraphy (the art of beautiful
writing) and arabesque (geometric and vegetal designs. Miniature painting was also developed.
Plant and floral designs based on the idea of the garden were used in buildings and book illustrations.
Literature and History :
The contribution of Arabs to literature was prolific. A number of biographies and histories
were produced. The annals of the Apostles and the Kings was written by Al Tabari. Thousand and
one Nights or the Arabian Nights, has remained ever green and ever popular. It was translated into
many languages. In poetry, Omar Khayyam’s Rubaiyat (in Persian) found its place of honour.
Saadi composed mystical and philosophical odes known as Gulistan and Bustan. Al Firdausi became
quite famous with his Shahnama (Book of Kings) Ibn Khaldun wrote his masterpiece Muqhaddimah
where he outlined the philosophy of history. The samanid court poet Rudaki was considered the
father of new Persian poetry which included new forms such as the short lyrical poem ghazal and
quatrain (rubai). Rubai reached its zenith in the hands of Umar Khayyam.
The two major historical works Ansab al Ashraf (Genealogies of the Nobles) of Baldhuri
and Tarikh al-Rasul wal Muluk (History of prophets and kings) of Tabari. Books were written in
Persian about dynasties, cities or regions to explore the unity and variety of the world of Islam.
Geography and general history were combined in Muruj al-Dhahab (Golden Meadows) of Masudi.
Alberuni’s famous Tahqiq ma lil-Hind (History of India) was the greatest attempt by an eleventh
century Muslim writer to look beyond the world of Islam and observe what was of value in another
cultural tradition.
Economy
The state had overall control of agricultural lands, deriving the bulk of its income from land
revenue once the conquests were over. Land tax (Kharaj) varied from half to a fifth of the produce.
On land held or cultivated by Muslims, the tax levied was 1/10th of the produce. Iqtas were
revenue assignments. In Nile valley state supported irrigation systems like dams, canals, digging of
wells were found. Many new crops such as cotton oranges, bananas, water melons, spinach and
brinjals were grown and even exported to Europe.

Kufa, Basra, Fustat, Cairo, Baghdad, Damascus, Isfahan, Samarquand were important
urban centres. Geography favoured the Muslim empire, which spread between the trading zones of
the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean. Arab and Iranian traders monopolized the maritime trade
between china, India and Europe. Trade passed through two major routes namely the Red sea and
the Persian Gulf. Caravans of Iranian merchants set out from Baghdad along the Silk Route in
China via Bukhara and Samarquand. Transoxiana also formed an important link in the commercial
network. Coins of gold, silver and copper were minted and circulated. Gold came from Africa
(Sudan) and Silver from Central Asia (Zarafshan valley). Letters of credit (Sakk, origin of the word
cheque) and bills of exchange (Suftaja) were used by merchants and bankers for money transfer.
Thus the Arabs astounded the western world with their outstanding achievements. It was
through them that Europe came to know of the treasures of Greek Classics and absorbed the
knowledge of the civilized orient.
QUESTIONS
1. Give a brief account of the life of Mohammad the prophet. What were his teachings ?
2. Write about the legacy of Islam.
1. The Caliphate
2. The Crusades
3. The economy of the central Islamic Lands (12th century)
4. Islamic architecture
1. Islamic Calendar
2. Fatima
3. The Quran
4. Canon of Medicine
5. Shahnama
6. Madrasas

42 History
C H A P T E R
5 NOMADIC EMPIRES:
MONGOLS, CHENGHIS
KHAN
About Nomadic Empires

The term ‘nomadic empires’ had different meanings. Nomads were known as ‘primitive
barbarians’. They were termed as ‘wanderers’ and ‘hunter gatherers’. The Bedouin nomads of the
Arabian Peninsula, the Mongols of Central Asia, and the Europeans like the Gauls and the Huns are
examples in this regard. Some of them had organised family life where as others had unorganized
life. Their economic life was static and their political system was underdeveloped. The term ‘empire’,
on the other hand, derived from multiple or composite social and economic concepts or structures
with an extensive territory and an administrative system. The Mongols of Central Asia had established
an empire under the leadership of Chenghis Khan, across Europe and Asia during the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries. The nomads of Mongolia have a humble, less complex, social and economic
world. But these Central Asian nomadic societies were not acceptable to historical change. They
adapted their own traditional social and political customs to create a fearsome military machine and
a sophisticated method of power and authority.

Nomadic Empires: Mongols, Chenghis Khan 43
Sources
There are several sources like chronicles, travelogues and documents for the study of the
nomadic societies. Some scholars wrote travelogues about Mongols others served as Mongol
court poets. They came from different backgrounds like Buddhist, Confucian, Christian, Turkish
and Muslim. Some of them produced sympathetic accounts like eulogies or tributes. The most
valuable contribution to Mongols history was made by the Russian scholars like travellers, soldiers,
merchants and antiquarian scholars during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In the early twentieth
century, scholars like Boris Yakovlevich Vladimirtsov and Vasily Vladimirovich Bartold wrote works
on Mongol languages, society and culture.
The works on the history of Mongols were in a number of languages like Chinese,
Mongolian, Persian, Arabic, Italian, Latin, French and Russian languages. Some of them were in
two languages with differing contents. For example, the Mongolian and Chinese versions on Chenghis
Khan, titled The Secret History of the Mongols are quite different and the Italian and Latin versions
of Marco Polo’s Travels to the Mongol Court do not match. Similarly works by Igor de Rachewiltz
on The Secret History of the Mongols and Gerhard Doerfer on Mongol and Turkish terminologies
got into the Persian language.
Historical Background of Mongols: Political and Social Conditions
In the early decades of the thirteenth century the leader of Mongols, Chenghis Khan had
united the Mongol people and created a powerful confederacy in the steppes of Central Asia. He
The Mongol Empire

44 History
consolidated his power in north China, Transoxiana, Afghanistan, eastern Iran and the Russian
steppes. Later, he conquered many parts of China, the Middle East and Europe.He captured an
important city, Bukhara in 1220. His followers travelled further and created the largest empire. For
example, Chenghis Khan’s grandson Mongke (1251-60) warned the French ruler, Louis IX (1226-
70), another grandson, Batu, devastated Russian lands up to Moscow, Poland, Hungary and Vienna
during 1236 - 41 campaigns.
The Mongols were a diverse body of people, with similarities of language to the Tatars,
Khitan and Manchus, and the Turkish tribes. Some of the Mongols were pastoralists while others
were hunter-gatherers. The pastoralists showed interest in horses, sheep, cattle, goats and camels.
They nomadised in the steppes of Central Asia, particularly in the area of the modern state of
Mongolia. This was, and still is, a majestic landscape with the snow-capped Altai Mountains, the
Gobi desert, the Onon and Selenga rivers and many springs. The hunter-gatherers resided to the
north of the pastoralists in the Siberian forests. They were a humbler body of people than the
pastoralists, making a living from trade in furs of animals. There were extremes of temperature in the
entire region. Neither the pastoral nor the hunting-gathering economies could sustain dense population
settlements and as a result the region possessed no cities. The Mongols lived in tents and travelled
with their groups from their winter to summer pasture lands. The size of Chenghis Khan’s confederation
of Mongol and Turkish tribes was perhaps matched in size only by Attila in the fifth century. Unlike
Attila, Chenghis Khan’s political system was far more durable and powerful. It was stable enough
to counter larger armies with superior equipment in China, Iran and eastern Europe. As they established
control over these regions, the Mongols administered complex agrarian economies and urban
settlements-sedentary societies - that were quite distant from their own social experience and habitat.
Steppe Confederacies
Some of the great Central Asian steppe confederacies of the Turks and Mongol people
are: Hsiung-nu (200 BCE) (Turks); Juan-juan (400 CE) (Mongols); Epthalite Huns (400 CE) (Mongols);
T’u-chueh (550 CE) (Turks); Uighurs (740 CE) (Turks); and Khitan (940 CE) (Mongols). They all
did not occupy the same region and were not equally large and complex in their internal organisation.
They had a considerable impact on the history of the nomadic population but their impact on China
and the adjoining regions varied.
The Great Wall of China

Throughout its history, China suffered extensively from nomad intrusion and different regimes.
So the rulers of China even as early as the eighth century BCE built fortifications to protect their
subjects. Starting from the third century BCE, these fortifications started to be integrated into a

The Great wall of China
common defensive outwork known today as the ‘Great Wall of China’ a dramatic visual witness to
the disturbance and fear perpetrated by nomadic raids on the agrarian societies of north China. This
great wall of China was cunstructed during the rule of Chin dinasty between A.D. 221-207.
The Life and Career of Chenghis Khan
Chenghis Khan was born around 1162 near the Onon river in the north of present-day
Mongolia. He was known as Temujin. His father was Yesugei, the chieftain of the Kiyat, a group of
families related to the Borjigid clan. His father was murdered at an early age and his mother, Oelun-
eke, raised Temujin, his brothers and step-brothers in great hardship. The following decade was full
of problems. Temujin was captured and enslaved. Soon after his marriage, his wife, Borte, was
kidnapped, and he had to fight to recover her. During these years of hardship he managed to make
important friends like Boghurchu and Jamuqa, his blood-brother. Temujin restored old alliances
with the ruler of the Kereyits, Tughril/Ong Khan, his father’s old blood-brother.
Through the 1180s and 1190s, Temujin remained an ally of Ong Khan and used the
alliance to defeat powerful adversaries like Jamuqa. Later he defeted other tribes like the Tatars (his
father’s assassins), the Kereyits and Ong Khan himself in 1203. The victory over the Naiman
people and the powerful Jamuqa in 1206, left Temujin as the dominant personality. He was proclaimed
as the ‘Great Khan of the Mongols’ with the title Chenghis Khan, meaning the ‘Oceanic Khan’ or

46 History
‘Universal Ruler’ by the Assembly of Mongol chietains.
Chenghis Khan had reorganised the Mongol people into a more effective, disciplined
military force so as to conquer China. He divided Mongol force into three divisions. His Chinies
revils were the Hsi Hsia people of Tibetan, the Jurchen of Chin dynasty, the Sung dynasty of south
China. By 1209, he defeated the Hsi Hsia people, the ‘Great Wall of China’ was breached in 1213
and Peking was sacked in 1215. After these victories Chenghis Khan returned to his Mongolian
homeland in 1216. He continued the battles against Chin dynasty.
After defeating Qara Khita in 1218 in the Tien Shan mountains, north-west of China,
Mongol dominions reached the Amu Darya, and the states of Transoxiana and Khwarazm. Sultan
Muhammad, the ruler of Khwarazm, felt the fury of Chenghis Khan’s rage when he executed Mongol
envoys. In the campaigns between 1219 and 1221 the great cities - Otrar, Bukhara, Samarqand,
Balkh, Gurganj, Merv, Nishapur and Herat - surrendered to the Mongol forces. Towns that resisted
were devastated. At Nishapur, where a Mongol prince was killed during the siege operation, Chenghis
Khan commanded that the ‘town should be laid waste in such a manner that the site could be
ploughed upons; and that in the exaction of vengeance (for the death of the prince) not even cats
and dogs should be left alive’.
Estimated Extent of Mongol Destruction
All reports of Chenghis Khan’s campaigns agree at the vast number of people were killed
following the capture of cities that defied his authority. The numbers are staggering: at the capture of
Campaigns of Mongols

Nishapur in 1220, 1,747,000 people were massacred while the toll at Herat in 1222 was 1,600,000
people and at Baghdad in 1258, the toll was 800,000 people. Smaller towns suffered proportionately:
Nasa, 70,000 dead; Baihaq district, 70,000; and at Tun in the Kuhistan province, 12,000 individuals
were executed. How did medieval chroniclers arrive at such figures? Juwaini, the Persian chronicler
of the Ilkhans stated that 13,00,000 people were killed in Merv. He reached the figure because it
took thirteen days to count the dead and each day they counted 100,000 corpses. Persian chronicles
produced in Il-Khanid Iran during the late thirteenth century detailed the killings of the Great Khan
and greatly exaggerated the numbers killed. For example, in contrast to an eyewitness report that
400 soldiers defended the citadel of Bukhara, an Il-Khanid chronicle reported that 30,000 soldiers
were killed in the attack on the citadel.
Last Days of Chenghis Khan
Mongol forces in pursuit of Sultan Muhammad pushed into Azerbaijan, defeated Russian
forces at the Crimea and encircled the Caspian Sea. Another wing followed the Sultan’s son,
Jalaluddin, into Afghanistan and the Sindh province. At the banks of the Indus, Chenghis Khan
considered returning to Mongolia through North India and Assam, but the heat, the natural habitat
and the ill portents reported by his Shaman soothsayer made him change his mind. Having spent
most of his life in military combat., Chenghis Khan died in 1227.
Estimate
Chenghis Khan’s military achievements were astounding and they were largely as a result
of his ability to innovate and transform different aspects of steppe combat into extremely effective
military strategies. He improved the horse-riding skills of the Mongols and the Turks provided
speed and mobility to the army. Their abilities as rapid-shooting archers from horseback were
further perfected during regular hunting expeditions. He trained Mangol, in such a way that they
carried out campains in the depth of winter, treating frozen rivers as highways to enemy cities and
camps. Chenghis Khan learnt the importance of siege engines and naphtha bombardment. His
engineers prepared light portable equipment, which was used against opponents with devastating
effect.
THE MONGOL DYNASTY

Husband to several wives, Chenghis Khan fathered many children. The four sons by his
principal wife, Borte, formed the limbs of his dynastic tree. The house of eldest son Jochi never
produced a great khan, but it wielded great power. By his refusal to support Ogodei’s line after the
death of Guyuk, Jochi’s son Batu forced a power shift to the Tolui house, thus opening the way for
Mongke and Kublai. No images exist for Tolui, Berke, or Arigh Boke. Except for the hatted great
khans, all are shown with traditional shaved heads.

48 History
The family tree of Chenghis Khan
The Mongols after Chenghis Khan

After Chenghis Khan’s death, the Mongol, during 1236-42, occupied, the Russian steppes,
Bulghar, Kiev, Poland and Hungary and during 1255-1300, they conquered China, Iran, Iraq and
Syria. Their frontier of the empire stabilised after these campaigns. The Mongol military forces met
with few reversals after 1203 particularly after 1260s. Although Vienna, western Europe and Egypt
were under the grip of Mongol forces, their retreat from the Hungarian steppes and defeat at the
hands of the Egyptian forces signalled the emergence of new political trends. This was due to the
internal politics of succession in the Mongol family between the Jochi and Ogodei family and Toluyied

branch to control the office of the great Khan. Later, with the accession of Mongke, a descendant
of Toluy and Chenghis Khan’s youngest son, even though the military campaigns of Mongols were
continued in Iran during the 1250s and in China increased during the 1260s, their defeted in Egypt,
Russia and China, marked the end of their western expansion. How ever, the suspension of Mongol
expansion in the West did not arrest their campains in Chaina which was reunited under the Mongol.
Social, Political and Military Organisation
Among the Mongols, like many other nomadic societies, all the able-bodied and adult
males of the tribe bore arms. They constituted the armed forces when the occasion demanded. The
unification of the different Mongol tribes, like the Turkic Uighurs the Kereyits people and new
members into Chenghis Khan’s army had become an incredibly heterogeneous people. Chenghis
Khan worked systematically to erase the old tribal identities of the different groups who joined his
confederacy. He divided the old tribal groupings and distributed their members into new military
units. Any individual who tried to move from his/her allotted group without permission received
harsh punishment. The largest unit of soldiers, approximating 10,000 soldiers now included
fragmented groups of people from a variety of different tribes and clans.
The new military contingents were required to serve under his four sons and chosen captains
of his army units. Chenghis Khan publicly honoured some of these individuals as his ‘blood-brothers’.
Others like freemen of a humbler rank were given special ranking as his ‘bondsmen’. In this new
hierarchy, Chenghis Khan assigned the responsibility of conquered areas to his four sons. For
example the eldest son, Jochi, received the Russian steppes, the second son, Chaghatai, was given
the Transoxianian, the third son, Ogodei, would establish his capital at Karakorum and the youngest
son, Toluy, received the ancestral lands of Mongolia.
Chenghis Khan had already fashioned a rapid courier system that connected the distant
areas of his regime. Fresh mounts and despatch riders were placed in outposts at regularly spaced
distances. For the maintenance of this communication system the Mongol nomads contributed a
tenth of their herd - either horses or livestock - as provisions. This was called the qubcur tax, a levy
that the nomads paid willingly for the multiple benefits. The courier system (yam) was further refined
after Chenghis Khan’s death and its speed and reliability surprised travellers. It enabled the Great
Khans to keep a check on developments at the farthest end of their regime across the continental
landmass.
The conquered people, however, hardly felt a sense of affinity with their new nomadic
masters. During the campaigns in the first half of the thirteenth century, cities were destroyed,
agricultural lands laid waste, trade and handicraft production disrupted. Tens of thousands of people
were killed, even more enslaved. All classes of people, from the elites to the peasantry suffered. In
the resulting instability, the underground canals in the arid Iranian plateau could no longer receive
periodic maintenance. As they fell into disrepair, the desert crept in. This led to an ecological

50 History
devastation from which parts of Khurasan never recovered.
Once the dust from the campaigns had settled, Europe and China were territorially linked.
In the peace ushered in by Mongol conquest (Pax Mongolica) trade connections matured. Commerce
and travel along the Silk Route reached its peak under the Mongols but, unlike before, the trade
routes did not terminate in China. They continued north into Mongolia and to Karakorum, the heart
of the new empire. Communication and ease of travel was vital to retain the coherence of the
Mongol regime and travellers were given a pass (paiza in Persian; gerege in Mongolian) for safe
conduct. Traders paid the bqj tax for the same purpose, all acknowledging thereby the authority of
the Mongol Khan.
The contradictions between the nomadic and sedentary elements within the Mongol empire
eased through the thirteenth century. In the 1230s, for example, as the Mongols waged their successful
war against the Chin dynasty in north China, there was a strong pressure group within the Mongol
leadership that advocated the massacre of all peasantry and the conversion of their fields into
pasture lands. But by the 1270s, when south China was annexed to the Mongol empire after the
defeat of the Sung dynasty, Chenghis Khan’s grandson, Qubilai Khan (1294), appeared as the
protector of the peasants and the cities. In the 1290s, the Mongol ruler of Iran, Ghazan Khan
(1304), a descendant of Chenghis Khan’s youngest son Toluy, warned family members and other
generals to avoid pillaging the peasantry.
Ghazan Khan’s Speech
Ghazan Khan (1295-1304) was the first Il-Khanid ruler to convert to Islam. He was a
descendant of Chenghis Khan’s youngest son, Toluy. He gave the following speech to the Mongol-
Turkish nomad commanders. This speech that was probably drafted by his Persian wazir Rashiduddin
and included in the minister’s letters:
“I am not on the side of the Persian peasantry. If there is a purpose in pillaging them all,
there is no one with more power to do this than I. Let us rob them together. But if you
wish to be certain of collecting grain and food for your tables in the future, I must be
harsh with you. You must be taught reason. If you insult the peasantry, take their oxen
and seed and trample their crops into the ground, what will you do in the future? ... The
obedient peasantry must be distinguished from the peasantry who are rebels...”
From Chenghis Khan’s reign itself, the Mongols had recruited civil administrators from
the conquered societies. The Mongol Khans trusted them as long as they continued to raise revenue
for their masters and these administrators could sometimes command considerable influence. By
the middle of the thirteenth century the sense of a common patrimony shared by all the brothers was
gradually replaced by individual dynasties each ruling their separate territorial dominion. This was,

in part, a result of succession struggles, where Chenghis Khanid descendants competed for the
office of Great Khan and prized pastoral lands. Descendants of Toluy had come to rule both China
and Iran where they had formed the Yuan and Il-Khanid dynasties. Descendants of Jochi formed
the Golden Horde and ruled the Russian steppes. Chaghatai’s successors ruled the steppes of
Transoxiana and the lands called Turkistan today. Noticeably, nomadic traditions persisted longest
amongst the steppe dwellers in Central Asia (descendants of Chaghatai) and Russia (the Golden
Horde). The gradual separation of the descendants of Chenghis Khan into separate lineage groups
implied that their connections with the memory and traditions of a past family concordance also
altered.
Yasa
According to David Ayalon, the yasa, the code of law that Chenghis Khan was promulgated
in 1206. The term was written as yasaq which meant ‘law’, ‘decree’ or ‘order’. Indeed, the few
details that we possess about the yasaq concern administrative regulations: the organisation of the
hunt, the army and the postal system. By the middle of the thirteenth century, however, the Mongols
had started using the related term yasa in a more general sense to mean it as the ‘legal code of
Chenghis Khan’. To protect their identity and distinctiveness they used to claim yasa, a sacred law
given to them by their ancestor. The yasa was compilation of the customary traditions of the Mongol
tribes but in referring to it as Chenghis Khan’s code of law, the Mongol people could be imposed on
their conquered subjects. It was an extremely empowering ideology. In 1221, after the conquest of
Bukhara, Chenghis Khan had assembled the rich Muslim residents in the festival ground, give a
caution, called them as sinners and warned them to compensate for their sins by parting with their
hidden wealth. The episode was, and still is, remembered by the people for a long time afterwards.
In the late sixteenth century, Abdullah Khan, a distant descendant of Jochi, Chenghis Khan’s eldest
son, went to the same festival ground to perform his prayers there. His chronicler, Hafiz-i Tanish,
reported this performance of his master as ‘this was according to the yasa of Chenghis Khan’.
Conclusion: Chenghis Khan and the Mongols in World History

Chenghis Khan today appear as the conqueror, the destroyer of cities, and an individual
who was responsible for the death of thousands of people. Many thirteenth-century residents of
towns in China, Iran and eastern Europe looked at the hordes from the steppes with fear and
distaste. And yet, for the Mongols, Chenghis Khan was the greatest leader of all time: he united the
Mongol people, freed them from interminable tribal wars and Chinese exploitation, brought them
prosperity, fashioned a grand transcontinental empire and restored trade routes and markets that
attracted distant travellers like the Venetian Marco Polo.
Beyond the opinions of the defeated sedentary people, consider the size of the Mongol

52 History
dominion in the thirteenth century and the diverse body of people and faiths that it embraced.
Although the Mongol Khans themselves belonged to a variety of different faiths - Shaman, Buddhist,
Christian and eventually Islam -they never let their personal beliefs dictate public policy. The Mongol
rulers recruited administrators and armed contingents from people of all ethnic groups and religions.
Theirs was a multi-ethnic, multilingual, multi-religious regime that did not threatened by its pluralistic
constitution. This was unusual and historians are now studying the ways that Mongols provided
ideological models for later regimes (like the Mughals of India) to follow.
For any nomadic regime, it is impossible to understand the inspiration that led to the
confederation of fragmented groups of people in the pursuit of an ambition to create an empire. The
Mongol empire eventually altered in its different milieus, but the inspiration of its founder remained
a powerful force. At the end of the fourteenth century, Timur, another monarch who aspired to
universal dominion, hesitated to declare himself monarch because he was not of Chenghis Khanid
descent. When he did declare his independent sovereignty, it was as the son-in-law of the Chenghis
Khanid family.
Today, after decades of Soviet control, the country of Mongolia is recreating its identity as
an independent nation. It has seized upon Chenghis Khan as a great national hero who is publicly
respected and whose achievements are recounted with pride. At a crucial juncture in the history of
Mongolia, Chenghis Khan has once again appeared as an iconic figure for the Mongol people,
mobilising memories of a great past in the forging of national identity that can carry the nation into
the future.
Chronology of Mongol Dynasty
Year Peiod of the King/Incident
1167 Birth Temujin

1160-1170 Years spent in slavery and struggle
1180-1190 Period of alliance formation
1203-1227 Expansion and triumph
1206 Temujin proclaimed Chengis Khan, ruler of Mongols
1227 Death of Chengis Khan
1227-60 Rule of the three Great Khans and continued Mongol unity
1227-1241 Ogodei, son of Chengis Khan
1246-1249 Guyuk, son of Ogodei
1251-1260 Mongke, son of Chengis Khan’s youngest son, Toluy
1236-1242 Campaigns in Russia, Hungary, Poland and Austria under Batu, son of
Jochi, Chengis Khan’s eldest son

1253-1255 Beginning of fresh campaigns in Iran and China under Mongke

1258 Capture of Baghdad and the end of the Abbasid caliphate. Establishment
of the Il-Khanid state of Iran under Hulegu, younger brother of Mongke.
Beginning of conflict between the Jochids and the Il-Khans
1260 Accession of Kublai Khan as Grand Khan in Peking; conflict amongst
descendants of Chengis Khan; fragmentation of Mongol realm into
Independent lineages-Toluy, Chaghatai and Jochi (Ogodei’s lineage
defeated and absorbed into the Toluyid) Toluyids: Yuan dynasty in
China and Il-Khanid state in Iran;Chaghataids in steppes north of
Transoxiana and ‘Turkistan’;Jochid lineages in the Russian steppes,
described as the ‘Golden Horde’ by observers.
1257-1267 Reign of Borke, son of Batu; reorientation of the Golden Horde from
Nestorian Christianity towards Islam. Definitive conversion takes place
only in the 1350s.Start of the alliance between the Golden Horde and
Egypt against the Il-Khans.
1295-1304 Reign of Il-Khanid ruler Ghagzan Khan in Iran. His conversion from
Buddhism to Islam is followed gradually by other Il-Khanid chieftains.
1368 End of Yuan dynasty in China
1370-1405 Rule of Timur, a Barlas Turk who claimed Chengis Khanid descent
through the lineage of Chaghatai. Establishes a steppe empire that
assimilates part of the dominions of Toluy (excluding China), Chaghatai
and Jochi. Proclaims himself ‘Guregen’-royal son-in-law’- and marries
a princess of the Chengis Khanid lineage.
1495-1530 Zahiruddin Babur, descendant of Timur and Chengis Khan, succeeds to
Timurid territory of Ferghana and Samarkhand, is expelled, captures
Kabul and in 1526 seizes Delhi and Agra; founds the Mughal empire in
India.
1500 Capture of Transoxiana by Shybani Khan, descendant of Jochi’s
youngest son, Shiban. Consolidates Shaybani power (Shaybanids also
described as Uzbeg, from whom Uzbekistan, today, gets its name) in
Transoxiana and expels Babur and other Timurids from the region.
1759 Manchus of China conquer Mongolia
1921 Republic of Mongolia

54 History
QUESTIONS
1. What are the Sources for the study of Mongols?
2. What are the geographical conditions that led to the emergence of Nomadic Empires?
3. Write about the life and career of Chenghis Khan?
4. Explain the importance of Steppe Confederacies?
5. What is the role of Ghazan Khan in Mongols history
1. Nomadic Empires
2. Russian Scholars
3. Mongol Campaigns
4. The Mongol Dynasty
5. Mongol Destruction
6. Yasa
7. Causes for The Great Wall of China

Feudalism in Europe 55
C H A P T E R
6
FEUDALISM IN EUROPE
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter. we shall learn about the socio-economic and political changes which
occurred in western Europe between the ninth and sixteenth centuries. After the fall of the Roman
Empire, many groups of German people from eastern and central Europe occupied regions of Italy,
Spain and France. In the absence of any unifying political force, military conflict was frequent and
the need to gather resource to protect one’s land became important. Social organization was
therefore centred on the control of land. Its features were derived from both imperial Roman
traditions and German customs. Christanity, the official religion of the Roman Empire from the
fourth century, survived the collapse of Rome, and gradually spread to central and northern Europe.
The Church, also became a major landholder and political power in Europe. There were three
orders in the society viz., The Clergy, The Nobles and the Common People. Many scholars in
France have worked on Feudalism, one of the earliest was Marc Bloch.
The ‘three orders’, the focus of this chapter, are three social categories: Christian priests,
landowning nobles and peasants. The changing relationships between these three groups was an
important factor in shaping European history for several centuries.

56 History
Map: Western medieval Europe
AN INTRODUCTION TO FEUDALISM
The term ‘feudalism’ has been used by historians to describe the economic,legal, political
and social relationships that existed in Europe in the medieval era. Derived from the German word
‘feud’, which means ‘a piece of land’, it refers to the kind of society that developed in France,
England and southern Italy. In an economic sense, feudalism refers to a kind of agricultural production
which is based on the relationship between lords and peasants.
EARLY HISTORY OF FRANCE
481 Clovis becomes king of the Franks
486 Clovis and the Franks begin the conquest of northern Gaul
496 Clovis and the Franks convert to Christianity
714 Charles Martel becomes Mayor of the palace
751 Martel’ son Pepin deposes the Frankish ruler, becomes king and establishes
a dynasty. Wars of conquest double the size of his Kingdom
768 Pepin succeeded by his son Charlemagne/ Charles the Great
800 Pope Leo III crowns Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor
840 onwards Raids by Vikings from Norway.

Though the feudalism roots have been existed during the Holy
Roman Empire and during the age of the French king Charlemagne ( 742 – 814) etc. It had been
an established way of life in larger parts of Europe in the eleventh century
What is France ?
The Franks, a Germanic tribe, gave their name to Gaul ( a province of the Roman
Empire) making it ‘France’. From the 6th c this region was a kingdom ruled by Frankish/
French kings, who were Christains.
Who is a Holy Roman Emperor ?

The French had very strong links with the Church, which were further strengthened
when in 800 the Pope gave King Charlemagne the title of ‘ Holy Roman Emperor’ to
ensure his support.
THE THREE ORDERS
French priests are First Order (Clergy) Priviliged Class

French Nobles are Second Order (Nobility) Priviliged Class
French Peasants are Third Order (Peasantry) Unpriviliged Class
THE FIRST ORDER : The Clergy
POPE
|
BISHOP
|
Arch-BISHOP
|
CARDINAL
|
PRIEST
The Catholic Church had its own laws, owned lands given to it by rulers, could levy taxes.
It thus became a very powerful institution which did not depend on the king. The head of the
western Church was the Pope. He lived in Rome. The Christians in Europe were guided by
bishops and clerics . They also had lands and estates and constituted the first ‘order’. People used
to assemble every Sunday to listen to the sermon by the priest and to pray together. Everyone
could not become a priest. Serfs, women were banned. Men who became priests could not

58 History
marry. The Church was entitled to a tenth share of whatever the peasants produced from their land
over the course of the year, called a ‘tithe’. Money also came in the form of endowments made by
the rich for their own welfare.
Monks:
Christians had another kind of organization called Monastery. Monasteries were
established by St.Benidict in Italy in 529 and of Cluny in Burgundy in 910. Some deeply religious
people chose to live isolated lives called Monks. These took vows to remain in the abbey for the
rest of their lives and to spend their time in prayer, study and manual labour, like farming. Unlike
priesthood, this life was open to both men and women-men became monks and women nuns. Like
priests, monks and nuns did not marry. Monasteries grew in to communities often of several
hundred, with large buildings and landed estates, with attached schools or colleges and hospitals.
They contributed to the development of the arts.
The word ‘monastery’ is derived from the Greek word ‘monos’, meaning someone
who lives alone
THE SECOND ORDER ; The Nobility

STRUCTURE OF FEUDALISM
KING
| |
POWER NOBLES ( Feudal Lords) RESPONSIBILITIES
|
DUKES
|
KNIGHTS
|
BARONS
|
PEASANTS
The nobility had a central role in social processes. This is because they controlled land.
This control was the outcome of a practice called ‘ vassalage’. The kings of France were linked
to the people by vassalage. The big landowners-the nobles-were vassals of the king, peasants
were vassals of the land owners. A nobleman accepted the king as his seigneur (senior) and they
made a mutual promise: the seigneur/lord would protect the vassal, who would be loyal to him.

INVESTURE ( Ritual Cermony)

The relationship involved elaborate rituals and exchange of vows taken on the Bible in
a church. At this ceremony, the vassal received a written charter or a staff or even a
clod of earth as a symbol of the land that was being given to him by his master.
The noble enjoyed a privileged status. He had absolute control over his property, in
perpetuity. He could raise troops called ‘feudal levies’. The lord held his own courts of justice and
could even coin his own money. He was the lord of all the people settled on his land. He owned
vast tracts of land which contained his own dwellings, his private fields and pastures and the homes
and fields of his tenant-peasants. His house was called a manor. His private lands were cultivated
by peasants, who were also expected to act a uired, in addition to working on their own farms.
THE MANORIAL ESTATE:
A lord had his own manor-house. He also controlled villages- Some lords controlled
hundreds of villages, where peasants lived. A small manorial estate could contain a dozen families,
while larger estates might include fifty or sixty. Almost everything needed for daily life was found on
the estate: grain was grown in the fields, blacksmiths and carpenters maintained the lord’s implements
and repaired his weapons, while stonemasons looked after his buildings. Women spun and wove
fabric, and children worked in the lord’s wine-presses. The estate had extensive woodlands and
forests where the lords hunted. They contained pastures where his cattle and his horses grazed.

60 History
There was a church on the estate and a castle for defence. From the 15th century, some castles
were made of bigger for use as a residence for a knight’s family.
The manor could not be completely self-sufficient because salt, millstones and metal ware
had to be obtained from outside sources. Those lords who wanted a luxurious lifestyle and were
keen to buy rich furnishings, musical instruments and ornaments not locally produced, had to get
these from other places.
Castle House
THE KINGHTS
From the 9th century there were frequent localized wars in Europe. This led to the
growing importance of a new section of people-the knights. They were linked to the lords, just as
the latter were linked to the king. The lord gave the knight a piece of land (called ‘fief’) and
promised to protect it. The fief could be inherited. It extended to anything between 1,000 and
2,000 acres or more, including a house, his dependents, besides a watermill and a wine-press. As
in the feudal manor, the land of the fief was cultivated by peasants. In exchange, the knight paid his
lord a regular fee and promised to fight for him in practising tactics with dummies. A knight serve
more than one lord, but his foremost loyalty was to his own lord.
THE THIRD ORDER; Peasants, Free and Unfree Labour
In medieval Europe the majority of the people were the common people. The cultivators
were of two kinds: (a) Free Peasants (b) Serfs (from the verb to ‘serve’).
Free Peasants
These people held their farms as tenants of the lord. The men had to render military

service ( at least forty days every year). They had to set aside certain days of the week, usually
three but often more, when they would go to the lord’s estate and work there. The output from
such labour, called labour-rent, would go directly to the lord. In addition, they could be required
to do other unpaid labour services, like digging ditches, gathering firewood, building fences and
repairing roads and buildings. Besides helping in the fields, women and children had to do other
tasks. They spun thread, wove cloth, made candles and pressed grapes to prepare wine for the
lord’s use. There was one direct tax called ‘taille’ that kings sometimes imposed on peasants (the
Clergy and the Nobles exempted from the tax).
An English ploughman
Serf:
Serfs cultivated plots of land, but these belonged to the lord. Much of the produce from
this had to be given to the lord. They also had to work on the land which belonged exclusively to
the lord. They received no wages and could not leave the estate without the lord’s permission.
The lord claimed a number of monopolies at the expense of his serfs. Serfs could use only their
lord’s mill to grind their flour, his oven to bake their bread, his wine-presses to distill wine and beer.
The lord could decide whom a serf should marry or might give his blessing to the serf’s choice, but
on payment of a fee. Feudalism developed in England from the eleventh century.
What is England ?
The Angles and Saxons from central Europe had settled in England in the 6th century.
The country’s name, England, is a variant of ‘Angle-land’. In the 11th century. William,
the Duke of Normandy, crossed the English Channel with an army and defeated the
Saxon king of England.

62 History
FACTORS AFFECTING SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC RELATIONS:
Over a period of 1,000 years with the feudalism, many changes took place, such as in the
environment, the changes in agricultural technology and land use were almost imperceptible. These
in turn were shaped by and had an effect on the social and economic ties between lords and vassals.
(a) The Environment:
From the 5th century – 10th century, most of Europe was covered with vast forests. From
the 11th century Europe entered a warm phase. Average temperatures increased, which had a
profound effect on agriculture. Peasants now had a longer growing season and the soil, now less
subjected to frost, could be more easily ploughed. Environmental historians have noted that there
was a significant receding of the forest line in many parts of Europe. This made expansion of the
area under cultivation possible.
(b) Land Use:
Initially, agriculture technology was very primitive , therefore it was very labour intensive.
Fields had to be dug by hand, often once in four years and enormous manual labour was required.
Despite these hardship, the lords were anxious to maximize their incomes. Since it was not possible
to increase output from the land, the peasants were forced to bring under cultivation all the land in
the manorial estate and spend more time doing this than they were legally bound to do. The
peasants innocently bowed quietly to oppression. Since they could not protest openly, they
resorted to passive resistance. They spent more time cultivating their own fields and kept much of
the product of that labour for themselves. They also avoided performing unpaid extra services.
They came into conflict with the lords over pasture and forest lands, and saw these lands as resources
to be used by the whole community, while the lords treated these as their private property.
NEW AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY

By the eleventh century, there is evidence of several technological changes. Instead of
the basic wooden ploughs, cultivators began using heavy iron-tipped ploughs and mould-boards.
These ploughs could dig much deeper and the mould-boards turned the topsoil properly. With this
the nutrients from the soil were better utilized. There was increased use of wind and water energy
for agriculture. More water-powered and wind-powered mills were set up all over Europe for
purposes like milling corn and pressing grapes.
There were also changes in land use. The most revolutionary one was the switch from a
two-field to a three-field system. In this, peasants could use a field two years out of three if they
planted it with one crop in autumn and a different crop in spring a year and a half late. The third
field lay fallow. Each year they rotated the use among the three fields. With these improvements,
there was an almost immediate increase in the amount of food produced from each unit of land.

Food availability doubled. They could now produce more food from less land. The average size
of a peasant’s farm shrank from about 100 acres to 20 to 30 acres by the thirteenth century.
Holdings which were smaller could be more efficiently cultivated and reduced the amount of labour
needed. This gave the peasants time for other activities.
From the eleventh century, the personal bonds that formed the basis of feudalism were
weakening, because economic transactions were becoming to be more and more money based.
Lords found it convenient to ask for rent in cash, not services, and cultivators were selling their
crops for money to traders, who would then take such goods to be sold in the towns.
A FOURTH ORDER ? New Towns and Towns People
Expansion in agriculture was accompanied by growth in three related areas: population,
trade and towns. The towns of the Roman Empire had become deserted and ruined after its fail.
But from the eleventh century, as agriculture production increased and became able to sustain
higher levels of population, towns began to grow again. Peasants who had surplus grain to sell
needed a place where they could set up a selling centre and where they could buy tools and cloth.
This led to the growth of periodic fairs and small marketing centres which gradually developed
town-like features- a town square, a church, roads where merchants built shops and homes, an
office where those who governed the town could meet. In other places, towns grew around large
castles, bishops, estates or large churches.
In towns, instead of services, people paid a tax to the lords who owned the land on which
the town stood. Towns offered the prospect of paid work and freedom from the lord’s control, for
young people from peasant families.
‘Town air makes free’ was a popular saying. Many serfs craving to be free, ran away and
hid in towns.. If a serf could stay for one year and one day without his lord discovering him, he
would become a free man. Many people in towns were free peasants or liberated serfs who
provided unskilled labour. Shopkeepers and merchants increased in numbers. Later there was
need for individuals with specialized skills, like bankers and lawyers. The bigger towns had
populations of about 30,000. They could be said to have formed a ‘fourth order’
CATHEDRAL-TOWNS
One of the ways tha rich merchants spent their money was by making donations to churches.
From the twelfth century, large churches called cathedrals-were being built in France. These
belonged to monasteries, but different groups of people contributed to their construction with their
own labour, materials or money. Cathedrals being built, the area around the cathedrals became
more populated and when they were completed they became centres of pilgrimage. Thus, small
towns developed around them.

64 History
THE CRISIS OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY
In northern Europe, by the end of the thirteenth century the warm summers of the previous
300 years had givenway to bitterly cold summers. Seasons for growing crops were reduced by a
month and it became difficult to grow crops on higher ground. Storms and oceanic flooding
destroyed many farmsteads, which resulted in less income in taxes for governments. Intensive
ploughing had exhausted the soil despite the practice of the three-field rotation of crops. The
shortage of pasturage reduced the number of cattle. Population growth was outstripping resources
and the immediate result was famine. Severe famines hit Europe between 1315 and 1317, followed
in the 1320s by massive called deaths.
SOCIAL UNREST:
In 1323, peasants of Europe revolted in Flanders, in 1358 in France and in 1381 in
England. Though these rebellions were ruthlessly crushed by the lords, the peasants ensured that
the feudal privileges of earlier days could not be reinvented.
POLITICAL CHANGES
Eleventh to Fourteenth Centuries

1066 Normans defeat Anglo-Saxon and conquer England
1100 Cathedrals being built in France
1315-18 Great famine in Europe
1348-50 Black Death
1338-1461 Hundred Years War between England and France
1381 Peasants’ revolts
Developments in the political sphere paralleled social processes. In the fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries. European kings strengthed their military and financial power. Historians called
these kings ‘the new monarchs’. Louis XI in France, Maximilian in Ausstria, Hnery VII in England
and Isabelle and Ferdinand in Spain were absolutist rulers. The dissolution of the feudal system of
lordship and vassalage and the slow rate of economic growth had given the first opportunity to
kings to increase their control over their powerful subjects. Rulers dispensed with the system of
feudal levies for their armies and introduced professionally trained infantry equipped with guns and
siege artiillery directly under their control. The resistance of the aristrocracies crumbled in the face
of the firepower of the kings.

Queen Elizabeth
The New Monarchy
1461-1559 New monarchs in France

1484-1556 New monarchs in Spain
1485-1548 New monarchs in England
In England, rebellions occurred and were put down in 1498, 1536,1546,1549 and 1553.
In France, Louis (1461-83) had to wage a long struggle against dukes and princes. Lesser nobles,
often members of local assemblies, resisted this royal usurpation of their powers. The ‘religious’
wars in France in the sixteenth century were in part a contest between royal privileges and regional
liberties.
The nobility managed a tactical shift in order to ensure their survival. From being opponents
to the new regimes, they quickly transformed themselves into loyalists. It is for this reason that
royal absolutism has been called a modified form of feudalism. Precisely the same class of people
who had been continued to dominate the political scene. They were given permanent positions in
the administrative service. But the new regimes were different in some important ways.

66 History
CONCLUSION:
Man does not live by bread alone, but we have not yet developed a human breed that can
live without bread. This bread is a late neolithic discovery, a considerable advancement took place
in the preparation of and preservation of food in the society. The basis of any formal culture lie in
the availability of a food supply beyond that needed to support the actual food-producer. Surplus
production depends upon the technique and instruments used-‘the means of production’. The
method by which surplus-not only surplus food abut all other produce-passes into the hands of the
ultimate user is determined by-and in turn determines-the form of society, the ‘relations of production’.
With further development, in the feudal system the baron controlling serfs is the main element.
Another important element in the feudal system is Loyalty. Loylaty links together in a
powerful chain the serf and retainer to feudal lord, baron to duke to king. It Is the ideological basis
of feudal society, however uninspiring and deficient in character the actual human objects of their
vassals’ loyalty may have been. It was thus this loyalty that lay at the base of feudalism which led
to the strengthening of many primitive practices in a context that could no longer be called barbarous.
QUESTIONS
1. Write about the features of European Feudalism
2. Write about the structure of Feudalism
3. Explain the changes occurred in the fourteenth century
1. Write the structure of Manorial system
2. Write the structure of Clergy in France
3. Write about the Fourth Order
1. Serfdom
2. Investiture
3. Holy Roman Emperor
4. Monastery
5. England
6. Feudalism
Project Work
Try to trace the feudalistic relations in and around area, if possible.

C H A P T E R
7
THE BEGINNING OF
MODERN AGE
INTRODUCTION
The Renaissance means revival or rebirth. It was a period characterized by
innovation, thoughts and creativity. The Renaissance was a time during which Europe’s classical
past was revisited and reinvigorated. Much of the inspiration behind cultural movements of the
Renaissance came from people’s attempts to imitate the legacies of classical European societies,
such as Ancient Rome and Greece. The term Renaissance is often used to describe a person with
many interests and skills, because many of the individuals who became well known at this time were
people of many arts. They were scholar-
diplomat-theologian artist collective in one.
Towns were growing in many countries
of Europe between fourteenth to seventeenth
centuries. A different urban culture developed in
these towns. Particularly towns like Florence,
Venice and Rome became centers of art and
learning. Florence, considered the birth place of
the Renaissance. The rich and the aristocratic
people patronized the artists and writers. The Florence, the Center of Renaissance

68 History
discovery of printing press at the same time made books and prints available to many people,
including those living in far-away places and in other countries. Though it spread through Europe in
due course, the Renaissance began in the city-states of Italy.
HUMANISM
In Italian towns earliest universities were established. The universities of Padua and Bologna
had been centers of legal studies from the eleventh century. In Italian cities new education inspired
by Humanism became popular. Humanism was taught at all levels from primary to the university
level. The new education was meant to train students for good citizenship and to help them to lead
a sophisticated social life. The youth were taught, among other things, music and athletics. Humanist
education was aimed at all round development of human beings. The education programme implied
that there was much to be learnt which religious teaching alone could not give.
By the early fifteenth century, the term humanist was used for masters who taught grammar,
rhetoric, poetry, history and moral philosophy. The Latin word ‘humanities’, means ‘culture’ and
from which humanities was derived, had been used many centuries ago by the Roman lawyer and
essayist Cicero (106-43 BCE), a contemporary of Julius Caesar. Humanities were not drawn from
or connected with religion but emphasized skills developed by individuals through discussion and
debate. By the sixteenth century Humanist education spread to northern Europe as well, as private
and secular schools became popular and replaced Church schools. Public schools at Eton and
Harrow in England were successors to such schools.
The Humanists introduced critical and creative scholarship. Though Francesco Petrarch
displayed passion for collection of classical manuscripts, it was Lorenzo Valla, a humanist from
Rome who initiated and developed textual criticism of a document. Machiavelli studied historical
data in the light of his own personal experience and arrived at generalizations. He used Plato’s
inductive method of acquiring knowledge. He experimented with mechanics and prepared plans for
practical inventions. Humanists reached out to people in a variety of ways. Though the curricula in
universities continued to be dominated by law, medicine and theology, humanist subjects slowly
began to be introduced in schools, not just in Italy but in other European countries as well.
One of the features of humanist culture was a relief of the control of religion over human
life. Italians were strongly attracted to material wealth, power and glory, but they were not necessarily
irreligious. Rrancesco Barbaro (1390-1454), a humanist from Venice, wrote a pamphlet defending
acquisition of wealth as a virtue. On Pleasure, Lorenzo Valla (1406 – 1457), who believed that
the study of history leads man to strive for a life of perfection, criticized the Christian injunction
against pleasure. There was also a concern at this time with good manners- how one should speak
politely and dress correctly and what skills a person of culture should learn.

The Beginning of Modern Age 69
Niccolo Machiavelli’s book The Prince (1513), which revolutionized the whole political
system and thinking was based on his experience and understanding of the political affairs in Italy.
Machiavelli had served Florence as a diplomat and had observed kings and princes in foreign
courts. He had studied ancient Roman history. In The Prince, published in (1513), Machiavelli
combined his personal experience of politics with his knowledge of the past to offer a guide to rulers
on how to gain and maintain power. Machiavelli revolutionized the medieval concept of state and
advocated the separation of the Church from the State. The state does not depend upon any
supernatural power for its authority. The State on the other hand derives its power from the people
and functions to fulfill the needs of the people. The state became secular and sovereign entity which
used its power to regulate the lives of people and institutions
STUDY OF GREEK LITERATURE

Much of the writings of the Greeks and Romans had been to monks and clergymen
through the middle ages, but they had not made these widely known. In the fourteenth century,
many scholars began to read translated works of Greek writers like Plato and Aristotle. For this
they were indebted not to their own scholars but to Arab translators who had carefully preserved
and translated ancient manuscripts.
In the fifteenth century many Greek scholars from Byzantine fled to Italy after the Turks
conquered Constantinople in 1453, bringing with them many Greek works and manuscripts for safe
keeping in the libraries of Florence. Italian scholars also went to Byzantine cities and Constantinople
to collect Greek manuscripts. An Italian scholar Giovanni Aurispa had succeeded in bringing 250
Greek manuscripts and books including the works of Thucydides, Sophocles and Euripides. The
study of Greek literature was made popular in Italy by the Humanists.
The study of Greek Literature and Philosophy by Italian scholars at Platonic Academy run
by the Medici family in Florence. Plato’s inductive method of arriving at generalization proved to
be crucial in the development of experimental sciences leading to the birth of modern science and
scientific interventions. It also gave rise to the growth of the spirit of enquiry and rationalistic approach.
The essential features of the modern age are rationalistic and scientific spirit. They emerge during
the Renaissance mainly because of the study of Greek thought, philosophy, science and literature.
While some European scholars read Greek in Arabic translation, the Greeks translated
works of Arabic and Persian scholars for further transmission to other Europeans. These were
works on natural science, mathematics, astronomy, medicine and chemistry. Ptolemy’s Almagest
(a work on astronomy, written in Greek before 140 CE and later translated into Arabic) carries the
Arabic definite article ‘al’, which brings out the Arabic connection.

70 History
PRINTING
People have always sought better, faster, and easier ways to communicate with one another.
Early civilization transformed communication by developing writing system. Hundred of years later,
the development of the printing press began another communication revolution. The great works of
Renaissance literature reached a large audience. The reason for this was a crucial breakthrough in
technology- the development of printing in Europe. For this, Europeans were indebted to other
peoples like the Chinese, for printing technology, and to Mongol rulers because European traders
and diplomats had become familiar with it during visits to their courts.
During the medieval era, literature had to be laboriously copied by hand or parchment. A
few books that were available were too expensive, only the rich could afford to buy them. The art
of making paper, originally invented by the Chinese, was brought to Europe by the Arabs. Printing
with wooden blocks practiced for centuries was cumbersome and wasteful. In 1455, 150 copies of
the Bible were printed in the workshop of Johannes Gutenberg (1400-1458), the German who
made the first printing press. Earlier, a monk would have taken the same amount of time to write out
one copy of the Bible!
The chief reason that the humanist culture of Italy spread more rapidly across the Alps
from the end of the fifteenth century is that printed books were circulating. This explains why earlier
intellectual movements had been limited to particular regions. Printing presses sprang up in Italy,
Germany, The Netherlands, and England. By 1500, they had turned out more than 20 million
volumes. In the next century, between 150 and 200 million books went into circulation. As printed
books became available, it was possible to buy them. And students did not have to depend solely
on lecture-notes. Ideas, opinions and information moved more widely and more rapidly than ever
before. A printed book promoting new ideas could quickly reach hundreds of readers. This also
made it possible for individuals to read books, since it was possible to buy copies for oneself. This
developed the reading habit among people. People gained access to a broad range of Knowledge
as presses churned out books on topics from medicine, law, astrology, mining, and geography.
LITERATURE
Literature in the modern sense appeared during Renaissance. There arose of class of
writers who took to writing as a profession. They wrote for each other and enlighten and entertain
the public. They used their writings to discuss general questions related to various aspects of man’s
life, his emotions, psychology and behaviour. Inventing of printing brought a wider readership to
humanist authors. It is generally regarded as having started in Italy in the beginning of the fourteenth
century with the publication of The Divine Comedy by the Italian Poet Dante. Dante (1265-
1321) had made efforts to combine classical and the Christian ideas in his Divine Comedy.

Petrarch (1304-1374), is regarded as founder of Renaissance Humanism. Petrarch is

the first writer to express with clarity and force the right of man to concern himself with this life to
enjoy and augment its beauties. He was the first to collect and preserve coins and manuscripts as
source of ancient historical material and to proclaim that it was the duty of every one to help to
preserve the ancient manuscripts. His personal library was the first of its kind which became a
model for other scholars and wealthy patrons of learning.
Boccaccio (1313-1375) also a Florentine continued and furthered the cause of the
humanist literature in Italy. His first book, Fiammetta, is regarded as the first psychological novel.
Boccaccio is chiefly noted for his Decameron, a book which recounts the stories which certain fine
ladies and fine gentlemen are reputed to have told one another in a country house outside Florence,
Whence they had been driven by plague.
The influence of Italian Humanism spread to northern Europe as well. English humanists
John Colet started the Humanist School of St.Paul in London. Sir Thomas More, Lord Chancellor
to Henry VIII, the King of England, who knew the work of the Italian Humanists was raised to be
one of the most outstanding humanists of his time. Mores’ Utopia (1516) is best known for its
depiction of an ideal society on an imaginary island. In France, Francois Rabellais (1490-1553),
though began his life in a monastery, ended up as a great Humanist. He detested medieval learning
and mastered Greek and Roman classics. The best representative of Spanish Renaissance literature
was Miguel de Cervantes (1547-1616), who wrote Don Quixote, described as the best novel.
It is a satire on the medieval nobility and their values.
ART
Formal education was not the only way through which humans shaped the minds of their
age. Art, architecture and books were wonderfully effective in transmitting humanist ideas. The
Renaissance reached its most glorious expression in its paintings, sculpture, and architecture. Wealthy
patrons played a major role in this artistic flowering. Popes and Princes supported the work of
hundreds of artists. Renaissance artists studied ancient Greek and Roman works and revived many
classical forms. The material remains of Roman culture were sought with as much excitement as
ancient texts. A thousand years after the fall of Rome, fragments of art were discovered in the ruins
of ancient Rome and other deserted cities. Their admiration for the figures of perfectly proportioned
men and women sculpted so many centuries ago, made Italian sculptures to continue that tradition.
In 1416, Donatello (1386-1466) broke new ground with his lifelike statues. The sculptor
Donatello, for example, created a life-size statue of a soldier on horseback. It was the first such
figure done since ancient times.

72 History
PAINTING
The greatest achievements of Italian
Renaissance were in the field of arts especially in
Painting. Painting began to develop as an independent
art with Giotto Bondone (1276-1337), a
contemporary of Dante. He foreshadowed modern
spirit and brought revolution both in the artist and his
technique. Essentially a naturalist, he wanted to
recreate a scene exactly as it looked so that the
viewers of his paintings would get the feeling of an
eye witness. His Painting of the New Testament story
of Mary and Christ on the inside walls of the Arena
Chapel in Padua was an enormous work involving
painting of thirty five scenes.
Painters did not have older works to use a
model. But they like sculptors and painted as
realistically as possible. They found that a knowledge
of geometry helped them understand perspective, and
that by noting quality of light, their pictures acquired Mona Lisa
a three dimensional quality. The use of oil as a medium
for painting also gave a greater richness of colour to painting than before. In the colours and designs
of costumes in many paintings, there is evidence of the influence of Chinese and Persian art, made
available to them by the Mongols.
Some individuals were skilled equally as painters, sculptors and architects. Giotto, as the
official architect of Florence, had designed the graceful 400 feet tall tower of the cathedral. The
most impressive example is Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564) – immortalized by the ceiling
he painted for the Pope in the Sistine Chapel, the sculpture called ‘The Pieta” and his design of the
dome of St Peter’s Church, all in Rome. Filippo Bruneleschi (1337-1446), the architect who
designed the spectacular Dome of Florence, had started his career as a sculptor. He designed the
magnificent Gothic Dome of the Cathedral of Florence as a compliment to Giotto’s Campanile.
Florence was home to many outstanding painters and sculptors. One of the most brilliant
was Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519). His exploring mind and endless curiosity fed a genius for
invention. He painted the Mona Lisa and the Last Supper. Most popular is Mona Lisa, a portrait
of a woman whose enigmatic smile has baffled viewers for centuries. One of his dreams was to be
able to fly. He spent years observing birds in flight, and designed a flying machine. Leonardo thought

of himself as an artist, but his talents and accomplishments ranged over many areas. His interests
extended to botany, anatomy, optics, music, architecture, and engineering. He signed his name
‘Leonardo da Vinci, disciple of experiment’.
Roman art had been realistic and Renaissance painters developed new techniques for
representing both humans and landscapes in a realistic way. Artists learned the rules of perspective.
By making distant objects smaller than those close to the viewer, artists could paint scenes that
appeared three-dimensional. They used shading to make objects look around and real. Artists
studied human anatomy and drew from live models. This made it possible for them to portray the
human body more accurately than medieval artists done. Artists concern to be accurate was helped
by the work of scientist. To study of bone structures, artists went to the laboratories of medical
schools. Andreas Vesalius (1514-1640), a Belgian and a Professor of Medicine at the University
of Padua, was the first to dissect the human body. This was the beginning of modern physiology.
Thus, anatomy, geometry, physics, as well as a strong sense of what was beautiful, gave a
new quality to Italian art, which was to be called ‘realism’ and which continued till the nineteenth
century.
SCULPTURE
The first great master of Renaissance sculptor was Donatello (1386-1466) of Florence.
Under Humanist influence, he made sculpture a thing of beauty and began to work with live models.
He spent ten years at Padua where he produced his unique and immortal bronze statue Gattamelata.
It was the bronze statue of a Venetian Condottiere sitting on the horse back. Lorenzo Ghiberti
surpassed Donatello in relief sculpture. The gilded bronze doors of the Cathedral Baptistery in
Florence on which he worked for thirty years, has ten panels portraying scenes from the Bible. The
panel containing the scene of the meeting of King Solomon and Queen of Sheba is exquisite because
of its composition, perspective and dramatic effect.
Michelangelo was the best sculptor of the Renaissance. For attaining mastery over
accurate of human form, he studied anatomy of each part, joints, muscles, nerves, veins and minute
human organs. He brought his intimate knowledge of the human body in making perfect and exquisite
sculptures. His greatest piece of sculpture is the fourteen feet statue of youthful land athletic David
completed in 1504 preserved in the museum at Florence.
ARCHITECTURE
The city of Rome revived in a spectacular way in the fifteenth century. From 1417, the
Popes were politically powerful because the weakness caused by the election of two rival Popes
since 1378 had ended. They actively encouraged the study of Rome’s history. The ruins in Rome

74 History
were carefully excavated by archaeologists (archaeology was a new skill). This inspired a ‘new’
style in architecture. Which was actually a revival of the imperial Roman style- now called ‘classical
‘. Popes, wealthy merchants and aristocrats employed architects who were familiar with classical
architecture.
Giotto, as the official architect of Florence, had designed the graceful 400 feet tall campanile
Courtyard of Palazzo Strozzi, Florence The Dome of St Peter’s Basilica, Rome.
(tower) of the cathedral. Brunelleschi, a versatile Florentine artist, built many splendid buildings in
Florence after a close scrutiny of Roman ruins. Adapting classical style, he set the new trend to the
development of the renaissance architecture. He designed the magnificent Gothic dome of the
Cathedral of Florence as a compliment to Giotto’s campanile.
The best architectural style that developed in Florence was domestic palace that combined
medieval Roman classical design. These palaces were normally of three stories arranged around an
open courtyard. The large gate opened into the courtyard facing the street. These palaces appeared
like fortresses with thick walls and iron barred windows. The Medici palace built for Cosimo de
Medici was the first palace of its kind designed by Michelozzo di Bartholommeo. Donato
Bramante, one of the outstanding Renaissance architects popularized round churches modeled
after circular temples of Rome such as the Pantheon. St Peters Church was designed by three great
architects of Bramante, Raphael and Michelangelo. Michelangelo was responsible for designing the

magnificent dome but did not live to see it completed. Another remarkable change was that from
this time, artists were known individually, by name, not as members of a group or a guild, as earlier.
CONDITION OF WOMEN
The new ideal of individuality and citizenship excluded women. Men from aristocratic
families dominated public life and were the decision-makers in their families. They educated their
sons to take their place in family businesses or in public life, at times sending their younger sons to
join the Church. Although their dowries were invested in the family businesses, women generally
had no say in how their husbands should run their business. Often, marriages were intended to
strengthen businesses alliances. If an adequate dowry could not be arranged, daughters were sent
to convents to lead the life of a nun. Obviously, the public role of women was limited and they were
liked upon as keepers of the households. The position of women in the families of merchants,
however, was somewhat different. Shopkeepers were very regularly assisted by their wives in
running the shop. In families of merchants and bankers wives looked after the businesses when the
male members were away on work.
Vittorno da Feltre, provided the education to boys and girls in his school. He believed
that there should be no difference in the intellectual development of their individual personalities.
Women took part and even played a leading role in government, diplomacy and patronage of arts
in the city states of Milan, Florence, Urbino and Mantua. Renaissance opened a new era in the
history of emancipation of women.
A few women were intellectually very creative and sensitive about the importance of a
humanist education. ‘Even though the study of letters promises and offers no reward for women
and no dignity, wrote the Venetian Cassandra Fedele (1465-1558), every women ought to seek
and embrace these studies. She was one of a handful of women who questioned the idea that
women were incapable of achieving the qualities of a humanist scholar. Fedele was known for her
proficiency in Greek and Latin and was invited to give orations at the University of Padua. Fedele’s
writings bring into focus the general regarded for education in that age. She was one of many
Venetian women writers who criticized the republic for creating a highly limited definition of freedom
that favoured the desires of men over those of women. Another remarkable woman was the Marchesa
of Mantua, Isabella d’Este (1474-1539). She ruled the state while her husband was absent, and
the Court of Mantua, a small state, was famed for its intellectual brilliance. Women’s writings revealed
their conviction that they should have economic power, property and education to achieve an identity
in a world dominated by men.

76 History
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
The scientific revolution that began during the Renaissance
with the applications of reason and logic led to unraveling of the secrets
of nature. By the seventeenth century a radically different view of
universe based on scientific discoveries, unique in world history
emerged. This new thinking and new scientific approach to understand
nature led to discoveries. The revival of learning Greek literature,
especially Plato’s philosophy had popularized inductive method. This
encouraged the growth of empirical and experimental sciences in
subsequent decades. The turning point in European science came
with the work of Copernicus (1473-1543), a contemporary of Martin
Luther. Nicolaus Copernicus a learned Polish priest had a passionate
Galileo Galilei
interest in astronomy.
Copernicus asserted that the planets, including the earth, rotate around the sun. A devout
Christian, Copernicus was afraid of the possible reaction to his theory by traditionalist clergymen. It
was much later- more than half a century later, in fact-that the difference between ‘heaven’ and
earth was bridged through the writings of astronomers like Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) and
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), The theory of the earth as part of a sun-centered system was made
popular by Kepler’s Cosmographical Mystery, which demonstrated that the planets move around
the sun not in circle but in ellipses. Galileo confirmed the notion of the dynamic world in his work
The Motion. This revolution in science reached its climax with Isaac Newton’s theory of gravitation.
The work of Galileo was hampered by the Church, which still exercised much authority
over the opinions of men. Galileo reasserted the theory of Copernicus that the sun is the centre of
the solar system, and the earth moves around it. But the church criticized it as this was a dangerous
doctrine as the earth was made inferior to the sun, Christianity and men were of little account, and
lessening the importance of the Pope. Galileo was accordingly made to recant his opinions, and he
believed that the earth was immovable centre of the universe. Once these scientists had shown the
way, experiments and investigations into the areas of Physics, chemistry and biology had expanded
rapidly. Historians were to label this new approach to the knowledge of man and nature of the
Scientific Revolution.
Consequently, in the minds of skeptics and non-believers, God began to replaced by
Nature as the source of creation. Even those who retained their faith in God started talking about a
distant God who does not directly regulate the act of living in the material world. Such ideas were
popularized through scientific societies that established a new scientific culture in the public domain.
The Paris Academy, established in 1670 and the Royal Society formed in London in 1662, held
lectures and conducted experiments for public viewing and the promotion of natural knowledge.

IMPACT OF RENAISSANCE
The Renaissance as a period of dynamism and artistic creativity, and the middle Ages as a
period of gloom and lack of development is an over-simplification. Many elements associated with
the Renaissance in Italy can be traced back to the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The cultural
changes in Europe at this time were not shaped only by the ‘classical’ civilization of Rome and
Greece. The archaeological and literary recovery of Roman culture did create a great admiration of
that civilization. But technologies and skills in Asia had moved far ahead of the Greeks and Romans.
Much more of the world had become connected, and the new techniques of navigation enabled
people to sail much further than had been possible earlier.
REFORMATION
Religion came to be seen as something which each individual should choose for himself.
Humanism freed them from the restrictions imposed by Church so that they could give free and full
expression to their many sided talents. The Church’s earth centric belief was reversed by scientists
who began to understand the solar system, and new geographical knowledge overturned the Euro-
centric view that the Mediterranean Sea was the centre of the world.
Trade and travel, military conquest and diplomatic contacts linked Italian towns and courts
with the world beyond. The new culture was admired and imitated the educated and the wealthy.
Very few of the new ideas filtered down to the ordinary man who, after all, could not read or write.
In the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, many scholars in universities in north Europe were
attracted to humanist ideas. Like their Italian colleagues, they too focused on classical Greek and
Roman texts along with the holy books of the Christians. But, unlike Italy, where professional
scholars dominated the humanist movement, in north Europe humanism attracted many members of
the church. They called on Christians to practice religion in the way laid down in the ancient texts of
their religion, discarding unnecessary rituals, which they condemned as later additions to a simple
religion. Theirs was a radically new view of human beings as free and national agents. Later
philosophers were to return to this over and over again inspired by the belief in a distant God who
created man but allowed him complete freedom to live his life freely, in pursuit of happiness here
and now.
Christian humanists like Thomas More (1478-1535) in England and Erasmus (1466-
1536) in Holland felt that the Church had become an Institution marked by greed, extorting money
at will from ordinary people. One of the favourite methods of the clergy was to sell indulgences,
documents which apparently freed the buyer from the burden of the sins he had committed.
Erasmus used his pen to call for reforms in the Church. He challenged the worldliness
of Church practices and urged a return to early Christian traditions. In his best known work, The

78 History
Praise of Folly, he used humor to expose the ignorant and immoral behavior of many people of his
day, including the clergy. Folly, he write, is the chief source of happiness. It rules that the world, and
particularly the Church. It is responsible for spreading belief in indulgences, and belief that ignorance
and dirt are forms of piety. Erasmus hoped that he would be able to affect the reforms which he
desired in the Church by a direct appeal to the reason of humanity.
Thomas More also used his pen to press for social and
economic reform. In Utopia, More describes an ideal society, where
men and women live in peace and harmony. No one is idle, all are
educated, and justice is used to end crime rather than to eliminate the
criminal. Christians came to realize from printed translations of the
Bible in local languages that their religion did not permit such practices.
ERASMUS In almost every part of Europe, peasants
began to rebel against the taxes imposed by the Church. While the
common folk resented the extortions of churchmen, princes found
their interference in the work of the state irritating. They were pleased
ERASMUS
when the humanists pointed out that the clergy’s claim to judicial and
fiscal powers originated from a document called the Donation of Constantine supposed to have
been issued by Constantine, the first Christian Roman Emperor. Humanist scholars were able to
point out that this was not genuine, and had been forged later. Christians from all levels of society
grew impatient with the corruption of the clergy and the worldliness of the Church.
MARTIN LUTHER (1483-1546)

Protest against Church abuses continued to grow. In 1517,
these protests erupted into a full-scale revolt. The man who triggered
the revolt was a German monk and Professor of Theology named
Martin Luther. Martin Luther (1483-1546) launched a campaign
against the Catholic Church and argued that a person did not need
priests to establish contact with God. He asked his followers to have
complete faith in God, for faith alone could guide them to the right life
and entry into heaven.
At the heart of Luther’s teachings were several beliefs. First,
he argued that salvation could be achieved through faith alone. He
thus rejected the Church doctrine that good deeds were necessary
Martin Luther 1517
for salvation. Second, Luther declared that the Bible was the sole
source of religious truth. Third, Luther rejected the idea that priests and the Church hierarchy had
special powers. Luther translated the Bible into the German vernacular so that ordinary people

could study it by themselves. Every town he said should have a school so that girls and boys could
learn to read the Bible. This movement – called the Protestant Reformation –led to the Churches in
Germany and Switzerland breaking their connection with the Pope and the Catholic Church.
In Switzerland, Luther’s ideas were popularized by Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) and
later by Jean Calvin (1509-64). Backed by merchants, the reformers had greater popular appeal in
towns, while in rural areas the Catholic Church managed to retain its influence. Other German
reformers, like the Anabaptists were even more radical they blended the idea of salvation with the
end of all forms of social oppression. They said that since God had created all people as equal, they
were not expected to pay taxes and had the right to choose their priests. This appealed to peasants
oppressed by feudalism. In 1524, a Peasants’ Revolt erupted across Germany. The rebels demanded
an end to serfdom. They also demanded other changes in their harsh lives.
Luther did not support radicalism. He called upon German rulers to suppress the peasant’s
rebellion, which they did in 1525. But radicalism survived, and merged with the resistance of
Protestants in France, who, persecuted by the Catholic rulers, started claiming the right of a people
to remove an oppressive ruler and to choose someone of their own liking. Eventually, in France, as
in many other parts of Europe, the Catholic Church allowed Protestants to worship as they chose.
In England, the rulers ended the connection with the Pope. The king/queen was from then onwards
the head of the Church.
The Catholic Church itself did not escape the impact of these ideas and began to reform
itself from within. In Spain and in Italy, churchmen emphasized the need for a simple life and service
to the poor. In Spain, Ignatius Loyala, in an attempt to combat Protestantism, set up the Society of
Jesus in 1540. His followers were called Jesuits, whose mission was to serve the poor and to widen
their knowledge of other cultures.
COUNTER REFORMATION
The Church was reorganized and a new spirit came into its life which is popularly called
Counter Reformation. Counter Reformation was a movement to cleanse the Church from its abuses
and to win back the Protestants to the Catholic fold.
CONCLUSION
The Renaissance in Europe marked the end of the Medieval Society and the dawn of the
modern age. Thus Renaissance acted as a period of transition between these two periods. It became
intellectual movement and spread all over Italy and gradually whole Europe from the 14th century
to the end of the 17th century. The development primarily found expression in the revival of art and
growth of humanism. It prompted the intellectual progress of Europe as witnessed in the flowering

80 History
of literature, development of Science and Technology and invention of printing. The Reformation
movement had outstanding effects on Europe. It created two major divisions in Christendom, namely,
Catholics and Protestants. It provided necessary stimulus for the intellectual revolution and economic
progress in the modern world.
Chronology of Land Mark Events from the Fourteenth and Eighteenth Centuries
1300 Humanism taught at Padua University in Italy

1341 Petrarch given the title of poet Laureate in Rome
1349 University Established in Florence
1436 Brunelleschi Designs the Dumomo in Florence
1453 Ottoman Turks Defeated the Byzantine rule of Constantinople
1454 Gutenberg prints the Bible with movable type
1492 Columbus reached America
1495 Leonardo da Vince paints the Last Sapper
1512 Michelangelo paints the Sistine Chapel Ceiling
1516 Thomas More’s Utopia Published
1517 Martin Luther produce the Ninety –Five theses
1523 Luther Translate the Bible in to German
1525 Peasant Uprising in Germany
1559 Anglican Church established in England with the King/Queen as its head
1673 Academy of Sciences setup in Paris
1687 Isaac Newton’s principia Mathematics Published
QUESTIONS
1. Give a brief account of the Renaissance
2. What is meant by Reformation movement?
3. What were the features of humanism?
1. Michelangelo
2. Niccolo Machiavelli
3. Printing
4. Copernicus
5. Mona Lisa
6. Tha Last Supper
7. Martin Luther

C H A P T E R
8
FRENCH REVOLUTION:
1789
INTRODUCTION
Liberty, equality, and Fraternity were the main objects of French Revolution. It led the
Europe as well as the whole of the world towards freedom and self-rule.
1. The Regime of Bourbon dynasty
To understand the French Revolution, it is necessary to examine the conditions and
institutions of France. The revolution accomplished the transition from the feudal and absolutist
system to the democratic system of the modern world. The entire structure of the French state and
of the French society was remodeled and planted on new and far-reaching principles.
The Bourbon dynasty
The rulers of France, under Bourbon dynasty, claimed to rule by the will of God, by divine
right , not at all by the consent of the people. The king was responsible to no one but God.
Consequently in the actual conduct of his office he was subject to no control. He was an absolute
monarch .The king made laws, he levied the taxes he spent them as he saw fit, he declared wars
,made peace, contracted alliances according to his own inclination.
Paris was the capital of France , but the king resided 12 miles away, amid the splendors
of Versailles. The king, the queen, the royal children, Kith and kin, all had their Separate Establishments
at the Versailles palace. The court of Versailles composed of 16000 people, who were attached to

82 History
the personal service of the king and his family. The queen alone had 500 Servants, and the annual
cost of the services alone was equivalent to 4,000,000 dollars. The kings table cost more than a
million and a half. In 1789 the total cost of the all this extravagance amounted to not far from
20,000,000 dollars. The royal stables contained nearly 1900 horses and more than 200 carriages
,and the annual cost of this service alone was equivalent of 4,0000,000$.Luxury was everywhere
prevailing..Men spoke of the court as veritable nations grave.
Louis – XVI: 1774-1793
Louis xvI was the most un fortunate monarch under whose regime the long accumulated
problems caused the French Revolution. He was the last ruler from Bourbon dynasty, his reign
covered the years from 1774 to 1792. He was 20 years old and his wife Marie Antoinette was 19
years when Louis XV died. When Louis XVI was declared as king both the wife and husband
expressed that “How unhappy we are? We are too Young to rule”. Louis XVI was good, well
intentioned. But his mind lacked all destinations. His education had been poor, his process of thought
were hesitating, slow, uncertain, awkward, timid. He had no masterful qualities necessary for
leadership. He was quite unable to see where danger lay and where support was to be found. He
was a poor judge of men. At the beginning of his reign he was influenced by Turgot, one of the
wisest of statesmen of the times.
Mari Antoinette
Mari Antoinette was the daughter of
Empress Maria Theresa of Austria, and she had been
married to Louis XVI .She was beautiful, gracious,
and vivacious. She had a strong will, Power of rapid
decision, a spirit of imitative, and daring. But she was
lacking in wisdom, she did not understand the
temperament of the French people, or the spirit of
the times. Born to the purple, her outlook upon life
did not transcend that of the small and highly privileged
class to which she belonged. She was born in Vienna;
Mari Antoinette
her Educational background was so poor, that she
cannot write. She was willful and proud, unthinking and extravagant, intolerant, found of pleasure.
2. Social division
The Social Organization of France was for from satisfactory. The society was based upon
the principle of Inequality. There were three Classes of People in the Society. The nobles, the clergy
and the Third Estate. The two former classes were privileged and placed upon a better footing that
the third estate. There was also in equality between sections of the same class. The two privileged

French Revolution : 1789 83
that was nobles and clergy were favored in many ways, such as complete or partial exemption from
taxes, and the clergy thought its right to tithes, ( an amount given regularly in order to support a
church or priest) the nobility through its right to extract Feudal dues. Even some of the third Estate
members also enjoyed some Privileges and most were denied. So there were classes within classes.
Of the 2.5Crores of French Population, the clergy and Noble were 6 Lakhs and 2.44 crores were
third estate. One man in forty belongs to privileged class and that one man enjoyed the wealth and
honor.
The Church
The clergy of Roman Catholic Church formed the first order in the state .It was rich and
powerful. It owned one fifth of land in France .Land revenue, tithes exacted by the church gave a lot
of income to the church and it was greater than government income. The total income of the church
was approximately 1,00,000,000$.The church felt it their duty to support health, education and
charity programs. Thus church was a state within state, performing several functions ,which were
performed by civil authority of our modern society. This rich corporation was relieved from taxation.
The Clergy
In France the clergy were not one equal section. They were Higher clergy and lower
clergy .Among lakhs of clergy only 5000 to 6000 were High Clegy people .Most of the clergy were
lower clergy. They were the sons of the third estate and they stood behind the revolution of France.
The Higher Clergy
Most of the income of church went to the higher clergy. Nearly 134 bishops and archbishops
and some more dignitaries of church of nearly 5000 to 6000 only belongs to Higher Clergy. These
highly income generated positions were monopolized by the younger sons of the nobility. They were
eager to accept the salaries but not disposed to perform the duties. They did not consider themselves
men set apart for a high and noble calling and they did not take their duties seriously. The archbishop
of Strasbourg had an income of 300,000 dollars a year and can entertain 200 guests at a time. Even
the utensils of his Kitchen were made of silver. 180 horses were in his stables just for the pleasure
of the guests. We can understand the luxury life of this Clergy with this example.
The Nobles
In the society of France, Although, the court of Nobles were privileged, there were
several sub divisions. There were two main classes, the nobility of the sword, and nobles of the
provinces. The former were few in number, perhaps, in thousands, but were with peculiar brilliancy,
for they were the ones who lived in Versailles. The provincial nobles allowed their estates to be
administered by agent, who exacted all that they could get from peasantry who cultivated them.
Everybody was jealous of the nobles of this class, for they were the favored few , who practically
monopolized all the pleasant places in the country.

84 History
The Third Estate
Every one who was not a Noble or a Clergy man was a member of Third Estate. The
three chief divisions of this Third Estate were immense mass of the bourgeoisie, the artisans and
peasants.In France, the vast majority of the people were called the third estate. Differing from the
others in that it was unprivileged, it resembles them in that it illustrated the principle of inequality, as
did they. There were the widest extremes in social and economic condition of the French society.
The bourgeoisie or upper middle class comprised of lawyers, physicians, teachers, military
men, bankers, manufacturers. Many of them were rich, intelligent, energetic, educated and well to
do, and this class resented most keenly the existing system of inequality. They want political re-
organization which should enable them to participate in the government ,to control its expenditure
and income.
The artisan section of France were comparatively small class with two and half million
population, mostly living in towns and cities. Growth of factory workers was not yet highly enough
to fight for their rights.
The large section of people in France were peasants and agriculture was their main
occupation .There were no laws to protect them and their economic fate depends mostly on nature.
They have to obey the rules framed by nobles and who exacted as much money as possible and
enjoyed the life.
The large section of people in France, were the Peasantry and agriculture was the main
occupation. Their lives were miserable and they led an unhappy life. According to Turgot,55% of
what they earn will be paid as tax to the state. They have to pay tithes to the clergy, interest on loans
to nobles and taxes to the government. Nearly four fifths of his earnings goes to the above and only
with one fifth he had to support himself and family.
3. Influence of literary men

Literature was a lusty and Passionate champion of reform, and through it ,a flood of new
ideas swept over France. The France revolution has been ascribed to the influence of the Philosophers
or writers of the 18th century. The books, which set forth the new ideas and which issued in such
profusion from the facile pens and teeming brains of Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot and
many others, stirred the intellectual world to its depth.
Montesquieu (1689-1755)
He was a member of nobility, an eminent lawyer, a Judge of Parliament of Bordeaux. He
wrote ‘Spirit of Laws’, and for twenty years he worked hard to write this book. It was a study of
Political Philosophy, an analysis of the various forms of Governments. It was a cold and balanced
Judgment of their Various Peculiarities, merits and defects. Montesquieu examined various maters
with objectivity which a botanist shows in the study of specimens. He suggested 2 or 3 ideas of

good Governance .Montesquieu analysed that the England

Government was on the whole the best, since it guaranteed
personal liberty to all citizens. In Britain, Monarchy was limited
in power and controlled by an assembly which represented
people of England and it was called constitutional monarchy.
Montesquieu emphasized the necessity of executive and
Judicial system as separate wings.
Voltaire (1694-1778)
Voltaire one of the master minds of European History
has become the name an era. He stands for the emancipation
of the intellect. Voltaire proved himself as poet, Historian,
Dramatist and also Scientist. He was pillar of cloud by day
and fire by night for all when enlisted in the fight for the Liberation of mankind. He was prisoner
many times for criticizing the nobility and church. Most of his time had been spent in exile because
he was not safe in France. He denounced the abuses and in equities of arbitrary imprisonment, of
torture. Voltaire was not an atheist. But he did not believe in the Christianity .He hated the Roman
Cathalic Church and constantly attached the misdeeds of clergy. He the considered Christianity as
enemy of freedom of thought and Prosecutor of innocent men. He wrote many articles of satires on
Political and religious heads.
Rousseau (1712-1778)
The tone and tending of Jean Jacques Rousseau was different from Voltaire and
Montesquieu. He wrote totally about reorganization of Society .
He started his work, ‘Social Contract’ with a statement that “man was born free and is
everywhere in chains’’.
In his opinion that man naturely good, happy and
had been corrupted and degraded by civilization . Rousseau
demanded that the people make the laws themselves
directly.The main principles of his theory were., The
sovereignty of the people, and political equality of all
citizens. These powerful principles influenced the course of
revolution and have been preached with fervor and
denounced with passion by rival camps ever since.
All this seeds of writers fell up on fruitful soil.
Remarkable was to be the harvest. We can observe the
Rousseau result in revolution process.

86 History
4. Financial Condition
For the last so many years, The Financial Condition of France was deplorable and
dangerous. Almost half of the national income was devoted to the payment of interests on national
debt. Expenditures were always larger than receipts, with the result that there was an annual deficit
which had to be met by contracting a new loan, thus increasing the debt and the interest charges.
The debt therefore steadily grew larger, and to meet the chronic deficit the Government was forced
to resort to sale of Government properties, Government lands. During this period, in twelve years,
the debt increased nearly600, 000,000$.
The financial condition of the nation was bankruptcy, and it can be avoided only in two
ways, either by increasing receipts or by reducing Expenditure, or both. The receipts came from
taxes and they were already very burdensome, for those who paid them. The system of taxation
was so bad, that only third estate pays the taxes. Some of the nobles and clergy were entirely
exempted from tax payment and entire burden fell upon the third estate.
Necker- Director of Finance

As Finance Director ,Necker Succeeded Turgot. He was man who had rised by his own
efforts from poverty, to great wealth.As Finance Director, he took a step which infuriated the
members of the court. He published a financial Report, showings the income and expenditure of the
state. This had never been done before, secrecy having hither to prevailed in such matters. This
report showed just how much went annually in pensions to the courters, as free gifts for which they
rendered no services.Necker was removed.
Colonee: Finance General
As Necker was thrown out Colonee, took the charge as Finance General . A man of
charm, of wit, of great address, had a Philosophy of gentle art of spending which was highly
appreciated by the Nobles who want luxury . Money flowed like water during his times. In three
years, Colonne borrowed nearly 300,000,000 $ (dollars). In 1786, it was found that the treasury
was empty. Colonee proposed a general tax which should fall upon the nobles as well as upon
commoners. Therefore he met Opposition from privileged classes which Turgot and Neckar had
met. He resigned his post.
5. Assembly of Notables : 1787

The conptroller, Calonne proposed new tax code, which would include taxation of the
mobility and clergy .But the nobles rejected the proposal in Assembly of Nobles and the nobles
also clarified that only Estates general can think of any change in taxation system.

6. Estates General of 1789

In France an institution, Estates General, for the help and advise the King was formed.
The estates general ,was organized into three estates the clergy, the nobles, and the rest of France,
third Estate . Its last meeting had been held 175 years before . Now, due to a great national crisis,
with a hope that Bourbon Monarchy may overcome the bankruptcy, the Estates General was
summoned. To overcome the financial crisis, Necker was recalled to head the ministry and to
explain the Estates General.
The Estates General met on May 05-1789 There were about 1200, of them 600 were
members of third Estate and 300 from clergy and 300 from Nobles . There was no rational of
population 95 % people belongs to third Estate and remaining were privileged. But the wealth was
vice versa. Hence the third estate, influenced by great philosophers, demanded for the increase in
their strength .The privileged class know very well, if the ratio changed as per population, they
loose all privileges and common man becomes equal to them. Hence the two upper Estates refused
to the proposal and the king also stood behind then.
Tennis Court Oath
On June 20,1789 when the third Estate members went to the meeting place, the hall was
closed for reason of unreliable. But the commoners with a strong will went to the tennis court and
they gave a promise of oath . Bialy, a member of third Estate moved a resolution ‘’never to
separate, and to reassemble wherever circumstances shall require until the constitution of the kingdom
shall be established”This was famously known as Tennis Court Oath..
Mirabeau, a noble by birth, but was elected by third Estate, raised to

the occasion. when the king Louis XVI Ordered the Third Estate to vacate
the Tennis court, Mirabeau Questioned the authority and said ‘’ Go and
Tell Your master that we are here by the will of people and that we shall
not leave except at point of bayonet.
National Assembly – 1789

On 10 June 1789, Abbe Sieyès proposed to convene a meeting with common man as a
third Estate and invited the other two estates to take part. The king commended the nobility and
clergy to sit with third Estate, in a single body. The National Assembly was now complete an
assembly not for the Estates but of the people.
Dismissal of Necker
The king, inspired by the court of nobles made an attempt to suppress the assembly, to
regain the ground that had been lost On July 11. Necker and his colleagues, who were favorable to
reform, were suddenly dismissed and Necker was ordered to leave the country immediately.

88 History
7. The Storming of the Bastille
In Paris, people presumed that Louis XVI action to be aimed against the assembly. Paris
was soon consumed by riots, chaos, and wide Spread looting. On July 14 the queen, Marie
Antoinette, brought large
member of weapons and
ammunition from her
father’s side, Austria. And
kept ready in Bastille
fortress. Rumors of most
alarming character spread
rapidly, people started raid
shops and offices. Finally
people attacked Bastile, the
fortress and also prison of
odious reputation. The
revolutionaries took the
advantage and in Paris a
new form of municipal
government was established Storming of the Bastille
and Jean-Sylvain Bialy
became the city mayor The king accepted the tricolor cockade.
Cockade A new flag of revolutionaries of France, the red, white , blue was
adopted in place of old white banner of the Bourbons.
8. Abolition of feudalism
On the night of 4th August 1789,the National Constituent Assembly abolished feudalism,
Swept away Seigniorial rights of the second estate and the tithes, collected by the first estate.
During a few hours nobles, clergy, towns, provinces, companies and cities lost their Special privileges.
Writing of first Constitution 1791
It was the first written Constitution the France had. After many discussions and proposals,
the legislative power was given by the Constitution of 1791 to a single Assembly of 745 members
,to be elected for a term of two years, and declared France would have a single, unicameral
assembly. The King retained only a ‘’Suspencive veto’’, he could delay the implementation of a
law, but not block it absolutely. The Assembly eventually replaced the provinces with 83 departments,

uniformly administered and roughly equal in area and population.

The new constitution changed the judicial power completely .Here after the judges
were to be elected by the Assembly. Their terms were to range from two to four years. The jury,
something hitherto unknown to France was now introduced for criminal cases. Hitherto the judge
had decided all cases.
For purpose of administration and local government a new system was established. The
France provinces were divided into eighty three departments of nearly uniform size. The electors
were to choose the local departmental officials .It would be the duty of these officials to carry out
the decrees of the Central Government.
9. Declaration of the rights of man

On 26 August, 1789, the Assembly Published the Declaration of the rights of man and the
citizen , comprised a statement of principles rather a constitution with legal effect. The Declaration
was directly influenced by Thomas Jefferson who introduced it in America.
The Declaration of Rights of Man

The Gospel of modern times, brought forward by Lafayette, a hero of American
Revolution. Seventeen articles of the Declaration asserted that men are free and equal,
People are sovereign, law is an expression of popular will of People. Freedom of
speech, equal right to Participate in Assembly or Government Functioning.
The Declaration passed beyond the frontiers of France and it was studied, copied
everywhere. In the modern world, a nation aspiring to liberty has sought its principles
in this French Declaration.
10 . Assembly - The Legislative Assembly

The Constitution of 1791 was put to force from 17th September 1792.France was to
make the experiment of a limited monarchy in place of the old absolute monarchy. The new legislature
expected to start an era of prosperity and happiness by applying the new principles of government
,to consolidate the monarchy on its new basis ,it was destined to stormy life and to witness the fall
of the monarchy in irreparable ruin. The legislative Assembly had celebrated “the end of the
Revolution .The Old regime was buried.
Monarchy in Legislative Assembly

The Legislative Assembly was as monarchical in its sentiments as the constituent had
been. But of the king’s conduct should arouse the suspicion that he was intriguing to restore the
old regime, that his oaths were insincere, then the people would turn against him and the experiment

90 History
of a constitutional monarchy might prove brief. France had no desire to be a republic, but she had
a fixed and resolute aversion to the Old Regime.
Decree against the Non- juring Priests
The Civil Constitution of the clergy gave rise to a bitter civil war . Peasants and non-juring
priests ,rose against the elected ,constitutional priests and drove them out of the pulpits and
churches .When government sent National Guards to control the situation, the civil war began. The
Assembly immediately passed a decree against the refractory priests, made the matter more
complicated. Louis XVI, using his constitutional power ,vetoed the decree. This action of the king
offended public opinion and weakened the king’s hold upon France.
Problems from Emigres
Another problem to the Legislature was from the emigres. The royal princes and the
nobles who had emigrated from France, either because they no longer felt safe in France, and they
thought that by going to foreign countries they might induce their rulers to intervene in French affairs
and restore the Old Regime. This emigration had began directly after the storming of the Bastille.
More than one and half lakh people left France and most of them went to the German states. They
formed an army with 20 thousand men under the leadership of The Count d’Artois, younger
brother of Louis XVI. They advocated that Louis XVI was virtually a prisoner and the matter was
concerned all monarchs, for sentimental and practical reasons.The emigrates succeeded in inducing
the rulers of Austria and Prussia and they announced that the cause of Louis XVI was the cause of
all the monarchs of Europe. It angered France and increased suspicion of the king. The Legislative
Assembly passed two decrees, one declaring that the Count of Provence would be deprived of
his rights to the throne if he did not return within two months, and the other declaring that the
properties of emigres would be confiscated and they would be treated as national enemies.
Louis XVI vetoed these decrees and became more unpopular. He ordered his two brothers
to return to France ,but they refused to obey.
The rise of political clubs
Domestic political clubs began to loom up threateningly as possible rivals even of the
Assembly. The two most conspicuous of these were the Jacobin and the Cordelier clubs. These
clubs were originated in the beginning of the Revolution itself , but became active in the time of
Legislative Assembly.
The Jacobin Club
It was composed of members of the Assembly and outsiders, citizens of Paris. Its most
influential leader was Robespierre, a radical democrat but at the same time a convinced monarchist.
The Jacobin club grew steadily more radical as the Revolution progressed and as its more

conservative members dropped out or were eliminated. Jacobin clubs were founded in over 2000
cities and villages. Gradually the Club became a rival of Assembly itself and times exerted a
preponderant influence upon it. Actually Assembly was legally constituted government of all France
,while the club was merely a self constituted body of private citizens.
The Cordelier Club
The Cordelier Club was more radical. Its membership was derived from a lower social
scale. It was more democratic. Its chief influence was with the working classes of Paris, who were
great supporters of Revolution. These men were crude and rude but tremendously energetic. Danton
was the leader of this club. He was a lawyer. He was an able, ruthless leader. The members of the
club wore the Bonnet rouge or red cap, which was a symbol of liberty.
The Girondists
A group of men, many of them from south west of France, were called Girondists .They
have enjoyed a poetic immortality ever since imaginative pen of the poet Lamartine. Theirs was
bookish outlook upon world. They were influenced by Plutarch and they admire ancient Greek and
Roman cultures.
11. The March of Women to Versailles

Early in October rumors reached Paris that an banquet offered at Versailles to some of the
armed men, who come from Austria, Mari Antoinette had arranged a grand dinner to her native
military officials. On October 5, thousands of women started March to Versailles, with weapons.
The crowd forced open the royal palace gates, killed several of guards and invaded the palace.
The Queen fled to the apartment of king for safety. The women demanded the king and his family to
leave place of Versailles and go to Paris to live in midst of People. In reality they were Prisoners.
Stages of revolution
1. 1789-91 Constitutional Assembly
2. 1791-92 First Constitution.
3. 1792-95 National Convention
4. 1795-99 Rule Of Directorate
12. Rule of National Convention:

From Oct 1, 1791 new Constitution came to force and newly elected members as National
Convention took up the Responsibility of the country. The period of National convention 1792 –
95, faced many problems that need immediate solutions.

92 History
Challenges before National Convention
Perhaps no legislative body in history has been called upon to solve such knotty problems
as those which confronted the National Convention at the opening of its sessions. The major
problems that need immediate solution were
1. What should be done with the deposed and imprisoned king ?
2. To organize the national defense and return back foreign invasion
3. To provide a strong government for the country.
4. To complete and consolidate social reforms.
5. To frame new constitution and to establish permanent republic institution.
Some of nobles and the rulers of the countries like Austria were afraid of the ongoing
revolution in France they formed as a group to declared war against France and to restore Bourbon
dynasty. So the first priority of the National Army was to safe guard the nation. The next problem
was the nobles of royal Family. There were joining the External enemy group and trying to bring
back the old résumé. The third priority was to continue the spirit of Revolution and implement the
reforms. The fourth Solution was to prepare a Republican constitution to the nation.
Execution of Louis XVI
On 17 January 1793, Louis was condemned to death for “Conspiracy against Public
liberty and the general safety” In the Convention 361 Voted to Execute and 288 Voted against.
Louis was executed by Guillotine on 21 Jan,1793. The unruffled dignity with which he met death
was the finest behavior of his reign. Conservatives and Monarchies of Europe called for war against
revolutionary France.
Guillotine
Guillotine stands as the Principal
symbol of Terror in French Revolution.
Invented by a physician during the
Revolution, as a Quick, more efficient more
distinctive form of execution. It became a
popular entertainment and attracted great
crowds of speciation. Louise XVI and his
wife Mari Attonitte also were guillotined.
Guillotine
13. Reign of Terror

The committee of public safety took up the problem of internal discipline .So sensational
was the period that many persons have regarded it as the central feature of the Revolution. The
Reign of Terror was an incident ,though obviously an awful incident ,in a great political and social

upheaval .Because basic new principles and far-reaching reforms were endangered by a host of
foreign and domestic enemies,it seemed to the nationalist republican leaders of France that the
country must present a united front and this could be achieved only by terrorizing potential
opponents of the new regime.
The period 1793-94 was under the control of Robespierre. He was a lawyer and the
Jacobins unleashed the Reign of Terror. More than 16,594 People died under the Guillotine or
otherwise after accusations’ of counter – revolutionary activities. As many as 40 Thousand accused
Prisoners may have summarily executed without trail or died awaiting trial. Ultimately the Reign of
Terror weakened the revolutionary Government.
14. Achievement of Convention

The Convention during its tenure introduced many reforms. Metric system of Weights and
measures was adopted. Foundation laid for Preliminary work for a codification of laws, which was
completed by Napoleon. Danton believed that next to bread, education is the first need of the
People and convention introduced national, free, compulsory and secular education system. The
republic had its Glory, Honorable record which inspired and instructed the later rulers.
15. Directorate
According to new Republican Constitution , elections were held and people elected 5
Directors for the Nations Administration. The Directorate, ruled France for 6 years. But the
Directors were not honest, Sincere or Energetic. They were more interested in their Personal image
building than national interests. Hence the rule for Directorate became very corrupt and it failed.
Internal Conditions
The Financial Conditions of France was very weak. The new Currency introduced lost its
Value and Prices of essential goods hiked. Due to Famines People startled and the law and order
Condition also weakend. The Government lost its Control and anti-social elements enjoyed the
Position.
External Condition
To divert the mood of the People, the Directory Concentrated on the external affairs. The
Directory sent two Divisions of French army to fight with neighboring countries. One army under
Jordan and another wing of army under the leadership of Napoleon towards North Italy.
Extraordinarily, 27 Years old Napoleon, defeated Austria for five times in a year and Austria in
1797, Signed the Treaty of Campo formic. The great trump of Napoleon, made him the hero of his
nation. He was sent to Egypt for war. In 1798, his armed forces Conquered Egypt. But England
stood against Napoleon and in the battle of Nile, Napoleon was defeated. But his fame and name
as great hero were continued.

94 History
The 19th Brumaire-Coup d’ Etat
Bonaparte arrived in Paris in the nick of time, as was his wont. Finally pear was ripe. The
government was in the last stages of unpopularity and discredit .Incompetent and corrupt, and
unsuccessful. Bonaparte and others now conspired to bring about its overthrow. For that they
planned coup d’ etat, which made Napoleon ruler of a great state and started a new chapter in the
history of Europe. There is no English word for coup d’ etat, but the meaning for this word is,
seizure of the state, of power, by force and ruse, by violence, by arms.
On Sunday, the 19th of Brumaire, the Council of Elders and the Council of Five Hundred
met in extraordinary session in the palace of St.Cloud, a far away place from Paris. There Napoleon
and his brother Lucien Bonaparte created a scene of melodrama. By shouting and creating ugly
atmosphere most of the legislators ran away from the meeting hall. That evening only groups of
Eleders and of the five hundred who favored the conspirators met, voted the abolition of the Directory,
and appointed three Consuls, and one among them one was Napoleon Bonaparte. The three
Counsuls promised to save liberty, equality and representative system.
16. Napoleon as Consul

The Internal and External Conditions of France
were critical in the hands of Directorate. But People
believed, only Napoleon can save the nation from all the
problems. Taking advantage of the Situation, Napoleon
in 1799 cancelled the Directorate, and introduced new
Constitution as rule of Consuls. As head of the army,
Napoleon was first console and other 2 consoles were
not powerful. Actually the consul would be in chair for
ten years. But in 1802 Napoleon, made it life time
consulate in 1804, he cancelled the consulate government
and declared himself as Emperor of France. Napoleon Bonaparte
Napoleon as First Consul

As consul Napoleon Succeeded well he established a stable government and he
gave Quality to the people .He was Known as son of the Revolution. He extended
the fruits of French revolution to common man .He introduced, many reforms in
administration Napoleon code in the judicial System, education, Reforms and so
on in 1801 and concordat, determining the relation with church.

17. Results of the French Revolution

In the way of liberation, the French people faced many obstacles and with Napoleon
Declared himself as Emperor of the nation, we cannot say the revolution as failure it achieved many
objectives the common man intended
The nobility and clergy lost their prominence and the Administrative System was reformed.
With the declaration of rights of man, France stood as torch bearer to the whole world liberty ,
Equality and fraternity, what the revolution dreamt, came to reality . The common man showed his
power and great royal privileged, nobility and clergy all came down to the equal ground. Many
Countries were inspired by French Revolution and in Asia and Africa Common man were inspired,
Democracy, peoples government or Constitutional Changes were the trend of the world after French
Revolution.
QUESTIONS
1. Write the main reasons for the French Revolution?
2. What is the influence of literary persons for the outbreak of French revolution?
3. Give a detailed account of Napoleon as first counsel
1. Estates general.
2. Rousseau
3. Fall of Bastle Fort
4. Results of French Revolution.
5. Reforms introduced by National assembly.
1. Louis XVI.
2. Mary Antoinette
3. Tennis Court Pledge
4. Voltaire
5. Montesquieu
6. Guillotine
7. Tithes
8. Third Estate.

96 History
C H A P T E R
9 INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
INTRODUCTION
If French Revolution is one of the two mile stones of the modern world history, the
second one is the Industrial Revolution. While French revolution ushered decisive changes in socio-
political fields, industrial revolution opened a new era by bringing fundamental changes in economy
and production. Both the revolution did not confine themselves to the fields and countries they have
occurred, but spread to other areas and parts of the world like the wave spreading all corners of the
pond. Both the revolutions have changed the nature and course of the human history.
Meaning and definition

During the second half of the 18th century and the first half of the 19th Century, British
Industry underwent great changes - Changes so remarkable in character and so extensive that the
term “Industrial revolution” has been applied to them. The word revolution implies a fundamental
change, a political revolution is a complete change in government, and a diplomatic revolution is
entire rearrangement of international alliances. An agrarian revolution is a change in the technique
and organization of agriculture. A social revolution is a change in the relative importance of certain
social classes. Similarly, industrial revolution was a change in the industrial method, from hand work
to work done by machines, driven by power and in industrial organization, from work at home to

Industrial Revolution 97
work in factories. Under these new conditions industry aimed at production on a large scale. The
old idle catering for a limited and stable market was replaced by a determination to produce cheaply
and abundantly, in order to supply a market with often extended beyond the limits of the nation,
indeed might become worldwide.
Revolution need not be sudden nor violent, it may be gradual, and even imperceptible. It
is possible that most people living at the time of the industrial revolution were hardly conscious of
the changes that were then taking place, and it would be difficult to give with any degree of accuracy
dates between which they occurred. Within a period of 20 years 1765 – 1785, several important
textile inventions appeared, yet it is out of question to treat the Industrial Revolution as being contained
within this short period for many years before 1765 experiments and for many years after 1785
improvements were being made in textile machinery. The complete transformation of textile’s occupied
a period of certainly not less than 75Years.
The steam engine as a source of power made its appearance in the early 18thcentury; it
had not entirely displaced the waterwheel by the middle of the 19thcentury. Nor the change from
domestic work to factory work was not completed within a short period.
Based on these considerations some writers questioned the suitability of the term Industrial
Revolution, the word revolution with its usual connotation of suddenness and violence is in applicable
to them. But the state of British industry of 1850 can be contrasted with its condition in 1770 and
important changes occurred and for these changes the appropriateness of describing them as
revolutionary will be admitted. (The term industrial revolution was used by European Scholars -
Georges Michelet in France and Friedrich Engles in Germany. It was used for the first time in
English by the philosopher and economist Arnold Toynbee, to describe the changes that occurred in
British Industrial development between 1760 and 1820 .
During the middle of the 18th century, Britain was an agricultural country. Towns were
few. Four fifths of the people lived in villages chiefly by agriculture. Manufacturers such as cotton,
wool, steel, hardware, pottery and glassware all carried out on small scale in villages.
Textile work was done in the cottages by people who were engaged also in agriculture
labour, and it was done with hand or with the help of hand worked implements. In this cottage
textile work men, women and children were all engaged. Carding was undertaken by children, the
straightened fibers of wool or cotton were spun into continuous yarn by women. Weaving on hand
loom was usually done by men, though it was known for women also to work at the loom.
Some dealers living in towns visited the neighboring villages to give wool or cotton and to
collect the cloth made from the material given by them on their previous visit. The supplementary
processes such as dyeing, printing and finishing were carried out by the work men employed by the
dealers for this purpose. This system of industrial production had many defects. The work cannot
be done regularly, for if a man chooses to cease work or take day’s holiday he could do so. The

98 History
material cannot be made ready on stipulated time schedules. During the 18th century there was
increasing demand abroad for English textile goods. But under then existing system it was impossible
to increase the production very much.
The weavers were idle due to lack of yarn, but the spinners were always busy. A Weaver
working fulltime could use up the yarn produced by 5 or 6 spinners. In course of time a series of
inventions brought tremendous changes in the transformation of the textile industry
At first, machines were driven by water power. But water power proved to be
unsatisfactory, because sometimes there was shortage of water. Even the cold weather and freezing
of stream would bring work to stand still. The invention of steam engine provided an alternative
which proved advantageous source of power .With the advent of steam engine factories were
started to be established in the regions where coal was found. Factory villages were abandoned
and large factory towns sprang up in such areas as Lancashire, Yorkshire and the clyde valley.
Machines were bulky and expensive and are driven by power. The cottage worker had
neither means to buy a machine nor space in which to set it up, and if these difficulties could have
been overcome he would have had no power at his command to set it to work. Vast quantities of
raw material are needed to feed a machine from the economy point of view. The machine has to be
fully and continuously put to work. Otherwise it would result in losses. This system of industrial
production cannot be worked out by the home domestic worker. Only men with sufficient resources
such as capital can venture to install the necessary equipments and to set people to work. This
separation between workers on the one hand on the ownership of capital on the other hand for
present system is being styled capitalistic
How Industrial Revolution was possible in western world:
Science and society going hand in hand in western world made possible the Industrial
Revolution to take place in west. The philosopher, the scientist and the artisan lived together without

any social discrimination in western society. Even though the origins of science lie in Eastern world,
the social equality persisting in western world was the reason behind the development in science
and civilisation there.
During ancient and medieval ages the artisan and the worker paid his attention in creating
a product, but never bothered to understand the scientific reason or theory behind it. The artisan
was satisfied himself with the technical knowledge, but could not perceive the scientific knowledge.
However, the enlightenment of the renaissance period had wiped out the demarcating line between
the worker, who does the physical work and the scientist who does the mental exercise. During
renaissance period the handicrafts have fallen into the hands of those who were liberated and
enjoyed status and prestige in the society. They became closer to the ruling sections.
It was believed that the physical labour was associated with slavery and it was
nothing to do with creativity. However, the renaissance has shattered the dogma and allowed the
two to go further resulting in the invention of wonderful devices which made Industrial Revolution
possible
Why industrial revolution made its first appearance in Britain?
Britain was the first country to experience modern industrialization. It had been politically
stable since 17th century, under the single monarch. This meant that the kingdom had common
laws, single currency and a market that was not fragmented by local authorities levying taxes on
goods that passed through their area, thus increasing their price. By the end of the 17th century,
money was widely used as medium of exchange. Britain was blessed with modest climate, which
suited very much to cotton industry. There was no scarcity of water power. There was no dearth of
raw material in England. Coal and iron was available in abundance, and side by side. The coalfields
were larger and closer to important harbors than in any other European countries like France or
Germany, and so, it was convenient for transport by water. On the basis of iron, coal and textile
Fisher compliments, “Britain built up a type of civilization which has been copied all around the
world”.
Raising capital was not a problem in England as the wealth was available in abundance,
Britain was known for its commercial pursuits with other countries from the beginning of the 17th
century, and earned huge profits. But, mere availability of wealth is of no use, unless it is invested in
the right way. Establishment of bank of England, rise of London money market, joint-stock banks,
and Joint Stock Corporation made the finance simple and easy. Capital was accumulated, also as a
result of abstinence and frugality practiced from religious motives. In this connection the influence of
Puritanism in the 17th century and of Methodism in the 18th century was appreciable. British
population was also growing.
The old and unprofitable system of agriculture was replaced by improved methods of

100 History
cultivation viz., by rotation of crops, use of machines. This increased the food supply, and
consequently, the population. It was further facilitated by the immigration of some continental European
labour into England in the 18th century. The gradual destruction of old peasant farming, due to
Enclosure movement and abolition of serfdom, supplied the agriculture labour to the newly set-up
industries.
England was well equipped by 18th century for sea-borne trade. It had a good number of
ports. Inland transport was improved and modernised by building network of roads and canals. It
was fortunate in having a hand full of remarkable Scots and English who succeed in inventing
machines to be applied in the process of production, and thus transforming the economic life of the
country.
Cotton spinning and weaving:
Formerly, industrial revolution started with textile industry. The British had always woven
cloth out of wool and flax (to make linen) from the 17th century. The country had imported bales of
cotton cloth from India at great cost. As the ‘East Indian company’s political control of parts of
India was established, it began to import, along with cloth, raw cotton, which could be spun and
woven into cloth in England.
Till the early 18th century, spinning had been so slow and laborious that ten spinners
(mostly women, hence word “spinster”) were required to supply sufficient yarn to keep a single
weaver busy; Therefore, while spinners were occupied all day, weavers waited idly to receive yarn.
But a series of technological inventions successfully closed the gap between the speed in spinning
raw cotton into yarn or thread, and of weaving the yarn into fabric. To make it even efficient,
production gradually shifted from the homes of spinners and weaves to factories.
Weaver working with spinning Jenny.


102 History
Form the 1780s, the cotton industry symbolised British industrialization
In many ways. This industry had two features which were also seen in other industries.
1. In 17th century john kay, invented a flying shuttle the weaver operated shuttle by pulling
strings instead of bypassing it from hand to hand, backward and forwards. By the use of this
flying shuttle, broad cloth could be woven by one man, instead of two standing side by side,
as formerly.
2. The spinning jenny was a machine developed by James Hargreaves in 1765 which was
capable of turning eleven spindles at once. It produced a fine yarn, suitable for the weft, or
cross thread, but not strong enough for the warp, or long thread.
3. The water frame, which Richard Arkwright invented in 1769, which was based on entirely
new principle, the thread being passed between two pairs of rollers, the second pair rotating
a little faster than the first; the water frame produced a yarn that differed from jenny.-Yarn
was very strong and coarse and was suitable for use as warp.
4. The mule was the nickname for a machine invented in 1779 by Samuel Crompton, which
combined the principles of jenny and water frame, and produced a yarn both fine and strong.
With this weaving of muslins became possible in England .
5. The cycle of inventions in the cotton textile industry that sought to maintain a balance between
the tasks of spinning and weaving conducted with the invention of the power loom by
Edmund cartwright in 1787. This was easy to work, stopped automatically every time a
thread broke and could be to weave any kind of material. From the 1830s, development in
this industry concentrated on increasing the productivity of workers rather than bringing new
machine, into use.
Raw cotton had to be entirely imported and a large part of the finished cloth was exported.
This sustained the process of colonization, So that Britain could retain control over the sources of
raw cotton as well as the markets. The industry was heavily dependent on the work of women and
children in factories. This exemplified the ugly face of early industrialisation and it is described
below.
Coal and iron
One of the fundamental changes in the methods of production in the industrial revolution
was the substitution of machine production for hard work. machines were driven by power. In the
beginning power was supplied by running water, in the course of time, steam was considered to be
a superior source of power. It created a demand for iron for construction of engines and machines
while coal was required for running them.
Coal has been used to some extent for centuries for house hold purposes. Growing scarcity
of other kinds of fuel in 18th century, brought its utility in various directions was recognised with

the growth of towns.

England was fortunate in that coal and iron ore, the staple material for mechanization,
were plentifully available, as were other minerals -lead, copper and tin-that were used in industry.
However, until the 18th century,, there was a scarcity of usable iron. Iron is drawn out from ore as
pure liquid metal by a process called smelting. For centuries, charcoal (from burnt timber) was used
for the smelting process. This had several problems; charcoal was too fragile to transport across
long distances; its impurities produced poor- quality iron; it was in short supply because forests had
been destroyed for timber; and it could not generate high temperatures.
The solution to this problem had been sought for years before it was solved by a family
of iron-masters, the Darby’s of sharp shire. In the course of half a century, three generations of this
family-grandfather, father, son all called Abraham Darby, brought about a revolution in the
metallurgical industry. It began with an invention in 1709 by the first Abraham Darby,(1677 -
1717).This was a blast furnace that would use coke, Which could generate high temperatures;
Coke was derived from coal by removing sulphur and impurities. This invention meant that furnaces
no longer had to depend on charcoal. The melted iron that emerged from these furnaces permitted
finer and larger castings than before.
The process was further refined by more inventions. The second Darby (1711-68) devolved
wrought-iron (which was less brittle) form pig - iron. HenryCort (1740-1823) designed the paddling
furnace (in which molten iron could be rid of impurities)and the rolling mill, which used steam
power to roll purified iron into bars. Now, it has became possible to produce a broader range of
iron products. The durability of iron made it a better material than wood for everyday items and for
machinery. Unlike wood, which could be burnt or splinter, the physical and chemical properties of
iron could be controlled. In the 1770’s, John Wilkinson made the first iron chairs, vats for breweries
and Distilleries, and iron pipes of all sizes. In 1779 the third Darby built the first iron bridge in the
world, in Coalbrookdale, spanning the river Severn.
Hampridevi invented the safety lamp for the first time, it would be helpful to avoid accidents
in mines and to get higher and higher production in iron and coal mines. The iron industry then came
to be concentrated in specific regions as integrated units of coal mining and iron smelting. Britain
was lucky in possessing excellent cooking coal and high-grade iron ore in the same basins or even
the same seams. These basins were also close to ports; there were five coastal coalfields which
could deliver their products almost straight into ship. Since the coalfields were nearer the coast,
ship building increased, as did the shipping trade.
The British iron industry quadrupled its output between 1800 and 1830,and the product
was the cheapest in Europe. In 1820, a ton of pig- iron needed eight tons of coal to make it, but by
1850 it could be produced by using only two tons.By1848,Britain was smelting more iron than the
rest of the world put together.

104 History
The realisation that steam could generate tremendous power was decisive to large-scale
industrialisation. Water as hydraulic power had been the prime source of energy for centuries, but it
had been limited to certain areas, seasons and by the speed of flow of the water.Now it was used
differently steam power provided power pressure at high temperatures that enabled the use of a
broad range of machinery. This meant that steam power was the only source of energy that was
reliable and inexpensive enough to manufacture machinery itself.
Steam power was first used in mining industries: As the demand for coal and metal expanded,
efforts to obtain them from ever-deeper mines intensified.
Flooding in mines was a serious problem. Thomas Savory (1650-1715) built a model
steam engine called ‘the Miners friend’ in 1698 to drain mines. These engines worked slowly, in
shallow depths, and the broiler burst under too much pressure.

Another steam engine was built by Thomas New Comen (1663-1729)in 1712. This has
the major defect of losing energy due to continuous cooling of the Condensing Cylinder.
The steam engine had been used only in coal mines until James Watt developed his machine
1769.Watt’s invention converted the steam engine from being a mere pump into a ‘prime mover
‘Capable of providing energy to power machines in factories. (Backed by the wealthy manufacturer
Matthew Boulton, Watt created the “Soho foundry in Birminghaml775). It can be used for pumping
water from mines, operating cranes, driving machinery for haulage on road or railways and for
driving steam ships
Roads and Canals

For many centuries, English roads were in most unsatisfactory condition. John Mc Adam
introduced the plan of imposing a surface of small angular pieces of granite, well rolled in, upon a
good foundation. From then onwards various materials have been tried in the attempt to produce a
durable surface. Good results were obtained from use of concrete, when laid on a substantial
foundation.
Canals were initially built to transport coal to cities. This was because the bulk and weight
of coal made its transport by road much slower and more expensive than by barges on canals. The
demand for coal, as industrial energy and for heating and lighting homes in cities, grew constantly.
The making of the first English canal, the Worsley canal (1761) by James Bindley, had no other
purpose than to carry coal from the deposits at warsley (near Manchester) to that city; after the
canals were completed the price of the coal fell by half.
Canals were usually built by big land owners to increase the value of mines, quarries or
forests on their lands. The confluence of canals created marketing centers in new towns. The city
Birmingham, for example, owed its growth to its position at the heart of canal system connecting
Statue of Stephenson

106 History
London, the Bristol Channel, the Mersey and Humbler Rivers. Form 1762-1790, twenty five new
canal-building projects were begun. In period known as the ‘canal-mania’, form 1788- 1796, there
were another 46 new projects and over the next 60 years more than 4000 miles of canals were
built.
The first steam locomotive, Stephenson’s rocket, appeared in 1814. Railways emerged
as new means of transpiration that was available throughout the year, both cheap and fast, to carry
passengers and goods. They combined two inventions, the iron track which replaced the wooden
track in the 1760’s,and
Haulage along it by steam engine.
The invention of the railways took the entire process of industrialisation to a second stage.
In 1801, Richard Trevithick had devised an engine called the “puffing devil” that pulled trucks
around the mine where he worked in Cornwall. In 1814, a railway engineer George Stephenson
(1781- 1848) constructed a locomotive, called “The Blutcher”, that could pull a weight of 30tons
up a hill at 4mph.The first railway line connected the cities of Stockton and darlington in 1825, a
distance of nine miles that was completed in two hours at speeds of up to 5mph,(Miles per hour)
and the next railway line connected Liver pool and Manchester in 1830.Within 20years, speeds of
30to 50miles an hour were usual.
In the 1830s, the use of canals revealed several problems. The congestion of vessels
made movement slow on certain stretches of canals, and frost, flood or drought limited, the time of
their use. The railways now appeared as a convenient alternative. About 6000miles of railway was
opened in Britain between 1830 and 1850, most of it in two short bursts. During the little railway
mania of 1833-37,400miles of line was built, and during the bigger mania of 1844-1847, another
9500miles of line was sanctioned. They used vast amounts of coal and iron, employed large numbers
of workers and boosted activity in the construction and public works industries. Most of the England
had been connected by railway by 1850.
Steam Ships
Steam ship was another greater invention in the field of transportation. It was Robert
Fulton and Nicholas Roosewelt who travelled 150 mile distance in 32 hours in a steam ship called
Clearmount in the river Hudson in 1807. Another steam ship called the Great Western crossed the
Atlantic Ocean in 15 days to reach America from England. These steamers have helped large
quantities of goods and people to move lesser expense.
Means of Communication:
Greater revolution took place in the means of communication. Telegraph was invented in
1832. However Samuel mores had given a full form to telegraph in 1844. Even though. Philip Reis
was responsible in founding telephone in 1860; it was completed by Alexander Bell in 1876, and

came into use .In 1866 cable was laid between America and Europe in Atlantic. Postal services
were made available in 1840. Electricity, wireless, radio, sewing machine, type machine, petrol,
refrigerator e.t.c… have been invented to make human life comfortable.
Electricity:
Electricity has occupied the place of steam by 1870. Though it did not lessen the importance
of steam engine, a wide range of electrical devices have appeared . Invention of electric light by
Thomas Edison in 1878 had illuminated the world .
Industrial Expansion:
The Industrial Revolution has yielded good results to England by 1830. Between 1830
and 1870, when Britain was emerging as a strongest industrial nation, the other European countries
have entered the early phase of the revolution. France had entered into the Iron industry by 1850.
After the unification, German industrialisation stood a challenge to England. In America the
industrialization took its momentum after 1860. Russia was the last Major country to be industrialised
in Europe. However it had even influenced Japan in Asia
Consequences of the Industrial Revolution:
Most serious consequences of the industrial revolution were social. The transition to the
new economy created misery and discontent. Social revolutions in the form of spontaneous rising of
the urban and industrial poor did break out and made the revolution of 1848on the continent, the
vast chariest, movement in Britain. This discontentment was also seen among small and inadaptable
businessmen, petty bourgeois, were also affected by the industrial Revolution and its ramifications.
Simple minded labourers reacted to the new system by smashing the machines which they thought
responsible for their troubles. The local business men and farmers also sympathized profoundly
with the activities of their labourers, because they too saw themselves as victims of a diabolical
minority of selfish innovators.
The exploitation of labour which kept its incomes at subsistence level, thus enabling the
rich accumulates the profits which financed industrialization antagonized the proletariat. It was all
very well for rich,,who could raise all the credit they needed, to curb rigid deflation and monetary
orthodoxy on the economy after the Napoleonic Wars. It was the little man who suffered and who
in all countries and at all times in 19th century demanded easy credit and financial unorthodoxy.
Labour and the disgruntled petty bourgeois on the verge of toppling over into the unpropertied
abyss, therefore shared common discontents. This in turn united them in the mass movements of
radicalism, democracy or “republicanism” of which, the British radicals, the French Republicans
and American Jacksonian Democrats were the most formidable between 1815 and 1848.
Britain -prospered a lot on account of the industrial revolution with unlimited prospects.
The British government also gave unlimited support and aid to the cotton textile industry. There was

108 History
a great demand for British cotton goods. From the very beginning except for a few initial years in
1780s, British cotton industry had more export market than the home. Within the areas of America,
outside the U.S.A, Africa and Asia. British industry established a monopoly by means of war. After
the industrial revolution of Britain, the East India mercantile interests were pressed back. India was
systematically deindustrialised and became a market for Lancashire cottons. In 1820, India took 11
million yards, but by 1840 it took 145 million yards. This was major land mark in world history. For
since the dawn of time Europe had always imported more from east than she sold there. Because
there was little the orient required from the east in return for the spices, silk, calicoes, jewels etc. ,
Imperialism:
The industrial revolution resulted in production of goods on mass scale. The prices of
commodities were brought down. The goods were available in plenty at cheaper rates for many
people. Their utility also increased. The industrial manufacturers of England and later of other European
countries produced much more than what was required in their home markets. They were required
to be exported and this lead to the search for markets abroad and subsequently lead to colonial or
imperialism and finally lead to several dreadful wars in the world.
Over crowded towns:
Industrial revolution lead to the rise of big factories and around them big towns
developed. The number of cities in England with a population of over 50,000 increased
from 2, in 1750 to 29 in 1850. In towns the two social classes emerged; the Capitalists,
bourgeois as one group, the working class called the proletariat as the other group. This
pace of growth was not matched with provision of adequate housing, sanitation or clean
water for the rapidly growing urban population. New corners were forced to live in overcrowded
slums in the congested central areas of towns near factories, while the rich inhabitants escaped, by
shifting to homes in the sub urbans where the air was cleaner and the water safe to drink Edward
Carpenter eloquently described such cities in about 1881, in his, poem “In a manufacturing town” as
gates of hell.
A survey in 1842 reveled that average life span of workers was lower than that of any
other social group in cities; it was 15 years in Birmingham 17 in Manchester, 21 in Derby. More
people died, and died at younger age in the new industrial cities, than in the villages they had come
from. Half of the children failed to survive beyond the age of 5 years. Deaths were primarily caused
by epidemics of diseases that sprang from the pollution of water, like cholera and typhoid, or of the
air, like Tuberculosis. More than 31,000 people died from an outbreak from cholera in 1832. Until
late in the 19th century, municipal authorities were neglecting in attending to these dangerous conditions
of life and the medical knowledge to understand the cure these diseases was unknown.

Women - children and Industrialisation:

The industrial revolution resulted in of important changes in the way that children and
women worked. They worked in factories, with a long, un-broken hours of work, under strict
discipline and sharp forms of punishment, was completely different. The earnings of women and
children were necessary to supplement men’s meager wages. As the use of machinery spread and
few workers were needed, industrialists preferred to give employment for the women and children
who would be less agitated about their poor working conditions and work for lower wages than
men.
They were employed in large numbers in cotton textiles industry in Lancashire and Yorkshire.
Women were also the main workforce in the silk, lace making and knitting industries as well as
(along with children) in the metal industries of Birmingham. Machinery like cotton spinning jenny
was designed to be used by child workers with their small build and nimble fingers. Children were
often employed in textile factories because they were small enough to move between tightly packed
machinery. The long hours of work, including cleaning the machines on Sundays, allowed them little
fresh air or exercise. Children caught their hair in machines or crushed their hands, while some died
when they fell into machines as they drop off to sleep from exhaustion.
Coal mines were also dangerous places to work in. Roofs caved in or there could be an
explosion, and injuries were common. The owners of coal mines used children to reach deep coal
faces or those where the approach path was too narrow for adults. Younger children worked as
“tappers” who opened and shut doors as the coal wagons travelled through mines, or carried
heavily loads of coal on their back as ‘coal bearers’. Factory managers considered child labor to be
important training for future factory works. The evidence from British factory records reveals that
above half of the factory workers had started work when they are less than 10 years old, 28%
when they were under 14.Women may well have gained increased financial independence and self-
esteem from their jobs; but this was more than offset by the humiliating terms of work they endured,
the children they lost at birth or in early childhood and the squalid urban slums that industrial work
compelled them to live in.
Protest Movements:
The early decades of industrialisation coincide with the spread of new political ideas
pioneered by the French revolution (1789 to 94).the movement for liberty, equality and fraternity
showed the possibilities of collective mass action, both in creating democratic institutions like the
French parliamentary assemblies of the 1790s, and checking the worst hardships of war by controlling
the prices of necessities like bread. In England, political protest against the harsh working conditions
in factories kept increasing, and working population agitated to be given the right to vote. The
government reacted by repression and by enacting new laws that denied people the right to protest.

110 History
England had been at war with France for a long time-from 1792 to 1815. Trade between
England and Europe was disrupted, factories were forced to shut down, unemployment grew and
the price of essential items of food, like bread and meat soared to height beyond the level of
average wages. Parliament in 1795 passed two Combination Acts which made it illegal to ‘incite the
people by speech or writing to hatred or contempt of the King, Constitution or Government’; and
banned unauthorised public meetings of over 50 persons. Members of parliament – landowners,
manufacturers and professionals – were opposed to giving the working population the right to vote.
The introduction of machines in the cotton industry threw thousands of handloom weavers
out of work and into poverty, since their labour was too slow to compete with machine. From
1790’s, these weavers began to demand a legal minimum wages, which was refused by parliament.
When they went on strike, they were dispersed by force. In desperation, in Lancashire, cotton
weavers destroyed the power looms which they believed had destroyed their livelihood.
The movement known as Luddism (1811-17),led by the charismatic general Ned Ludd,
exemplified another type of protest. Luddism was not mearly
Backward - looking assault on machines. Its participants demanded a minimum wage,
control over the labour of woman and children, work for those who had lost their jobs because of
the coming of the machinery, and right to form trade unions so that they could legally present these
demands.
During the early years of industrialisation the working population possessed neither the
vote nor legal methods to express their anger at the drastic manner in which their lives had been
over turned. In August 1819, nearly 80,000 people gathered peacefully at St Peter’s Fields in
Manchester to claim democratic rights of political origination of public meeting, and of the freedom
of the press. They were suppressed brutally in what known as Peterloo (this name was made up to
rhyme with waterloo; the French army had been defeated at waterloo in 1815). Massacre and the
rights they demanded were denied by Six Acts passed by parliament the same year. But there was
some gains. After Peterloo, the need to make the House of Commons more representative was
recognized by liberal political groups, and the combination Acts were repealed in 1824-25.
Reforms Through Laws:
How attentive was the government to the conditions of work of women and children?
Laws were passed in 1819 prohibiting the employment of children under the age of 9 in factories
and limiting the hours of work of those between the ages of 9 and 16 to 12 hours a day. But the law
lacked the powers needed for its enforcement until 1833. Another act permitted the children under
9 to be employed only in silk factories, limited the hours of work for older children and provide
number of factory inspectors to ensure that the Act was enforced. Finally, in 1847, after more than
30years of agitation, the ‘10 hours’Bill was passed. This limited the hours of work for women and
young people, and secured a 10-hour day for male workers.

The mines and collieries Act of 1842, banned the children under 10 and women from-
working underground. Fielder’s factory Act laid down in 1847 that children under 18 and women
should not work more than 10 hours a day. These laws were to be enforced by factory inspectors,
but this was difficult to do. The inspectors were poorly paid and easily bribed by factory managers,
while parents lied about the real ages of their children, so that they could work and contribute family
incomes. On account of this the factory laws could not be effectively implemented.
Contribution of philosophers
In such a socio-economic scenario, several thinkers and philosophers tried to look at the
problems of the proletariat with sympathy. Several schools of thought and thinkers emerged in the
world. They may be classified as humanists, utopians , anarchists and socialists. Their principles
have attracted the common people.
Finally, it was felt that achievement of socialism will solve the problems of working class,
the proletariat. Philosophers and thinkers like Robert Owen of Scotland, Sam Simmon, Purio,
Prodan, of France have become active propagators of socialism .Having studied and after through
observations of writings of these thinkers, Karl Marx developed a new ideology called communism.
Marx was born in Germany in 1818, got highly educated, began as writer. Karl Marx with the help
of his friend Angels got the communist manifesto published 1848.
Karl Marx described that all the class conflict is a political struggle. He said the
contemporary social struggle where ever they occur, should be supported by the communists. He
said, the contemporary social miseries can be put to an end only by toppling that social order. He
gave call for the working class (proletariats) of the world to unite and fight and gave a slogan i.e.,
“you lose nothing except chains of oppression and exploitations. you are going to win the world”.
That is how he inspired the working class. The influence of the ideas of Karl Marx could be seen on
the 1848 revolution of the Germany. During the course of this revolution; Marx had left Germany
and took shelter in England. During his stay at London he had produced the most prominent works
such as ‘Das capital’.
Conclusion:
The industrial revolution revolutionised industry, art, architecture, literature
and science. It also had great impact on economic, social, political and cultural life of the people.
No other revolution in the history of mankind had so profoundly affected human life as the industrial
revolution. England, the mother of industrial revolution began to role in wealth on account of its
success in industrialism. As a result Great Britain and other European countries entered into colonial
imperialism, which caused untold miseries to the colonial people in Asia, Africa and South America.

112 History
QUESTIONS
1. What factors promoted the Industrial Revolution to occur first in England.
2. What innovations fecilitated the Revolution in the cotton textile inudstry.
3. Examie the merits and demerits of Industrial Revolution.
1. T. Hargreaves
2. Steam Engine
3. Luddism
4. Child Labour
5. John Mc Adam
6. Uses of Railways

Liberation (Unification) Movements in Germany and Italy 113
C H A P T E R
10 LIBERATION (UNIFICATION)
MOVEMENTS IN GERMANY
AND ITALY
UNIFICATION OF GERMANY
1. Contribution of Napoleon I
Napoleon had sowed the seeds of nationalism and democracy in Germany. He destroyed
the Holy Roman Empire in the German states. He created a Confideration of Rhine in 1806 with
the German States and excluded Prussia and Austria. He articulated the ideals of freedom, nationalist
consciousness, patriotism and fraternity among Germans. But the German rulars were not given the
title of the Emperor of Germany. There was no common flag for the Germans. They were not
recognized as the citizens of Germany. More so, several foreign countries like England, Luxemburg,
Denmark, Austria, Saxony were given domination over German territories instead of German. The
principles of democracy, nationalism and liberalism were not encouraged. So the German people
rejected the domination of Austria and Metternich. On 23 March 1819, one of the revolutionary
German students killed Kotzebue, a famous dramatist and press reporter.

114 History
UNIFICATION OF GERMANY
2. Carlsbad Decrees, 1819

Metternich had decided to suppress the revolutionary and nationalist ideology in Germany.
With the cooperation of Frederick III, King of Prussia, he passed repressive laws known as the
‘Carlsbad Decrees’ in August 1819 at Carlsbad. According to them:
1) The representatives of the universities were appointed to watch the activities of the
teachers and students.
2) The teachers were asked not to propagate doctrines, hostile to public order.
3) Teachers who disobey above orders, or criticize the policy of Metternich were to be
removed from their institutions and such teachers would not to be appointed in any
other institution in Germany.
4) Students expelled from one university would not be admitted in any other university.
5) Severe restrictions were imposed on the press.
6) The organization of Burchenschaft was banned. Carlsbad decrees were implemented
strictly in Prussia. In this way, the national movement was suppressed in Germany in
the early decades of the 19th century.

3. Impact of Revolution of 1830 on Germany

The outbreak of 1830 revolution in France inspired Germans. They raised revolts against
their rulers to unify German states. As a result, the rulers of German states except Austria and
Prussia were forced to introduce liberal constitutions and reforms. Charles, the King of Brunswick,
was divested of his throne and the revolutionaries introduced a liberal constitution. Other German
states followed the same path. Similarly, the southern states of Germany opposed the leadership of
Austria. Metternich sensed the danger from this tendency in German states. He renewed the Carlsbad
decrees in 1832. He imposed restrictions on public meetings, speech, press, universities and colleges.
The revolutionaries attack on the federal diet in 1833 April was ruthlessly repulsed. As a whole, the
effects of the 1830 revolution were nullified by Metternich. Even then, the ideas of patriotism,
nationalism, liberty and unity could not be rooted out completely from the German states.
4. The Establishment of Zollverein

Zollverein was a commercial union of Twelve German states. It was established by Prussia
in 1819. Earlier, the economic system in Prussia was irregular and oppressive both to traders and
consumers. They were exploited by the burdensome octroi, tax system and high prices. In order to
change this process to suit the conditions of the traders and consumers, Prussia passed a uniform
tariff law on 28 May 1818. As per this law, the import duty on Prussian goods was abolished. The
duty of manufactured goods was not to exceed 10%. As a result, Prussia became a free commercial
unit. In response to her invitation, 12 German states formed a tariff union under Prussia in 1819.
This union was called Zollverein. The organization abolished the check-posts, internal tariffs and
provided free trade. The import and export duties were removed. The trade relations were
strengthened among the German states. By 1834 that almost all German states had joined into
Zollverein. Thus, Prussia had achieved the economic and commercial unity by 1834. This commercial
unity has brought the sentiment of nationality among Germans. This commercial unity has prepared
the way for political nationality. Prussia became ideal and an eye opener to German states and they
recognized it as their leader for their unification.
5. German Response to the Revolt of 1848

The revolution of France in 1848 had inspired the German states. In Austria, Metternich
had to resign and fled away to England. Downfall of Metternich was the signal of the end of reactionary
forces and monarchy and victory for democracy. The German states revolted against their autocratic
rulers. On 13 March 1848, the students, teachers and the common people took out a huge procession
and shouted slogans against their king. Frederick William IV, the King of Prussia, accepted the
demands of the revolutionaries to introduce a liberal constitution. The rulers of other states accepted

116 History
the demands of nationalists and liberal constitutions were granted. The King of Prussia come forward
to lead the nationalists to achieve the unity of Germany. It was decided to form a National Assembly
or Parliament and its members should be elected from each state on the basis of universal franchise.
6. Frankfurt Parliament
Subsequently the German National Assembly was elected 1848. It met two months in
Frankfurt. Hence this was known as Frankfurt Parliament. Frankfort Assembly succeeded in drafting
a democratic constitution and guaranteed civil liberty, equality, responsible parliamentary control at
central and states level. But, later, the two German powers, Austria and Prussia, rejected the work
of the Frankfort Parliament and it finally ended without doing any work. Finally, the responsibility to
achieve a real unity of Germany was rested with the rulers of Austria and Prussia.
7. Influence of Italian Developments of 1859-61

on Germany
The Italian developments of 1859-61, had a profound influence on Germany, especially in
Prussia. The German liberals had started to speak of liberal institutions in German states. On behalf
of a close union of German people the weakness which Austria displayed in 1859 convinced many
Germans that only Prussia could be the standard bearer of German unity. As Sardinia had unified
Italy by forcing Austria out the Peninsula, so Prussia could unify Germany forcing Austria out of the
German confederation.
8. Role of William I, the King of Prussia in 1861

Frederick William IV was succeeded by his son William I in 1861. At the age of 64 years
he had thorough knowledge and competence in military matters. He strengthened the Prussian
army. He appointed Albert Von Roon, as war minister. Von Roon recommended for compulsory
military training. He prevailed upon the king William to appoint Otto-Von-Bismarck as his chief
minister. Bismarck, a statesman, was appointed as the President of the ministry on 23 September
1862. On that very day, when the chamber rejected the credits asked by the King for the new
regiments, Bismarck told the king frankly that he was willing to carryout his policy whether Parliament
agreed it or not. This boldness of Bismarck determined William -I to continue the struggle with the
Chamber of Deputies (the Lower House) and to work for the unity of Germany.
9. Otto-Von Bismarck (1815-1898)

Bismarck was born in 1815, into a Noble and aristocrat family in Brandenburg. He received
university education at Gottingen and Berlin and entered into civil services. But he was dismissed

from it due to his indiscipline and irregularity. He was brought

up to combine the aristocratic traditions with the patriotism
stimulated by Prussian role in the overthrow of Napoleon
Bonaparte. During the revolutionary days of 1848-49,
Bismarck defended the existing Prussian state against liberals.
He offered to bring his peasants to Berlin to protect Fredrick
William IV but when the King promised to grant Prussian
constitution, Bismarck voted against it. In 1851, Bismarck
entered into Kings diplomatic service. As a Prussian
representative in the revived German Diet from 1851 to
1859, he acquired an unrivalled knowledge of German
politics and his dislike of Austria. As Ambassador to St.
Bismarck
Petersburg for the next three years, 1859-62, he won warm
regard from the Russian Tsar. As Prussian ambassador in Paris during 1862, he understood the
nature and weakness of Napoleon-III of France. Bismarck, as the Chief Minister of Prussia in
1862, increased the Army and turned his attention towards the German unification.
Policy of ‘Blood and Iron’
The main aim of Bismarck was the creation of German unity by means of Prussia and for
the advantage of Prussia. There must be no absorption of Prussia in Germany. In Bismarck’s opinion
this unity could only be achieved by war, “Not by speeches, conferences and meetings, but by the
policy of ‘blood and Iron’. Majority votes are the great questions of the day decided. That was the
great blunder of 1848 and 1849", he said. This is what was destined to be the most famous speech
of his life. In order to achieve German unity, he carried out his ‘policy of blood and Iron’ in a period
of six years, where Prussia waged three wars, the battle with Denmark in 1864, with Austria in
1866 and with France in 1870.
War with Denmark 1864
A situation arose, where Prussia had to fight with Denmark over the question of Denmark
incorporating Schleswig - Holstein. Bismarck saw in this situation a chance for a quarrel with Austria.
He induced Austria to cooperate with Prussia to solve the Schleswig - Holstein question. Schleswig
- Holstein, the two duchies were ruled by the king of Denmark and they had Germans and Danes.
The Duke of Schleswig - Holstein had become the King of Denmark. He had no right to merge
them into his kingdom. But when in 1848, Frederick VII, the King of Denmark tried to merge these
Duchies into his kingdom, it was opposed by Prussia and the Duke of Augustanburg and it was
solved by a treaty of London in 1852. This treaty was signed by England, France, Austria, Prussia,
Norway and Spain. It was decided that these two duchies would have separate existence under

118 History
their Duke, the King of Denmark. They would have no right to merge them with Denmark. In 1863,
after Frederick IV’s death, Christian IX became the King of Denmark and he declared the
incorporation of Schleswig in Denmark. It was against the treaty of London. The people of the two
duchies, Prussia and other German states opposed this Denmark move.
Treaty with Austria
In order to fight out the problem of Schleswig and Holstein, Bismarck concluded a treaty
with Austria. As per this treaty, the two powers served an ultimatum to Denmark to comply with
their demands within forty eight hours. But as the Danes did not respond, Prussia and Austria
declared war on Denmark in February 1864 and defeated Denmark. The King of Denmark
surrendered the two duchies to Austria and Prussia.
Austro - Prussian or Sedowa or Seven Weeks War, 1866
The outcome of the Danish war led to a quarrel between Austria and Prussia, as Bismarck
anticipated over the disposition of the duchies. Austria proposed that the two duchies be made a
separate state under a German prince. Bismarck denied the right of the German diet to interfere in
a matter which concerned Austria and Prussia alone. Since both Austria and Prussia were not ready
for war, they concluded a treaty of Gastein in August 1865, according to which Schleswig would be
under the Prussian control, and Holstein with Austria. Bismarck fomented intrigues against Austrian
administration of Holstein. Austria complained to Frankfurt diet against this. Bismarck alleged that
Austria had violated the treaty of Gastein. On the other side, Bismarck took care to see that European
powers would not intervene on behalf of Austria in the event of war that he anticipated to precipitate
between Prussia and Austria. For this purpose, Bismarck adopted some diplomatic measures to
isolate Austria so that no power of Europe might help her in the ensuing Austro - Prussian war. He
concluded separate treaties with Russia, France and Piedmont –Sardinia (Italy) and other countries.
Finally, the war broke cut between Austria and Prussia in June 1866. He at once dispatched Prussian
troops to occupy Holstein and oust Austrian officials. He urged the German diet to remove Austria.
By June 1866, Austrian government was aroused against Bismarck and Prussia.
Later a seven weeks war was fought during 1866 June and July months between Prussia
and Italy on the one side and Austria and lesser German states on the other. At a battle of Sadowa
on 3rd July 1866, Prussia gained victory and Austria sued for peace. A treaty of Prague was signed
in August 1866.
The Treaty of Prague, August 1866
According to this treaty:
i) Austria was obliged to cede Venetia to Italy and Holstein to Prussia.
ii) It agreed to pay a war indemnity.
iii) The North German Confederation was formed under the leadership of Prussia in

1867 with the German states, Schleswig - Holstein, Hanover, Hesse – Carsel, Nassau,
and Frankfurt with the exclusion of Austria.
iv) Bismarck confirmed the Prussian dominance in the German states.
v) For the first time Hohen Zollern sovereign of Prussia has became the king.
vi) The King of Prussia is the hereditary President assisted by a Chancellor and
Council of Ministres.
vii) A bicameral parliament comprising of (1) Bundesrat with the representations of
the states, and of (2) Reichstag with elected representatives of the people was
formed.
Integration of the South German States into North German Confederation
The Southern German states like Bavaria, Wurttemberg, Baden and Hesse – Darmstadt
were remained outside the North German Confederation. Towards these German states, Bismarck
adopted a conciliatory attitude, alarmed them with the possibility of French aggression against them
and created Anti-French nationalist feelings so as to make them to integrate with Prussia. Bismarck
thought that war was inevitable with France in the case of southern states of Germany. On the other
side, the people of France were irritated with the failures of Napoleon III and demanded him to
declare war against Prussia. Napoleon III had no other option but to wage a war against Prussia.
Thus both France and Prussia wanted war. The question of the Spanish war of succession to throne
was the immediate cause of the Franco - Prussian war in 1870.
Franco - Prussian War of 1870
In 1868, the people of Spain revolted against their autocratic monarch, Queen Isabella.
She fled the country and Leopold of Hohen Zollern dynasty was requested to accept the throne of
Spain. Napoleon III bitterly opposed this proposal. The candidacy of Hohen Zollern was withdrawn.
But Napoleon III made an additional demand that King of Prussia should promise that no candidate
of Hohen Zollern house would be selected for the throne of Spain. To solve this problem, talks
were arranged between the King of Prussia and the ambassador of France in a city named ‘EMS’.
William I, the King of Prussia sent the details of talks to Bismarck by ‘EMS Telegram’. To instigate
the people of France against Prussia, Bismarck published the contents of the telegram in such a way
that it aroused the anguish in both countries. The people of Prussia and France felt that the king of
Prussia and the ambassador of France were insulted by each other. The French people were
clamoured for war and France had declared war against Prussia on 5 July 1870.
The Franco-Prussian war lasted for about 6 months from July 1870 to February 1871.
On 1st September 1870, French army with the Emperor was defeated at Sedan and Napoleon III
surrendered to Germans. He became a prisoner of war. The French Republican government continued
the war. The Germans began the bombardment of Paris in January 1871. Finally, on January 28th,
Paris was captured. Then France signed a Treaty of Frankfurt on 10th May 1871. According to this

120 History
treaty: i) France was forced to cede Alsace and a large part of Lorraine. ii) She has to pay five
thousand million Francs to Prussia as war indemnity and this amount was asked to be paid with in
a period of three years. iii) Until then the army of Germany would stay in France and the government
has to bear the expenses.
Completion of the Unification of Germany
An important consequence of the Franco - Prussian war was the completion of the
unification of Germany and the creation of the German Empire. The South German states were
integrated into the North German Confederation. On 18th January 1871, in the Royal palace of
Versailles, King William I was proclaimed as the German Emperor. Austria was expelled from
Germany and Italy. The war of 1870-71, between Prussia and France completed the unification of
both Italy and Germany. Berlin became the capital of Germany and Rome became the capital of
Italy.
UNIFICATION OF ITALY
UNIFICATION OF ITALY

1. Geographical Diversity or Disunity

At a time when Germany was getting united under the able leadership of Otto Von
Bismarck, another European country, Italy was stirring for unity. During the middle of the 19th
century, Italy was a land of small states of arbitrary governments and of Austrian domination. Of
them the kingdom of Lombardy – Venetia was ruled by Austria, Papal states by a reactionary Pope,
kingdom of Naples by a despot, the states of Tuscany, Parma and Medina were ruled by Habsburg
dynasty. Romagna, Ankona, Ambria, St. Peters, Patrimony were under the rule of Pope. Savoy,
Sardinia, Piedmont were under one king. Naples and Sicily were under the rule of the Bourbon
royal family. In short, it can be said that the Northern Italy was under the control of Austria, middle
Italy was under Pope’s control, the Southern regions were under the rule of the Bourbon dynasty
and the North western part of Italy consisting of the states of Piedmont, Savoy and Sardinia were
formed into a Nation state. The kings of Sardinia and Piedmont were liberal minded.
2. Role of Leaders
In this context, the following persons or leaders had come forward to achieve the Italian
Unification:
Jospeh Mazzini (1805-1872)
Victor Emmanuel - 11 (1820 - 1878)
Count Camillo di Cavour (1810 - 1861)
Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807 - 1882)
Joseph Mazzini (1805 - 1872)
Joseph Mazzini was born in Genoa. Mazzini, from his
boyhood days was unhappy for the misery of his country. He
wanted to lead a literary life, but abandoned it for political agitation.
He joined in a secret organisation, Carbonari and was arrested
in 1830. Mazzini was imprisoned in the fort of Savanna. After six
months he was released, but he left the country and lead a bitter
life in exile for forty years in France, Switzerland, and mainly in
England.
Mazzini
Young Italy
After the release from jail in 1831, Mazzini founded a secret organisation called Young
Italy. It’s members were to be educated, should inspire Italians with moral and intellectual fervor,
have an idealistic view of life, and self sacrificing sense of duty. Only those under forty years were
eligible as its members. The main aim of this society was to driven out Austria from Italy. War must
come - the sooner the better. Italians should not depend upon others or the aid of foreigners,

122 History
diplomacy of others, instead upon their own strength. As Mazzini was a republican through this
organisation Mazzini aspired that his country, when united, to be a republic. But Italy was not made
as Mazini thought it to be. However, Mazzini is one of the chief makers of Italy. He and his Young
Italy played a crucial role to develop Italian nationalism and patriotism.
Role of Charles Albert, the King of Sardinia
In 1848, Charles Albert was the King of Sardinia, Piedmont and Savoy. He was liberal
and benevolent despot. He acceded to liberal demands and established a constitutional government
and even ready to fight with Austria for the cause of Italian unification. But these early attempts of
Charles Albert were crushed by Austrians. Following this, Charles Albert abdicated the throne.
But, his liberal constitution remained. Thus both the efforts of Mazzini and Sardinia were failed to
make any progress towards the Italian unification.
Victor Emmanuel - II (1820-1878)
At this stage, one of the noted personalities in Sardinian government of the 1850's made
significant contribution to the liberal royalist cause. He was King Victor Emmanuel – II. He succeeded
his father, Charles Albert, in 1849. He retained the constitution and in the eyes of all patriots he
gained favor by doing so. He articulated patriotism and nationalist consciousness among Italians
through his preaching of noble ideals like love and affection, unity, goodwill, harmony, religious
tolerance and wisdom.
Count Camillo di Cavour
The prominent Italian leader who fought for Unification of Italy was Count Camillo di
Cavour. Cavour was born in 1810, into a noble of Piedmont’s family. In his early days he served in
the Sardinian army. He studied the democratic institutions and
parliamentary system. Cavour got elected to the Piedmont Parliament.
Later, he was taken into the cabinet in 1850 and became the Prime
Minister of Sardinia in 1852. Cavour was a multifaceted genius under
the influence of English authors. He served in the Sardinian army as an
engineer. He visited France and England and got comprehensive and
broad ideology. Cavour thought that Italian unification was possible under
the leadership of Piedmont’s monarchy and he aspired for constitutional
monarchy.
Crimean War - Alliance with France
Cavour was seeking an ally and that it must be either with England or France. England had
no large army and was busy. France, on the other hand had the best army in Europe. The ruler of
France, Napoleon III was an ambitious and adventurous person. So he got closer to Napoleon III.
The Crimean war gave an opportunity to Cavour. He made an alliance with France and England,

then at war with Russia. Two years later, for the service Italy has rendered to France and England
in the Crimean War, Napoleon III invited Cavour to meet him at Plombiers, where they plotted a
war in which Austria would be driven out of Italy.
Alliance with France: War with Austria
Cavour needed French assistance to expel Austrians from Italy. During July 1858, an
agreement was reached between Cavour and Napoleon III, the ruler of France. France agreed to
drive out Austrians from Lombardy and Venetia so as to integrate these provinces with Sardinia. In
return, Sardinia would cede to France the border cities of Nice and Savoy. Cavour was waiting to
pickup a quarrel with Austria and created an impression that Sardinia and France would- appear
justified in fighting a war. In April 1859, Austria warned Sardinia to minimise its army. Sardinia
rejected the warning and that led to the war between Sardinia and France and Austria. The war
lasted from April to July 1859. The Allies won victories at Magenta and Solferino. In the middle of
the war, the French Emperor stopped his support to Sardinia and made peace with Austria through
a treaty at Villa Franca on July 11, 1859. By that time Lombardy was included into Piedmont but
Venetia was under the control of Austria.
Cavour disappointed for this development and he resigned for his office. But the king did
not accept the resignation. Later, in the changing circumstances the rulers of Modena, Parma, and
Tuscany and majority Papal states urged Cavour to integrate them into Sardinia – Piedmont. The
king Victor Emmanuel and Cavour conducted plebiscite in these areas and included then with
Sardinia – Piedmont on 11-12 March1860. Victor Emmanuel made king of these united Italian
provinces and on 2nd April 1860 the first Parliament of the enlarged kingdom met in Turin. On the
persuasion of Cavour, Napoleon III changed his mind, recognised the Italian republic and in return
took Savoy and Nice.
Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882)

Like Mazzini and Cavour, the other prominent leader who
contributed to the unification of Italy was Garibaldi. Garbaldi was born
at Nice in 1804. He joined in Young Italy and took part in the
unsuccessful insurrection organized by Mazzini in Savoy in 1834, and
as a result he was condemned to death. He managed to escape to
South America and lead a life of exile for the next 14 years. During the
revolt of 1848 he returned to Italy, though still he was under the death
penalty. He raised a revolt in 1849 but failed. He escaped once again
and spent long years in exile in America. Later, he returned to Italy in
1854, and participated in a number of battles against Austria. In 1860, when the Sicilians’ revolted
against their new King Francis-II Giuseppe Garibaldi got an opportunity. He prepared a volunteer

124 History
army -called the ‘Red Shirts’ in Genoa for an expedition in aid of the Sicilian rebels. Garibaldi left
Genoa with his volunteers on 5th May 1860 and was received by the Sicilian revolutionaries with
enthusiasm. Within three months he was the master of the Island, and occupied Sicily in the name of
Victor Emmanuel - II on 5th August 1860 and later conquered the entire kingdom of Naples on 19,h
August 1860. On 6th September, King Francis-II of Naples fled and on 7,h September Garibaldi
entered Naples and conquered it.
Garibaldi Plans to Attack Rome
Garibaldi began to talk of pushing into Rome. Rome was occupied by French Garrison.
At the instance of Cavour, Victor Emmanuel led an army into Papal States, the Sardinian army
invaded the Papal state, defeated the Papal troops by besieging Francis-II . Thus except Rome, the
whole of Papal states were brought under the control of Sardinia by the end of September 1860.
On 7th November 1860, Victor Emmanuel-II and Garibaldi rode side by side through the streets of
Naples. Francis- II ruler of Naples and Sicily went into exile during February 1861. On 18 February
1861, a new Parliament, representing all Italian states except Venetia and Rome, met in Turin. The
king of Sardinia was proclaimed as the king of Italy on 17 March 1861. But the Unification of Italy
was still incomplete.
Completion of Unification of Italy
From then on Cavour was working on a scheme to reconcile the pope and the catholic
world everywhere to the recognition of Rome as the capital of Italy. But suddenly he fell ill and
finally he died on 6th June 1861 at the age of 51 years. Italy gained control over Venetia in August
1866 by a treaty of Prague signed after the Austro-Prussian war. The Franco-Prussian war of
1870-71, enabled the Italians to invade Rome and occupy it on 20 September 1870. Thus the
Italian Unification was completed, during the course of the unification of Germany. Rome became
the capital of Italy. But without seeing the completion of Unification of Italy for which Cavour
dedicated his life had lost his breath.

QUESTIONS
1. Describe the role of Bismarck in the Unification of Germany?
2. Write a note on the life and career of Count Cavour?
3. Give the details of Austro-Prussian War of 1866?
1. What is the contribution of First Napoleon for the Unification of Germany?
2. Describe the importance of Zollverein?
3. Explain the details of Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871?
4. Discuss about the geographical conditions on the eve of Unification of Italy?
5. Examine the part played by Garibaldi for the Unification of Italy?
1. Carlsbad Decrees of 1819
2. Frankfurt Parliament
3. William I
4. Policy of ‘Blood and Iron’
5. Young Italy
6. Crimean War
7. Victor Emmanuel – II
Point out the following places on the Map of Italian Unification?
1. Lambardy
2. Venitia
3. Parma
4. Modina
5. Naples
Or
Point out the following places on the World Map?
1. France
2. England
3. China
4. Japan
5. Turkey

126 History
C H A P T E R
11 DISPLACING
INDIGENOUS PEOPLES
This chapter gives an account of the Native people of America and Australia.
From the 18th century the areas like south America, Central America, North America,
Australia, and Newzealand were settled by the immigrants of Europe. The immigrants pushed out
the natives and Occupied the regions and made them as their colonies.
The migrated people namely the Asians and the Europeans dominated the natives of the
regions and limited them into small numbers in the towns. Inspite of the great changes the
indigenous Names of Rivers and towns like Ohio, Mississippi, did not change.
EUROPEAN IMPERIALISM
The American empires of Spain and Portugal did not expand after the seventeenth century.
From that time other countries – France, Holland and England – began to extend their trading
activities and to establish colonies – in America, Africa and Asia; Ireland also was virtually a colony
of England, as the landowners there were mostly English settlers.
From the eighteenth century, it became obvious that while it was the prospect of profit
which drove people to establish colonies, there were significant variations in the nature of the
control established.
In South Asia, trading companies like the East India Company made themselves into
political powers, defeated local rulers and annexed their territories. They retained the older well-

Displacing Indigenous peoples 127
developed administrative system and collected taxes from landowners. Later they built railways to
make trade easier, excavated mines and established big plantations.
In Africa, Europeans traded on the coast, except in South Africa, and only in the late
nineteenth century did they venture into the interior. After this, some of the European countries
reached an agreement to divide up Africa as colonies for themselves.
The word ‘settler’ is used for the Dutch in South Africa, the British in Ireland, New
Zealand and Australia, and the Europeans in America. The official language in these colonies was
English (except in Canada, where French is also an official language).
To mean the European people of the USA) cheated them by taking more land or paying
less than promised.
North America
The Continent of North America extended between Arctic in the North and South America
in the South, and from the Pacific in the East and Atlantic in the west. The Geographical features of
North America are a chain of a rocky mountains and deserts, of Arezona and Nevada, Sierra-
Nevada Mountains, great plains, great valleys of Mississippi and Ohio, and applechian mountains.
Canada is at Northern part of the Continent, and Mexico is at south. 40% Land of
Canada covered with forests. Oil, gas, minerals are found in many areas, which helps for
industrialization. Wheat, Corn, and fruits are grown and fishing is another industry in Canada.
The Native People
The earliest inhabitants of North America came from Asia over 30,000 years ago, and
they moved towards South and settled there. The growth of the population began at about 5,000
years ago. Then the climatic conditions were favorable. The early people lived in villages along
river valleys. Their main food items were fish, meat, vegetables, and maize. They frequently hunt
and killed the animals like buffalo, bison for meat. They did not pay intrest in extention agriculture.
They did not developed their territories as kingdoms or empires. There were some quarrels between
the tribes over territories.
They were very free to get their food from the lands. There was a tradition of making
alliances and friendships. There was no buying system, goods were obtained by exchanging as
gifts. There were number of unwritten languages spoken in North America. They believed that
time moved in cycles and their histories and origins were handed over from one generation to
another. They were able to understand land and climatic conditions. The literate people can understand
the climatic conditions, landscape of that particular regions.
Encounters with Europeans
In the 17th century European Traders reached North coast of North America after a
difficult two months voyage for the Treasures of gold. There in North cost of North America, they

128 History
lived by every possible combination hunting, fishing, gathering, gardening and farming. The European
adventurers reached these regions to trade in fish and furs, in which they got the willing help of the
natives who were experts in hunting.
In the region of Mississippi river valley, the French found that the Natives were exchanging
their handicrafts to the tribes for food, which was not available in their regions. The Europeans
were also getting local products on exchanging of blankets, guns, and other vessels for hunting the
animals. The prices of goods varied from year to year depending on the supply. They do not know
the concept of market.
Mutual perceptions
In the 18th century the western Europeans defined “Civilised “ people in terms of their
literacy, Religions, Religious practices, Cultural activities, and urbanization. The American Natives
were appeared to be uncivilized to them. Through, the French philospher Jean – Jacques Rousseau
admired their civilized activities. The great English poet- “Wordsworth” described them as “ living
amid wilds – where fancy hath small liberty to grace the affections to exalt them or refine”. Means
that people lived closer to the Nature had only limited powers of imagination and emotion.
The European who settled in America from 17th centuary
There were persecutions between Native protestant Christians and European Catholic
settlers on religious practices. Many of them left Europe and went to America to begin new life.
They cut down the forest areas and turned them into farms.
USA and Canada came into existence during 18th century, gradually over a centuary, they
occupied several lands. USA purchased a vast land called Luciana from France, Alaska from
Russia, and some parts of South Mexico. The land scapes of America drastically changed. The
immigrants of Britan and France were eager to own in America. The migrants of Germany, Sweeden,
and Italy occupied lands and converted them into Farms. The polish people purchaged grass
lands and other lands from steppes for low prices. They started cultivation, agriculture, fruits plantation
and vegetables. The Agricultural products were sold in Europe for higher prices. They prepared
the barbed wire for fencing for the protection from the wild animals.
The climatic conditions in Southern Region was hot. In South American colonies, The
owners of plantation brought the labour to work in plantations and farms from Africa(Black) and
later they were made as slaves. Number of clashes occurred between Natives and the slaves. In
the North America the liberal minded people condemned the slavery. There was a civil war between
the antislavery and for slavery in between 1864 and 1865.A.D. Later the slavery was abolished. In
20th century the blacks/slaves gained civil liberties and rights onpar with whites in USA. Still the
discrimination is continuing between Blacks and whites.
Canada faced problem with France and not with Natives. That problem was the demand

the political status. In 1867, the problem was solved by organizing Canada as a confederation of
autonomous status.
The Native peoples Lose their Land
In USA the European settlers wanted to send the Natives from theire places frocebly.
Number treaties were made between them. European paid lower prices for the land of the Natives.
Eve high officials saw nothing wrong in depriving the native peoples of their land. This is
seen by an episode in Georgia, a state in the USA. Officials had argued that the Cherokee tribe was
governed by state laws, but could not enjoy the rights of citizens. (This was despite the fact that, of
all the native peoples, the Cherokees were the ones who had made the most effort to learn English
and to understand the American way of life; even so they were not allowed the rights of citizens.)
In 1832, an important judgment was announced by the US Chief Justice, John Marshall.
He said that the Cherokees were ‘a distinct community, occupying its own territory in which the
laws of Georgia had no force’, and that they had sovereignty in certain matters. US President
Andrew Jackson had a reputation for fighting against economic and political privilege, but when it
came to the Indians, he was a different person. He refused to honour the Chief Justice’s land and
drive them to the great American Desert. Of the 15,000 people thus forced to go, over a quarter
died along the ‘Trail of Tears’.
Those who took the land occupied by the tribes justified it by saying the natives did not
deserve to occupy land which they did not use to the maximum. They went on to criticize them for
being lazy, since they did not use their crafts skills to produce goods for the market, for not being
interested in learning English or dressing ‘correctly’ (which meant like the Europeans). They deserved
to ‘die out’, they argued. The prairies were cleared for farmland, and wild bison killed off. ‘Primitive
man will disappear with the primitive animal’ wrote a visiting Frenchman.
Meanwhile, the natives were pushed westward, given land elsewhere (‘theirs in perpetuity’)
but often moved again if any mineral – lead or gold – or oil was found on their lands. Many tribes
were forced to share the land originally occupied by one tribe, thus leading to quarrels—between
them. They were locked off in small areas called ‘reservations’, which often was land with which
they had no earlier connection. They did not give in without a fight. The US army crushed a series
of rebellions from 1865 to 1890, and in Canada there were armed revolts by the Metis (people of
native European descent) between 1869 and 1885. But after that they gave up.
The Gold Rush, and The Growth of Industries
In 1840’s the Gold Reserves were found in California. By knowing this, thousands of
European, traders rushed to America. This rush led to “gold rush” Thousands were recruited in the
goldmines. This led to laying of inter continent Railway lines by 1870 in Canada by 1805. ‘Andrew
Carnegia’ a poor immigrant from Scotland became a millionaire in this trade.

130 History
In North-America there was a great developments in industrialization and Transportation.
Because of this development, the towns and cities, grew both in USA and Canada. Ultimately, this
led to the rapid growth in their economy. There was a large scale development in agriculture by
1860. The agricultural land was expanded. Most of the uncultivable land was brought under
cultivation Fishing and hunting animals for meat became a great industries in market.
From 1892, U.S.A. started its continental expansion. It established its colonies in
pacific and Atlantic. It’s impartent colonies were Hawai, Phillipines gradually U.S.A. became great
imperial power in the world.
Constitutional Rights:
The democratic spirit started among the settlers in U.S.A. there were some fights between
settlers and government for independence. They demanded for the “right to property”. That right to
property should be incorpoprated in the constitution, the democratic right called “right to vote”,
was also demanded.
The winds of change:
Since, 1920 the improvement of Native people of America and Canada was started.
There was economic depression in 1928. All sections of the people in all aspects of their life was
totally effected.
The white Americans had sympathy over the Natives. Who were discouraged to enjoy
the privileges and rights. The Indian Re-organization Act of 1934 gave the Natives right of
reservations, right to own the land and to obtain loans.
In the 1950’s and 1960’s U.S.A. and Canadian Government decided to bring the Natives
into the mainstream. But the Natives did not like this. In 1954 in the declaration of Indian rights
was prepared by them. Number of Native people accepted the citizenship but on a condition that
the Reservations should not be taken away. A similar development occurred in Canada. In 1969
the Government announced that they could not recognize aboriginal rights. The Natives opposed
and demonstrated. In 1982 the Constitutional Act accepted the aboriginal rights and rights of the
Natives.
Australia:-
As in the American continent, the inhabitants of Austrailia, has entered more than 40,000
years ago. According to one version, they came from Newguinia which was connected to Australia
by a land bridge.
In the 18th century, there were number of Native communities with their own language.
There is another large group of indigenous people living in the north called as “Torres”. between
350 to 750 A.D., they migrated from different places to Australia. All together the migrated people
were 2.4% of the Australian population in 2005.

Most of the cities and towns developed in coastal areas because the central region is dry
and desert. All these coastal cities developed due to the influence of British. In 1606 Dutch people
arrived. In 1770 Britishers reached. British Established a colony at Sydney.
Several encounters and friendly relations with Natives are observed as compiled by Captain
Cook and his crew. Captain Cook was killed by a Natives in Hawai Islands. During 19th and 20th
century, 90% of the Natives died of poisonous germs and battles with the migrants, and they lost
their lands, mines and natural resources. Brazil and Portuguese people joined together in settling in
Australia. This act made the Native people angry with their behavior. The Britishers who adopted
the policy of threading the Natives in settling in American colonies was followed in Australia also
against the will of the Natives.
The Development of Australia
The economic development of Australia under European countries was not as varied as in
America Vast sheep farms, wine yards, wheat farms and mining stations were established for a long
period. These are the main agencies or sources of income to the Australians. In 1901 six states
formed as federation and later some other states in Australia joined with them into one unit for the
administrative convenience. They decided to built a new capital in 1911. The name was suggested
as “wool wheat gold”. Later it was called ‘Canberra’, which means “Meeting place”.
The Natives who were employed in the farms were given harsh treatment. It was slavery.
The chainese immigrants who came here were available as cheap labour. The chainese colony
immigration was stopped by a law in 1855. Till 1974 the people who migrated from South Africa,
South East Asia, and Africa were called as “dark” the Australians were worried about their flow
and government made a policy that “Non-whites out”.
The winds of change
In 1968, the people in Australia were very much inspired by the lectures of W.E.H. Stanner
on the great Australian silence Henry Renolds Questioned the Australians in His book “why we
were not, we told” the history Questioned Australians in dig out and discovery of Captain Cook.
Since then, the departments of university instituted to study Native Culture, Galleries,
Museums, Arts etc. and in the rooms depicting the native culture. This has been a effort to give
information about generations forgotten. In 1974 onwards, respecting of culture and giving historical
information about aboriginal Natives was made as a national policy. Symantaniously it had given
the information about the migrants and their cultures from Europe and Asia.
The demand of Human Rights began since 1970, through, the U.N.O. and it’s international
agencies. The public of Australia realized the value of it.
The Australian Government had always termed the land of Australia (Terra nullins) as
belonging to nobody. There was also a long and agonizing History of Children of mixed blood

132 History
(Native + Europeans) separated from their Native relatives.
There were agitations around some Questions like
a) About Original Natives:
The Natives with strong, long Historical background were called sacred who were
respected.
b) About the Natives
Their past acts could not be considered. There should be public apology for the injustice
done to children in an attempt to keep white or colored apart on may 26th 1999. The Government
of Australia declared a National sorry day or apology day for the deprived children.
QUESTIONS
1. Point out the differences between the Native people of South and North America?.
2. Write brief history of Australian Native people.
3. Economic development in Australia.
1. Imperialism
2. Traditional occuption of the native North Americans
3. Gold Rush
4. Meaning of Canberra
5. W.E.H. Stanner

C H A P T E R
12 PATHS TO
MODERNISATION
INTRODUCTION
In the beginning of the nineteenth centaury East Asia was dominated by China. China and
Japan have geographical and cultural similarities. China played an important role in the development
of civilization. It has it’s own civilization, Culture, Religion, Philosophy, Arts, Literature and Natural
resources.
China is a vast continental country. It’s geographical extent is 1,036,000,000 Sq. Hectors.
That spans many climatic zones. 1. The Yellow River (Huang He); The Yangtse River (The third
Longest River in the World) and the pearl river. A large part of the country is mountains.
The imperial Government lost political control. It was unable to reform effectively and the
country was convulsed by civil war. The chinese reacted slowly and faced immense difficulties as
they sought to redefine their traditions to cope with the modern world, and to rebuild their national
strength and become free from western and Japanese control. They found that they could achieve
both objectives of removing inequalities and of rebuilding their country – through revolution. The
Chinees communist party emerged victorious from the civil war in 1949. However, by the end of
1970s Chinese leaders felt that the ideological system was retarding economic growth and
development. This led to wide ranging reforms of the economy that brought back capitalism and
the free market even as the communist party retained political control.

134 History
China Dynasties
China was ruled by the Shang dynasty during BC. 1450 to 1050. During this regime
civilization evolved. Monarchy, religion, porcelain and silk industry were developed. From 1050
BC to 256 BC ‘Chow’ Dynasty ruled China. During this period China’s feudal system, political
unrest, instability emerged. In the same time Chinese literature, arts, culture developed. “Chin”
dynasty was the last dynaty to rule China between A.D.221 to 207. The Great Wall of China was
built during this regime.
The Ages of the Philosophers
Lao Tse: He was one of the greatest philosophers in China. Lao-Tse means the oldest
philosopher. His original name was ‘Le’. He worked as Librarian in ‘Chow’ regin. He wrote a
book called “Tao-Te-Ching” meaning dirty politics in China. He proclaimed the theory of ‘Tao’. It
means “The way”.
Confucius
The great philosopher in the world was Confucius. This name came from the European
word “K’ung fu –tze. He was born in Ch’ufu of Lu state in BC 551. He entered in teaching
profession at the age of 22. In 501 BC he became the Prime Minister for Lu State. He died in 479
BC, at the age of 72 years. He wrote five prominent books were called “five ching”. They are 1. Li-
ching 2. I – Ching, 3. Shi-ching 4. Chun ching, 5. Shu- ching.
Nationalism in China
The modern history of China was revolved around the question of how to regain sovereignty
and end the humiliation of foreign occupation and bring about equality and development. Republicans
such as Sun-yat-sen, the first president of the China Republic were inspired by ideas from Japan
and the west. The communist party of China wanted to end age-old inequalities and drive out the
foreigners.
The Opium Trade
The demand for Chinese goods such as tea, silk and porcelain created a serious balance
of trade problem. Western goods did not find a market in China. The East India Company found a
option – opium which grew in India. They slod the opium in China and gave the silver that they
earned to company agents in canton in return for letters of credit. The company used the silver to
buy tea, silk and porce lain to sell in Britan. This was the “triangular trade” between Britan, India
and China. Because of that opium trade two opium wars occurred in 1839-42 and 1856-60.
Reformers like Kang You Wei and Lian Qich realized the need to strengthen the system
and initiated policies to build a modern administrative system, a new army and an educational
system, and setup local body assemblies to establish constitutional government. They saw the need
to protect China from colonisation. Above all the way many intellectuals felt that traditional ways of

Paths to Modernisation 135
thinking had to be changed. Confucius Teachings influenced the Chinese attitude towards new
ideas. To train people in modern subjects students were sent to study in Japan, Britan and France
and bring new ideas. They become leading republicans.
Establishing the Republic
The Manchu empire was over thrown and republic established in 1911, under Sun Yat
Sen (1866-1925) who is unanionously regarded as the founder of modern China. He came from a
poor family and studied in missionary schools where he was introduced to democracy and Christianity.
He was greatly concerned about the fate of China. He prepared three principals 1. Nationalism 2.
Democracy 3. Socialism. The social and political situation was unstable. On 4 May 1919 an angry
protest started in Bejing against the Britan. The protest become a movement. It gave a call for
saving China through modern science, democracy and nationalism controlling the resources, to
remove inequalities and reduce poverty.
Sun Yat- Sen’s ideas became the basis of the political philosophy of the Kuomindang. It
identified the four great needs 1. clothing 2. food 3. housing 4. transportation. After the death of Sun
Yat Sen Chiang Kaishek (1887-1975) took charge as leader of the Kuomindang. The Kuomindang’s
social base was industrial growth which become the centre of modern growth. Shanghai was the
only city for industry. Social and cultural change was helped along by the spread of schools and
universities (Peking University Established in 1902). Journalism also flourished reflecting the growth of
new thinking. It introduced readers to new ides as well as to Leaders.
The Raise of the Communist party of China
When the Japanese invaded China in 1937, The Kuomindang retreated. The long and
exhausting war weakened China. Prices rose 30% per month between 1945- 1949. Rural China
too faced the crises such as – ecological, with soil exhaustion, deforestation and floods and the
second, a socio economic one caused by exploitative land tenure systems, indebtedness, primitive
technology and poor communications.
The China commuist party founded in 1921. Mao Zedong (1893-1976) who emerged as
a major leader in China communist party took a different path by basing his revolutionary programme
on the peasantry. His success made the CCP a powerful political force. A strong peasants council
was organized, united through confiscation and re distribution of land. Mao stressed the need for an
independent government and army. He had became aware of women’s problems and supported
the emergence of rural women’s associations, promulgated a new marriage law. In the difficult years
of the war, the communists and Kuomindang worked together, but after the end of the war, The
communists established themselves in power and the Kuomingdang was defeated.

136 History
New Democracy
1949-65. The Peoples Republic of China was established in 1949. It was based on the
principles of the “New Democracy”. Critical areas of the economy were put under Government
control, and private enterprise and private ownership of land were gradually ended. This program
lasted till 1953. The great leap Forward Movement launched in 1958 was a policy to galvanize the
country to industrialize rapidly. People were encouraged to setup steel furnaces in their back yards,
in the rural areas, people’s communes were started. By 1958 there were 26,000 communes covering
98% of the farm population.
Mao was able to mobilize the masses to attain the goals set by the party. His concern was
with creating a “Socialist Man” who would have five loves – father, land, people, labor, science and
public property. Mass organizations were created for farmers, women, students and other groups.
Reforms
The cultural revolution was followed by a process of political maneuvering. In 1978 the
party declared its goal as the four modernizations – to develop science, industry, agriculture, defense.
Debate was allowed as long as the party was questioned. In this new and liberating climate, There
was an exciting explosion of new ideas. As 5 December, 1978, a wall- poster, the fifth – modernization
proclaimed that without democracy the other modernization would came to nothing. In 1989 on the
seventieth anniversary of the May Fourth Movement many intellectuals called for a greats, openness
and an end to ossified dogmas. Student demonstrators at Tiananmen Square in Beijing were brutally
repressed. This was strongly condemned around the world. The dominant view supported by the
party is based on strong political control, economic liberalization and integration into the world
market. Critics argue that increasing inequalities between social groups, regions, men & women
are creating social tensions. Finally, there is a growing revivals of earlier so called ‘traditional ideas
of Confucianism that China can build a modern society following its own traditions rather than
simply copying the west.
JAPAN
Political System
An emperor had ruled Japan from Kyoto – but by the twelfth century in imperial court
lost power to Shoguns who in theory ruled in the name of the emperor. From 1603 – 1867
members of Tokugawa family held the position of Shogun. The country was divided into over 250
domains under the rule of Lords called Daimyo. In the late sixteenth century, three changes laid the
pattern for future development. One, the peasantry was disarmed and only the samurai could carry
swords. Two – the Daimyo were ordered to live in the capitals of their domains, each with a large
degree of autonomy. Third land surveys identified owners and tax payers and graded land productivity
to ensure a stable revenue base.

Paths to Modernisation 137
The Daimyo’s capitals became bigger, so that by mid seventeenth centaury, Japans became
the most populus in the world. This led to the growth of a commercial economy and created financial
credit system. A persons merit began to be more valued than his status. Japan was considered rids
because it imported luxury goods like silk from China and textiles from India. They also took steps
to develop the silk industry in Nishijin in Kyoto so as to reduce imports. Other developments such
as the increasing use of money at the creations of a stock market.
Social and intellectual changes – such as the study of ancient Japanese literature led people
to question the degree of chineese influence.
The Meiji Restoration
In 1853, the USA sent commodore Mathew Perry to Japan to demand that the Govternment
sign a treaty that would permit trade and open diplomatic relations. Japan lay on the route to China
which the USA saw as a major market, also their ships in the pacific needed a place to refuel. At
that time, there was only one history that traded with Japan and Holland. Perry’s arrival had an
important affect in Japanese politics. In 1868, a movement forcibly removed the shognn from
power, and brought the emperor Edo. This was made the capital and renamed Tokyo which means
“Eastern Capital”. The Government launched a policy with the slogan “Fukoku Kyohei” (rich country
strong army). They realized that they needed to develop their economy and build a strong army and
rich country. In the same time the new government also worked to build what they called the
emperor system, officials were sent to study the Europeans monarchies as they planned to model
their own.
A new school system began to be built from the 1870’s. Schooling was compulsory for
boys and girls and by 1910 almost universal. The curriculum had been based on western models
but by the 1870’s while emphasizing modern ideas, stress was placed on loyalty and the study of
Japanese history. The ministry of education had control over the curriculum and in the selection of
text books as well as in teacher’s training. What was called “moral culture” had to be taught, be
loyal to the notices , and become good citizens.
QUESTIONS
1. Write about the causes and results of OPIUM wars in China
1. Bring out the ideas of sunyet sen and how did he implement them in China.
3. Describe the events leading to the Meji Restoration
1. Confucious
2. Maozedong
3. Tokugawa Shogunate

138 History
C H A P T E R
13 CONTEMPORARY
WORLD
The Industrial revolution that occurred in Europe during 18th and 19th centuries necessitated
the race for markets among European Nations, because the European countries which achieved
Industrial revolution started producing goods more than the demand in their native markets Hence,
the Industrial nations were in need to find the foreign markets to sell their goods. If they fail to export
and sell their goods in foreign markets, they have to stop the production in their own countries,
which will lead to the closure of the industries and retrenchment of the workers in the factories.
Then, the factories will run in losses and workers will become unemployed. This will lead to a
Economic crisis leading to the revolutions by people and finally the toppling of the Governments. To
avoid this crisis, the Industrial nations started searching for the markets for their Industrial goods.
This lead to the rise of Imperialism. The Industrial countries gained political control by wars of
conquest of the weaker nations.
Through political control, they have changed the economies of the conquered nations to
the commercial and industrial advantages of the Imperial countries; This process is called the
Imperialism.
From the early 18th century until the mid 19th century England and France, acquired
colonies to dump their industrial products. At a later stage, countries such as Germany, Italy, Japan,
Russia, America also entered into this race for colonies. This race for colonies lead to the conflict

Contemporary World 139
among the Imperial Countries.

These conflicts slowly turned into world wars. From 1914 to 1919, The first world war
occurred and between 1939 to 1945, The Second World War occurred . These world wars brought
un told miseries upon mankind. The first world war destroyed Europe, with more than 20 million
people dead, nine million of whom were young soldiers killed on the battle-fields. Then in Second
World War, the devastations were more than the first one. It left 22 million soldiers besides leaving
millions of people disabled, homeless, hungry and poor. The two wars razed many cities to the
ground, paralyzed trade and ruined Industries. In order to check such destructions of men and
materials leaders of the world started thinking of a world organization to check the dangers of
futures wars and to promote world peace.
Towards the end of the second world war there emerged two blocs of nations one suspicious
of the other. Mutual suspicion and distress among nations would not only promote an armed race,
but also paralyze the world peace. It was then felt that there should be an international organization
which could break barriers of misunderstanding among nations. And promote among them peace
and friendship.
Organizing United Nations (UNO)
Attempts were made for establishing an international organisation for establishing peace
and friendship before the end of the Second World War. In In June 1941, The representative of
Britan, Canada, Newzealand, Australia, South Africa met in london and proposed for the first time
to establish a world organization.Which could be more powerful than the league of Nations. This
proposal of the representation of these nations was called the London Declaration.
Atlantic Charter:
In August 1941, The U.S president F.D. Roosevelt and British prime minister issued a
Declaration known as the Atlantic charter, with the objectives to maintain international peace and
security, to encourage international Co-operation to develop friendly relations among nation, to
recognize the fundamental rights and status of all people. The Atlantic charters principles were; the
member countries need to recognize the sovereignty and equality of all states big or small. They will
peacefully settle all sorts of disputes without resorting to war. They would also help the U.N.O
against a state violating the treaties of agreement.
Washington Declaration 1942
In Jan 1942, the representative of 26 Allied nations met in Washington and pledged to
continue to fight against Axis powers in the Second World War. The main representative of Allies
were Britain, France, United States, Soviet Union and China. The Axis powers consisted of Germany,
Italy and Japan.

140 History
The Washington meeting of Jan 1942 resulted in the declaration of the United Nations in
which the signatories’ subscribed to the principles of the Atlantic Charter.
Mascow Declaration (1943)
A conference of the foreign minister of the USA, USSR, Britain and China took place at
Moscow. This declaration laid the foundation of the U.N.O.
Dumbarton Oaks conference:
A plan for the formation of an international security organization was discussed at Dumbarton
Oaks conference held in Washington with the representatives of main countries of the allied powers
between August and October 1944. The proposals made at Dumbarton Oaks were discussed
again in a conference held at Yalta in 1945. The nature of U.N. was decided in this conference,
which was attended by the U.S.President F.D.Roosevelt, British Prime Minister Churchill and the
soviet Prime Minister Stalin.
In June 1945, the United Nations charter was drawn up by the representatives of 50
countries which met at San Francisco. The conference was held between 25th April to 26th June
1945.
The United Nations organization:
The U.N.O officially came into existence on 24th Oct 1945, When the U.N. charter
was ratified by China, France, U.S.S.R. Britain, USA and by a majority of other countries that had
signed the charter earlier in June 1945. Since then, the 24th October is celebrated as United Nations
day every year.
Membership :
All peace-loving nations can became members of the U.N. The member country must
agree to be Judged by the U.N. and abide by its decisions. The 50 members who signed the U.N.
charter in June 1945 became original members of the U.N.
In July 2006, Montenegro became the newest member making the total member countries
to 192 by then. Other members are admitted by the General Assembly upon the recommendation
of the security council by a 2/3 majority of votes.
The United Nations has its Head Quarters in Newyork city, U.S.A. The United Nations
Flag was adopted on 20th October 1947. It consists of the U.N. emblem in white on blue background.
Objectives
The objectives behind the formation of U.N. can be divided into four groups security,
justice, Welfare and human rights.
1. To maintain international Peace and security. To take effective and collective measures
for the prevention and removal of threats to peace to suppress the acts of aggression
or breaches to peace.

2. To Develop friendly relations among nations based on the principle of equal rights
and self determination of the people.
3. To co-operate internationally in solving international problems of Economic, Social,
Cultural or humanitarian character and in promoting and encouraging respect for
human rights and fundamental freedom for all without distinction as to race, sex,
language or religion.
4. To be a centre for hormonising the actions of nations in attaining these common
goals. Disarm, decolonize, and Develop are the new objectives set forth of the
U.N.
Main Organs of the UNO
International Court of Justice Secretariat
GENERAL
ASEMBLY
Trusteeship Council Security Council
Economic Social Council
Organs of U.N.O
The important organs of U.N.O are the General Assembly, the Security Council, The
Economic and Social Council, Trusteeship Council, the international Court of Justice and the
Secretariat.
U.N.O Emblem

142 History
The Head Quarters of U.N. New York

General Assembly:
Every member of the U.N.O is a member of the Assembly. As a rule the U.N.
General Assembly meets once a year and there can be special sessions under certain circumstances.
It will discuss, review supervise and criticize the work of U.N.O. as a whole. It can discuss,
recommend measurers for the maintenance of international peace and security. It controls the finances
of U.N.O. It supervises the international Economic and Social Cooperation. It also supervises the
working of the trusteeship council. It controls the finances of the U.N.O. It appoints large numbers
of the various organizations of the U.N.O.
The General Assembly

Security Council:
It is the Executive body of U.N.O. It consists of 5 permanent and 10 non permanent
members. U.S.A. Russia. England, France and China are the permanent members. The remaining

10- non permanent members are elected by the General assembly for a period of two years on
rotation. Each member of the S.C. has one vote. The ordinary matters under consideration need the
affirmative vote of 9 out of 15. Discussion on important matters require 9votes including the votes
of all the 5permanent members. The permanent members have the right to veto.
The security council is considered continually is session. Member nations of the Council
have permanent representatives in New York.
Security Council
Economic and Social Council
It has 54 members. They are elected by the General Assembly for 3 years one third
of the members retire after 3years and the new members are elected in their place. The Council
holds at least two sessions in a year.
The chief function of the council is to solve the economic, social and cultural problems.
It works for the economic and social development of the different nations. It aims to raise the
standard of living of the people to assure them of the human rights and employment to promote
social and economic standard and to encourage the spirit of fundamental rights and freedom
This council works with the cooperation of several special committees and
commissions such as United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural organization. (UNESCO).
The United Nations Relief and Re-habilitation Administration (UNRRA) Food and Agricultural
Organization (FAO) International labour organization (ILO) International Bank. World Health
Organization (W.H.O) etc. This organ has rendered great services to the mankind in the course of
the last few years.
Trusteeship council
The council is composed of the representatives of all those states which hold the
administration of colonies and some other representatives elected by the general Assembly, The

144 History
main function of this council is to preserve the interests of territories handed over to it and to help the
general assembly in administration of those countries over which UNO holds trusteeship
The International court of Justice
It is the Judicial organ of the UNO It is composed of 15 judges elected by general Assembly
and the security council for nine years. Its main function is to solve the legal difficulties that arise
between different states and to give advisory opinions an any legal Questions referred to it by the
general Assembly and the security council.
The secretariat
The day to day business is carried an by the secretariat. The chief administrative
officer is the secretary general who is appointed for 5 years on the recommendation of the security
council. Many officials from different countries work under him. The secretariat keeps the record of
all the organs of the U.N.O. the secretary general implements the decisions taken by all the organs.
He sees to it that the branches of the U.N.O functions properly and submit their annual report to the
general Assembly on the working of the U.N.O.
Achievements of U.N.O
U.N.O from the very beginning of its existence delt with large number of issues and made
several efforts to solve those issues and problems. But its efforts were greatly hampered by the free
use of the veto power by Russia. Despite this short coming, the U.N.O has achieved success in
solving many problem. They include the problem of Iran of 1946 against Russia; Syria and Lebanon
against France; Indonesia problem with Dutch. The Palestine problem; Korean problem and Kashmir
problem.
After the world II, the people of Indonesia proclaimed the Republic and declared their
independence. Holland refused to accept has independence and there were armed clashes. The
security council helped in stopping the hostilities and issued cease – fire orders and further played
an important role in the recognition of the Independence of Indonesia. When A conflict arise in
Palestine between Arubs and Jews. The U.NO appointed a committee in April 1948. Based on its
recommendations, U.N asked the Britain to give up its interference in Palestine and also to withdraw
its forces from there.
When Israel was attacked by the Arub states, a cease – fire was ordered by the U.N
security council and a truce was brought about. It also established the U.N relief and works agency
for Palestine refugees which has done a lot of useful work.
Korea gained independence after the second world war and it also got divided into
two regions; the North Korea was under the then U.S.S.R, The south Korea was under the joint
control of America, Britain and china. The North Korea attacked South Korea, at this point the
U.N.O played a very constructive role. U.N sent general Mac Arthur as the commander of the

forces to fight against North Korea. The offensive of North Korea was halted with the efforts made
by U.N.O. peace was established and in 1953, a truce agreement was signed and the hostilities
ended. The United Nations played effective role in the Suezcanal crisis of 1966.
War in Korea
Kashmir Issue:
With regard to the Kashmir issue also U.N.O had played a constructive role. Some people
of Pakistan launched raids on Kashmir in October 1947. India launched a complaint with U.N.O
that Pakistan was assisting the raiders who were attacking the state of Jammu and Kashmir. The
security council appointed commission on India and Pakistan. Both India and Pakistan agreed for
the proposal made by the commission. Both countries withdrew their troops from Jammu and
Kashmir and a plebiscite to determine the future of the state was agreed upon by both the countries.
When there was a war between India as Pakistan in 1965, the security council issued several calls
for an immediate cease-fire and withdrawal of accused forces. The effort of the security council
succeeded in bringing about a cease-fire between the two countries. When Pakistan attacked India
in 1971, the security council asked both the parties to stop fighting. In spite of all the help given by
U.N, The Kashmir issued remains unresolved.
The U.N.O succeeded in making Russian armies to withdraw from Iran. It also helped in
stopping Britain from interfering into the internal affairs of Iran. U.N. helped withdrawal of British

146 History
and French armies from Syria and Lebanon. U.N helped in protecting the independence of Greece
and succeeding in bringing an understanding between Greece with its neighboring states of Albania,
Bulgaria, Yugoslavia. When Egypt tried to nationalise the suez-canal, Britain, France, Israel attacked
Egypt. U.N. sent its forces and succeeded in stopping a big war there. When a civil war occurred
between Cango and other Central African states, U.N sent its forces and succeeded in resolving the
problem and avoided the war.
Other Activities of the United Nations.
The U.N.O also worked for the promotion of conditions under which genuine peace is
possible.
The charter of U.N.O. specifically provided that U.N shall promote higher standards of
living, full employment.
The U.N. is supplying vital information to various countries. It publishses annual reports
on world Economic conditions. Many agencies and commissions of the United Nations have prepared
important studies in the field of technical assistances and economic development. The U.N had
granted loans to the developing countries through International Bank. The food and Agriculture
organization has done a lot to meet the world food crisis.
The United Nations is concerned with the furtherance of human welfare, social justice and
aspirations of men for a better life. It provides services such as public welfare administrations, child
welfare, social insurance etc., U.N. is giving help to the physically handicapped. W.H.O. provides
advisory and public health services to the member states. It maintains a medical library and a centre
for the compilation and analysis of medical and health statistics from all countries.
A large number of people who got uprooted were helped by the U.N. high commissioner
for refugees. UNESCO seeks to stimulate a worldwide attack on illiteracy and rises educational
standards. Commission on human rights gave considerable attention to the right of self determination.
The U.N has been successful in securing equality for women.
COLD WAR
Cold war its meaning
During the Second World War (1939 – 45) The U.S.A and Soviet Union came closer to
each other and entered into a mutual relationship. But their relationships got strained after the war
and made them stand forth as rivals and brought the world on the edge of a Third world war. There
was no actual armed conflict taking place between the two opposing camps. Instead of expressing
their hostilities in open fighting, the rival powers, Confined themselves to attacking each other with
propaganda and economic measures and with a general policy of non-cooperation. This post war
fear, tension, hostility, suspicion between Soviet Union and USA has been termed as the Cold War.

The reason for the Cold War was the existence of ideological differences between the
nations. Russia felt that under the leadership of U.S.A, the capitalist west might attack communism.
She therefore proceeded to form a Soviet bloc in Eastern Europe. Spread of communism in Europe
and the formation of the bloc by the Soviet Union, led the Western Countries to oppose the spread
of Communism in the world. They formed another military bloc. Thus the world got divided into
two rival power blocs. The Western bloc under the leadership of U.S.A; and the Eastern power
bloc under the leadership of U.S.S.R. Some of the countries in these circumstances began to take
position of associates of these great powers.
Between U.S.A. and U.S.S.R. a sharp differences emerged particularly over the treatment
of Anti-Nazi resistance of Poland and Yogoslavia and in the Co-ordination of military strategy and
in the post-war reconstruction of the Far East.
Even before the end of world war-II, Russia, imposed communist regimes in the East
European countries of Poland, Bulgaria, Rumania, Hungary and Yugoslavia. Soviet Union then
turned her attention towards Western Europe also. She put pressure on Turkey and Iran to get
concessions. She engineered a communist revolution against Greece and Expanded her influence in
Italy. These moves of Soviet Union were viewed by the western powers with great concern.
United States took up the responsibility of checking communism. It proposed the Truman Doctrine
and Marshall plan to check the increase of communist influence over European continent, these
moves and counter moves constituted the beginning of cold war.
1. To Develop friendly relations among nations based on the principle of equal rights and
self determination of the people.
2. To co-operate internationally in solving international problems of Economic, Social,
Cultural or humanitarian character and in promoting and encouraging respect for human
rights and fundamental freedom for all without distinction as to race, sex, language or
religion.

148 History
3. To be a centre for hormonising the actions of nations in attaining these common goals.
Disarm, decolonize, and Develop are the new objectives set forth of the U.N.
Cold war Blocs
Truman Doctrine
Truman Doctrine was a proposal to send military and economic aid to Greece and Turkey.
It was a policy of America people to support and free people who were resisting attempted subjugation
by armed minorities or by outside pressure.
The communist forces held considerable influence over Greeks. The situation reached a
stage of even losing their independence. About 13,000 Guerrillas and Communist movements were
organized in Greece and they were receiving arms and equipment from the communists. Neighbours
of Yogaslavia, Bulgaria, and Albania. In 1946, the Greek government complained to the security
council of U.S. against violation of territorial integrity by her neighbours. In 1947, the United States
sent an Economic mission to Greece to find out as to what could be done for that country to save
her from collapse.
A propaganda compaign was started by USSR against Turkish Government in 1945, and
the people of Turkey were urged to revolt against their government. Under these circumstances,
The Turkish Government asked U.S.A. to help her against Soviet Union.
In 1947, The American congress authorized aid to Greece and Turkey. Guerrillas were
eliminated from Greece. Peace was restored, Railways and Bridges were restored and Traffic on
roads become safe. Thousands of new houses were built, Agricultural production surpassed pre-
war level.
In the case of Turkey also peace was restored with the support of U.S.A and fresh elections
were held in Turkey.
Marshal Plan:
To restrict the growth of communism in Europe, America intiated a programme of Economic
reconstruction of Europe. The programme taken up by America is called “Marshall Plan”. It was
named after Marshall, the then secretary of State for America.
Marshall plan was the extention of Truman Doctrine. It was dealt with Europe in general
and not with any particular State. It was essentially an economic plan. It represented an elaborate
programme as it was to last for 4years. It was directed to avert the economic crisis resulting out of
world war-II. It also underlined the American determination to fight against communism. With the
execution of Marshall Plan, Even West Germany was able to recover her pre-war economic
solvency.
Soviet Union opposed the plan and complained that U.S., through this plan was aiming at
creating an Economic Empire. Several countries such as Czechoslovakia though initially accepted

the plan, they rejected it in due course under the pressure from Soviet Union.
Brussels Treaty of 1948:
The European countries such as Britain, France, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxemburg, etc
signed the treaty of Brussels in March 1948. This treaty provided mutual military, economic and
political co-operation against Russian Supremacy.
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (N.A.T.O.) N.A.T.O was signed in Washington on 4th
April 1949 by the U.S., Canada, Belgium, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxemberg, Netherlands
Norway, Portugal, Britain, Greece and Turkey. N.A.T.O was a defensive organization against soviet
bloc. The main objective of NATO was to encourage economic collaboration, also they agreed to
resort to arms singly or jointly against foreign aggression and to put up joint resistance till security
council took necessary measures against aggression. The association of U.S. with NATO was
aimed to halt Soviet expansion west wards. It was felt that there was no War in West Europe after
the signing of NATO. The Air and Naval forces of NATO were increased tremendously. They were
provided with modern weapons. Soviet leaders since then did not take any risk in West Europe.
The communist have made no territorial gains anywhere in Europe or in Atlantic area since 1949.
Communist voting strength and internal political influence in almost every NATO country has steadily
declined.
Maltov Plan.
Maltov plan was proposed by Maltov, the then Russian foreign minister. All the communist
countries such as Russia, Bulgaria, Poland, Romania, East Europe and Mongolia were the members
of this plan. This plan was initiated as a counter move to the Marshall plan.
WARSA Treaty
Russia proposed this WARSA treaty, in opposition to NATO. This was proposed for the
East European Community Countries. This was organised at Warsa, to which all Communist Countries
of East Europe attended. Countries such as Albania, Russia, Bulgaria, Hungary, Easy Germany,
Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Poland have signed the agreement. According to it, if any member
Country was invaded, all the members should collectively give resistance to the invader under
common military leadership. Thus, due to the cold war, Europe got divided into two groups and
formed blocs namely; the communist Europe and the non-communist Europe.
As both America and Russia were well – equipped with military weapons, a fear arose as
to catastrophe that would result if a war took place. Due to this fear each one took necessary steps
and precautions to avert the war.
Non – Alignment Movement (NAM)
The NAM actually began in 1961. The strategy of the new independent states of Asia,
Africa and South America to keep themselves away from the power blocs in order to protect their

150 History
independence is known as Non Alignment. Thus, the Non Alignment movement is that movement of
the newly independent countries which aims at maintaining their independent status on international
issues. It is an attempt made by these independent countries to keep themselves away from the
super power rivalry.
The Bandung Conference, 1955
The foundation of the NAM in 1961 was made at Bandung Conference.
The principles of the NAM are called Panchasheel or Five Principles. They formed the
basis of the Bandung conference.
The Five Principles of Panchasheel are
1) Respect for each other’s sovereignty and territorial integrity
2) No armed struggle among nations.
3) Non-interference in the internal affairs of other countries
4) Endeavour to achieve co-operation and mutual gains.
5) Following the policy of peaceful co-existence among difference nations.
This conference was called by President Sukarno of Indonatia 1955. About 23 Asian
and 6 African countries took part in it. Among the Chief dignitaries were Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru of
India, Chou-En-Lai if China and president Sukarno of Indonasia.
The ideas propounded at Bandung were given a practical shape at Belgrade (Yugoslavia)
at a meeting attended by Nehru of India, Nasser of Egypt and Marshal Tito of Yugoslavia in July
1956. The first summit meeting of NAM countries (25 in number) took place at Belgrade in Sep
1961. This conference gave birth to NAM.
Jawaharlal Nehru played an important role in the planning the composition, policies and
aims of NAM.
The second summit of the NAM took place in Cairo in 1964. By 1964, the membership
of NAM increased to 47. At this NAM second summit, the problems concerning the newly
independent countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America were discussed. NAM showed great
concern for those countries which were still under the bondage of the imperialist countries. They
delt with global problems like French and Portuguese colonialism in Africa, Israeli aggression,
disarmament and cold war etc.
During the year 2009, the membership of NAM was at 118. NAM stands for principles
such as avoiding alignment to power blocs. Not to involve in foreign wars. Attempt to end colonialism
and imperialism. NAM is against the spirit of warfare. It has full faith in co-operation and peaceful
co existence. NAM condemns racial discrimination. NAM accepts economic and technical assistance
from both the blocs. NAM is against manufacture of dangerous weapons. NAM works for the
promotion of human rights.

Since, its inception at its first submit in 1961, the NAM has widened its scope in the
course of its progress. It began as a political movement against imperialism and racialism of the
Western Countries. But after 14 fruitful summits NAM has included more issues in its agenda.
NAM has raised its voice against economic oppression and called for a new economic order. It has
laid stress on disarmament, apartheid in South Africa, Palestinian problem, Iraq – Iron conflict and
problems of central America. It has also opposed the cult of terrorism and also spoke against
nuclear tests.
The Common Wealth
Common wealth is a voluntary association of independ sovereign states once under British
Empire, each one consulting and Co-operating in their common interests and in promotion of greater
international understanding. The Head of the Common Wealth is Head of the British State.
The main countries that are members of Common Wealth are Australia, Bangladesh, Britain,
Canada, Cyprus, Gambia, Ghana, India, Jamaica, Kenya, Malaysia, Malta, Mauritius, Newzeland,
Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Srilanka, Swaziland, Tanzania, Trinidad, Tobago, Uganda, Zambia
and Zimbabwe.
Role of Common Wealth
The economic development is a major objective of the Common Wealth, most of whose
citizens live in poverty. About 80% of the bilateral aid given by Britain, Canada, Australia and
Newzealand goes to the Common Wealth Countries. Common Wealth Fund for technical
cooperation, provides advice, expertise and training facilities to help member countries with their
development plans. Under the Colombo plan of 1950, the under developed countries received
assistance from the prosperous member states of the Common Wealth.
Nigeria received assistance to from Common Wealth to develop hydro-electric schemes.
Under Common Wealth schemes, thousands of Scholars have obtained scholarship in
member countries. The educational exchange schemes not only benefits the host countries but also
help to make people from different countries learn and appreciate culture of other countries. Common
Wealth always supported disarmament and ban on nuclear arms for world peace. At its summit
conference held in Ottawa in 1973, it adopted a resolution calling upon the nuclear powers to abide
by nuclear test ban treaty.
Every two years or so the Heads of the Government of the member countries of Common
Wealth meet to discuss World Problems.
Other World organization
1. European Economic Community (EEC)
2. Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
3. South West African Peoples Organisation(SWAPO)

152 History
4. South Asian Association for regional Co-operation (SAARC)
5. BRICS – Brazil, Russia, India, China and South African Countries.
6. Association G5 nations.
World Organisation
The Second World War left its impact on many European and Asian countries. Europe
was devastated because of its deep involvement in war, During the war the Asian countries were
under the European domination and because of this reason, they too suffered untold hardships
during and after the war. Many of these countries became independent after the war and looked for
help and direction in the neighborhood rather than depending for guidance on their erstwhile rulers.
This state of affairs contributed to the formation of some regional organization. Member countries
received mutual help and co-operation brought nations in a area together. This enabled them to
rebuild their economies.
European Economic Community :
After the two world wars, European countries felt that individually they were too small
nations compared to the super powers. So they thought of developing Mutual friendship and co-
operation among themselves and working for a common destiny based on common economic,
military political efforts.
The first step towards the formation of EEC is the formation of the organization for European
co-operation. This organization was established in 1947 to co-ordinate the efforts to receive U S
aid under the marshal plan. 16 European countries were involved in this body to apportion the US
aid among its members. In 1949 NATO, north Atlantic treaty organization was established. In 1951
six members of Western Europe, (France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Italy, and west
Germany) formed the European coal and steal community in order to have a common market for
coal, Iron and steel. These six countries removed all trade barriers among themselves and established
the European Economic community or the common market.
The European Economic community (E E C) commonly known as the European common
market (E C M) was established by the treaty of Rome on 25 march 1957, signed by France,
Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, west Germany and Italy. Later on Britain, Ireland Denmark
and Norway joined the EEC. But soon Norway withdrew. Greece, Spain and Portugal also joined
EEC. The EEC is the world’s largest trader and the major importer of goods from the less developed
countries. Over 40% of EEC’s imports come from the Third world.
The EEC has it own legislative, Executive and Judicial machinery. It has five main bodies,
namely the commission, the council of ministers; the Assembly, the court of justice and the secretariat.
The council consists of 9 members and the headquarters of the commission are at Brussels
and Belgium. Council of ministers consists of one member from each government. Assembly is the

general body of the community consisting of 142 members of parliaments of the member countries.
Court of Justice settles economic disputes among member states. The secretariat disseminates
information and provides secretarial assistance to the European Economic community.
The EEC over years succeeded not only in building up a common market but also a
common working, travelling and living environment for all member countries. The EEC has finally
succeeded in evolving a monetary union and started issuing a common currency called the Euros.
The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
When oil became a major source of energy, foreigners tapped oil in the middle east and
drained oil’s wealth for their selfish ends. Given the fact that the area produced over third of
world’s supplies, outside interference in the middle east was inevitable. The international oil companies
like the Anglo-Indian oil company, controlled the production and supply of the middle east oil. Most
of the international oil companies had been controlling crude oil price till 1962. The oil producing
countries had no say in fixing the oil prices. The oil companies controlled the production in some
countries. Very often they played one oil producing country against another by adopting various
devices. In 1962, the oil companies announced that they are reducing the prices of middle East
crude. This meant that the countries concerned would be losing. A meeting of the oil producing
countries was held in Baghdad in 1962 where these countries formed the organization of petroleum
Exporting countries (OPEC). The meeting was attended by the representatives of Iran, Kuwait,
Soudi Arabia, and Venezula. These countries at that time controlled 80 percent of the world oil
trade. The OPEC resolved that it would fix the oil prices to be charged. They would periodically
review the prices and increase them. The membership is open to any country having substantial net
exports of crude petroleum. In course of time many other oil-producing countries in Asia and Africa
also joined OPEC.
The head quarters of OPEC are at Vienna in Austria.
South West African people’s Organization (SWAPO)
South west Africa, now called Namibia has become a German colony in 1884. The Africans
there resisted the German rule, then the Germans responded with violence killing more than 80,000
Namibians.
In the First World War the South Africans defeated Germans. Then the league of Nations
put Namibia under the administration of West Africa. But, slowly the South Africans annexed this
territory and set up a puppet government there. In 1946 the U.N passed the resolution against
South African Annexation of the territory. The South Africans ignored the UN mandate.

154 History
Map of Namibia and Neighcouring countries

In 1968 re-named South West Africa as Namibia, after the Namib desert. In 1974, the
UN security council demanded that South Africa give up its control of Namibia.
South Africa imposed, right from the beginning of its control, its racial policy of apartheid
in South West Africa and began to enforce its segregation laws. This was resented by the people
of South West Africa. The whites who constituted one seventh of total population of Namibia
dominated the politics and economy of the land. In 1959, the Namibians were forced to move to a
remote segregated area. The natives protested against such to move. Namibians felt the need to
oppose the South African rule of oppression and apartheid.
In order to unite the natives together and oppose the South African rule, the Namibians
formed on 19th April 1960, the SWAP, with the goal of winning Namibians complete liberation from
Africa.
SWAPO steeped up a guerilla activity in Namibia. The SWAPO is thus a organization for
the liberation of Namibia from the control of South Africa.
Finally, after 74 years of South African rule, free election at the national level were held in
Namibia in November 1989. Out of 72 seats in an Assembly that would frame a constitution and
declare independence to Namibia early in 1990, the SWAPO won 41 seats. Mr. Sam Nujoma, the
leader of SWAP , then became the first president of Independent Namibia.

South Asian Association for Regional Co-operation (SAARC)

South Asian countries were under exploitation for long by the developed nations. These
countries are rich in raw materials. They exported its raw material at a cheap rate and imported the
finished goods at very high price. In 1989, its share in world trade was only 0.6 percent. This region
remained poor, but its defense expenditure has been going up steadily. Against this back ground
many leaders of the region aimed to reduce their expenditure on arms and armies and spend their
resources for development projects in their countries. They felt that it was possible by establishing
peace and co-operation between nations in the region. The prominent leaders behind this idea was
Zia-ul-Rehman of Bangladesh. He prepared a draft paper and circulated it among seven countries
in 1980. This paper formed the basis of discussion at the meeting of South Asian foreign secretaries
at Colombo (1981), Kathmandu (1981 Nov); Islamabad (Aug 1982) and Dhaka (Mar1983)
The foreign secretaries of seven nations namely Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives,
Nepal, Srilanka were very powerful.
The first summit of the heads of these seven countries was held in Dhaka in December
1985. At this summit, it was agreed to establish an organisation to be known as South Asian Association
for regional co-operation (SAARC).
Such co-operation shall not be a substitute for bilateral and multilateral co-operation, but
shall complement them. Such co-operation shall not be inconsistent with bilateral and multilateral
obligations. Its objectives include; Promotion of welfare of the people of SAARC region; to
accelerate economic growth social progress and cultural development to promote and strengthen
collective self-reliance among the countries, to understand and appreciate one anothers problems.
To promote collective co-operation and mutual assistance in Economic, social, cultural, technical
and scientific fields. To co-operate with international and regional organizations with similar aims.
The heads who signed the charter were Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi (India) President,
Zia–ul–Haq (Pakisthan) President, Jayawardane (Srilanka) King Birendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev
(Nepal) King Jigme Wangchk (Bhutan) and President Ershad (Bangladesh)
SAARC heads would meet once a year. The aims of SAARC were to promote
mutual trust, confidence and co- operation. A council of ministers consists of the foreign ministers of
the seven countries.
The main principles of SAARC were based on respect for the principles of sovereign
equality, territorial integrity, political independence, non-interference in internal affairs of other states.

156 History
MAP of Asian countries
QUESTIONS
1. Write about various organs and their functions of United Nations Organisation
2. Give an account of the achievements of the U.N.O.
3. Give the meaning of cold war and write about various treaties and plans associated
with it.
4. Trace the origins of NAM and who are its members
1. Who were the members of OPEC.
2. Who were the members of SAARC.
3. Atlantic Charters
4. Who are the members of SWAPO

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