1,3 and Upper 3

Language and Language Teaching
Special Issue on Language Acquisition in Informal Settings
Volume 9 Number 1 Issue 17 January 2020
Contents
Editorial Why Don't EFL Students
R. Amritavalli Read More? Because “We are tested on
what we read in class.”
Articles Kyung-Sook Cho Busan
Journeys in Language Learning as
Stephen Krashen
Adults: A Kannadiga Learning Tamil 50
and a Tamilian Learning Kannada
Brinda U. Rao Interview
1 Interview with Chiranjiv Singh 56
Adult Language Learning: Some R. Amritavalli
Personal Musings
S Mohanraj 6 Landmark
Psychology of Learning for Teachers:
Acquiring Standard Spoken English Preparing for Classroom Inquiry
through Extensive Reading: A Case Mythili Ramchand 64
Study
Thomas Cook 10
Book Review
Learning German to Actively Autonomy in Language Learning
Participate in Scientific Research Work and Teaching: New Research Agendas
in the German Speaking Parts of the R. Amritavalli 71
World: A Deeply Enriching Experience
Venkatesa Iyengar Vasanta Ram 16 Report
Whole Language Approach and
Learning to Read Hindi through Multilingual Pedagogy in Schools
WhatsApp: From Deciphering to Cross- P. K. Jayaraj
Languaging 77
Geetha Durairajan
21
Selective Acquisition of Malayalam
Paroma Sanyal 30
Would a “Rational Approach” Improve

Academic Outcomes in English
Language University Classes in
Vietnam?
Philip Scott 36
Editorial
R. Amritavalli
India is a land of over a hundred or a thousand languages, depending on how you

choose to name and count a speech variety as a language. Speakers of these
languages have, over millennia, interacted with one another to form a Sprachbund, a
“linguistic area” where genetically unrelated languages develop shared traits. Our
Indo-Aryan languages, genetically related to Indo-European, are said to have become
“Indianized” through extensive bilingualism with the Dravidian languages (Emeneau,
1956; Masica, 1976; Krishnamurti, 2003).
Coming to our own time, coexisting language communities are the lived experience of
our people. Today, in the life of an Indian, various languages may occur within the
concentric circles of family, profession, and society. As these circles of identity widen
and expand, they drive self-initiated language learning in the adult, well after infancy
and childhood. This is the theme of this issue.
We present in this issue narratives of adult language acquisition. These are of interest in
themselves, of course, but of interest also with regard to the teaching of language(s) in
schools. Language teaching in school is often bogged down by the weight of scholarly
tradition, literary history, and linguistic pride. It suffers, above all, from co-option into a
system of syllabus, teaching, and examination, geared to competitive mark-gathering.
Our learners' narratives remind us that language learning can be an empowering,
exploratory and joyous experience if the learner chooses to be an active participant in it,
and is allowed to be one.
The Interview in this issue is with Chiranjiv Singh, an adult language learner par
excellence, who speaks and reads over a dozen languages. Following the convention
of this journal, the interview is placed after the individual articles. However, it
thematically prefigures most of the points these articles make. Adult language
learners, we find, view films and listen to songs in the language they wish to learn;
they teach themselves to read, and choose to read what interests them; and they
actively seek guidance from speakers of the language they are trying to learn. They are
eclectic, mixing a formal, grammatical approach with an informal, communication-
focused approach. And they set their own limits on how many languages they want to
learn, and how well they want to learn them: they are driven by their own needs and
purposes.
These select narratives (however) severely under-represent the community of self-
taught language-learners in this country. “In India it is happening all the time,” says
Chiranjiv Singh; for where “the mother tongue is different from . . . the bazaar or the
outside language,” people—from shop assistants to sanitation workers—“need to learn
the local language, and they do it.” The voices of these individuals, and of entire
migrant communities, await a place in this journal. First, this is a journal published in
English; and second, these are people who speak more easily than they write. The
situation calls for narratives “as told to” interested and informed researchers. Surely
an opportunity for our young students of languages and linguistics! For example, I have
had conversations with a person from the north-east of India, who is now a fluent
Kannada-speaker and works in a branded retail shop in Bengaluru; a tailor-family, that
typifies the Marwari community in Karnataka in its use of “home” and “bazaar”
languages; and a Tamil-Malayalam-Kannada speaking driver who turned out to
actually be a Telugu speaker. There is a Sikh community in Coimbatore, and a
Thanjavur Marathi diaspora. Currently, a humorous Malayalam ditty about Bengali
workers in Kerala is doing the rounds on social media.
A second adult language-learning community that needs better representation is that
of wives who marry into a home with a different language. (Sometimes it could be
“just” a different speech variety, or dialect.) We have only one such narrative, by a
Bangla speaker: “Selective Acquisition of Malayalam.” Given that marriage is the most
common reason for migration in India, according to the 2011 Census (Krishnan, 2019),
there must be a treasure-trove of adult language-learning stories here. The data say
that 46 per cent of total migrants moved because of marriage; 97 per cent of these
were women. (Employment or business accounted for 10 per cent, and education for 1.2
per cent, of migrants in India.)
Our narratives are not limited to India or her languages, for self-initiated language
learning is not contained within political boundaries. An Indian scientist speaks about
his experience of learning German. An American teacher of English in the U.S.A.
chronicles how a Russian immigrant read popular fiction and acquired conversational
English; another, in Vietnam, describes how he introduced self-selected reading to
university students in that country.
This last chronicle, inconclusive and tentative as it may seem, anticipates the central
theme of a brief piece by Cho and Krashen, suggesting that conventional approaches
to classroom reading interfere with the development of a reading habit. In this
connection, two earlier insights come to mind. Newmark (1966) suggests that the real
“interference” in language learning lies in our ways of teaching (and not, as was then
believed, in the mother tongue). Prabhu (1987, pp. 58 and 66, n. 14) says the
comprehensibility of a text to a learner is mediated by a “criterion of adequacy,” a
judgment about the level of comprehension required for a given purpose: “Teaching is,
therefore, primarily a matter of regulating the level of comprehension needed.” The
idea that comprehension levels are set by learners themselves emerges again out of
my own work on learner autonomy in deprived circumstances (Amritavalli, 2007).
These narratives of language pedagogy lead the reader to the book review, which deals
with facets of autonomy in learning and teaching a language; a report on whole
language; and a Landmark article on the psychology of learning for teachers.
Acknowledgements
The editor thanks the reviewers for this issue, and Dr. V. Vasantasree for facilitating
the interview.
References
Amritavalli, R. (2007). English in deprived circumstances: Maximising learner
autonomy. New Delhi: Cambridge University Press.
Emeneau, Murray B. (1956). India as a linguistic area. Language, 32(1), 3-16.
Krishnamurti, Bh. (2003). The Dravidian languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Krishnan, Varun B. (2019). What is the biggest reason for migration in India? The Hindu,
July 22, 2019, retrieved from https://www.thehindu.com/data/india-migration-patterns-
2011-census/article28620772.ece accessed 16 October 2019
Masica, Colin P. (1976). Defining a linguistic area: South Asia. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
Newmark, Leonard. (1983). How not to interfere with language learning. In John Oller
and Patricia Richard-Amato (Eds.), Methods that work: A smorgasbord of ideas for
language teachers (pp. 48-55). Rowley, MA: Newbury House. (Original work published
in 1966).
Prabhu, N. S. (1987). Second language pedagogy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Articles
Journeys in Language Learning as Adults:
A Kannadiga Learning Tamil and a Tamilian Learning Kannada
Journeys in Language
Learning as Adults:
A Kannadiga Learning Tamil
and a Tamilian Learning
Kannada
Brinda U. Rao ǀ brindaurao@gmail.com
Brinda U. Rao provides support for continuous professional development of teachers
of Sri Ramakrishna Vidya Kendra, a rural school in Karnataka run by Ramakrishna
Mission, Shivanahalli. She enjoys translating educationally relevant literature from
English to Kannada.
Key Words: Language learning in non-tutored settings, Adult

language learning, Learning local languages
Abstract
This is a narrative about two people who each learnt an unfamiliar language as adults.
Both felt that they had to learn the language because the situations they were in
demanded it, and both got ample support in acquiring the languages. In this article, I have
discussed how, in addition to the felt necessity and the support they received, it is their
personal motivation and voluntary effort that led to the learning of the new language.
1
sometimes, people simply pointed

Introduction towards the signboards. He imagined that
the local people thought he was illiterate;
this was a blow to Sridharan's pride. He
felt he had no choice but to learn Tamil,
I am presenting here the journeys of two and to learn it quickly. He bought a book
adults who each learnt a new language in with the title Learn Tamil in 30 Days. The
very different circumstances. Both were first thing he did was to memorize the
proficient in their respective home letters of the Tamil alphabet so that he
languages and English. They had little to could read the names of the places on the
no prior exposure to the language that bus signboards.
they learnt as adults. Both learners learnt
the new language in the State of the Being an entry lever engineer, he was
Indian Union where it was spoken by the expected to work on-site, where he had to
majority of the people. They were happy to interact with construction labourers and
narrate their experiences, and have contractors, who were all Tamil-speaking
permitted me to use their names. I am monolinguals. This he considers as a
grateful to Sridharan S. and Akila R. for blessing in disguise. At the field office, his
sharing their experiences and making this colleagues helped him to speak in Tamil
article possible. by teaching him new words that he
needed to use and sometimes by
correcting him as he spoke.
A Mysorean Neyveli, being a small town, had very few

options for entertainment other than
Engineer Learns Tamil movies in theatres. Sridharan
Tamil watched many Tamil movies. He watched
some movies more than once. According
to him, Tamil movies refined his language.
Sridharan S. lived in Mysore (now Mysuru), He understood the right ways of putting
Karnataka. He studied in a Kannada across feelings and ideas through these
medium school where he consistently movies. He says there were times when
scored good marks, got into an English he offended his colleagues with
medium high school, and eventually got malapropisms; for instance, using the
admission in a prestigious engineering word mattai (coir fibre that covers the
college. He graduated at the age of 22, coconut) for mottai (bald head). He was
following which he was selected for a job not able to distinguish the subtle
in a public sector company called differences among many such words
National Thermal Power Corporation when native speakers uttered them, but
(NTPC) in 1986. Up to this point in his life, he was able to distinguish the same
he had lived in Mysore in a completely words and understand them in the context
Kannada environment. His first posting of movies. He was able to connect this
was at Neyveli, Tamil Nadu. Sridharan learning with his conversations with
went there all excited and happy. people.
“After the first couple of days, I felt totally By his estimate, it took him at least six
lost in this little town,” says Sridharan. He months to learn the language, and two
could not get himself from home to work years to attain mastery over it. He now
because all the bus signboards were in says he possesses native-like
Tamil. His attempts to ask people for help, competency in listening and speaking. He
using English, were met sometimes with a can read well and understands most of
smile, sometimes with a frown, and what he reads, even though his reading is
2
limited to newspapers and magazines, Along with the language Akila was also
which could be termed as “light” reading. introduced to the culture and cuisine of
He can write reasonably well, but is not Karnataka. In fact, the family went to
very confident of his writing skills. When great lengths to teach her Kannada. For
asked specifically if all out-of-state example, the grandmother in the family,
employees at NTPC-Neyveli had while sharing a recipe, showed her the
knowledge of Tamil, Sridharan said there ingredients as well as the “paavu” (a unit
were a few north Indians who managed to of measure for volume), to help her
work there without learning the language. understand the words. While Akila learnt
many words through these interactions,
Sridharan now lives in Kadiri, a small town she was still not able to make sentences
in Andhra Pradesh. He does not on her own. Her journey in learning
understand Telugu as well as he Kannada had begun. But she did not gain
understands Tamil. He says he is able to any proficiency in Kannada and could at
manage without knowing the local best manage to communicate with her
language. He regrets that even after neighbour's family.
almost two years in Andhra Pradesh, he is
unable to read or write Telugu. He barely Five years later, Akila got married and
manages to understand and speak the moved to Bangalore (now Bengaluru). In
language. When asked the reason for his Bangalore, she stayed in an area that had
not being able to read the Telugu script, a large Tamil-speaking population. During
which is very close to the Kannada script, her stay in Bangalore, she taught at a
his response was that he thinks he has junior college. She was the only person in
not learnt it precisely because they are so the staff room who did not speak
similar. He is able to read by guessing at Kannada. She got to listen to a lot of
the words, and hence has not put in the Kannada that was being spoken around
effort to understand the differences her, but she herself always spoke in
between the two scripts and gain English. Gradually, her Kannada
competency in the Telugu script. He says vocabulary expanded, and she was able to
that he has not been able to invest the understand Kannada for the most part.
time to learn Telugu. She even took part in a Kannada play put
up by the lecturers for the students. For
A Tamilian Teacher her role in the play, Akila memorized the
dialogues. However, in spite of all this
Educator Learns exposure, her spoken Kannada did not
improve much.
Kannada Despite the language barrier, Akila had no
trouble for most transactions except
Akila R. lived in Chennai in a monolingual when she had to catch the bus to
Tamil environment, except for the commute from home to work. She was
exposure to English that her school unable to read the bus signboards.
provided. When she was 17, a new family According to her, in the year 1999, the bus
moved into the house next to hers. The route numbers and the destination names
neighbour had a cute one-year-old infant. were displayed only in the Kannada script.
The child had not started speaking yet, So, she bought a book and learnt to read
and he understood only Kannada. Akila the numbers in the Kannada script. She
became friends with the family and tried knew the bus numbers for her route and
to learn Kannada in order to be able to managed her commute by reading the bus
communicate with the infant. Her numbers in Kannada. At that time, she
attempts to speak Kannada were didn't go farther than that; she did not
supported wholeheartedly by the family. learn the letters of the Kannada alphabet
3
because she did not feel the need to learn Kannada literature during the poetry and
them. Akila remembers that her story reading sessions. During these
interactions with vegetable vendors, the sessions, Akila estimates that she was
landlady and others were in Tamil. Their able to understand most of the subject
Tamil was somewhat broken and far from matter, but still needed clarifications for
proficient, but since they were able to about 20 per cent of the content. She still
communicate with each other, she made does not read or write Kannada. She says
very little progress in learning Kannada. that she plans to start practicing reading
and writing in Kannada.
Akila and her husband moved out of
Bangalore for four years and then moved Finally, Akila added that her husband has
back in 2003 with their one-year-old lived in Bangalore for 20 years and still
daughter. This time they moved into a does not speak Kannada. At his work
locality where there were plenty of place he needs to speak only in English,
Kannada speakers. Their daughter wanted and his social interactions at home are
to play with the children in the either in Tamil or in English. When he has
neighbourhood who spoke only Kannada. to do transactions such as buying
Akila, who was now a stay-at-home mom, vegetables, he either goes to
had no choice but to come out with her supermarkets where he can pick his own
child and make friends. Since most of the vegetables, or chooses to interact with
people she interacted with—neighbours, people who can speak Tamil or English.
mechanics, helpers, vegetable Akila feels that since her husband is able
vendors—were predominantly Kannada- to manage at work as well as at home
speaking, Akila had to get out of her without having to speak Kannada, he has
comfort zone and start speaking in not put in the effort to learn the language.
Kannada. This is why even though he has lived for a
long period of time in a Kannada-speaking
A year later, Akila started working with area, he has not learnt Kannada.
R.V. Educational Consortium (RVEC).
Among other things, RVEC worked with
government school teachers, many of Some Observations
whom were Kannada monolinguals. As
part of her job, Akila had to interact with about the Two
the Kannada-speaking teachers. Some of
these teachers were from different parts Language Learning
of Karnataka and spoke Kannada in
different accents. It became impossible
Journeys
for Akila to carry on her work without her
colleagues helping her out. So, she There are a lot of similarities in the
decided to step up her efforts to become language learning journeys of Sridharan
more fluent in Kannada. In order to and Akila. The two learners made real
improve her language skills, she started progress in the language they were
speaking only in Kannada with her learning when they felt an absolute need
colleagues. She feels there was a very to learn it and were willing to put in the
positive environment which helped her effort. Akila had an opportunity to learn
become fluent in Kannada. Within a year Kannada in Chennai when she was 17
she became a confident speaker. This years old, and again five years later when
happened in 2005 when Akila was 28 years she first moved to Bangalore. However,
old. she became a fluent speaker of Kannada
only the second time the family moved to
Akila continued to work with RVEC for a Bangalore, when she chose to put in all
few more years and was even exposed to the required effort. The motivation for her
4
was that she felt it was absolutely without learning Tamil, while Sridharan
essential to learn Kannada as a teacher felt compelled to learn the language.
educator. The reason she suggests for her
husband's lack of Kannada skills also It can be seen that when these two
corroborates this. According to Akila, he learners, Akila and Sridharan, wanted to
does not feel the need to put in the acquire the language that they were
required effort. surrounded by, they made use of the
opportunities that were available to them.
This is also similar to Sridharan's Both of them felt they had to shed their
experience with Telugu. Sridharan has inhibitions and so they made an effort to
now lived in a small town in Andhra do so. Further, both received plenty of
Pradesh where he is surrounded by help and encouragement from friends and
Telugu-speaking people. Although he has co-workers. Akila and Sridharan felt they
been living there for two years, and absolutely needed this intensive learning
despite the many similarities between the environment for about six months to one
Kannada and the Telugu languages, he year to become confident speakers. The
has not learnt Telugu the way he earlier opportunities presented to them, coupled
learnt Tamil. It is pertinent to note that with their motivation and effort, helped
according to Sridharan his Hindi-speaking them to find success in their language
colleagues in Neyveli did not learn Tamil. learning journeys.
They managed to live and work there
5
Adult Language
Learning: Some Personal
Musings
S Mohanraj | mohanrajsathuvalli@gmail.com
Mohanraj has worked as a teacher educator in different parts of the country for over
40 years. His longest stint was at The English and Foreign Languages University,
Hyderabad, where he served as the Dean of the School of English Language
Education. He received the Professional Teaching Award from TESOL in 2010. He is
now retired.
Key Words: First language, Aptitude, Senior Under-Officer,

Devanagari, Wodeyars, Language variety, Mandyam Tamil
Abstract
In this paper, I have tried to recount my experience of learning three different languages,
all of which I learnt after I grew out of my teens, in very distinct contexts. I have attempted
to show how needs and circumstances come together to provide the necessary motivation
to learn a language. Besides the need, other essential factors include proper exposure and
the right type of encouragement from speakers of the language concerned. However, there
can be exceptions to this and language learning may remain a distant dream for many an
aspirant.
6
Adult Language Learning : Some Personal Musings
chose a Tamilian for my life partner, and

My Observations so my ability to use this language
improved considerably. As a teenager and
a little later (closer to my middle age), I
Adult language learning has been an picked up Hindi and Gujarati. I shall now
interesting field of study, for it exhibits share some of my learning experiences
variety in terms of learners and their with these three languages (Hindi,
situations, and sometimes defies Gujarati and Tamil) in this brief write-up.
established theories. In my life, I have
come across a very senior person (a
seventy-odd year-old Tamil speaking lady) Learning Hindi
who has lived in a foreign language
environment (in Gujarat) for several years, Hindi being an official language of India
refusing to pick up a word of it. Yet she along with English, as a school going boy
could go around the markets and do her in the 60s of the last century, I had to
shopping and also bargain with the learn some Hindi formally. This was part
vendors about the prices of vegetables of the curriculum – a compulsory course
and other commodities. She was very of study, but this did not give me any
successful. knowledge of Hindi. Since Sanskrit was
my second language, I was familiar with
I have also come across several people the Devanagari script; therefore, I could
who have picked up languages just like read and write Hindi as part of my studies
that; my mother with almost no schooling just enough to pass the examination. But I
to her credit, picked up several languages could neither speak nor understand the
largely because she lived in different language.
parts of the country. She, my mother,
could fluently use Kannada, Telugu, After matriculating from school, I joined
Marathi, Urdu, and Hindi, and had a college to continue my education. This
smattering of Tamil and English. Both was a period immediately after the wars
these women had similar backgrounds, we had with China (1962) and Pakistan
but their adult language learning abilities (1965). The spirit of patriotism was strong,
were different. Perhaps the reason is that and so we enrolled ourselves as cadets in
one was motivated and had an aptitude to the National Cadet Corps Rifles (NCCR). I
learn language, while the other did not. also became part of the troupe,
That is perhaps too general a point, reluctantly to begin with; but I
however. Let me now come to how I participated much more enthusiastically
myself learnt some languages. later, to rise to the position of a Senior
Under-Officer—the highest rank a cadet
could achieve in the NCCR.
A Bit about Myself
I was with the NCCR for a full four years.
I can operate in six different languages During these years, I had to attend
with varying degrees of parades twice a week, annual camps of 10
fluency—Kannada, Telugu, Hindi, Tamil days duration every year, and twice in
and Gujarati, besides English. I learnt these four years, special camps of 30 days
Kannada and Telugu in my childhood, and each. In all these events the medium of
both can be considered as my first instruction was Hindi (with occasional
languages. Tamil being a popular talks by officers in English). My interaction
language in Mysore, where I lived, and with the trainers and with cadets from
with quite a few friends of mine being different institutions and places during
Tamil speakers, I was able to pick up a the camps helped me gain knowledge of
smattering of this language. Later in life, I Hindi.
7
Gradually my speaking ability became places as the train passed each station.
better, which stimulated me to read a few At the railway stations, the Indian
weekly magazines in Hindi. (This was Railways have a convention of indicating
largely during my visits to the barber once the name of the place in a specific
a month.) I used to enjoy small jokes, order—the regional language on the top,
snippets, short news items and some and the official languages Hindi and
short stories which were published in English in the bottom left corner and
Dharmayug. This helped me refine my use bottom right corner respectively.
of the language. This was when I could
appreciate dialogues in Hindi movies and
also got bold enough to croon Hindi songs
with an understanding of their meaning.
With my college education coming to a

close, I joined postgraduate studies, and
my use of Hindi took a back seat. Luckily, I
had a few classmates who were from the
Hindi belt, and I made it a point to
converse with them in Hindi. They helped
me develop good conversational skills, [Untitled image of a destination board].
and then there was no looking back. My Retrieved from
life as a participant at the CIEFL, https://i.ytimg.com/vi/aWOeygbnc3o/hqd
Hyderabad (the Central Institute of efault.jpg November 22, 2019
English and Foreign Languages, now The
English and Foreign Languages This was very helpful to me, for I could
University), and later as a teacher read the names of places in Hindi and
educator in certain parts of north India,
English and try and relate them to the
gave me the confidence to use Hindi in
public. It took me close to six years to name of the place as written in the
learn this language and to stake a claim Gujarati script. I was alone, and there was
to knowing it. plenty of time (a nine-hour journey), and I
started copying the names of the places
as written in Gujarati in a notebook. This
Learning Gujarati helped me identify some of the
similarities and differences between the
I learnt Gujarati in very different Gujarati and Hindi scripts. This was very
circumstances. On completing my rudimentary, and I was still to get a hang
research at the CIEFL, Hyderabad, I got a of writing the Gujarati letters of the
job at the H M Patel Institute of English alphabet systematically. (Though they had
Training and Research in Vallabh a close resemblance to the Devanagari
Vidyanagar, Gujarat. I did not know a word letters, it was not an easy task to grasp
of Gujarati, nor was I familiar with Gujarati their strokes.)
culture. I accepted the job, and went to
Vallabh Vidyanagar taking a train from I arrived in Vallabh Vidyanagar late in the
Hyderabad. It was a long journey of over evening. I was given some temporary
24 hours. I had to reach Bombay (Mumbai accommodation for a couple of days
of today), change trains and then reach before I could find a house to stay in.
Anand in Gujarat to go to Vallabh During the following days, as I walked
Vidyanagar. Luckily for me, the train that through the streets I paid careful
took me to Anand from Bombay was a day attention to the sign boards and started
train which stopped at almost every reading them. This helped me become a
station on the way. I could look at every reasonably good reader of the script. It
station and make a note of the names of was much later that I learnt that the
8
Adult Language Learning : Some Personal Musings
phonology of Gujarati was very different phonology and syntax of Mysore Tamil is
from that of Hindi, and being familiar with also distinct. This variety is also known as
the script was not a sign of any success in the Mandyam variety of Tamil.
learning the language.
As a school-going boy as well as a college
As I continued to work in Vallabh student, I had some friends who belonged
Vidyanagar, I soon picked up the spoken to the Iyengar community. When I visited
form of the language (slowly but steadily), my friends' houses, I often got to listen to
and with the help of a colleague I also their language and without being
learnt to write Gujarati. This was an conscious of it, I picked up a few of its bits
achievement, for now I could read, write and pieces. I never had an opportunity, nor
and speak Gujarati. Though not very a need, to use this language as long as I
fluent, I was accepted in their society with lived in Mysore.
all my nuances, and errors.
After working for a few years in Mysore as
The encouragement received from friends lecturer in one of the colleges, I moved to
and the people at large, gave me the Hyderabad for further studies. It was here
confidence to read some books in that I met my prospective wife, who was a
Gujarati. As a teacher educator, I had to go Tamilian. (She is a polyglot, who is fluent
with my students to various schools to in more than eight Indian languages as
supervise teaching practice. This provided well as English. She is also a translator
me with ample opportunities to speak in recognized by the national Sahitya
Gujarati with school children and also the Akademi.) It was my marriage to her that
teachers teaching in schools. In about two gave me plenty of opportunities to use the
years or a little less, I was a reasonably little Tamil I knew and improve it. Today, I
good user of Gujarati. I owe this to the can comfortably interact with speakers of
good exposure I got to the language and Tamil, though I have not been able to
the opportunities to use it, both of which become familiar with its script. Reading
helped me pick up the language fairly and writing Tamil have remained a distant
quickly and well. dream for me.
Learning Tamil Conclusion

The initial years of my life were spent in Learning a language depends on a variety
Mysore. I had the major part of my of factors. In the first place, one should
education and a few years of my life as a have a friendly attitude towards other
teacher in this town. Mysore was a languages. Secondly, one should possess
princely state with very benevolent the necessary aptitude to learn a new
rulers—the Wodeyars. In the late language when one has an opportunity. It
nineteenth century, some of the Wodeyar is equally important to understand that no
kings got people from the erstwhile language is superior or inferior. All
Madras state to work as ministers languages are alike in that they are
(diwans) in their kingdom. Most of these organic and dynamic. We should be
people were Brahmins and belonged to sensitive to their dynamism and accept
either Iyengar or Iyer families. Generations their nuances. With the right attitude and
of their descendants have settled in aptitude, one can learn a new language
Mysore and have become part of its when there is a need supported by the
culture. However, they have retained their luxury of proper exposure. In this respect, I
language—Tamil, though it has emerged was lucky with all the three languages I
as a distinct variety with some Kannada learnt. I could otherwise have never learnt
words integrated into its vocabulary. The them.
9
Acquiring Standard
Spoken English through
Extensive Reading: A
Case Study
Thomas Cook | tomcook@humboldt.edu
Thomas Cook is an Assistant Professor at Humboldt State University (California,
U.S.A.) in the School of Education. He is interested in the role of emotions in learning,
learning inhibition, and second language acquisition.
Key Words: EFL, Extensive reading, Sustained silent reading,

Standard spoken English
Abstract
An immigrant, who worked in an American machine shop, acquired polite standard spoken
English by reading romance novels in an 18-week adult extensive-reading ESL class. Full-
time employment in the machine shop and once-a-week class discussions provided the only
places where the student was routinely exposed to spoken English.
10
Acquiring Standard Spoken English through Extensive Reading: A Case Study
rarely watched English language

Introduction television. He was married to a Russian
This paper reports a case supporting the and spoke Russian at home with his wife
claim that reading popular literature in a and family.
second language strongly influences a
learner's acquisition of the spoken target Sergei was a highly motivated student
language. The powerful effect of reading who said he wanted to improve his
on first and second-language acquisition English so he could understand everything
has been well-documented in many his co-workers said. At the beginning of
multi-participant research studies the semester, he reported that he had no
(Krashen, 2004). In addition, an trouble communicating and
overwhelming number of individual case understanding anything related to his job.
studies, which support the larger more He had been working in the machine shop
rigorous studies, continue to pile up for almost two years and said he
(Krashen, 2007). The greater number of understood almost all of the work-related
participants involved in larger studies conversations. But when the
ostensibly makes them more conversations among his fellow
generalizable, but individual case studies, machinists left the nuts-and-bolts topics
because they are experience-near, are of the shop, understanding the English
often closer to the less abstract around him became more difficult, and he
subjective truth we know as individuals. In often could not follow what his
the long run, the sum of the many one-off co-workers were talking about. He also
generalizations about the experience of mentioned he had trouble understanding
individuals, outlined in the growing corpus his co-workers' jokes and humor. He
of case studies about second language thought his English had stopped
reading, provides robust evidence improving. This is why he enrolled in the
supporting the benefit of this language ESL class and what motivated him to
learning practice. improve his English.
The ESL class was for adults and based on

A Case Study an extensive-reading curriculum. It met
for three hours a night, one night a week,
Sergei , a recent thirty-something blue- for eighteen weeks. The class read nine
collar Russian immigrant, enrolled in an Danielle Steel novels over the course of
18-week adult ESL class taught at a junior the semester—three weeks for the first
college in a large American city. He had novel and two weeks for each novel after
lived in the U.S. for a little less than two that, except the last week, when students
years. By day, he worked as a machinist in were asked to read an entire novel in one
a machine shop where he was the only week. There was also an optional finals
non-native-born worker. The shop week bonus assignment for which the
employed an all-male, racially diverse students were encouraged to try to read
group of native-born working-class an entire book of their choice in one day,
employees. Until taking the class or over the weekend.
described in this paper, the machine shop
was the only place where Sergei had Over the course of the semester, students
routinely heard or practiced English. He were asked to read at least one hour a day
lived in a Russian-speaking neighborhood, at home and, if this was not enough time
socialized with Russian speakers, and to finish the book, to catch up on the
11
weekends. At the beginning of the as “Should Adrian divorce her husband?”

semester, students were taught how to The novels spurred many lively
read a book for pleasure. The rules for conversations and debates among the
pleasure reading were simple: 1) Focus on students, which they often tied to their
the story and read for meaning; 2) Read own lives.
quickly and silently; 3) Do not use a
dictionary; 4) Do not translate; 5) If you do There were no tests, no grammar
not know a word, guess its meaning and instruction, nor any systematic attempt to
go on; 6) If you cannot guess the meaning explicitly teach the English language.
of the unknown word, skip it and go on: 7) However, on occasion, when students
Give it a chance . asked specific questions about English
usage, structure, grammar, or
Students who objected to not using a pronunciation related to the reading, the
dictionary were encouraged to at least try teacher addressed them and then went
this method for the first book, just to see back to the focus on meaning.
if it worked. They were reminded that this
Sergei had never read an entire book in
was probably how they read for pleasure
English, or even tried to start one. But he
in their native language. The students
became an enthusiastic learner after
were also told that the first fifty pages, or
reading Heart Beat (Steel, 1992), the first
even first half of the first book, might be
assigned novel, which became his “home
hard going. But they were promised the
run book” . He reported that he read for an
reading would get much easier after hour a day, as instructed, and several
breaking this barrier and that after that, hours beyond that over the weekends. He
they would soon take off in English and fly finished all of the books that were
through the reading. assigned. As the weeks went by, his face
often lit up in class, and he was animated
The in-class work consisted of in his small group conversations. He
conversations about the books. The topics routinely raised his hand in the large
under discussion were generally initiated group discussions to give his opinions to
by the students, but guided by the teacher the class. He became an avid learner. He
when structure was necessary. At the always looked happy and would
beginning of each class, students were sometimes stay to talk after class.
routinely divided up into small groups of
four or five for group discussions. After Then during the fifteenth week, just
this, “grand conversations” including the before our class started, and seven books
entire class ensued. A relaxed student- (close to two-and-a-half million words)
centered classroom atmosphere later, Sergei entered the classroom and
encouraged many of the English learners sat down to talk with his discussion group.
to successfully participate in front of the But he did not act like his usual self and
large group of classmates during these looked depressed. This was not like him.
grand conversations, something many had Other members of his group noticed it,
never done before (Graves & Fitzgerald, too. An unhappy hangdog look clung to his
2003).The focus was on meaning and face. His luster was gone.
students discussed their opinions about
the books. Many lively topics about the I was concerned and approached his
narratives were discussed. Students table. As I did, one of the group members
generated many high-interest questions spoke up and told me that Sergei had had
concerning characters in the novels, such a bad experience.
12
So, I said, “Sergei, what's the matter?” explanation, and the hangdog look started
He raised his head and, in a sullen voice, to slip away.
replied, “The guys at work made fun of my
English.” I further explained that the language of
“What did they say?” I asked. romance novels was like the language
“They said, 'Hey, Sergei. How come you used in soap operas on television. I
started talking like a guy on a soap reiterated this because his co-workers
opera?'” As he spoke, a wounded feeling had noticed that he had started talking
crossed his face and slouched his body. like the people on soap operas. This was
proof he was talking like the characters
He went on to complain that, the previous he was reading about in the books. So, he
day, the guys at work had started talking should take what his fellow machinists
about the way he was speaking. He looked said as their way of saying how much he
convinced that the ESL class was not had improved his spoken English.
working. He had wanted to improve his
English in order to fit in better with his He began to look mollified.
fellow machinists, but now the guys were
ribbing him about the way he spoke. This I said that if he read spy or detective
novels, he could read dialogue that was
had never happened to him before.
more like the machine shop's. But that he
I laughed and said, “Congratulations. That did not need to do this, because his co-
means your English has really improved a workers were just kidding him. He should
lot. You're even starting to speak better take their soap-opera comments as an
acknowledgement of his progress and a
English than the guys around you at the
genuine curiosity about how he started to
shop, and they were born here.”
talk that way. In addition, the good-
Then I explained to him about different natured kidding around showed he had
dialects, linguistic registers, and how the been accepted as one of the guys. If they
speech of males in an all-male group is really thought his English was bad, they
would not bring it up at all. Furthermore,
often much rougher and less standard
they were kidding him for speaking good
than their speech at home with their
proper English, not for speaking it poorly!
wives, or at school, or church, or in polite
company. I also explained that American I also asked Sergei if he would share this
humour, especially among males, can be experience with the class. This turned into
quite rough, but that they were just having a discussion about the powerful effects of
fun and really giving him a compliment. I extensive reading. A number of other
said it was probably that way in Russia, students testified that people had also
too, at least with the rougher speech, but noticed and complimented them on an
that he may not have thought about it. I improvement in their speaking. Many said
told him that the novels' dialogues were they had found themselves being able to
written using the polite speech of perform better and speak English more
standard educated English. As a result of fluently. Others discovered themselves
reading the books, he was using this kind uttering vocabulary words they had read,
of language. The guys at work had noticed but never heard before in conversation.
he had started speaking more properly, so Sometimes, words they had neither heard
this proved he was making excellent nor explicitly studied, just rolled off their
progress. He felt better after this tongues and out of their mouths, without
13
conscious awareness that they even knew become a topic of discussion at Sergei's
them, until they discovered they had used workplace among his fellow machinists.
them. After listening to the others, Sergei This was no mean feat, considering that
also volunteered that he had experienced none of them were ESL teachers or
linguists. Most surprising is the fact they
identified Sergei's new-found language
Discussion ability as belonging to the romance genre
The most interesting aspect of this case is by labeling it as “talking like a guy on a
that Sergei picked up many elements of soap opera”. As far as I know, up till now,
standard educated white-collar spoken no linguist has ever described the
English almost solely through reading. linguistic qualities of the genre of
This register is sometimes referred to as romance novels nor the spoken register of
“proper English” and is what most soap operas. Machinists may have a
teachers and middle-class mothers want greater interest in, and be more sensitive
to instill in their students and children. to, this kind of language than linguists,
Because of Sergei's relative isolation from perhaps because they do not want to be
this polite spoken register of standard identified as someone who talks that
American English, this case provides an way—at least at work. The influence
excellent example of how powerfully reading had on Sergei's growing
extensive reading promotes language acquisition of proper spoken Standard
acquisition without focusing on explicit American English is clear, and most of
instruction. Limited weekly exposure to this change was a result of reading
the teacher's speech, combined with the romance novels.
imperfect versions of English spoken by
his classmates, who were also reading the Notes
same romance novels with the same
polite educated “soap-opera” language,
certainly helped. But, except for the
teacher, none of the students fluently
spoke polite educated standard American
English. In addition, the two-and-a-half
million words Sergei read, before his co-
workers made the soap-opera comments,
dwarfed the amount of English he had
heard in the classroom.
The effect, although not quantifiable, was

large enough and significant enough to
References
Graves, M. F., & Fitzgerald, J. (2003). Scaffolding reading experiences for
multilingual classrooms. In G. G. Garcia (Ed.), English learners: Reaching the
highest level of English literacy (pp. 96-124). Newark, DE: International Reading
Association.
14
Krashen, S. (2004). The power of reading (2nd ed.). Portsmouth, N. H.

Heinemann and Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited.
Krashen, S. (2007). Case histories and the comprehension hypothesis. Selected

Papers from the Sixteenth International Symposium on English Teaching, pp.
100-113. English Teachers Association, Republic of China. Taipei: Crane
Publishing Company.
Dupuy, B., Tse, L., & Cook, T. (1996). Bringing books into the classroom: First
steps in turning college-level ESL students into readers. TESOL Journal 5(4),
10-15.
Peterson, R., & Eeds, M. (2007). Grand conversations: Literature groups in

action (Updated ed.) New York: Scholastic.
Steele, D. (1992). Heartbeat. New York: Penguin Random House.
Trelease, J. (2001). The read-aloud handbook (4th ed.). New York: Penguin.
15
Learning German to Actively

Participate in Scientific
Research Work
in the German Speaking
Parts of the World: A Deeply
Enriching Experience
Venkatesa Iyengar Vasanta Ram*
V. Vasanta Ram has been on the faculty of Ruhr University at Bochum, Germany,
since 1970. Earlier, he worked in Kanpur at the Indian Institute of Technology and the
Gas Turbine Research Centre. He took the German language course of Goethe
Institut, Arolsen, Germany, between July-October 1961, and submitted his
dissertation for a Doctorate in Engineering (Dr.-Ing.) in 1966.
*Readers who wish to correspond with Dr. V. Vasanta Ram may address their queries to
the Guest Editor for this issue at: amritavalli@gmail.com
Key Words: Learning German, DAAD scholarship, Research

work in fluid dynamics
Abstract
This paper is based on the experience of its author who went to Germany to conduct
research work in the area of fluid dynamics, a branch of science/engineering that deals
with fluid motion, e.g. of air (wind, smoke), water (in rivers, oceans), oil, blood, or glacier.
The research work in Germany was funded through a scholarship awarded to the author by
the organization DAAD (Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst - German Academic
Exchange Service). The scholarship included a four-month German language course at the
Goethe Institut. This paper summarizes the author's experiences at learning and using
German, both at the Goethe Institute and thereafter.
16
Learning German to Actively Participate in Scientific Research Work in the German
Speaking Parts of the World: A Deeply Enriching Experience
courses were offered. The author opted

Introduction and for German, and this was his initiation into
the world of this language.
Initiation into the
German Language After passing out of the Indian Institute of
Science with a D.I.I.Sc., which had been by
then converted into a degree of Master of
In the late fifties of the last century, when Engineering, M.E., the author, who was
the author was on the verge of completing keen on pursuing research, sought a
his first degree in engineering (B. E.), he position advertised by the then newly
was, as many of his fellow-students were, founded Gas-Turbine Research Centre,
and students in that stage possibly are GTRC, which, to him, held the promise of
even today, in a frame of mind to chart out his being engaged in research in the field
a course for himself that he wished to of aero-engines. He was selected as a
pursue in his profession. Viewing them Junior Scientific Officer. He accepted the
primarily from this angle, the author was post, and was a member of a small team
on the lookout for engineering disciplines entrusted with the task of performing
that held a promise of meeting his engineering calculations and preparing
expectations from several perspectives. engineering drawings, both being steps
One of these was a close coupling necessary in the design process of a jet
between the profession as practiced and engine.
one or more of the subjects the author
had gained familiarity with through the In the course of his work at GTRC the
curriculum prescribed for the basic author came to appreciate the
engineering degree. At this point, a importance of scientifically well-founded
visitor's lecture in the broad area of knowledge in the fundamentals of fluid
aeroplane flight, organized by the local motion in order to perform tasks
Mechanical Engineering Student Chapter, necessary for satisfactory engineering
captured his imagination. The lecture was design of a jet-engine. Acquiring this
mainly instrumental in kindling within him knowledge was not straightforward. It
a keen interest in engineering subjects needed undertaking more advanced
related to aeroplanes. studies involving research, which called
for the author to consider going abroad for
The author soon discovered that the such studies. The author was confronted
curriculum of the basic engineering with the dual problem of getting
degree was not an adequate preparation admission into an educational institution
for practice of a profession belonging to engaged in research in an area relevant to
this field, making it more or less aeroplanes and/or aero-engines,
mandatory for an aspirant to pursue combined with finding sources of
further studies in subjects more closely financial support for such studies. The
related to aeroplane flight. The author two, put together, appeared an
then sought admission to the Indian insurmountable hurdle at that time, when
Institute of Science in Bengaluru, India, a senior and much-experienced colleague
which was offering Post-Graduate showed a possible way out.
Diplomas (D.I.I.Sc). He found admission to
a department dealing with aero-engines, This colleague, who had become a kind of
an area he was fascinated with. The Indian a mentor for the author and had combined
Institute of Science, at that time, required advanced study in the U.S.A. with research
aspirants of D.I.I.Sc. to pass a test in in a German-speaking country,
Modern European Languages; French and encouraged the author to explore
German were the languages in which possibilities for advanced study and
17
research in countries outside the English- Both the DAAD and the Goethe Institut are
speaking world. In light of the author's supported by the Federal Republic of
experience until then, with many vain Germany, and their objectives and scope
searches for financially supported are defined through their statutes. Since
openings for advanced study/research, these are known and widely publicized on
the author decided to intensify his efforts their websites, it suffices here to recall
to include countries outside the English- that the Goethe Institut runs language
speaking world. He was much encouraged schools for learning German in many
by the words of his mentor, who parts of Germany and also in other parts
expressed his own experience by saying “it of the world. The batch of DAAD-
(doing research work in a German Scholarship-holders from India, including
speaking part of the world) was an the author, set sail by boat to Europe in
enriching experience.” An important point the second week of June 1961. The entire
the mentor made in his advice was that batch of scholarship-holders
there were far-reaching contributions disembarked in Marseilles, from where,
coming from researchers working in the after an overnight stay, they proceeded to
German speaking parts of world, many of Germany by train. En route, in Frankfurt
which have indeed been recognized to be am Main, the scholarship group was
of pivotal scientific significance even divided into two sub-groups, with one sub-
today. The mentor said, “It speaks for a group proceeding to the German-
good researcher not to overlook these Language school run by the Goethe
contributions.” Institut in Iserlohn, and the other to the
school run in Arolsen. The author was in
the sub-group sent to Arolsen. When it
The Language arrived in Arolsen, they were met at the
railway station by the Director of the
Course at a School Goethe Institut German Language School
in Arolsen, who had made lodging
of the Goethe arrangements for the scholarship holders
Institut for the duration of the language course.
As was customary in Germany those days,

During the second year of his employment the students were lodged in individual
at GTRC, when the author was putting in rooms in apartments in which families
intensified efforts to find funding sources lived, and rented out rooms for students
for advanced studies with research of the local Goethe Institut German
abroad, there appeared in the newspapers Language School. The German language
course started a few days after the
an advertisement offering scholarships to
group's arrival. Before it formally started,
be granted by the German Academic
the students were given a short test to
Exchange Service, Deutscher assess their proficiency level in the
Akademischer Austauschdienst, DAAD, for German language; some of the students
advanced studies and research in various had after all undergone a course in
disciplines in the then Federal Republic of German before they came to Germany.
Germany (West Germany). The author With the background of the course in
applied for this scholarship and, after an German language that the author had
interview, was selected for one. The taken for his M.E. at IISc, he was assigned
DAAD-scholarship included a boat to the Grundstufe (Basic course).
passage from India to Europe, and a four- Students in the group, numbering around
month language course of the Goethe fifteen, came from many countries, of
Institut. which relatively few were from the
18
Learning German to Actively Participate in Scientific Research Work in the German
Speaking Parts of the World: A Deeply Enriching Experience
English-speaking world. Many were from communication, whether by a written text

countries where the languages spoken or oral, is susceptible to errors or
were Spanish, Italian, French or Japanese. misunderstandings or both.
Most of the students were assigned to the
Grundstufe. Besides helping the students out of the
difficulties mentioned, the teaching staff
German was introduced and used in the at the Goethe Institut Language School,
classes for communication between the Arolsen encouraged their students to put
teachers and the students from the very into use what they had been introduced to
first day onwards. A book, obviously in the class in their daily life, outside the
specially designed for the use of adults classroom; a procedure that, in the
learning German, was used for this author's experience, struck deep roots.
purpose. Classes were held six hours a Furthermore, as part of the course, the
day (0900 - 1200 hrs and 1400 - 1700 hrs) students were required to write a short
from Monday through Friday, and 0900 - essay (running into a page or two) in
1200 hrs on Saturdays. As would be German, on a topic of their choice. In any
expected, the German language used in event, to the author these were of much
the starting stages of the course was of a help to gain confidence in using the
relatively simple structure. It then German language as such.
proceeded step by step into stages of
increasing complexity. Emphasis was In short, the course at the Goethe Institut
placed on grammatically correct usage, Language School had laid a sound
even in the beginning stages. language foundation for the author to
engage himself during his stay at the
Already during the course, the author Technische Hochschule (now Technical
gained the impression that the teaching University) Braunschweig in research
staff at the Goethe Institut Language work in the subject of his primary interest,
School had a good appreciation of the which was Fluid Dynamics.
peculiar difficulties typically experienced
by an adult wanting to learn German. An
adult, being generally used to employing
Learning to Use the
his or her own language of choice - Language in
whether as a mother-tongue from
childhood or through schooling - to Research Work
express his or her own thoughts in that
language, say in English, French or As just stated, the four-month course at
Spanish, when learning German, is often the Goethe Institut Language School in
observed to face several difficulties that Arolsen had laid a sound foundation for
may be characterized as typical. To give the author in German, but this by itself
an example, one of these pertains to the was not sufficient for him to actively
proper declension of the article which, in participate in research at the Institut für
German, is governed by all the three, case, Strömungsmechanik of the Technische
gender and preposition. Some further Hochschule Braunschweig. The main
examples observed to be associated with shortcomings that the author had to make
characteristic difficulties, pertain to up for concerned vocabulary and writing,
pronunciation and formation of the past- both with strong orientation towards the
tense of a verb. The German language subject of Fluid Dynamics. For learning to
course at the Goethe Institut, through use the language to this end, the author
their method of teaching, struck a balance found it necessary to take some steps on
between all the three, viz. grammar, his own initiative. Some of the steps he
syntax and pronunciation, without which has listed below:
19
? Read the research literature, when the indebtedness both to his Mentor, whom he
work had been done and reported in wishes to refer to in this paper through his
German, in the original language itself, (Mentor's) initials AP, and to DAAD. He
which was of course German. also thanks the Editor of this volume for
? Write periodical reports of his research asking him to write an article on “Learning
work in German. German”.
? Give the seminar lectures on the
ongoing scientific work, which is
customary in universities in Germany,
in German. It was very helpful to
prepare the lectures by writing them
This is a rule in Calculus, about which
out first, paying attention to proper
Vasanta Ram has a story to tell.
grammatical usage, but not delivering
the lecture by reading the written text.
During the initial stages of his
Writing out the entire text first helped
research, in a discussion with his
speaking with ease in German in front
German advisor, the author
of an audience!
suggested that a certain problem was
? Participate in discussions following a
not amenable to the solutions then
lecture in German, particularly if the
extant. The advisor asked if he had
speaker has given the lecture in
tried “Lo-pitaal's” rule.
German.
Vasanta Ram, who had never heard of
By the time his stay at the Technische
this rule, returned a confused
Hochschule Braunschweig came to an
negative. The advisor thereupon,
end, the author had acquired a proficiency
somewhat dismissively, called in his
in German that met the standards set for
secretary and instructed her to take
a Dissertation (Dr.- Ing.).
the scholar to the library and point
him to the relevant books.
Concluding Only then did Vasanta Ram realize
Observations and that he knew this (quite commonly
known) rule as “El Hospital's” rule!
Acknowledgement That was how it was pronounced
during his course of study, and
Since this is an article the author has perhaps still is.
written based only upon his own
experience in learning German, he finds it Interestingly, an internet search for
more appropriate to give this section the the rule now shows a spelling closer
title as above, instead of just to the pronunciation: L'Hopital's Rule,
“Conclusions”. In summary, the author can along with the conventional spelling:
identify himself with his Mentor's words L'Hospital's Rule.
that “it (doing research work in a German
speaking part of the world) will be an Wikipedia tells us that the rule is
enriching experience”, and he does so named after the 17th-century French
unreservedly. Although more than six mathematician Guillaume de
decades have passed since the author l'Hôpital (French: [lopital]).
was initiated into the German speaking -Editor
world, its influence on the author is still
breathing full of life, for which he wishes
to put on record herewith his
20
Learning to Read Hindi through WhatsApp: From Deciphering to Cross-Languaging
Learning to Read Hindi

through WhatsApp: From
Deciphering to Cross-
Languaging
Geetha Durairajan | gdurairajan@gmail.com
Geetha Durairajan is Professor, Department of Materials Development, Testing and
Evaluation, at the English and Foreign Languages University, Hyderabad. Her
research interests include pedagogic evaluation and language education in
multilingual contexts.
Key Words: Reading Devanagari script, Deciphering letters, Text

difficulty, Scaffolding, Comprehension
Abstract
This paper is auto-ethnographic in its approach. In it, I have reflected on my experiences of
learning to read Hindi in the past two years, using texts sent to me on social media
(WhatsApp). In the paper, I will attempt to answer two research questions regarding the
actual letters in the Devanagari script that I found difficult or easy and the types of text
that I found difficult to comprehend. I will end the paper with a few implications for adult
learning.
21
This paper is a self-reflective narrative of

Introduction my travails and successes over the past
two years (2017-2019). I received and tried
I am a 62-year-old, working at the English to make sense of 40 text messages during
and Foreign Languages University. I grew this period. I actually received more than
up in Madras, studied in a convent school 50 texts, but with the learner-centred
with Tamizh as my second language, and power that I vested in myself (Amritavalli,
no exposure to Hindi, since Tamil Nadu 2007) I deleted texts that were too long, or
in the form of poetry. I stayed with the
follows the two and not the three
texts that were within my proximal
language formula . In the late 70s, after
development zone (Vygotsky, 1978). Texts,
completing my Masters in English
in this context, were not mere strings of
Literature, my elder sister and I were
words but carried new knowledge. As
inspired to sign up for a correspondence
such, I initially struggled to decipher the
course, Learn Hindi Through English,
code only because I wanted to
offered by the Central Hindi Directorate. It
comprehend what was being said. This
followed a structural approach: we were
struggle to comprehend (Prabhu, 2018), I
taught the letters, and then had to read suspect, is what enabled me to become a
aloud and write: “yeh kitaab hai, yeh kalam somewhat successful reader of Hindi. This
hai, yeh kursi hai”, and so on. Neither of us self-motivated learning, however, is not
got very far with our foray into learning purely self-instructional. My former
Hindi, and we came to the conclusion that doctoral student, Deepesh
we were not good language learners. Chandrasekharan, was and still is a very
Reproducing strings of words, with little patient teacher/informal tutor to me. I
or no cerebration demanded as learner would forward the messages to him, along
effort (Prabhu, 1991, 2019) was not helpful. with a text explaining what I had or had
We never went beyond the first few not understood. This was accompanied by
lessons. queries which he patiently answered, thus
enabling me to read Hindi.
Years later, in Hyderabad at CIEFL (now
known as the EFL University), I taught
myself to speak Hindi by listening to the
Nature of the Paper
language spoken around me, watching This paper is purely ethnographic in its
Hindi movies and television serials approach. I have attempted to critically
occasionally, and attempting to use the examine some of the 40 Hindi texts and
language whenever the opportunity the discussions around them to glean the
presented itself. I also attempted to teach language learning processes. I have also
myself to read in Hindi, by looking at Hindi attempted to answer the following two
posters when I stopped at traffic signals, research questions:
but I did not get very far. Many years later, 1. Which letters were easy/difficult to
as a 60-year-old, and armed with a smart decipher and why?
phone, I stopped myself from getting 2. Which texts were easy/difficult to read
irritated with Hindi messages sent to me and understand and why?
on WhatsApp (a social media site that
allows one to send messages or make
free calls on cell phones),either as an Data Analysis and
individual or as a group member, telling
myself: “Why don't I try to read these short Interpretation
messages and see if I can teach myself to
read Hindi?” I began in April 2017. I am still There are two kinds of data that will be
learning. examined and interpreted in this paper.
22
The actual texts in Hindi (transliterated, Hail to thee, lord Balaji!

along with their translations) are the first. O Balaji, you who give the world
These are referred to as text 1, text 2, etc. everything,
The second kind of data has been collated What gift can I offer you?
from the discussions that I (GD) had with You whose name spreads fragrance,
Deepesh (DC) either in the form of How can I offer you flowers?
questions and answers, or comments. Good morning.
Have a blessed day.
Hindi Letters that My discussion with Deepesh after I sent

him text 1, captures the problem:
Were Easy/Difficult
GD: “I did not get 2 words: sambhaal I got
In the first few months, my most frequent only half right. You know, thanks to
question to Deepesh was: “What is this Swachh Bharat I learnt the letter for bh,
word? I don't know.” For instance, in text 1, so nibha and sambhaal”.
“nibha” and “sambhaal” were difficult to Deepesh was able to catch what I was
read and decipher. Similarly, in text 2, I saying; with true learner-centredness, he
used shared knowledge of linguistics. This
found “gaanʈhon”, and “sudhre”,
is what he said:
problematic. In text 3, “bhenʈh”, and
DC:“Oh, ok. Tamizh does not have
“chaɖhaaun” were difficult to decipher.
aspirated plosives. So must be really
tough for you.”
Text 1:
I too had realized this, and reiterated:
he(y) bhagwaan sabke mobile sambhaal- GD: “Yup, aspirated letters are tough to
kar rakhnaa, isii-se sab rishte nibhaa rahe remember for me, 'cos can't hear the
hen. difference.”
Oh God! Take care of everyone's mobile Deepesh's reply to my statement sums it
phone. All relationships are maintained all up:
through them. DC: “... I can understand. Training the ear
and then seeing the difference. Phew!”
Text 2: (He went on to liken me to) “the nursery
adrak kii gaanʈhon-saa rahaa bachpan school student with no exposure to
apnaa, English, getting used to an English
bas utnaa hii sudhre, jitnaa kooʈe gaye. medium classroom.”
Our childhood was like a knob of ginger But non-recognition of aspirated letters
We only improved to the extent we were was not the only problem I had with
thrashed. deciphering the Devanagari script.
In my own words: “Some letters look
Text 3: alike.” I found it difficult to tell the
jai shrii baalaajii kii difference not only between the aspirated
he(y) baalaajii aap to(h) and unaspirated letters such as p and ph
saare(y) jagat-ko dene waale (i and Q), but also between totally
mein kyaa tujh-ko bhenʈh chaɖhaaun unrelated letters such as ch, gh, and dh (N,
jiske naam-se aaye khushbu ?k and /k), sh and kh (”k and [k), and bh and
mein kyaa usko phool chaɖhaaun th (Hk and Fk). All these letter clusters
suprabhaat looked very similar to each other, with
aapka din mangalmai rahe minor variations.
23
Text 4: deciphering caused by the background

yuddh nahiin, prem karoo image, see image 2.
aur agar donon karnaa he
to(h) shaadii kar lo Image 1
Make love, not war

And if you want to do both
then get married.
This short and simple text, that advised

people to make love not war and if they
wanted to do both, to get married (text 4)
was difficult to decipher initially because
of the gemination but, although there was Image 2
no English scaffolding (Bruner, 1985)
available, world knowledge made it
enjoyable to read. In this text, I also had a
problem with “the squiggles below the
word”. It took me a while to read the word
yudhdh (;q)). If by some chance, it was a
different half letter below the full letter, I
was completely lost.
The second “squiggle” that caused major

problems belonged to the various forms
of “r” . First, I had to work out to which
letter the “r” was attached, when it was
marked as a “matra” above the word; and
then, in some cases, the “r” would be Easy versus Difficult Texts
indicated below the word with a I read different types of texts each with its
own level of difficulty. The easiest yet the
“squiggle”. For example, in Image 2 below,
most boring text (text 5) was the one from
in the word flQZ 'sirf' “r” is indicated as a
my bank asking me not to reveal my card
matra above the 'f'. In text 10 below, in the no., PIN, CVV, etc., to anyone.
word d`’.kk Krishna, the 'r' is a curved
squiggle below the letter 'k'; while in the Text 5:
word ijkØe paraakram, it is a line below Card nambar, CVV pin, O T P kisii ko na
the same letter 'k'. bataayen. Bank kabhii nahiin puchtaa.
Last but not the least; an overarching Card number, CVV pin, OTP. Never tell this
decipherability problem was caused by to anyone. Bank will never ask for this.
the medium and type of text. WhatsApp
texts, by their very nature, are authentic Being able to decipher and read this text
and are intended to be read by the was not a challenge for me. Known
language user. They tend to have stylish knowledge in a new code did not make
me want to crack the code, because the
fonts and often have images that have
demand to solve a problem and learn to
been copied and uploaded. For a sample
read (Prabhu, 2018) was missing.
of a problematic stylish font, see image 1
and for a sample of a problem in The texts that gave me my first
24
“satisfaction of having cracked the code” what to write for mother tongue. With his
were two humorous ones, accompanied tongue in cheek, the father replies: “likh,
by a visual (picture/video), and where the beta, long and out of control.”
required background knowledge was
available. The first text had a picture of a Text 8:
woman with a phone in her hand and her (Baccha school kaa admission form
baby in a huge coat pocket (text 6). This bharte hue…)
text spoke about what the world had Baccha: Papa mother tongue me kyaa
come to, for what should be in the hand likhuun?
was in the pocket, and vice versa. Papa: likh betaa, very long and out of
control.
Text 6:
(Child, while filling the admission form for
(accompanied by picture of a woman
a school)
with a phone in her hand and a baby in
Child: Father, what shall I write in the
her coat pocket)
mother tongue column?
kaisaa zamaanaa aayaa he.
Father: You can write, very long and out of
jo haath me honaa chaahiye vo jeb men
control.
he, aur jo jeb men honaa chaahiye vo
haath men he.
I did not know that the word “bharte”
meant “(while) fill(ing) in”, but I was able
What has the world come to? to guess the meaning from the context.
What should be in her hands is in the The same world knowledge helped me
pocket and what should be in the pocket understand a text that most of us would
is in her hand. have received at some point or the other,
with a link asking us to open and vote
The second text was about what a whether we would like a Ram mandir or a
husband ought to do when his wife cried: mosque to be built in Ayodhya (text 9).
the short video showed him taking a
selfie, at which point she just stopped Text 9:
crying and started smiling (text 7). ayodhyaa men kyaa banaanaa chaahiye.
Raam mandir v/s Baabri masjid.
Text 7: Open fast and vote (link given).
(accompanied by a picture of a man Sharing is caring.
taking a selfie of himself and his wife) Aap apnaa amulya vote zaroor
jab aap kii biiwii aapke saamne roye to karen; is message ko zyaadaa share
turant ye karen karen.
Whenever your wife starts crying when What should be built in Ayodhya, a temple
you are around, just do this. for Ram or Babri masjid? Please cast your
vote and share this with all.
There was a second set of texts which I
found easy to decipher as they included a The third set of texts that was easy to
few English words. The first text in this set comprehend were short ones which had
(text 8) was laced with a bit of humour small philosophical statements, normally
and took a quiet dig at women. My world signalled as the “vichaar” for the day. If
knowledge and the few English words such a text had some support in the form
used, written in English script, made it of a mythological reference (text 10), it
easy for me to not only decipher and read was that much easier to comprehend.
but also enjoy what was written. The text
was about a child asking her father, while Text 10:
filling out an application form for a school, chhoʈii unglii par puraa govardhan parvat
25
uʈhaanewale Shri Krishna barmudaa [sic] bhii apne kaccheey ka

baansuri dono haathoon se pakaɖte he. bhaai he
bas itnaa hii antar hai paraakram aur jise videsh padhne bhejaa thaa.
prem men. nalaayak ne wahaan jaakar
Isliye rishton me paraakram nahiin prem naam badal liyaa.
dikhaayiye
There was a range of problems with this
Shri Krishna, who lifted up the whole text. Initially, all that I understood was:
Govardhan mountain on his little finger, “Something about 2 girls, government
holds his flute in both hands. Just such is school and convent; bermuda, shorts, or
the difference between valour and love. country (not sure), name changed maybe”.
So show love in your relationships, not Deepesh had to explain this text in detail
valour or strength. to me.
The texts that were the most difficult to Pajama and palazzo are actually
understand were the ones which had a “own brothers” [sic]. The difference
superficial as well as a metaphorical is merely in the fact that the former
meaning, or had a sarcastic tone. Text 2 is went to a government school and
a good example of such metaphoric use. I the latter is convent educated. The
“got the ginger statement all right, but not Bermuda is also the brother of our
metaphorically.” I did not realize that the kaccha (underwear), who was sent
text had a deeper meaning—it was all abroad for studies. The fellow
about how “...our childhood was as uneven changed his name there (to
as the “joints” of ginger; that we improved Bermuda). Essentially saying that
only as much as we were crushed” (DC). palazzo is pajama and Bermuda is
First of all, I did not know the literal underwear shorts; using the
meaning of the word “gaanʈh”, that it metaphor of convent educated and
means knots, let alone that it referred to studies abroad as a metaphor for
“the joints, like pieces in ginger” (DC). The westernization [sic].
meanings of “sudhre” (improve), and
“kootna” (to pound) were also not known My comments to Deepesh on this text
to me. As such, even “kooʈe gaye”, summarize many of the problems I
meaning “got pounded” (DC) was beyond encountered with it. First, “I actually
my level of comprehension. As a result, in thought it was about genuine sisters and a
the words of my tutor: “yeah, the ginger Bermuda brother. Never thought of it as
one was too metaphorical for you to get it” clothes.” Secondly, I realized that when
(DC). English words are written in Devanagari
script, it takes a lot of language capability
A text (text 11) I got in September 2018, to read it and yet perceive it as
more than a year after I began trying to transliteration. Deepesh actually thought I
read, was about the similarities and did not know these four terms of clothing
differences between different kinds of and therefore glossed them for me before
clothing—pajamas, palazzos, shorts and explaining the metaphor.
bermudas.
“Palazzo is the name given to women's
Text 11: pants that flare at the bottom. Bermuda is
pajamaa aur palaazzo what people call shorts that come up to
asl men sage bhaii hain the knee”. I told him that I was very sure
fark sirf yeh he ki pajamaa that “with English or Tamizh I would have
sarkaarii skool men padhaa huaa caught it at once. So, when reading the
jabki palaazzo convent educated he script itself is difficult, [the] mind does
26
not look at metaphor?” I was convinced perspective, but dropped it as way too off.
that “even if someone had set a question, As for the word “samajh”, I actually had 4
in Hindi, I think I would have got it.” or 5 verbs in mind—state, accept,
perceive, understand—which I did not
This makes one wonder whether higher want to use”. Interestingly, I knew that
order comprehension in a new language “even in Tamizh I would not have so many
needs a “trigger” or maybe scaffolding. I options”.
never understood the humour or the
metaphor implied in this text. But I was
equally sure that “if the question and
Interpretation of
answers had been in English and I only
had to read and understand, I would have
Findings and
got it without any extra effort!” Conclusions
My attempts to read Hindi also made me This very brief foray into an analysis of the
realize that with knowledge of the world difficulties and successes I faced as an
and the word in other languages, even adult learning to read Hindi through
with limited proficiency, it is possible to WhatsApp has thrown up a range of issues
not only read and interpret a text but even for adult language learning and teaching.
ponder over paradigmatic choices for a First of all, there is the issue of learner
word and end with a pragmatic interest, which is an absolute prerequisite.
translation. The Cumminsean threshold Secondly, learners have to be given the
hypothesis (1980) was at work here. A text freedom to choose their own texts.
I read in December 2018 (text 12), spoke Thirdly, these texts have to be easily
about how we as people need to decipherable as far as fonts and print size
understand that other people are not are concerned. Texts with images have to
wrong, but just different from us; the day be very carefully chosen, with beginner
we do this, our worries will disappear. decipherability in mind.
Text 12: With reference to the selection of texts,

jis din hum ye samajh jayenge ki the length of the text also needs to be
saamane waalaa galat nahiin he taken into account. In the initial stages,
sirf uskii soch longer texts will be a deterrent to
ham se alag he; learning. As far as themes are concerned,
us din a range of themes ought to be available.
jeevan se sab dukh Texts with dual meaning ought to be
samaapt ho jaayenge…..! introduced only after a certain level of
suprabhaat proficiency has been attained. Most
importantly, if adults have to learn a
The day we understand that others are not language or even just become literate,
wrong; just that their thinking is different one should think of these texts only as a
from ours: that day we will be rid of all our collection or a resource book which they
worries. Good Morning! can dip into. This should be the case even
if adults have to take an examination and
As I asked Deepesh, in the text it says that receive a certificate. There is no need to
“the day we are able to see or state, or restrict one's teaching to specified pre-
accept that others are not wrong but determined content when the aim of the
different, all misery will disappear from course is proficiency development.
our lives.” I had gone on to tell him: “In my
mind, I had thought of “perceive” as the Acknowledgments: I would like to thank
verb to be used, because I thought of Dr. Swati Paliwal, Guru Nanak College and
27
Ms. Madhumeeta Sinha, EFLU, for helping text in the transliterations, the
me with transliterating and translating translations are in prose and not in
the Hindi texts. I would also like to thank verse.
Dr. Deepesh Chandrasekharan, not only 3. Voicing is predictable in Tamil
for teaching me to read Hindi but for all (intervocalic, or preceded by a nasal
his help with editing and proofing. sound). So, where Hindi has p, ph, b, bh,
Notes and so on, Tamil, whose alphabet is
1. The three language formula was scientific enough to reflect its
introduced by the Government of India phonology, has only the letter p, which
in 1957 and modified in 1964. The can be understood (and read) as b
formula provided space for education intervocalically, and in post nasal
either through the regional language or contexts. (Recall that aspiration is
English, with the proviso that other absent in Tamil).
than the medium of instruction, two [Compare the comment about
other languages would be studied in intervocalic voicing versus germination
middle and high school. If English was in Malayalam, in Paroma Sanyal's
the medium of instruction, Hindi and article – Ed.]
the regional language would be 4. Ed.'s note: The symbol for 'r' in words
studied. If the regional language was like _f’k /rishi/, d`’.kk /Krishna/, ve`r
the medium of instruction, then Hindi /amrit/ etc. in modern Hindi represents
and English would be studied. Tamil the sound sequence 'ri'; in Sanskrit, this
Nadu protested against what was was a vocalic sound.
perceived as the imposition of Hindi, When 'r' occurs in a cluster with
and therefore the state was permitted another consonant, if 'r' is the second
to follow a two language formula, with sound in the consonant cluster, it is
written as a diacritic on the first
an exemption being granted to studying
consonant, as in Øe /kram/, Je
Hindi.
/shram/, Vªd /truck/, etc. If 'r' is the first
2. The transliterations of Hindi texts are in
sound in a consonant cluster, it is
italic font. Many of these texts were in
written on the 'head' of the second
the form of verse. While I have
consonant, as in deZ /karm/and
attempted to retain the format of the “keZ/sharm/.
References
Amritavalli, R. (2007). English in deprived circumstances: Maximising learner
Bruner, J. (1985). Vygotsky: A historical and conceptual perspective. In J.

Wertsch (Ed.), Culture, communication, and cognition: Vygotskian perspectives
(pp. 21-34). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cummins, J. (1980). The cross-lingual dimensions of language proficiency:

Implications for bilingual education and the optimal age issue. TESOL
Quarterly,14 (2), 175-187.
Prabhu, N. S. (2018). Interview by G. Durairajan and D. Chandrasekharan.

Language and Language Teaching, 7(2),38-42.
28
Prabhu, N. S. (2019). The learner's effort in the language classroom: In G.

Durairajan, (Ed.), Perceptions of language pedagogy. Hyderabad: Orient
Blackswan (forthcoming). (Original work published in 1991).
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological

processes. M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman (Eds.).
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
29
Selective
Acquisition of
Malayalam
Paroma Sanyal | psanyal@iitd.ac.in

Paroma Sanyal is Assistant Professor in the Department of Humanities and Social
Sciences, IIT Delhi. She works in the fields of Generative Phonology and Syntax.
Owing to her teaching career as an English Language Faculty at the University of
Hyderabad, and the Central University of Karnataka, Gulbarga, she has sustained her
academic interest in Second Language Acquisition.
Key Words: Familial space, Morpho-syntax, Phonology, Dative

subject, Questions, Retroflex, Geminate, Kitchen, Literacy,
Literary engagement
Abstract
In this paper, I will present a curated account of my linguistic reflections on my journey
into the Malayalam language community of my husband. My reflections can be classified
roughly into three parts—morpho-syntax, phonology, and literary engagement with the
second language.
30
Malayalam is the language spoken by the

Introduction people of Kerala, which includes the
family that I have been married into for
Living within a language community to
the last fifteen years. For most of my
become a part of it is quite different from
husband's relatives, I was the first non-
learning a language for a specific purpose.
Malayali that they had to accommodate
In that sense, the particular case of
within the intimate familial space, and the
second language acquisition of
lack of language was both convenient and
Malayalam discussed here is comparable
an impediment. The lack of
to contexts of first language acquisition.
comprehensible language between me
Both are without any particular objective
and most people, and my foreign sounding
or communicative goal. However, from
name with the usual Bangla vowel
every other perspective it is the typical
harmony being a mouthful, contributed to
case of a second language learner,
me being re-named as well as being
fraught with misinterpretations. The
infantilized. In Kerala, I was a word-less
reflections conclude with the observation
child, with a name that nobody outside
that being a linguist, and being
Kerala called me by. I was no longer an
consciously aware of the descriptive
adult, a wife, or an eloquent academic.
generalizations, has hardly helped in the
actual acquisition of Malayalam.
Morpho-syntax
One of the professional hazards of being a
linguist is disappointing hundreds of
people who enthusiastically ask you, “How Every new person we encountered back
many languages do you speak?” Rarely do home [naaʈ-il-e] asked the same question
linguists speak any more languages than “Malayalam ari-o?” [“Do you/does she
they would if they had been doctors or understand Malayalam?”]. Initially I was
engineers instead of linguists. Our job not sure if the question was directed at
entails thinking about various aspects of me, the non-comprehending non-Malayali,
language, analysing data from hundreds or my spouse, my interpreter. As a linguist,
of languages to observe recurrent I knew that Malayalam has no agreement,
patterns, making generalizations, and and like all South Asian Languages, it is a
theorizing about it all. Most of us are quite pro-drop language; so the question was
incapable of generating a cogent ambiguous between second and third
sentence in any of those languages, let person. As I stood pondering on this, my
alone thinking in them. However, faced spouse would assume my silence to
with a natural context that demands adult signal non-comprehension, and reply that
language acquisition, do we as linguists, I did not understand the language, and
with all the baggage of theoretical people would stop talking to me.
knowledge, approach the task differently?
It is true that I did not understand clearly;
That is the central question that I will be
but I still wanted ammachi-maar
reflecting on in this paper within the
[grandmothers], cheechi-maar [elder
anecdotal bounds of my personal journey
sisters], paappan [uncles], and everyone
with Malayalam.
31
to speak to me. So I started saying “aria, questions as a priority. After all we spend
paray-illa”, which amounts to something an inordinate amount of time in the Indian
like [I understand, but cannot speak]. This subcontinent teaching the syntax of
was a good compromise since it was question-formation to second language
followed by long monologues from my learners of English. In my personal
interlocutors that served as excellent experience with Malayalam, this is one of
language input. It is not as if I could not the more rare constructions that I have
get Malayalam inputs from the overheard had to use, if we ignore the question
conversations between other people, but particle “-o” in the usual Malayalam
it was exponentially more difficult to salutation “sukh-ǝm a&-o?”[“Is everything
follow those, particularly because most well?”]; albeit the lack of performance
people speak very fast and sloppily, and data is not real evidence that I did not
often while chewing tobacco or arecanut. develop the competence or ability to
Speech specifically directed at me was frame real wh-questions in Malayalam.
Perhaps this is so because we are
mostly slower, repetitive and exaggerated,
culturally more apt to utter a sentence
so it helped a lot.
with a polar question intonation than ask
I started using the dative case marking in a real wh-question. For example, if I am
Malayalam very early, telling amma “eni- not able to find amma in the house, I am
kkimǝḓi” [“it is enough for/to me”] at much more likely to utter “amma town-
dinner time, as she tried serving another ilpoy-o” [“Has amma gone to town?”], with
ladleful of rice into my plate (around the a rising intonation, than ask “amma
same time, I started using “%a”, a sort of evade” [“Where is amma?”]. Also, the
interjection; in a matter of weeks, I was question particle “a&-o” when used by
ordering the dog, “ku:ʈʈi:po-%a” [“go to your itself translates to [“Is that so?”], and is
kennel”]). This could be partly because I therefore an independent entity that
was primed to notice the dative case punctuates and perpetuates all gossip
marking due to my knowledge of its and is an essential tool in the arsenal of
existence as a linguist, or because it was any adult. Coupled with “aɖipo'i”
extremely common. It would indeed be [“awesome”], it forms the bedrock of
interesting to see if Malayalam children casual conversations among cousins.
start using dative case marking in the
two-word stage like I did. Acquisition Phonetics and
evidence from Tamil, a closely related
language, in fact indicates that children Phonology
make an early distinction between subject
and non-subject dative (Lakshmi Bai, Unlike syntax, where being a linguist has
2004). That could be a factor in adult perhaps aided language acquisition, my
acquisition as well, since I cannot recall linguistic knowledge has had nearly no
any regular uses of dative case that were impact on my phonetic and phonological
not cases of non-nominative subjects. acquisition. For the longest time, I
struggled with the insecurity that I would
Pragmatically speaking, one would expect utter “ku'ich-o?” with the retroflex lateral,
that adults would learn to frame in my attempt at saying “kǝŗich-o?” with
32
the retroflex rhotic. The former literally and singleton stop consonants. Armed
meant “Have you taken a bath?”, while the with such very specific knowledge, fifteen
latter would mean “Have you eaten?”, and years after becoming a part of a
serves as a regular conversation starter Malayalam speaking community, my brain
among Malayalis. It is the cultural is nonetheless incapable of registering
equivalent of the comments on weather the distinction between “pani” [“fever”]
among the British. The source of my and “panni” [“pig”].
apprehension was obviously that the
Bangla speaking tongue was not made to In the summer of 2019, as we drove
be curled in retroflection; and accidentally through the north Malabar landscape and
asking people about their cleansing I sat rolling my tongue and pronouncing
routine is not a great idea and perhaps the unpronounceable place names that
even impolite. There is also the littered the landscape, the linguist within
me finally figured something out. The
intermediate “ku%ich-o”, with the retroflex
name of the place we were passing by
flap, which means, “have you drunk?”, and
was Chakitapara; it was a familiar name
has a very specific connotation so that
as a relative lived close by. The mud-
brides in the family typically do not ask
spatter on the signage forced me to pay
about their specific drinking habits from attention to the sign in Malayalam
other family members. So, I needed to lettering instead of the convenient
steer clear of that as well. The same case English, and I made a casual comment on
of insufficient retroflection served as a spelling norms. At this point both amma
source of endless mirth to the children in and her son clarified that the /k/, /t/ and
the household when I said things like /p/ in Chakitapara were indeed geminates
pǝ''i:ppoy-o, intending “Did he/they go to for them ('Chakkittappara'), and there was
church?” Instead, it would sound like “Did no error in the Malayalam spelling. For
he/they go to lizard [pǝlli]?”, due to native speakers, there is voicing
insufficient retroflection of the lateral. neutralization in medial position unless
the consonant sound is a geminate . So all
Years before I tried becoming a medial voiceless stops are both written
Malayalam speaker, when I was doing my and perceived as geminates, irrespective
M.A. in linguistics, we had done a of actual phonetic factors such as VOT or
perception experiment on stops using stop duration. For example, the word
Malayalam speakers, as part of a [“ten”],“pǝṱṱǝ”, is written with a geminate
Phonology course. Basically, we had “ṱ”, but [“thirteen”],“pǝṱimuunǝ”, is written
recorded some singleton and geminate with a singleton “ṱ” (which is voiced when
stops uttered by Bangla speakers and pronounced). In sound contrast, where my
Bangla processing brain perceives a
asked a set of Malayalam speakers to tell
voicing distinction, the Malayalam
them apart. When they could not do it
speaking people perceive a distinction
accurately, we recorded Malayalam
between a singleton and a geminate
speakers producing the same sounds and
consonant. In short, very few adults who
tried comparing their acoustics. The
are trying to acquire Malayalam may know
hypothesis was that Bangla and as much about Malayalam phonology as I
Malayalam speakers use different do, but this has not helped me in the
acoustic cues to comprehend geminate acquisition of Malayalam phonology. My
33
inability to tell geminates apart is can read in a language, and whether one
paralleled only by my inability to utter actually reads it. Being an avid reader, one
retroflex consonants with any degree of third of my day involves reading and a fair
consistency. amount of it is literature. But, I have never
read books in Malayalam. It is for the
At this point it is clear that on account of
same reason that I have not read books in
being a linguist, I was not unfamiliar with
Bangla. Just as I have never had any
Malayalam as a language when I travelled
formal education in Malayalam, I have
to Kerala and started acquiring it. But that
never studied Bangla in school, perhaps
is true only if I consider syntactic and
on account of it not being the State
phonological acquisition to be language
acquisition. Were I to include lexical language where I grew up. Although our
words as the beginning point, then my real parents ensured that all of us siblings can
introduction to Malayalam was definitely read and write Bangla, none of us ever put
mediated by the spices, utensils and in the effort to read books or newspapers
ingredients in my kitchen. The kitchen in Bangla. My literacy with regard to
was a magical personal space where Malayalam has not been very different.
neither of us wanted to bring in the Just as the home I grew up in was full of
mediating languages—Hindi or Bangla literature, our home in Delhi
English—that otherwise interceded abounds in my spouse's ever-growing
between the Bangla and the Malayalam collection of Malayalam literature. In both
universe. Between “posto” [poppy seeds], cases, I read the labels, dust the covers
and “kappa” [tapioca], we discovered a and arrange the books on the bookshelf.
natural context for lexical acquisition. This points to the lack of “bildung”—a
Consequently, by the time I set foot in our word coined by the Germans to refer to
village in North Malabar, I had a veritable the development of the self and potential
arsenal of culinary vocabulary—maɲɲǝl though intellectual nurture. Languages
[turmeric], uppǝ [salt], pǝncǝsaarǝ acquired in informal circumstances,
[sugar], ṱeŋga [coconut], ṱǝyirǝ [curd], whether first or second, have the potential
poṱṱǝǝ [beef], koṟi [chicken], mi:n [fish], to realize the communicative goals of
cemmi:n [prawns], u''i [onion], payerǝ second language acquisition, but fall
[string beans], ve''ǝrikka [gourd], ve''uṱu'i short of being the language in which one
[garlic], inji [ginger], kǝriapille [curry
thinks, and develops and expresses
leaves], kǝŗuga [mustard seeds], pǝcǝkǝri,
intellectual thoughts. In my personal
erišeri, pu'išeri (types of curries), catti,
journey with the five languages that I can
pappǝ%ǝmkuṱṱi (types of utensils)—and
speak, read and write—Bangla, Hindi,
many more such words at my disposal.
Odiya, English and Malayalam—I use only
one to think in and express my thoughts.
Literary Engagement That language is English. While English is
a second language for me, it is the only
with the Language language in which I received formal
education. For my parents, that language
With regard to reading, I would like to is Bangla, and for my spouse it is primarily
draw a distinction between whether one Malayalam and then English.
34
For me, the act of writing this paper itself Bangla in the non-formal familial spaces
has been a negotiation between the two of my Bangla-speaking universe of North
worlds of Malayalam that I inhabit. The Bengal.
first is a teleological journey from the
outside to the inside through interaction Notes
with people and places. The second is an 1. Compare Geetha Durairajan's
academic quest to theorize the first observation (this issue) about intervocalic
through reflexivity. The complement voicing of p in Tamil—Ed.
would be if my partner, a non-linguist,
were to reflect on his acquisition of
References
Lakshmi Bai, B. (2004). Acquisition of dative subject in Tamil. In P. Bhaskararao
and K.V. Subbarao (Eds.). Non-nominative subjects.1, 245-268. Amsterdam: John
Benjamins Publishing Company.
35
Would a “Rational Approach”

Improve Academic Outcomes
in English Language
University Classes in
Vietnam?
Philip Scott | philipascott@gmail.com
Philip Scott teaches English in Vietnam.
Key Words: Free-reading, Autonomy, ELT textbooks, Self-

directed learning, Input-based approach, Rational learning,
International teaching
“One is never taught a language. One can only learn it.” A. Gethin
Abstract
This study examines the impact of the rational approach (Gethin & Gunnemark, 1996) on
academic outcomes, as an alternative to mass-marketed ELT textbooks with
communicative language teaching (CLT) speaking tasks. A group of eight second year
university students was taught how to select authentic texts, read at their own pace, and
collect new vocabulary independently. Students applied this method for ten weeks, two
classes a week. The number of vocabulary items collected, number of questions asked,
and results of a pre- and post- TOEIC (Test of English for International Communication)
reading comprehension test were recorded. Correlations between behaviours and TOEIC
scores were calculated, and students' capacity to adopt the method in the cultural and
educational setting of Vietnam was examined. While the pre- and post- tests yielded
negligible results, this approach appeared to motivate the students in a way that seems
unusual in this setting.
36
Would a “Rational Approach” Improve Academic Outcomes in English
Language University Classes in Vietnam?
Introduction
This study examines the “rational
approach” (Gethin & Gunnemark, 1996)
The Vietnamese
that uses students' self-directed Language Education
exploration of language. For the past
fifteen years, I have taught English as a Context
Foreign Language (EFL) in Vietnam. This
experience has led me to question the
Traditionally, the Vietnamese education
effectiveness of the mass-marketed
system is teacher-centred, with large
curriculum materials often used for
classes in which the transmission-of-
teaching English. From the time I arrived
in Vietnam, there was a steady schedule knowledge model is followed. Tran Thi
of English classes, full of eager students. I Tuyet (2013) contends that though
taught in various settings, from language administrators, lecturers and outsiders
institutes with part–time evening classes criticize Vietnamese students as being
for teens and adults a few days a week, to passive, “it is the rigidity of the system
full-time day school for middle and high that causes such meek behaviour.”In
school, and private instruction at observational studies of students in Hanoi,
companies one or two days a week. I Thompson (cited in Tran Thi Tuyet, 2013a)
worked at a college that had a full-time found that if the teacher takes on the role
intensive English language certificate of authority and transmitter of knowledge,
program, with three-hour classes five students adopt a passive learning style,
days a week for twelve weeks, over four but if the teacher is engaging and
course levels. Our college increased class interactive, students become active and
time from fifteen to twenty hours a week engage in class activities and contribute
by adding two classes in the afternoons, in to the discussion.
an effort to boost student success rates.
When class times were increased with no Vietnamese students, however,
changes except for putting students emphasize on accuracy of recall, as do
through more of the same kind of lessons, students from other Asian countries.
I began to question this intense program Frequently criticized in the West as a rote
of lessons and reliance on the textbook, approach, in the East “memorization with
and its methods. understanding” is used as a strategy for a
deep approach to learning (Chalmers &
In this article, I will outline a study I
Volet, 1997, p. 89). In this approach,
undertook as part of a twelve-week
course that used learners' self-directed students go through a series of steps, in
reading, in the presence of a teacher to which they first simply memorize the
answer any questions, as its mainstay. In information, but later apply it in a deeper
the first part of this article, I will briefly way. Biggs (1998) found that many Asian
explain the instructional and the ELT students believed information should first
context in which the study was be learned thoroughly in order to allow
undertaken. In the second part, I will them to apply it. Thus, for learning a
describe the methodology, and attempt to language, they expect to first be explicitly
evaluate the experience of this study from taught its grammar or rules, as they want
the point of view of the students and the to learn everything they need to know
teachers. before speaking.
37
import several boxes of used books on a

The Vietnamese variety of topics from a city library used-
Context of ELT book sale in the United States, to
supplement reading instruction.
Foreign teaching methods have been Unfortunately, the books were treated as
steadily becoming the mainstay of precious, students were not allowed to
Vietnamese ELT since the Ministry of take them to read at their leisure.
Education made it a part of its new
directives starting in the 1990s. This For Vietnamese students, access to books
usually results in the same syllabus, and libraries could be described as very
taken from the ELT textbook's contents limited and inadequate (Tien Phuong, 2010;
page, being implemented, the same Tin Tan Dang, 2010). In a survey, most
materials taught, and the same Vietnamese University students said
methodologies applied to a wide variety of textbooks with basic knowledge are their
courses. These courses may be for main materials (Nguyen Hien, 2012). A
government officials to learn international survey by the Ministry of Education and
communication, for engineers to learn to Training (MOET) found that 20 percent of
read texts in their respective fields, for colleges and universities do not have a
high school and university students library. Other schools have “libraries with
preparing to live and study abroad, and for no soul”, i.e. “no books” (Nguyen Hien,
elementary students in after-school 2012a). Of the 172 libraries in colleges and
institutes (Brogan & Ha, 1999). Once I universities, only 38.9 percent were able
applied to a large university, the most to meet standards; 39.7 percent of
prestigious foreign-based university in the schools, or 77 schools, reportedly have e-
country. To prepare for the interview, I was libraries.
sent a page from the textbook they would
use. It was from the same textbook I had Problems with the
used for 4th graders at evening classes in
a language institute.
CLT Approach
The CLT (Communicative Language
I was surprised at how much every aspect
Teaching) approach of the textbooks does
of students' learning and class time was
not have its own techniques for teaching
determined by an ELT course book and
vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar,
accompanying material (hereafter
as against the traditional grammar-
textbooks), one of the same half-a-dozen
translation or audio-lingual methods it
or so brands, all based on the same
replaced (Tan, 2005). The assumption is
method. For EFL in Vietnam, the textbook
that if students are put into activities or
and the teaching method it brings are
tasks, they will naturally learn the
synonymous with “curriculum,” and
language through use. Students are to use
unquestioningly accepted (Dang Tieu Yen,
their own words, but it can seem as if they
2005).Teachers are required to teach every
have no words at their disposal for the
lesson and every point in the textbook,
interactive language task.
regardless of the type of course or the
students (Breach, 2005). In the many kinds
At several English language schools,
of settings and varied ages I worked with,
students are not allowed to use
typically the only difference was the
dictionaries. This leaves them without a
length of time spent in the classroom,
resource to understand the text. The ban
since each used the same kind of
also extends to materials with
textbooks, with the same approach and
translations into the native language and
teaching methods. Once I tried to vary the
use of the native language in class.
curriculum: I helped a language school
38
Teachers have to expend a great deal of express ideas in talk that they had
direct instructional time in front of the initiated. Students were “following the
whiteboard to somehow explain the agenda” of the lesson but not
vocabulary in the text being read. This “appropriating that same agenda for their
instructional time replaces time for own purposes” (Kinginger, 2002, p. 255). On
students' own search for meaning from the other hand, the smartest, most able
the context, or efforts to read students nearly always started with a high
independently. speaking and reading ability because they
had either gained proficiency at high
I do not have the space here to enlarge school, or on their own. Typically, a
specifically on my experiences with CLT in successful student had a private tutor or
Vietnam. I shall only say that similar was already able to use English well
difficulties were reported by teachers in a enough to participate in the activities
survey. Four specific problems surfaced: given in the textbook. These bright
(i) lack of motivation for communicative students found the classes too long and
competence (Tran Thu Thu Trang, 2007); tedious.
(ii) resistance to class participation (Le
Pham Hoai Huong, 2004; Pham Hoa Hiep,
2007); (iii) using Vietnamese during group
A Successful Non-
work; and (iv) low English proficiency
(Bock, 2000, p. 25). “These new methods
Conformist
simply do not work given our students' There were some teachers who did not
learning style, our culture, and our comply with the prescribed curriculum
context” (Pham Hoa Hiep, 2007, p.3). Often and came up with their own ways of
when working in speaking lessons, the teaching. One college teacher I shared a
students were evasive, and actively tried class with did not follow the curriculum or
to undermine the language objective of prepare any lessons at all. The only paper
the lesson, or digressed in creative ways. he took into class was the lineless, 8 inch
They were exhibiting the kind of by 11 inch photocopy paper, which he used
resistance described by Holliday (2006) as for all exercises, from surveys to drawing
“social autonomy”—a group resistance to plans to brainstorming. Sometimes, he
being taught by methods that do not brought in board games and speaking
cohere with their worldview. Such local activities from the recourse pack of extra
strategies for solving the task-based material, or a movie or a music CD. Being
group and pair work language activities of a co-teacher in a class with him was
CLT classrooms is appropriate linguistic difficult because he would routinely
and socio-cultural behaviour (Kramsch disregard the textbook chapters, leaving
and Sullivan, 1996), and an indication of the co-teacher to try and catch up. When I
the curriculum's irrelevance to local looked in his classroom, I saw a variety of
contexts (Truong Bach Le, 2004). activities, where students were all doing
different things. Some were speaking to
From what I could observe, in several him, others were working on their laptops,
cases students emerged from the twelve- still others were reading a book or reciting
week course with less accurate English lines from a play or a movie, and some
and a no larger vocabulary than when they students were not doing anything. The
started. Very weak students usually did class seemed to be completely chaotic;
not improve noticeably. Many students the students seemed to have taken
participated and followed instructions but charge of the space. They were involved
were not able to use English independent with making movies or projects for much
of the tasks and dialogues of the textbook; more time than our curriculum permitted.
they were not able to use English to Yet, despite the apparent chaos, the class
39
and the teacher got along very well, them. He also said he would not know
working as a unit. His students developed what to do with students in such a time-
strong speaking voices in English, and by intensive class, and suggested I teach for
the end of the course they seemed to be 1/10th of the time and let them learn for
able to express themselves with the rest of the time. The same pace and
confidence in fairly accurate English. Also, degree of learner choice in reading
they seemed to have more outgoing and materials has been suggested by
positive personalities. This raised the Amritavalli (2007) and Lomb (2008), and in
question: given a curriculum that cost so Krashen's (2004) comprehension
much and required so much time and hypothesis and advocacy of free reading.
concentration from the students, was it
not significant that not using it at all The preference for whole class learning is
seemed to be just as effective (if not a feature of the Vietnamese context that
more)? the “rational approach” accommodates.
Indeed, Gethin calls for a kind of teacher-
fronted instruction that invites and
The Rational expects spontaneous discussion, and is
geared toward individual responses in the
Approach large group setting:
In Gethin's approach, students are taught If languages are going to continue

how to observe and notice language in a being taught in classes, the old
rational way while reading or listening. fashioned method of the teacher
Students make meaning of the target talking to the students (“chalk and
language through cognitive processes talk”) is still the best. . . . There should
that they initiate and guide. I became be nothing old fashioned about the
interested in Gethin's approach after manner in which the teacher talks.
reading an online essay about what Gethin The talk has to be completely informal
described as an unchecked proliferation and flexible. (Gethin & Gunnemark,
of expensive language schools, along with 1996)
an ELT industry that perpetuates an
orthodoxy of lessons which adhere to In this approach, the teacher's role is to
mass-marketed materials and methods introduce students to ways of learning,
which are unquestioningly accepted but and be a source of correct information.
do not work: “what actually happens is The teacher should be a strong
that students pay these enormous sums authoritative presence in the class, yet be
to be prevented (italicized in original) engaging and flexible with students'
from doing what they want to do: learn the needs and questions, independent of
language efficiently. . . It is only when they lesson parameters; and support students
escape from school that they can truly as observant learners responsible for their
begin learning—if they know how to do it own learning. In the beginning, teachers
the right way” (Gethin, 2002). This seemed need to show students how to observe
to be a fairly accurate description of the and what sort of things to observe, but
situations I experienced while teaching at then they must step out of the way and
language programs in Vietnam. allow them to learn, and check on their
progress periodically. When a teacher
Prior to this study, I corresponded by tries to present information for you to
email with Gethin. He gave some learn by reading to you, choosing books
suggestions: have learners keep a book to for you, setting lessons, or selecting
log their progress, writing down any new words for you to notice, it often becomes
words or grammar points that interest a kind of interference that actually slows
40
down or prevents comprehension and study group had a total of eight students.
acquisition (Gethin, 2002). Others in the This small size may have been due to the
ELT field have described similar effects school's decision to not award any grade
(Marcel, 1875; Krashen, 2004; Amritavalli, or points for the course. At the
2007; Lomb, 2008). Gethin's (1997) “rational presentation of the course, twenty-five
approach” to language learning is a type students registered and signed research
of self-directed learning (SDL) in ELT that subject agreements. Thereafter, the ELT
relates to the concept of Learner director of the university asked that the
Autonomy. research be conducted as part of a
speaking and conversation class. When
the researcher explained that the focus of
research was on language input through
Overview of the reading, the ELT director wanted to know
which text or reading material the teacher
Study would select for students to read. When
told that the language material would be
This was a study of self-selected student-selected and self-paced, the
individual student reading of authentic director decided that no credits could be
texts at the students' own pace. The given for this course because there “was
course ran two days a week for ten weeks no curriculum”. After that, only eight of
for one and a half hours each day. In the the twenty-five students who had
first week, there was a tutorial in the registered actually attended the course.
methods of the approach. Then the
students worked in class with the teacher
present to assist them and answer any Procedure
questions. There was a pre-and a post-
test, using Test of English for The proposal was to replace CLT textbook
International Communication (TOEIC, a methods with authentic reading sources
standard test often used in tertiary selected by the students themselves.
courses in Vietnam), and two other These included magazines, storybooks,
triangulated data points: a checklist
textbooks or books from the university
record of the number and type of each
library. Students were to read at their own
students' questions, and student-created
learning logs. The data were analyzed for pace. During the first week, the teacher
correlation between the size of explained the basic principles of self-
vocabulary collected and gains on TOEIC teaching and learning techniques and
test. During the study, students had at strategies. A text sample selected by the
least three one-on-one talks with the teacher was used to demonstrate
teacher, who made notes of their progress techniques of guiding one's own reading
and comments on the method. comprehension, including using a
dictionary, “guessing” the meaning from
the context, and discerning items that
Participants needed to be looked up in the dictionary
from those that could be guessed at.
Students would be responsible for their
Participants were students at a foreign
language and technology university in own grammar knowledge, but had the
Vietnam in the second year. They were at option of receiving explicit explanations if
the pre-intermediate level of EFL at a they so requested. Students were
university where most students were instructed to keep a daily log of their
language and communication majors. The observations, vocabulary and reflections
41
on things to remember, and their

mistakes. Making a Working
The teacher showed students slides of
Grammar Chart
different types of authentic texts for
comparison. The class had to identify the Students made a personal comprehensive
difficulty level of each text, the different working grammar chart on a sheet of 16
purposes they fulfilled, and text resource inch by 20 inch paper to review all the
types (e.g.: periodical, journal, ESL basic grammar they could remember, to
learning book, business English magazine, make sure they were not missing any
novel, children's novel). Strategies were basic forms, and to understand the
explained for understanding unknown
concept of a conscious working grammar.
words using context clues such as
adjacent words, and grammatical aspects
of parts of speech and sentence
structure. Basic sentence grammar Self-selecting
concepts (subject, verb, pronoun,
preposition, tense, and aspect) were
Reading Material
reviewed. These kinds of exercises are
known as focus-on-form (Long, 1991), or Students were offered a variety of
consciousness-raising (Sharwood-Smith, authentic reading material to select from
1981). Students also worked on texts with in every class, and also to access the
missing words (Cloze exercises). The university library. This material included
whole class went through the process of novels, children's novels, graded easy ELT
predicting missing words, with the readers, adult ELT essay readers,
teacher presenting and discussing magazines, reading journals, instruction
strategies to do so. manuals, ELT textbooks and grammar
books. Students were asked to read
anything they wanted. This is essentially
Using a Dictionary the idea of extensive reading (Bamford &
Day, 1998; Elley & Mangubhai, 1983), free
and Collecting voluntary reading (Krashen, 2006; Mason,
2011), or learner-chosen texts (Amritavalli,
Vocabulary 2007; Kumaradas, 1993). The concept of
allowing learners free choice of the pace
Students were shown slides of pages and content of reading is supported by
from different kinds of dictionaries and these and other scholars (Krashen, 2004;
engaged in discussion considering the Lomb, 2008).
usefulness of each. They received and
went over a text of the most basic
phrases, to make sure they knew them all.
They were given a basic vocabulary list of Evaluation of the
four hundred words to make sure they
knew the minimum number of words
Learning Experience
required to read independently (Gethin &
Gunnemark, 1996).They were asked to I will present the evaluation of the rational
record in their log books new or unknown approach in two parts. In the first part, I
words that came up in their reading, describe an attempt to empirically
discriminating between important new measure the gains. In the second part, I
words and ones they did not need to present an experiential account of the
remember. activity of self-selected reading.
42
Primary Research
Question and
Empirical Data
The results of the TOEIC pre-test and
post-test were inconclusive. Nearly all
score changes were within limits for
standard error of measurement (SEM),
and standard error of difference (SEDiff),
Figure 2. Vocabulary collected and TOEIC
as stated by the designers of TOEIC
test scores for students 7, 3, 1, and 6.
(Prolingua, 2016). The graphs in figures 1
and 2 present the students' pre- and post- The data on student-initiated questions
test scores, together with the amount of and amount of vocabulary gathered also
self-collected vocabulary, arranged yielded no significant findings. Overall, the
according to descending order of self- number of questions recorded was rather
collected vocabulary. The numbers low (less than one question per student
assigned to students however reflect the per class), suggesting that students either
order in which their reading choices have did not know when to ask for help, or were
been individually discussed. Again, there confident of their own abilities to learn.
appears to be no correlation between Students tended to ask about very distinct
vocabulary and TOEIC score. and memorable language usage
problems. One student asked me to
This confirms the insight in a comment by explain the subjunctive verb case in an
Krashen, that one would not obtain strong article in National Geographic. Another
results in a twelve-week classroom study student asked about sentences that
using student-selected reading (Krashen, lacked a subject and appeared to be a
2010, personal email communication). fragment that did not make logical sense;
Research in self-directed reading and free this required explaining ellipses and
voluntary reading is usually done over a implication as well as the recursive
longer time period (6 months to a year, or function of some English sentences. One
even two years). In addition, the TOEIC is student asked about a sentence with
not considered to be an effective tool for mixed tenses that did not appear to make
measuring individual progress, especially sense. This was because there was a
in the short term (Andrade, 2014; Childs, hidden narrator and characters with
1995). different perspectives. They asked about
unusual nouns specific to the topic and
words not found in a dictionary.
Evaluating the
Students' Reaction
to the Self-Directed
Learning Method
Figure 1. Vocabulary collected and TOEIC
test scores for students 5, 4, 2, and 8. My observation of students and interviews
with them indicate that the students
43
adapted well to the self-directed learning This was indicative of a “more real”
method. After initial hesitation, students process in their interacting with the new
were able to take on the learning language, which brought out their own
techniques of self-directed learning and ways of working with language, grammar
decide what they wanted to read. When and topics. Each student seemed to have
asked about their reading choices, they all their own unique adaptation of the
gave thoughtful and clear reasons. When learning approach.
the students made presentations about
words or phrases they had learned, the Student #1 read entire elementary level
class was attentive and asked questions. books for young readers (totalling over 150
They responded to the method by applying
pages). Her language level and pre-test
themselves to the course right until the
scores were the lowest (in the upper
end. It appears that they easily took to
elementary range), and it was difficult to
their role of “rational” self-directed
have spoken communication with her in
learners and even enjoyed it. This finding
supports the claims of Vietnamese the beginning. She selected an easy
researchers (Thompson, 2009; Tran Thi reader Pirates of the Caribbean (Disney's
Tuyet, 2013a; Le Van Cahn, 2004) that Junior novelization), and kept at it steadily
students would like the chance to have every day. During the vocabulary
more autonomy to make decisions about presentation, she shared interesting
their learning if conditions are set for examples of the parts of a large sailing
them. ship. She asked for books on
constellations, and read the one I gave
her. She also read other children's books.
“A Book Buffet” By the end of the course, her speaking
was noticeably better.
To compensate for the inadequate access
to reading materials, I brought in a variety Student #2 was interested in reading
of books and magazines from the United IELTs and grammar (she did exercises on
States and the United Kingdom to each relative and adjective clauses, and
class in two suitcases and backpack, and gerunds versus infinitive verb phrases),
placed them out on tables in the front of but she also read short articles from
the room. Students called this the “book Reader's Digest (about 5 pages), and tried
buffet”, and they appeared very interested to read a few chapters of several
and pleased with this arrangement. This elementary level books (about 150 pages).
positive reaction of the students was She switched from one book to another
significant, because it was an indication and from one story to another without
of a level of acceptance and comfort in a completing them. She was the only
culture where group meals are the student who did not appear to take to the
primary focus of social life. conditions of the method. She kept asking
for instructions on what to do next, and
was not able to explain the contents of
Findings from what she had read. I carefully went over a
passage with her in Forster's dystopian
Interviews with science fiction short story, The Machine
Stops (Forster, 1928), to explain the story
Students about Their she had read. However, I found that she
Choices and Progress did understand, even the subtle points.
Despite that, she did not think it was
useful for her to read slowly enough to
The student-selected texts seemed to comprehend completely. She said her
accord with their personal preferences. goal was to increase her IELTS score, and
44
often questioned the purpose of the careful approach, reading and taking
method we were following, since she said systematic notes. The amount of
it did not teach the test-taking skills she vocabulary collected by her was the
needed for scoring on the IELTS. highest, and her notes and questions were
very specific and thoughtful. This student
Student #3 started by reading some reported a lot of improvement in terms of
stories and textbook articles, but then her comprehension; she seemed to focus
decided to focus on grammar exercises in on vocabulary more than anyone else in
a bilingual textbook. She followed a the course.
systematic approach and wrote the
answers to the exercises in her notes. The Student #6 tried many kinds of books and
book featured different kinds of sentence texts, and finally gravitated toward lower
patterns, with substitution exercises and intermediate level reading. He also
fill-in-the-blanks. She did not take part in finished reading a technical manual for
extended reading, but her way of learning driving. He only read one or two pages of
was in line with the method of the three National Geographic articles. He
approach, which suggests doing grammar finally settled on a 5th grade science
exercises if one is so inclined and enjoys textbook whose topics included
it. She reported that she found this kind of “Weather”, “Where does wind come from?”,
study satisfying and interesting as it was “Inside a Cave”, and “Icicles in stone”. He
like solving a puzzle. She felt the course was interested in minerals, cameras,
was time well spent in being able to space and caves, and asked for
review and consolidate her knowledge of clarification for a sentence explaining the
language forms and patterns, and that her formation of stalactites and stalagmites.
confidence and ability at English had At first, I did not think he was able to
improved. comprehend enough English to self-direct
his reading, because he did not say much
Student #4 was interested in reading when I asked him about what he was
short novels, and stories from collections. doing. However, as the course continued,
She read a story for two weeks and then he was able to talk more confidently
abandoned it because she did not like it. about his progress. He believed he had
She then chose stories from an (out of improved a lot. He became very specific
use) high school textbook, following about the questions he asked. I was
which she read five stories from a fiction surprised at the amount of reading he had
book Love Stories. During the course, she covered because he was so quiet in the
brought several books to donate to the beginning (entire book comprising 126
class book collection. She was very pages of 3rd grade level; 2 chapters of an
enthusiastic about the course and had the adult level book; and 2 other readers
best speaking ability, but was absent a lot (Upper Intermediate level).
of time. She reported having learned a lot
and felt more confident about using Student #7 started by reading Reader's
English for communication. Digest, but did not enjoy it because the
writers appeared to be complaining and
Student #5 read an out of print English as dissatisfied with their lives in a way he
a second language (ESL) literacy textbook could not relate to. He took up American
(low-intermediate level, with single page history and authentic American texts. He
readings and comprehension questions). decided to move on from these as well
She then tried to read all the National after encountering many archaic words.
Geographic articles, and essays in an He felt Thoreau to be boring and difficult
upper-intermediate level literacy to relate to. He did not want to read
textbook. She had a very deliberate and National Geographic because it appeared
45
to focus on war or conflict. Instead he difficulty, which suggests that students

read an anthropological book about the are able to adjust their selection process
history of human kind, which he found to to their level, and adjust their focus to gap
be satisfactory (he read 3 chapters, 66 areas in their own knowledge.
pages). He said that the first texts did not
“come to life” for him, and it always One of the most rewarding things about
seemed like he was reading a foreign this approach was seeing a new
language slowly, by translating every appreciation among the students for
word. By the end of the course he was extensive independent reading as a part of
reading the anthropology book. He said language learning. In discussions, all
that he could get much more out of it, and students reported an improvement in their
that the words made an impression on understanding and comfort with speaking
him. He thought the course really helped in English after spending so much time
him by allowing him to exercise his mind reading English texts. Reading what they
and learn language differently. wanted at their own pace with a teacher
as guide, appeared to transform students
Student #8 was interested in reading into confident speakers, especially when
either thriller novels or ghost stories. She talking about the stories or ideas that they
read one article: “Creatures from hell”; had come across in their reading.
two chapters of a novel, and one entire
novel of 416 pages. This student read more Vietnam has its own education system,
than any student, and read at home every and it would be a big assumption to think
day as well. She reported being very that a different system could be
involved in the storyline of the novel, and incorporated into it even in the smallest
also that it was a rewarding experience to way. In Vietnam the concept of a student
learn English by reading this way. She did browsing and selecting their own material
not ask many questions, except about to read independently as part of their
unusual meanings not found in a education is not commonly accepted.
dictionary. She asked about sentences in Where curriculum is delivered by the
which the subject was omitted or which institution and teachers only deliver the
contained references outside the items in the curriculum, it is not realistic
sentence, such as ellipses. She described to recommend a learning method, where
being able to sense and feel and the basic conditions and activities are not
experience the book much the same as a generally accepted, understood, or
movie or a story, and was surprised that permitted.
she could read a foreign language book so
smoothly. She asked the least number of Yet the “rational approach” (Gethin &
questions. Gunnemark, 1996) includes a practical set
of learning techniques. In the present
case, this approach gave the students a
Summary and chance to become confident speakers
simply by allowing them to select the
Conclusion topics and vocabulary based on their
interests and efforts. While it was very
The students' selections of reading different from what they were used to, it
materials are reflective of their variety of seemed to be an improvement over rigidly
interests and approaches to reading. Their following textbook tasks.
choices reflect individual themes and
preferences for their learning directions. This study fell short of finding evidence of
Further, the student-chosen texts appear the positive effect of this method.
to be centred around their level of However, given the observed and reported
46
positive effect on learning, it would be a availability of books in Vietnamese

good idea to try a more involved schools.
classroom study with a larger group, or a
more sensitive form of evaluation than Notes
the TOEIC, which has been described as a 1. This study was undertaken as part of my
“rough measure of overall ability” M.A. project submitted to Hamline
(Andrade, 2014, p. 19). It may also be a good University. I would like to thank Dr. Dwight
idea to look at the impact of increased Watson, Dr. Andreas Schramm, and Trieu
access to authentic reading material on Pham for their guidance and assistance
speaking proficiency or confidence, and at with this project.
student and teachers' attitudes to
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South-East Asia studying in Australia. Higher Education Research and
Development, 16 (1),87-99.
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Day, R & Bamford, J. (1998). Extensive reading in the second language
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49
Why Don't EFL Students

Read More? Because
“We are tested on what we
read in class.”
Kyung-Sook Cho Busan | kscho@bnue.ac.kr

Stephen Krashen | krashen@usc.edu
Kyung- Sook Cho is Professor of Education at Busan National University of Education,

Korea. She has published extensively in the areas of reading in foreign language
learning.
Stephen Krashen is Professor Emeritus at the University of Southern California. He is

a linguist, educational researcher, and activist. He has been one of the most
influential voices in second language acquisition in recent times.
Key Words: Pleasure reading, Acquisition of English, Testing
Abstract
Only 11% of university students enrolled in university classes in English education in Korea
considered themselves to be pleasure readers in English. Nearly all agreed that a reason
for this is that they are tested on what they read. We argue that comprehension testing on
reading results in less reading, less comprehension and less acquisition of English.
50
Why Don’t EFL Students Read More? Because
“We are tested on what we read in class.”
Introduction Overall, only 11% (14/127) considered

themselves to be pleasure readers in
It has been firmly established that self- English. There was no significant
selected pleasure reading has a very difference between the groups with the
positive impact on language development highest percentage and lowest
(e.g. Krashen, 2011; Smith, 2006; Lee, 2007; percentage of non-readers (groups 1 and
Mason and Krashen, 2017; McQuillan, 2019). 5), p = .16, Fisher's Exact test).
The question of how and why some young
people become readers and remain Subjects were also asked: If you don't
readers is therefore central (Cho and read in English, why ?
Krashen, 2016). They were given a choice of responses:
1. Reading in English is difficult.
Method and Results 2. Reading in English is no fun.
3. Lack of access to interesting books
We review here data on attitudes toward 4. We are tested on what we read in
reading in English among university class.
students training to be elementary school
teachers enrolled in classes in English Table 2 presents the number of students
language education in a Korean university. who selected each option. Students were
Five groups participated in the study, from allowed to choose more than one option.
five university classes taught in different
years at the same university. Table 2. Reasons: Why not reading
Group 1 2 3 4 5 Total
All subjects were in their third year in the (127)
N 26 27 29 24 21
university. All were majoring in
Difficult 12(46%) 13(48%) 13(45%) 15(63%) 13(62%) 52%
elementary education and minoring in
English education. They had studied No Fun 4(15%) 7(26%) 7(24%) 6 (25%) 7(33%) 24%
English in school as a foreign language for Access 7(13%) 8(30%) 14(48%) 4(17%) 7(33%) 31%
12 years. Tested 17(65%) 21(78%) 24(83%) 24(100%) 20(95%) 84%
Students in all five groups filled out a Note: Group 1 from Cho (2017); numerical
questionnaire at the beginning of the errors corrected. Group 2 from Cho (2018)
semester. We present each question
followed by students' responses. Responses to the first three questions
(reading is difficult, no fun and lack of
Question 1: Do you consider yourself to be access to interesting books) produced
a pleasure reader in English? similar results with one-fourth to one-half
of respondents agreeing that they were
Table 1. Non-readers and readers among
factors that influenced their English
students
reading habit. All three, it can be argued,
Group N Non-reader Reader are the result of assigned reading of
demanding texts that are only
1 26 25 1(4%)
comprehensible with a great deal of
2 27 24 3(11%) effort, an approach inconsistent with what
3 29 27 2(7%) is known about language acquisition, that
reading material should be
4 24 20 4(17%)
comprehensible and interesting. This
5 21 17 4(19%) approach is also inconsistent with Cho
Total 127 113 14(11%) and Krashen's (2016) conclusions: They
51
reviewed factors that successful long- frequently from memory. Frank Smith has
term pleasure readers in English as a pointed out, however, that this applies
foreign or second language had in only to facts and concepts that are
common: In four out of six cases, readers irrelevant to us. Studies supporting the
disclosed that they clearly had sufficient "laws of learning" are based on subjects'
access to books, and all six engaged in trying to remember nonsense words
self-selected reading. (Smith, 1988). Rather, we remember what
is relevant and interesting. This is
“We are tested on what we read in class.” supported by a series of studies showing
that “incidental learning” can be more
This item was by far the most frequently powerful than “intentional learning”
chosen reason for not reading more in (studies reviewed in Krashen, 2003; 2016).
English, selected by 84 percent of the
students. In two classes, all or nearly all Thus, being tested on reading is the
the students selected this option. opposite of what is needed for
remembering. Ironically, the books we
There have been no studies documenting remember most are those we found highly
the frequency of post-reading interesting, not those we were tested on.
comprehension testing, but it appears to
us to be very common. The assumption We also suspect that anticipation of a test
seems to be that testing for content is the on what we read kills the pleasure of
only way we can determine that students reading. If we were tested on everything
are really reading and that they we read, many of us would never read
understand what they read. We suggest voluntarily at all.
here that testing prevents
It seems that testing can have a
comprehension, and with it, enjoyment
devastating effect on attitude, and thus on
and the desire to read.
language acquisition, because it results in
less voluntary reading. Other forms of
If we test comprehension, the result is
comprehension checking may have a
less comprehension
similar effect (Krashen and Mason, 2019).
Comprehension testing forces readers to
Testing was mentioned in four of the six
try to remember what they read while
cases in Cho and Krashen's study of long-
they are reading. We hypothesize that this
term pleasure readers in English as a
reduces involvement with the story or
second or foreign language. Three had not
ideas in the text, which not only results in
experienced testing, and one young reader
less enjoyment but also, ironically, less
refused to take reading and vocabulary
remembering of what is read.
tests that came with the books his
mother ordered for him. He reported that
The traditional view is that we remember
he “hated them” (Cho and Krashen, 2002).
things better when we retrieve them more
References
Cho, K.S. (2017). Five Sessions of SSR: The impact of a short pleasure reading
experience on reading attitude. International Journal of Foreign Language
Teaching.12(1), 2-8.
Cho, K. S. (2018). Does sustained silent reading result in a long-term reading
habit? Turkish Online Journal of English Language Teaching. 3(1),1-5.
52
Why Don’t EFL Students Read More? Because
“We are tested on what we read in class.”
Cho, K.S. and Krashen, S. (2002). Reading English as a foreign language: What a
mother can do. Reading Improvement. 39(4), 158-163.
Cho, K.S. and Krashen, S. (2016). What does it take to develop a long-term
pleasure reading habit? Turkish Online Journal of English Language Teaching.
1(1), 1-9. tinyurl.com/yc6gkxkn.
Cho, K.S. and Krashen, S. (2019). Pleasure reading in a foreign language and
competence in speaking, listening, reading and writing. TEFLIN Journal.30(2),
231-235. https://tinyurl.com/y3zolv8g.
Krashen, S. (2003). Explorations in Language Acquisition and Use: The Taipei
Lectures. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Krashen, S. (2011). Free Voluntary Reading. Santa Barbara: Libraries Unlimited.
Krashen, S. (2016). Compelling reading and problem-solving: The easy way (and
the only way) to high levels of language, literacy, and life competence. In Leung,
Yiu-nam (Ed.), Epoch Making in English Language Teaching and Learning,
Twenty-fifth International Symposium on English Teaching, English Teachers'
Association, Republic of China. pp. 115-125. https://tinyurl.com/y7l8beht.
Krashen, S. and Mason, B. (2019). A note on comprehension checking. Journal of
English Language Teaching. 61(1), 22-24. https://tinyurl.com/y348d6ql.
Lee, S.Y. (2007). Revelations from three consecutive studies on extensive
reading. Regional Language Center (RELC) Journal.38(2), 152-172.
Mason, B. and Krashen, S. (2017). Self-selected reading and TOEIC
performance: Evidence from case histories. Shitennoji University Bulletin. 63,
469-475. https://tinyurl.com/yc9tc8ha.
McQuillan, J. (2019).Where Do We Get Our Academic Vocabulary? Comparing
the Efficiency of Direct Instruction and Free Voluntary Reading. The Reading
Matrix: An International Online Journal. 19(1), 129-138.
Smith, F. (1988). Joining the Literacy Club. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Smith, K. (2006). A comparison of “pure” extensive reading with intensive
reading and extensive reading with supplementary activities. International
Journal of Foreign Language Teaching.2(2), 12-15.
Acknowledgment: This paper was supported by the Busan National University of

Education in Korea (2019).
53
Call for Papers for LLT 18 (July 2020)
Language and Language Teaching (LLT) is a peer-reviewed periodical. It focuses on the

theory and practice of language learning and teaching, particularly in multilingual situations.
Papers are invited for the forthcoming issues of LLT (LLT 18 onwards). The references must be
complete in ALL respects, and must follow the APA style sheet. All papers must include an
abstract (100-150 words) and a set of key words (maximum 6 keywords). Papers MUST be
written in a style that is easily accessible to school teachers, who are the primary target
audience of this periodical. The articles may focus on the learner, teacher, materials, teacher
training, learning environment, evaluation, or policy issues. Activities focusing on different
languages are also invited. The article must be original and should not have been submitted
for publication anywhere else. A statement to this effect must be sent along with the article.
The upper word limit (including the abstract, key words, references and a short bio-note) for
each contribution in different sections of LLT is:
Article: 2000-2200 (it could be extended to 3000 words if it has some theoretical
significance);
Interview: 2500-3000; Landmark: 2500-3000
Book Review: 1000-1500; Classroom Activity: 750; Report: 1000
The bio-note should not exceed 30 words.
Papers must be submitted as a word document in MS Office 7. Please send the fonts along
with the paper if any special fonts are used. For images, please send jpeg files.
Last date for the submission of articles:

January Issue: August 15; July Issue: February 15
Articles may be submitted online simultaneously to the following email IDs:
agniirk@yahoo.com; amrit.l.khanna@gmail.com; jourllt@gmail.com
54
Interview
R. Amritavalli (RA)
talks to Chiranjiv
Singh (CS)
R. Amritavalli | amritavalli@gmail.com
Amritavalli is a theoretical linguist with an interest in first and second language

acquisition. She has retired from the English and Foreign Languages University,
Hyderabad, and lives in Bengaluru.
Chiranjiv Singh has been called a “Renaissance man”. A former Ambassador of India
to UNESCO in Paris, Singh is an administrator with a keen interest in art, literature,
music and languages. He retired in 2005 as additional chief secretary to the
Government of Karnataka, which honoured him with a “Rajyotsava” award. He has
been President of the Alliance Française, Bangalore, receiving the French knighthood,
Chevalier de l'Ordre National du Mérite; and served on the governing bodies of the
Indian Institute of Science and the Institute of Social and Economic Change (both in
Bengaluru).
56
Impelled by a love of literature, Chiranjiv got the Central Institute of Indian

Singh has acquired and learnt to read a Languages in Mysore to prepare Kannada
dozen languages in addition to his native lessons for outsiders, IAS, IPS, IFS, which
Panjabi, namely Bangla, Gujarati, they did. Now, anyone coming from
Hindi/Urdu, Kannada, Marathi, and Tamil, outside is given a thorough grounding in
apart from Arabic, English, French, and Kannada at the ATI, but in our days, this
German. When he looked at the theme was not the case.
statement for this issue of LLT, his
So, when I learnt Kannada, I first started
immediate response was that the
listening to Kannada songs and then
municipal workers and shop assistants
seeing Kannada films: starting with
around his home in Bengaluru spoke at
mythologicals, because there you know
least three or four languages that they
the story. If it is Lava-Kusha or Sita
had learnt on their own. A Tamilian, for
Kalyaaɳam, you know what is happening;
example, would speak Kannada, and Hindi
and fortunately, I am still very fond of
and English, as would a person from the
mythologicals and folktales, because in
north-east of India:
our childhood, we were permitted to see
only mythologicals and folklore films. So,
CS: Yes, in India it is happening all the these I started seeing in my first posting,
time. Because in many cases, the mother and I saw all those films, Kaʈhaari Veera,
tongue is different from, you can say, the Jagadeka Veerana Kathe, etc., any folklore
bazaar or the outside language. Even in or mythological film. Then I learnt the
what we consider the Hindi heartland, for alphabet, and after that I stopped getting
example, the mother tongue could be English newspapers and started taking
Bhojpuri or Maithili, which is different only the Kannada newspapers and reading
from the standard sarkari (official) type of them. Basically I learnt Kannada from
Hindi, that is, the Rajabhasha. So, most films and songs. The songs - you see, you
Indians would be in that sense bilingual in remember the tune, and P. B. Srinivas
any case. became a great favourite of mine; so if a
Some of those who are known for going song was playing, “beɭadingaɭina nore-
out, like Panjabis, Malayalis, Gujaratis, haalu koɖadali tumbi tandoɭe” [“The
they tend to pick up the local language foaming milk of moonlight she has
and it's normally through informal brought filled into a pitcher”), I would ask
settings. They intermingle with the people what is koɖa, they would say [pitcher].
and often it's a process of linguistic Malligeya hambu is the (jasmine) creeper–
osmosis. In many cases, for work so like that you build up the vocabulary;
purposes, for business, they need to learn but I never had any lessons in Kannada as
the local language, and they do it. It such. No formal learning.
happens all the time in India.
In my case, when I came to Karnataka—I RA: But now you read Kannada literature.
came to Karnataka at the age of 25—the
official work was done in English. There
CS: I do, that is because as I said I was
was no pressure to learn Kannada as
such. In fact, many of the previous interested in languages from the
generation[s] of IAS officers from other beginning. It was something I can't
states never learnt Kannada. I was explain, because even as a child, in my 6th
interested in languages myself from the or 7th class during summer vacation, my
beginning, so that's a different matter; but hobby was to create new scripts. So, the
otherwise, we had no arrangements for interest in languages was there, but my
teaching Kannada. When I was in the learning in Kannada was informal.
Administrative Training Institute [ATI], I Whereas, German I learnt formally; but
57
French again I learnt informally when I father or mother.

was posted in France. Before that, in 1960, RA: Your home had (as you mentioned
my father had got Hugo's French language elsewhere) Persian, Urdu books ...
course, you know, Hugo's courses, so
those books were at home; and I had done
matriculation. In between matriculation CS: Yes, I was fortunate in that sense
and college, you have three months' time, because both my parents knew three-four
so I started reading those French books. It languages, and they were both fond of
was informal self-teaching, but later on I reading. I grew up in a house with books
was posted to Paris. For three and a half around me. When I was to be put into
years I was there, but again it was school, the best school in that area was
informal learning. I never attended just across the road – like these shops
classes as such. opposite. So, I was put in that school, and
that was the Anglo-Sanskrit High School –
Other languages also, when I was posted
Hindi medium, with Sanskrit compulsory!
to Belgaum, I learnt Marathi. As Marathi
script is the same as Hindi, that was not a
problem. Again, listening to Marathi RA: It was called the Anglo-Sanskrit High
friends' speech, and taking Marathi School? Which city?
papers, and Marathi magazines, and I
started reading Marathi literature; and I
CS: Its name is Anglo-Sanskrit High
am still getting a Marathi newspaper –
School. Khanna, in Punjab. A.S. High
Similarly Gujarati, I picked up on my own
School, it is quite a famous school.
because again –
RA: It was Hindi medium, but called

RA: Were you posted in Gujarat?
Anglo-Sanskrit!
CS: No, I just picked it up. I mean I was in

CS: Because Sanskrit was compulsory.
Ahmedabad for three months once, and
my host was getting Gujarati newspapers,
so one fine morning, I just picked up the RA: English and Sanskrit were
papers and a couple of times I would ask compulsory.
them, what is this or what is the meaning
of this. Otherwise, I was on my own, and
CS: Yes. It was Anglo-Sanskrit High
now (gestures at his bookshelves) there
School, A.S. High School. The mother
you can see Gujarati books there – K. M.
Munshi's –. So, I mean most of the tongue was Panjabi, the first language in
language learning in my case has been school became Hindi, and I was taught
through informal means – Urdu again, of English at home, so it was quite a
course at home, my parents taught me linguistic mix. Most of the language
the Urdu script. learning in my case has been informal.
Like in many cases in India, people learn
informally.
RA: Was Panjabi at one point written in
Urdu script?
RA: Except for German, you said.
CS: Here on this side it is Gurmukhi, in
Pakistan, it is what they call Shahmukhi CS: German, yes, German I learnt formally,
which is modified Persian script. So, I because I had gone to Germany to do
started reading Urdu and wherever I Ph.D., but then I got selected in the IAS, so
needed to ask something, I would ask my I came back.
58
RA: What were you going to do a Ph.D. in? CS: Actually – twelve, thirteen, or so.
CS: Linguistics.
RA: “Twelve, thirteen, or so” – you have
RA: Linguistics! Oh, our loss! Where in lost count! And we have trouble teaching
Germany? three in school!
CS: Heidelberg. CS: At this age, if somebody asks me how

many do you know, I say I am in the
process of forgetting many!
RA: Heidelberg, oh my goodness.
(laughter)
RA: Because you wanted to read
literature, so – you picked up the script
CS: So, I came back, and during the period also.
that I had to write the exam and wait for
the results and interview, etc., those five-
six months, I taught German in the Panjab CS: Basically, yes. Marathi because I
University, because the German teacher wanted to read Marathi literature;
had gone back to Germany, and she Gujarati, Kannada, Hindi, Panjabi; Sanskrit
recommended my name, so I was was there, Bangla. Yes, Bangla I learnt on
appointed straightaway as German my own because I wanted to read Tagore
teacher. in Bengali. No translation does justice to
Tagore. So I learnt Bengali. Actually, I had
gone to Bengal for a camp for one month.
RA: So, you took courses?
During that period, I learnt the alphabet
there, and then continued.
CS: I took courses in German.
RA: Continued by reading the literature?
RA: How [Where] did you study German? In Or newspapers?
Heidelberg?
CS: I ordered this book, Teach Yourself
CS: No, no, in Goethe Institut. Actually, Bengali. Having learnt the alphabet, [I
when we were in Libya—my father was learnt a] bit of grammar from Teach
posted in Libya—I joined Goethe Institut's Yourself Bengali, and then I was on.
classes; and there I [also] picked up
Arabic because we were in Libya and
RA: So, you went straight into Tagore?
Egypt.
CS: Straight.
RA: So, is that script different, the Arabic,
from the Urdu script?
RA: So, for you, the language is visual as
well as auditory.
CS: No, Urdu is a modified Arabic-Persian
script, because of additional sounds
which Arabic does not have; for that they CS: Yes, yes.
have additional symbols.
RA: You seem to have mostly picked it up,
RA: So how many languages do you know? by looking at it as well as listening to
About twelve, I was told; or more than it–after your twenties and even later. You
twelve? know there is this popular belief that
59
children should be put into English RA: So what should be the thing we do?
medium schools as early as possible,
English is very hard to learn later...
CS: You need to have schools in Indian
languages which are comparable to
CS: I don't know – you see, I was sent to English medium schools. When I had to
school at the age of six, because my put my children in school in Mysore, I was
grandparents thought I was too weak then posted at Mysore, I asked the District
physically to go to school. I was with my Education Officer, I want a good Kannada
grandparents. But at home, they started medium school, because I wanted the
teaching me the English alphabet, and the children to go to a good Kannada medium
result was, we attended a wedding, this is school. But after going around, he came to
before I joined the school, and you had me and he said, “Sir, there is no good
those lights, you know, the moving lights. Kannada medium school”, so I put them in
“Welcome” was written in those moving St. Joseph's which is English medium. I
kind of lights and I was wondering, I asked said all right, they have gone to this but at
somebody, “Welcome? 'Well' is baavi least let the first language be Kannada.
(Kannada for 'a well'), the kuan (Hindi for Now, here the question is you don't have
'a well'), why are they saying, “Come into anywhere in Karnataka good Kannada
the well?” Everybody started – laughing! medium schools which are comparable to
good English medium schools. This is one
So, we spoke Panjabi at home, I was
problem, and this is not only in Karnataka,
taught English and Urdu script at home.
it's all over. Except, perhaps, in
By the time I joined the school, at school it
Maharashtra. I have a friend in Pune. He
was Devanagari – but I don't think you
came back from America after many
have to put children into English medium years, and we were talking, he had to put
schools, I am not in favour of it. English his daughter in school, and this is one of
from the 6th standard or 5th standard is the reasons why he returned. So I said,
good enough. “Sushrut, put her in [a] Marathi medium
school, and she would in any case, learn
RA: That was indeed the recommendation, English. Otherwise, she would not learn
officially, by all the English teaching Marathi”. So he put her in a Marathi
bodies – and the basic subjects should be medium school. Everybody thought he
taught in the mother tongue up to the 10th was spoiling the child's future and all that,
standard? but he is so happy now. He said she has
learnt English in any case, she is very
good in Marathi and as a bonus, she has
CS: Absolutely. India is signatory to the learnt Hindi because the script is the
UNESCO convention on mother tongues, same...Which means Pune has at least
so I don't know why this is not being taken one good Marathi medium school, which
up more seriously, that medium of somebody coming back from abroad can
education should be the mother tongue. put the child into.
RA: But can I play Devil's advocate here, RA: So when we say “good”, what do we
and tell you that even the mother tongue mean?
is not taught in such a way that it is
properly learnt?
CS: Good, I mean in both academic terms
as well as physical infrastructure.
CS: Because, you see, enough attention is
not being paid to teaching in the mother
RA: Academically? Some sense of a
tongue.
60
modern approach to what learning means, RA: Because, they said, it distracts them
or involves, which is missing? from the text.
CS: Yes, also text books, which is another CS: No, the book should be as beautifully
weak point in Indian languages. produced as possible. It should be
attractive to hold, attractive to see.
RA: So you do need to modernize? Panchatantra is our great example,
Hitopadesha, Panchatantra. Because
CS: Definitely, both the subject and the these naughty or silly princes would not
content. You see, the other problem in our learn anything, Vishnu Sharma was asked
textbooks is, instead of making children to give lessons, and those stories are still
learn the language and make the content great, absolutely. With that example in
interesting for the children, we want to India, we still have this kind of thinking, I
make the books didactic. You have to can't understand. Such lovely folktales,
sensitize them to this, you have to such great fairytales in India, such a
sensitize them to that – at a later stage it wealth of traditional narratives, and in the
is okay, you can say from 5th standard 3rd standard, we have to talk about
onwards, you can talk of gender equality, teaching children this or that! First let
environment, etc., but until the 5th class, them learn the language.
why do you have to bother about that? In
fact, whenever I was learning a new RA: You know, we talked about the
language, fortunately, Chandamama was success of our people in learning
published in all these Indian languages, I languages informally—we were talking
would subscribe to Chandamama in that
about the paurakarmikas and the shop
language.
assistants. But somehow, when it comes
to school and learning languages, all
RA: Which is a child's magazine, or these natural learning language abilities
mythological ... are thrown away, switched off.
CS: Yes, I think there has been no CS: Yes, the teachers need to be re-
publication like Chandamama. trained, the language teachers need to be
re-trained, and the textbooks need to be
RA: It has stopped now? re-oriented. As I said, at least up to the 4th
or 5th standard, don't try to be didactic.
Just make it interesting.
CS: It has stopped, unfortunately stopped
If you want to teach about cleanliness,
many years ago.
there are any number of stories even in
our folktales about cleanliness. Pick one
RA: This is an important thing, because to of those. You don't have to, at the end of
give it a professional label, it is called the story, say “Moral!” which I have seen
age-appropriate material. And nowadays, earlier in some textbooks, there would be
there are so many misconceptions about a story and at the end, “Moral.”
how children should be taught language.
Language books, especially for children,
One misconception is that books should
should not be didactic. They should be
not have pictures. I have actually come
interesting. You can have in Social
across this.
Studies all your ideas about environment,
that can come in there, but why in
CS: Should not have pictures? What on language teaching? I remember in my
earth for?
61
children's 3rd or 4th standard Kannada admission is at the age of 6. Before that, it
book, there was a lesson on Lal Bahadur is just nursery, playschool, etc. Now, in
Shastri in which it was mentioned—in a Europe—I have seen because during my
3rd standard book!—that he did not take postings in Europe my children went to
dowry. You are talking to a 7- or 8-yearold school there—the pressure goes on
child, and you're saying [this]. First, why increasing as you go up, and the maximum
have a story on Lal Bahadur Shastri? And pressure I have seen is at the Ph.D. level.
then, why have this, that he did not take In India, the maximum pressure is at the
+2 stage! Which is—something is totally
dowry! This is the problem with our
wrong with our educational system, which
textbooks for children.
has its impact on language teaching also.
Language should be learnt naturally.
RA: Written by adults for adults, it does
not take the child's perspective.
RA: But what about children who may not
have the home advantage?
CS: When we have Hitopadesh, we have
Panchatantra, we have such a wealth of
CS: I am a founder trustee of an NGO
folktales, and you have to say so-and-so
called Sampark. It's a 27-year-old NGO.
did not take dowry in the 3rd standard text
Now, we are working with children of
book!
migrant workers. And these are mostly
construction workers and they come from
RA: Is it some anxiety to make the child a Odisha, they come from Tamil Nadu, they
small adult? I think there are two views of come from Andhra. Also, now increasingly
the child, one that the child is a kind of from North Karnataka. And we see that
Wordsworthian Father to the Man, a the children—for example the mother
Rousseau kind of idea; and the other, tongue would be Oriya, but here the child
which seems to prevail now, that the child is exposed to Kannada also, and given the
should be moulded as soon as possible opportunity, the children learn. Except
into a miniature adult. Do you think that that it should not be forced. Force feeding
might be one of the problems? should not be there.
We are not bothered about English at this
CS: You see, the span of childhood is stage, because most of the teachers here
shrinking. You have children who at the who work with these children are
age of 2 are almost addicted to smart Kannada speaking teachers. So obviously,
phones because the parents use smart the teaching begins in Kannada. Some of
phones for keeping them occupied, and them know Hindi, so those who come
this loss of childhood, to my mind, is one from Jharkhand, and all those children, it's
of the tragedies of the modern age. Let a mix of Hindi and Kannada, etc., and the
children be children. That is why in the children learn. The children learn because
Scandinavian countries and countries like this is an informal setting, and not a
Switzerland, the minimum age for school school with a teacher with a stick.
children is 6. Unfortunately, I think Children learn, and we are happy with the
because of the hold of the English progress of the children.
language, we don't know what is
happening in Finland, because we have no
connection with Finnish or Swedish, or
what is happening in Switzerland.
In the entire world, educationally Finland
is supposed to be number 1, followed by
other Scandinavian countries, and school
62
Landmark
Psychology of
Learning for Teachers:
Preparing for
Classroom Inquiry
Mythili Ramchand | mythili.ramchand@tiss.edu
Mythili Ramchand is currently Professor at the Centre for Education, Innovation and
Action Research, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai. Before joining TISS, she
was the Director of R.V. Educational Consortium, Bengaluru from 2005 to 2018. Her
area of work is initial teacher education. She has been involved in curriculum and
material development, and capacity enhancement programmes for the faculty of
education.
Key Words: Understanding learners, Practitioner research,

Initial teacher preparation
Abstract
This paper is a plea to enable prospective teachers to use the conceptual frameworks,
tools and approaches that the discipline of psychology has to offer, so as to understand
how children learn. In the course of reviewing Michael Howe's classic book A Teacher's
Guide to the Psychology of Learning (1999/1984), I will make a distinction between gaining
knowledge of theories of learning as mere information, and a deeper “understanding” that
allows teachers to research learning in the context of their own classrooms. I will argue
that initial teacher education programmes should shift focus from teaching theories of
learning as a product to be assimilated, to understanding the processes used to generate
these theories.
64
Psychology of Learning for Teachers: Preparing for Classroom Inquiry
research studies and their findings with

Prelude practical guidance for teachers to
consciously trigger children's cognitive
Educational psychology has long been processes. It is the former that will be of
recognized as an important domain of most interest to teachers, for reasons I
study for initial teacher preparation, and will elaborate in the last section.
has been one of the “foundation” courses
in pre-service teacher education In Chapter 3, titled “Mental Activities and
programmes in most countries (Poulou, Human Learning”, Howe presents a series
2005). In his classic book A Teacher's of three experiments by Brabsford, Nitsch
Guide to the Psychology of Learning & Franks (1977); Bower & Karlin (1974) and
(1999/1984), Michael Howe reiterates that Craik & Tulving (1975) (as cited in Howe,
“all teachers should be experts in human 1999), to make the point that instructions
learning”. In the course of reviewing the which require participants to mentally
book, I will argue that such expertise is process the pictures or words they are
gained not by mere knowledge “of the looking at, lead to significantly greater
mechanisms and causes of learning”, as retention of these pictures and words. He
Howe suggests in his preface to the book, goes on to elaborate that “memory for
but by providing teachers with meaningfully perceived items is related to
opportunities to learn the methods and the extensiveness of mental processing,”
tools that the discipline of modern along with a description of an additional
cognitive psychology has opened up. It experiment with “more precise
becomes especially important for experimental control” (p. 30). To rule out
prospective teachers to understand how the possibility that “extensiveness of
children learn in out-of-school contexts mental processing” merely mean the time
as well. I will use the current curriculum taken to do the processing, Howe gives
reform efforts in teacher education and a the example of another study by Rogers,
survey conducted in Karnataka as Kuiper & Kirker (1977). In this experiment,
illustrative cases to frame my argument. “carefully designed questions about
aspects of the words other than their
meanings” ensured that participants took
just as long to answer non-meaning
The Book focussed questions as questions that
focussed on meaning(p. 31). Nevertheless,
In his preface to the second edition of the recall of words whose meanings needed
book, Howe (1999) provides an overview of to be attended to was much higher than
“the contributions of modern cognitive recall of words introduced by other tasks,
psychology to our understanding of those such as the identification of a particular
kinds of learning that are needed for consonant-vowel pattern.
making progress in the school
classroom”. The first two chapters provide Thereafter, the same experiment of
a very brief introduction to learning during recalling words was conducted with an
infancy and preparation for learning at added condition of “self-reference”, where
school. The crux of the book lies in participants were asked to identify if the
chapters 3 to 5, where Howe describes words displayed (all adjectives) described
studies that provide evidence for “three themselves. They found that “participants'
related and interdependent ways of aiding recognition of these items were twice as
learning”, namely encouraging mental accurate as for words that followed a
activities, providing adequate practice and conventional question about the word's
building on existing knowledge (p. 42). He meaning” (p. 31). Meaning that is
combines a brief description of relevant personally relevant to participants is what
65
accounts for better recall of words. In the students become successful learners, by
next section, Howe quotes Craik & Tulving building on what they already know, and
(1975, as cited in Howe, 1999) again, to these are elaborated further in Chapters 8
indicate that a conscious intention to and 9 on training for comprehension and
learn was not an important factor in extending writing skills. For example,
determining what was in fact learnt; with drawing on research conducted by
the caveat, “(t)hat is not to say incentives Ausubel (1968, as cited in Howe, 1999) and
and intentions have no effect in everyday Bransford et al (1981, as cited in Howe,
learning. However, the present results do 1999), Howe suggests that to enhance
indicate that their effects are indirect learning, a teacher can help her students
ones” (p. 33). These sets of experiments forge new knowledge to existing
broadly suggest that engaging in mental
knowledge through advanced organizers,
processing of meaning, in particular,
or by means of directing them “towards
meaning that is personally relevant to a
those parts of their prior knowledge that
learner, leads to better retention.
can illuminate the links that exist
It would have helped if Howe had between new facts that are apparently
described the context of these unrelated to each other” (p. 72).
experiments better. Also, knowledge of
In Chapter 6 on “Intelligence and Human
the age group of the participants would
Abilities”, Howe reviews a substantial
have helped analyse issues such as what
amount of literature to break a myth held
it would mean for a teacher who is
by many teachers and parents that
attempting to teach a new word to older
intelligence is largely unchangeable, or
children, or when a young child picked up
that it is innate. He also debunks the
new vocabulary. Nevertheless, it is
ability of intelligence tests to predict
interesting to see how studies build on
success in later life by quoting a study on
one another in an attempt to increasing
Chinese immigrants, whose average IQ
the explanatory power of these findings.
was lower than that of white Americans
They also offer teachers ideas and tools to
when they first arrived in America soon
help them observe the learning processes
after World War II. However, they were far
of their students, and avoid essentialising
more successful, for example in terms of
labels such as “slow learner” or
professional job status, three decades
“uneducable”. Howe devotes the rest of
later (Flynn, 1991). While acknowledging
the chapter to elaborate upon ways of “inherited differences”, Howe quotes
supporting learning by structuring research on infants (Shaffer & Emerson,
information (for example using a narrative 1964; Korner, 1971; White, 1971; Escalona,
strategy) and creating mental images. 1973) to show that “(t)he ways in which
genetic influence have their effects on
In Chapter 4, Howe rues that the
broad traits are rarely simple” (p. 106).
importance of repetition and practice in
learning is not adequately recognized. He In the course of discussing the role of
reports a number of studies to build his training in actively promoting effective
argument that “gaining of capabilities and learning techniques (in the last two
competence is largely a result of steady chapters), Howe mentions that these
progress that takes place as a skills are not easily transferred into new
consequence of frequent and regular settings, but does not reflect on why this
learning activities, among which is so. The situated nature of learning is
repetition, rehearsal and practice play now well established (Lave & Wenger,
prominent roles” (p. 53). The next chapter 1991), as is the social context of learning
provides some strategies that can help (Vygotsky et al., 1978; Bruner, 1986).
66
elementary sector. The survey included a

Current Curriculum purposive sample of 108 teacher
Reforms in Initial education institutes (representing 10.8 per
cent of the total number of institutes that
Teacher Education were functional in Karnataka at that
time). As part of the study, 10,279 student
It was only a decade ago that policy teachers enrolled in these institutes and
makers in India recognized that it is 606 faculty of education were asked to
important to introduce prospective rate the courses according to their
teachers to socio-cultural aspects of relevance to teaching practice, on a
learning (NCTE, 2009) along with three-point scale (with 2 being highly
“psychology of education” that had relevant and 0, irrelevant). In the study,
hitherto drawn on a behaviourist paradigm psychology of education was consistently
(Batra, 2005). All student teachers now rated as highly relevant, and received
study what are considered seminal higher ratings than pedagogy courses,
theories of learners and learning (NCTE, both from the student teachers and their
2014). faculty (Karnataka Knowledge
Commission, 2012). In an earlier small
The current national curriculum scale study, 25 newly appointed teachers,
framework for initial teacher education who had completed their pre-service
stipulates that“(s)tudent-teachers will programme within the previous two years,
understand theories of learning as were given the same task and this cohort
conceptualized currently within also reported that psychology of
psychology and cognitive science” (NCTE education was most relevant to them as
2014, p.10). The document lists Mukunda teachers (Ramchand, 2009). However,
(2009), Piaget (1997) and Vygotsky (1997), when they were asked to describe what
presumably as suggested readings to aspects of the course they found most
shape such an understanding. In fact, relevant, or even recall what they had
these readings provide excellent learnt in the course, they were unable to
opportunities to understand theories of remember anything significant (other
learning. For example, Kamala Mukunda's than a few of them mumbling “something
books What did you ask at School today to do with chimpanzees and a salivating
Books 1 & 2 (2009 & 2019) give an dog”). Student teachers who were
accessible account of current discourses undergoing the course could also do no
on learners and learning, along with better than recalling Piaget's name and
illustrations. But they need to be “read” stage theory.
beyond an understanding of their
theoretical formulations, if indeed these Subsequently the elementary teacher
theories are to give teachers insights into education curriculum in Karnataka was
how children learn in different contexts. revised to ensure tighter linkages
As Duckworth (2006) argues, teachers between theory and practicum courses
need to think “like” Piaget instead of (DSERT, 2016).
“about” him (p. 83). This is neither trivial
nor self-evident, as the following survey The Need for
shows.
Practitioner Research
The Survey on Learning
In 2012, a survey was undertaken in the
state of Karnataka to study the status of Children are learning all the time, both
initial teacher education in the within the formal school setting and
67
outside. To engender meaningful more in the nature of a summary of

academic learning, teachers need to current knowledge on learning, which
understand how children learn. To while crucial for practitioners, must also
formulate this understanding, teachers enable them to discern available evidence
themselves need to be supported more to make sense of what is useful for their
robustly than what is envisaged in the classrooms. The Faculty of Education
current curriculum reforms. As must help student teachers unpack the
practitioners, they need to be supported to methods, and conceptual and analytical
undertake research on students' learning tools that researchers use to arrive at
in the context of their classrooms. these understandings. This will enable
Foreman-Peck & Winch (2010) argue that student teachers to engage in “critical
practitioner research is essential for explorations” if they are to generate
teaching effectively, and developing deep knowledge about how learning happens
knowledge and professional values within their own contexts once they are
among educators. Further, there is employed as teachers (Duckworth, 2006).
evidence that an inquiry-driven teacher This assumes significance in the dynamic
preparation programme supports robust context of classrooms, given that
learning among students (Darling- teaching and learning are complex
Hammond & Lieberman, 2012). processes.
Student teachers and their faculty require If the current curriculum reforms initiated
physical and cognitive accessibility to in teacher education are to take root so
research on learning. Books such as that teachers are able to meet the diverse
Howe's could be one such source. While learning needs of children for a fast
dated, the book is useful in terms of giving changing, complex future, prospective
practitioners accessible accounts of teachers need to be equipped not only
research. Mukunda (2009; 2019) gives a with the knowledge that research on
more updated account of what we learning throws up, but also with robust
understand about children's learning in inquiry skills to be able to function as
simple and lucid language. Her books are autonomous agents of change.
References
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Poulou, M. (2005). Educational psychology within teacher education. Teachers
and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 11(6), 555-574.
Ramchand, M. (2009). Status of D.Ed colleges in Karnataka. Unpublished report.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological
processes. Cole, M., John-Steiner, V., Scibner, S., & Souberman, E. (Eds.),
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Vygotsky, L. (1997). Interaction between learning and development. In M.
Gauvain & M. Cole (Eds.), Readings on the development of children. New York:
WH Freeman &Company.
69
Book Review
Autonomy in
Language Learning
and Teaching: New
Research Agendas
R. Amritavalli | amritavalli@gmail.com
Amritavalli is a theoretical linguist with an interest in first and second language
acquisition. She has retired from the English and Foreign Languages University,
Hyderabad, and lives in Bengaluru.
Autonomy in Language Learning and Teaching: New

Research Agendas
London: Palgrave Pivot (Springer Nature, Macmillan
Publishers). (116 pages).
Chik, Alice, Aoki, Naoko & Smith, Richard (Eds.) (2018).
ISBN: 978-1-137-52997-8(print)
ISBN: 978-1-137-52997-5 (e-book)
Reviewed by: R. Amritavalli
If the title of this edited volume of 6 deal with formal learning contexts.
Chapters (Chapter 1 the Introduction) Nevertheless, there are connections
suggests proximity of its concerns to the between its explorations and the
theme of this issue of LLT – informal concerns in this LLT.
language learning by adults, its subtitle Autonomy has been defined as “the
“New Research Agendas” is perhaps capacity to take control of one's learning”
portentous of its departures from that (Benson, 2001/2011); individual authors in
theme. Exploring the “who, what, when, the book all mention Benson. Part of this
where and why” of learner autonomy phraseology is now made familiar by
(Introduction, p. 2), the book takes us into Brexit sloganeering. The definition's
“contextual constraints” (Chapter 3), invocation of “capacity” entails
“group processes” (Chapter 4), “digital
presuppositions of incapacities for
practices” (Chapter 5), and “human
autonomy: cultural, economic and
geography and mediated discourse
individual. However, the book begins by
analysis” (Chapter 6). Chapters 3 and 4
convincingly rebutting these
71
presuppositions, in Chapter 2. This chapter a traditional Tamil form of literacy

by Smith, Kuchah and Lamb, entitled teaching, where a master would
“Learner Autonomy in Developing instruct older children in how to draw
Countries”, is licenced for open access letters and words in sand, and they
under the Creative Commons Attribution. would then help younger children to
Smith et al. argue that given the “difficult write and pronounce them, thereby
circumstances” of teaching in developing enabling far more children to learn to
countries (West, 1960), “successful read and write than would be
language learners ... are autonomous otherwise possible.
learners who can exploit out-of-school Finally, and importantly, Smith et al. argue
resources” (Abstract, p. 7). Provincial in favour of decolonization of ELT through
learners in Indonesia “(e)ven at the age of “a participant-centred approach” to
12-14 ... were able to distance themselves research, with and by learners (Kuchah,
from their school English classes” (and 2013; Pinter, Mathew and Smith, 2016), and
teachers!) (p. 10); mobile phones provided teachers or teacher associations (a
internet access, which brought within couple of projects from India find
their reach dictionaries, language learning mention: AINET, the All-India Network of
websites, and Facebook friendships with English Teachers, and Naidu et al. 1992).
foreigners as well as fellow-Indonesians.
Referencing Sugata Mitra's well-known Chapter 3 by Gao, which describes the
“hole-in-the-wall” experiments, these cultural context of teaching English in
authors set, as a first research priority, East Asian countries, finds its echoes in
studies of out-of-class learning through Philip Scott's narrative (this issue) of
mobile phones and the internet (see, in introducing self-selected free reading in a
this context, the newspaper report in The college in Vietnam, in the face of mass-
Times of India, Bengaluru, October 11, 2019: marketed materials. Gao adopts a current
https://m.timesofindia.com/india/stuck- premise that “learner autonomy and
on-a-maths-problem-these-social- teacher autonomy are interdependent,”
media-apps-could-help- not least because “teachers who did not
you/amp_articleshow/71536748.cms). experience autonomy in learning ... are
unlikely to support ... autonomous
Smith et al. go even further. Autonomy,
learning” (pp. 30-32). In other words,
they say, is “an essential characteristic of
teachers tend to teach as they were
all successful learners and can be found
taught. He identifies, from internet
everywhere if we know how to look” (p. 18).
discussions in mainland China and Hong
It may be missed by “western eyes”
Kong (in an online teachers' community,
because it takes “varied forms” in
and responses to a query in an article
different settings. Their second research
priority is therefore “more research into about teachers' errors on an English
and sharing of success stories of teaching proficiency test whether teachers are
in low-resource classrooms.” Pointing out responsible for students' falling language
that “the exchange of educational ideas is standards), three major constraints on
ongoing and multidirectional” (p. 15), they teacher autonomy. These are:
tellingly recapitulate how, a little over 200 bureaucratic control (a tight regime of
years ago, a “Madras System” was accountability that subjects teachers'
introduced into the bulging schools of an professional standards to external
industrializing Britain (“England was at scrutiny), an “educational consumer”
that time, after all, the epitome of a culture born out of the “marketization of
'developing country'”, p. 16). This system education”, and a cultural tradition that
was a form of peer-teaching and simultaneously deifies teachers and
collaborative learning built on reviles them for perceived failures.
72
The first and the third constraints are Palfreyman (Chapter 4) finds that
well-known in India, the second (to my curriculum planners and teachers now
mind) less so. British-origin see autonomy and group/pair work as
communicative ELT materials here have “key tenets” in language education, and
to find their place amidst a robust public sets out to “understand ... how autonomy
as well as private ELT publication and groups can work and develop
presence. Institutions such as the NCERT together in practice” (p. 53). Working in a
and the SCERTs received their impetus in group is a highly valued “soft skill” (p. 55).
this regard from the pioneering efforts of Collaborative learning has its theoretical
Makhan Lal Tickoo's Department of underpinnings in the Vygotskian ZPD
Materials Production at the then Central (Zone of Proximal Development), and
Institute of English (see Tickoo, 2008). As India's monitor method for Tamil literacy
for bureaucratic control and external (the “Madras System” referred to in the
standards of accountability, this might be first chapter). Contra Palfreyman, ZPD
an inevitable by-product of the push does not entail that “learning happens in
towards professionalization. Teachers are interaction and is only then internalized”
not unique in this respect. Lawyers and (p. 57); or that “interdependence is... a
doctors, for example, have workload necessary, initial stage” (p. 59) of
requirements, and are nevertheless scaffolding for self-regulation.
expected to be competent and stay Nevertheless, this is a useful discussion
updated in their professions. (Doctors of the possibilities and pitfalls afforded by
have also emerged in India as victims of group learning, where “collective
the consumerist stance of the patient and intelligence”, “community of practice” and
their “party”.) “positive interdependence” must balance
But what sets language teachers apart the negative effects of the “free rider”.
from doctors and other professionals is Subtypes of positive interdependence are
the nature of language and its acquisition. mentioned that appear to be particularly
Knowledge of a language is not the relevant to team sports. Education now
received and codified knowledge of a has its own team sport, namely school
“subject” such as medicine, law, or quiz contests. The following example of
physics (Chomsky, 1975). Language collaborative preparation for tests may
acquisition must invoke the “instinctive” thus be relevant; it may serve also as a
growth and automation of mental healthy counter to the prevailing
structures in the individual learner's mind, individualistic culture of an aggressive
in a supportive environment (Pinker, 1994). pursuit of marks. In this example, learners
The language teacher's knowledge revise as a group for a test they then take
domain is the capacity to detect and individually; “then the score of one of
promote the “occurrence of learning” members, chosen at random, is given to
(Prabhu, 1987) in the individual learner, i.e. all members of the group.” On this
to invoke ZPD (the Zone of Proximal somewhat startling procedure, students
Development, discussed again below).The “not only gained higher scores than
teacher has no prescribed and pre- another group which had worked
prepared diagnostic/remedial kit for individually but also had more positive
individual learners. This is why the attitudes towards the test and the class”
bureaucratic response to learning “failure” (p. 58). The claim that “peer assistance
of “more of the same” curriculum or seems to have benefits in terms of
methodology is futile (see Philip Scott in autonomous learning for the provider of
this issue).The reflective teacher- help ... peer tutors ... [feel] more
practitioner sees this futility. Without responsible, more motivated, more
autonomy, no language teaching or critically aware and more confident in
learning is possible. This is why language their own learning and use of English” (p.
teachers gripe about bureaucratic control. 60), again rings true.
73
In Chapter 5 Alice Chik, and in Chapter 6 improves his or her language” (Beatty,
Murray, return to informal language 2010, p. 7): for “... daily digital use is almost
learning and ethnographic inquiry. Murray a given. Language learning is almost
presents an account of the learning incidental” (p. 77).
opportunities afforded by a social learning Chik details learning experiences on
space for Japanese students of English: an Duolingo, which provides structured
“English Café”, created within a large café. language lessons through bilingual
Chik's auto/ethnographic account of translation. In an interesting exercise of
picking and learning a language from the their autonomy, she and some other
internet rests on case studies. Her Duolingo learners reversed their roles at
understanding of autonomy returns to just the end of a course (from English
that in Chapter 2: “successful language speakers learning Italian, to Italian
learners learn and use their target speakers learning English); they found
languages both inside and outside the this to be “the best way to revise and
classroom (references omitted),” and consolidate the newly learned Italian” (p.
“researchers and teachers ... need to 86). Autonomy here endorses a good old
make stronger connections as to how practice in the grammar-translation
language learning is situated in the method!
learners' social worlds” (pg. 75). Autonomy
is central to CALL (Computer-Assisted Indeed, as Smith et al. observe (Chapter 2,
Language Learning), which was initially pp.15-16), “'teaching students to learn' is
teacher-initiated, but now stands not simply the latest language teaching
redefined as “any process in which a fashion but can be related to deeper, older
learner uses a computer, and, as a result, educational conceptions and traditions”.
References
Benson, P. (2011). Teaching and researching autonomy (2nd ed.). London:
Pearson Longman. (Original work published in 2001).
Chomsky, N. (1975). Reflections on language. New York: Pantheon Books.
Kuchah, K. (2013). Context-appropriate ELT pedagogy: An investigation into
Cameroonian private schools (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis). University of Warwick.
Warwick, UK.
Naidu, B., Neeraja, K., Ramani, E., Shivakumar, J., & Viswanatha, A. (1992).
Researching heterogeneity: An account of teacher-initiated research into large
classes. ELT Journal,46(3), 252-263.
Pinker, S. (1994). The Language instinct: The new science of language and mind.
London: Penguin.
Prabhu, N.S. (1987). Second language pedagogy. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Pinter, A., Mathew, R., &Smith, R. (2016). Children and teachers as co-
researchers in Indian primary English classrooms. London: British Council.
Tickoo, Makhan L. (2008). 50 Years of English studies at the EFL University: An
essay in understanding. Hyderabad: The English and Foreign Languages
University.
West, M. (1960). Teaching English in difficult circumstances. London:
Longmans, Green.
74
Language and Language

Teaching (LLT)
Objectives
LLT
LLT
Guidelines for Submission of Manuscripts
LLT
LLT
LLT
LLT
75
Report
Whole Language
Approach and
Multilingual Pedagogy
in Schools
P. K. Jayaraj | pkjayarajs@gmail.com
A few days ago, I visited the Union LPS (Lower Primary School) Thrikkanarvattom in
Ernakulam Town along with two experts from NCERT, Professor Indrani Bhaduri and
Dr.Vijayan. We saw that the students were fully involved and engaged in learning. After
visiting the school, I thought how true the ancient Chinese proverb, “Tell me, I
forget/Show me, I remember/Involve me, I understand”, was. The students of Union
LPS Thrikkanarvattom were really amazing. They could read Malayalam with
comprehension, do basic operations in Mathematics and read and communicate in
English and Hindi, and of course enjoyed singing songs in their mother tongue.
Here is what Professor Indrani Bhaduri, Head of Educational Survey Division of
NCERT wrote in the School Visitor's Book:
A great experience meeting and talking to the students and teachers. The
students are well versed in four languages, their mother tongue, Malayalam,
English and Hindi, which they can read and write. The student-teacher
relationship is also worth mentioning. Teachers teach students as their own
children. A very dedicated team. The school totally endorses the concept of “Joyful
learning”.
Malayalam. Hence, Samagra Shiksha,

The Story of Union Kerala and the district administration
LPS Thrikkanarvattom launched a project titled “Roshni”. This
project helps the children of immigrant
workers acquire proficiency in Malayalam,
Except for three students, all the other English and Hindi by using the strategy of
children of the school are the children of code-switching through special packages,
immigrant workers, predominantly from and by taking an extra ninety minutes
Bihar, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil before the morning classes. It enlists the
Nadu, Odisha, Assam and Nepal. The service of educational volunteers who are
medium of instruction in the school is proficient in Hindi, Bengali and Oriya. As
Malayalam. As the children belong to the volunteers are multilingual, they can
different linguistic communities, they communicate easily with the children and
found it difficult to understand hence understand them better.
Malayalam, the language of instruction. In
fact, the children of immigrants from the We met a student from Class 1, whose
North and North East were found to be parents were from Pondicherry. He could
insecure when they were exposed to speak Malayalam fluently and read and
77
understand simple stories. He could talk switching is generally defined as a shift

to his classmates fluently in Hindi. from one language to another by the
Nobody had taught him Hindi; he had speaker during the speech. As part of the
acquired it from his friends in Class 1. We teaching process, Malayalam teachers
also talked to his mother, who had come used graphic reading and writing during
to pick up her son from school. She told the early stages of language acquisition.
Professor Indrani Bhaduri that her son The following processes were used as
spoke Tamil at home. So this Class 1 part of graphic reading and writing. The
student was proficient in three languages. teacher initiates an interaction in
We also talked to a student from Bihar Malayalam using a picture or a video. The
whose mother tongue was Bhojpuri—the volunteer teacher uses code-switching
language chiefly spoken in western Bihar strategy and talks in Oriya, Assamese,
and eastern Uttar Pradesh. This student Bengali and Hindi. For example, in the
read a Malayalam story fluently and picture interaction, the teacher asks in
narrated the story to Professor Indrani in Malayalam: “ ”
Hindi. Professor Bhaduri asked the girl to The volunteer teacher code-switches into
sing a Bhojpuri song, which she sang Hindi: “;g fp= ns[kks] fp= esa D;k fn[krk gS?”
rhythmically. This indicated that the Sometimes, volunteer parents also
students keep up with their mother participate in the team, teaching along
tongue along with Malayalam, English and with the class teacher. The teacher
Hindi. It was clear that the multilingual speaks Malayalam clearly and slowly,
pedagogy implemented for the inclusive maintaining appropriate pace, tone and
education of migrant children was stress to make her/his speech audible
working well. The teachers and and meaningful. Teachers also use
educational volunteers not only ensured narratives to give meaningful, interesting
that the migrant children learnt and comprehensible input to the learners.
Malayalam, English and Hindi, but they The narrative is presented with
also made sure that they loved their appropriate voice modulation, pitch, tone
mother tongue and were proud of it. and body language in order to promote
active listening and comprehension. The
teacher presents the narratives in
Multilingual Malayalam and the volunteer teacher
Pedagogy code-switches to Oriya, Assamese,
Bengali and Hindi for the same narrative.
Professor Rama Kant Agnihotri, in the In this case, the Hindi, Oriya, Bengali,
Joint Review Mission (JRM) Report 2014, Tamil and Assamese speaking children
specified that the state of Kerala has to could read the elicited text graphically.
seriously think about implementing a They were able to identify sentences,
pedagogy rooted in multilingualism in the words and letters written in Malayalam.
schools of Kerala, for teaching the We were really impressed by how the
children of tribal and migrant labourers. multilingual pedagogy came alive in the
He complimented the Malayalam-English classrooms.
code-switching strategy used for teaching
English in the lower primary classrooms
in the state. In Union LP School as well as
Phonics Versus
other schools in the state where the
children of migrant people study, the
Whole Language
education system has effectively made Approach
use of multilingual pedagogy. The main
pedagogic tool used in this inclusive Many of us were taught to read and write
education is code-switching. Code- starting with the sounds of the letters. We
78
repeated consonants or vowel sounds of instruction is taught using a holistic

until the association between the letter approach, meaning that children do not
and the sound was ingrained in our minds. learn to break down sounds individually
Educators call this the phonics approach. but to take words at face value and
In this approach, memorizing the shape of associate them with prior knowledge.
the letter and its sound is the first activity
to take place in the learner's brain. This
approach has been around for so many
Multilingual and
years that many people are convinced Whole Language
that it is the only way that reading can be
taught. In the phonics approach, learning Pedagogy
starts with the smallest parts of a
The pedagogy rooted in multilinguality in
language; the pieces are added together
the schools of Ernakulam uses whole
until the learner understands how to language strategies. In such a classroom,
interpret every symbol to read or write a the teacher focusses on knowing and
message. This method however often caring about the learners, identifying
does not work very well when students generative themes, creating learner-
are not familiar with books and printed centred materials, integrating skills
words. For them, the symbols are too (LSRW), preparing teaching manuals and
abstract and have no meaning as they learning aids, helping learners to read and
have not had the opportunity to see others write, assessing learners' achievements
using the symbols to read and write. and mentoring and handholding them to
higher achievement and joyful learning. In
The inclusive educational programme for the whole language approach, the
the children of migrant labourers in the learners play a central role. In fact,
schools of Ernakulam is based on the programmes based on the whole
philosophy of whole language and social language philosophy claim that their
constructivism. Whole language is not a methods are “learner-centred”, rather
specific method. It is a philosophy of than “book-centred” or “teacher-centred”.
education that describes how we view Multilingual and whole language
language, literacy, teaching and learning. pedagogy promotes inclusive education
The major assertion in this philosophy of and joyful learning. The students in Union
learning is that language is “whole”. This LPS Thrikkanarvattom learn individually,
means that if we take it apart to focus on discuss in groups and work
its letters, vocabulary or grammar collaboratively. Further, the teachers use
patterns, we lose the essence of what a variety of teaching learning materials
language is. Reading should not be taught besides the textbook.
as the isolated skill of connecting
symbols and sounds. Learning to read Our team also met the parents who came
must also be connected to life experience, to pick up their chidden after 3:30 pm in
meaningful activities and the learner's the afternoon. A parent from Jharkhand
goals through discussion, speaking, said the school was wonderful and his
listening and writing. In the simplest daughter, who is in Class two, reads and
terms, the whole-language approach speaks Hindi and Malayalam. A Bihari
strives to teach children to read words as mother said to us that her daughter in
whole pieces of language. Influenced by Class four speaks and reads Malayalam,
the Constructivist Theory, proponents of Hindi, English and Bhojpuri. She is also
the whole-language methodology believe proficient in maths. The Headmistress
summed up, “Our students are coming
that children draw from their perspective
from small homes to a big home. The
and prior experiences to form the
school is a big home for them and we love
framework for new knowledge. This type
them all.”
79
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Some Special Issues of LLT
Special Issue on Disability and Language

Special Issue on Literacy
Volume 8 Number 2 Issue 16July 2019
Contents
Editorial Interviews
Sadhna Saxena Interview with Shobha Sinha
Sadhna Saxena and Neema Chaurasia 56
Articles
Landmarks
Teaching Economics in Schools in Languages of “Instruction” and
India: Issues, Controversies and Abstraction, Languages of Doing and
Dilemmas Feeling
Arvind Sardana 1 C. N. Subramaniam 67
Developing Acquaintance with Book Reviews

Mathematical Disposition via Language Influence of English on Indian Women
Haneet Gandhi 8 Writers: Voices from Regional
Languages
What is or is not Common between Neema Chaurasiya 77
Mathematics and Language
Hriday Kant Dewan 13 The Double Perspective: Language,
Literacy, and Social Relations
Literature for Literacy: Strategies for Veena Kapur 81
Critical Thinking in the Classroom
Nishevita Jayendran 21 Teaching Children's Literature: It's
Critical!
Gender and Issues of Language in Prachi Kalra 85
Science
Deepika Bansal 27 Classroom Activities
Activities to Familiarize Students with
Teaching Writing: A Reflective Account Maps
Sayan Chaudhari 33 Jayatri Chawla 90
The World of Hindi Medium Students Reports

Payal Yadav 38 Reflections on OELP (Organisation for
Early Literacy Promotion)
The Language Experience Approach: An Chhaya Sawhney 93
Invitation to Talk, Read and Write
Sonika Kaushik 43
Social Science and Language in

Schools: Some Preliminary Notes
Manish Jain 49

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Language and Language Teaching

Special Issue on Language Acquisition in Informal Settings

Volume 9 Number 1 Issue 17 January 2020

Would a “Rational Approach” Improve

India is a land of over a hundred or a thousand languages, depending on how you

Key Words: Language learning in non-tutored settings, Adult

sometimes, people simply pointed

A Mysorean Neyveli, being a small town, had very few

Key Words: First language, Aptitude, Senior Under-Officer,

chose a Tamilian for my life partner, and

With my college education coming to a

Learning Tamil Conclusion

Key Words: EFL, Extensive reading, Sustained silent reading,

rarely watched English language

The ESL class was for adults and based on

weekends. At the beginning of the as “Should Adrian divorce her husband?”

The effect, although not quantifiable, was

Krashen, S. (2004). The power of reading (2nd ed.). Portsmouth, N. H.

Krashen, S. (2007). Case histories and the comprehension hypothesis. Selected

Peterson, R., & Eeds, M. (2007). Grand conversations: Literature groups in

Steele, D. (1992). Heartbeat. New York: Penguin Random House.

Learning German to Actively

Key Words: Learning German, DAAD scholarship, Research

courses were offered. The author opted

As was customary in Germany those days,

English-speaking world. Many were from communication, whether by a written text

Learning to Read Hindi

Key Words: Reading Devanagari script, Deciphering letters, Text

This paper is a self-reflective narrative of

The actual texts in Hindi (transliterated, Hail to thee, lord Balaji!

Hindi Letters that My discussion with Deepesh after I sent

Text 4: deciphering caused by the background

Make love, not war

This short and simple text, that advised

The second “squiggle” that caused major

uʈhaanewale Shri Krishna barmudaa [sic] bhii apne kaccheey ka

Text 12: With reference to the selection of texts,

Bruner, J. (1985). Vygotsky: A historical and conceptual perspective. In J.

Cummins, J. (1980). The cross-lingual dimensions of language proficiency:

Prabhu, N. S. (2018). Interview by G. Durairajan and D. Chandrasekharan.

Prabhu, N. S. (2019). The learner's effort in the language classroom: In G.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological

Paroma Sanyal | psanyal@iitd.ac.in

Key Words: Familial space, Morpho-syntax, Phonology, Dative

Malayalam is the language spoken by the

Would a “Rational Approach”

Key Words: Free-reading, Autonomy, ELT textbooks, Self-

import several boxes of used books on a

In Gethin's approach, students are taught If languages are going to continue

on things to remember, and their

to focus on war or conflict. Instead he difficulty, which suggests that students

positive effect on learning, it would be a availability of books in Vietnamese

Nguyen Hien. (2012).With no libraries, university students like “frog in a well”

Why Don't EFL Students

Kyung-Sook Cho Busan | kscho@bnue.ac.kr

Kyung- Sook Cho is Professor of Education at Busan National University of Education,

Stephen Krashen is Professor Emeritus at the University of Southern California. He is

Key Words: Pleasure reading, Acquisition of English, Testing

Introduction Overall, only 11% (14/127) considered