ciliated epithelium

anatomy
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anatomy of adenoids

In adenoids

…Of the adenoids consists of ciliated epithelial cells covered by a thin film
of mucus. The cilia, which are microscopic hairlike projections from the
surface cells, move constantly in a wavelike manner and propel the
blanket of mucus down to the pharynx proper. From that point the mucus
is caught…
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characteristics

 In epithelium

Ciliated epithelium lines the trachea, bronchi of the lungs, parts of the
nasal cavities, the uterus and oviduct of the female, and the vas deferens
and epididymis of the male. A single projection from the exposed surface
of a cell, usually large and long, is…
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argentaffin cell
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argentaffin cell
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Argentaffin cell, one of the round or partly flattened cells occurring in the
lining tissue of the digestive tract and containing granules thought to be of secretory
function. These epithelial cells, though common throughout the digestive tract, are
most concentrated in the small intestine and appendix. The cells locate randomly
within the mucous membrane lining of the intestine and in tubelike depressions in
that lining known as the Lieberkühn glands. Their granules contain a chemical
called serotonin, which stimulates smooth muscle contractions. Functionally, it is
believed that serotonin diffuses out of the argentaffin cells into the walls of the
digestive tract, where neurons leading to the muscles are stimulated to produce the
wavelike contractions of peristalsis. Peristaltic movements encourage the passage of
food substances through the intestinal tract.
epithelium
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epithelium
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Friedrich Gustav Jacob Henle

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Epithelium, in anatomy, layer of cells closely bound to one another to
form continuous sheets covering surfaces that may come into contact with foreign
substances. Epithelium occurs in both plants and animals.

In animals, outgrowths or ingrowths from these surfaces form structures consisting

largely or entirely of cells derived from the surface epithelium. In this way the central
nervous system, the sensitive surfaces of special sense organs, glands, hair, nails, and
other structures all originate. The epithelial cells possess typical microscopical
characteristics: the cell outline is clearly marked, and the nucleus large and spherical
or ellipsoidal. The cytoplasm of the cell is usually large in amount and often contains
large numbers of granules.

Epithelium may be protective, absorptive, or secretory. It may produce special

outgrowths (hairs, nails, horns on animals), and manufacture chemical material
(e.g., keratin), in which case the whole cell becomes modified. In other instances it
contains fat droplets, granules of various kinds, protein, mucin, watery granules, or
glycogen. In a typical absorbing cell, granules of material are absorbed.
A secreting cell forming specific substances stores them until they are utilized—
e.g., fat, in sebaceous and mammary glands; enzymes in salivary and gastric glands;
and various excretory substances in the renal epithelium of the kidney.

The cells forming an epithelial membrane are of various types: columnar, cubical,
squamous (flattened), irregular, or ciliated (i.e., with hairlike projections). The
membranes formed by these cells may be only one cell thick, as in the major part of
the gastrointestinal tract, or consist of several layers, as in the epidermis of the
skin. Columnar epithelium covers the intestinal tract from the end of the esophagus
to the beginning of the rectum. It also lines the ducts of many glands. A typical form
covers the villi (nipple-like projections) of the small intestine. Cubical epithelium is
found in many glands and ducts (e.g., the kidney), the middle ear, and the
brain. Squamous, or flattened, epithelial cells, very thin and irregular in outline,
occur as the covering epithelium of the alveoli of the lung and of the glomeruli and
capsule of the kidney. Ciliated epithelium lines the trachea, bronchi of the lungs,
parts of the nasal cavities, the uterus and oviduct of the female, and the vas
deferens and epididymis of the male. A single projection from the exposed surface of
a cell, usually large and long, is called a flagellum. Flagellated cells are common on
the surface of many simple animals.

When the cells of an epithelial surface are several layers deep, various epithelial types
can be distinguished: stratified, stratified ciliated, and transitional epithelium.
In stratified epithelium, which is found in the epithelium of the skin and of many
mucous membranes (e.g., mouth, esophagus, rectum, conjunctiva, vagina), the
surface cells are flattened, those of the middle layer are polyhedral, and those of the
lowest layer are cubical or columnar. This type of epithelium covers surfaces exposed
to friction. The surface cells are constantly being rubbed off and are replaced by new
cells growing up from below. Hence, the deepest layer is formative, and successive
stages upward reveal a gradual transformation into scaly cells that no longer show
any sign of being alive.

In stratified ciliated epithelium the superficial cells are ciliated and columnar. This
epithelium lines parts of the respiratory passages, the vas deferens, and the
epididymis. Transitional epithelium lines the urinary bladder; its appearance
depends upon whether the bladder is contracted or distended.
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tissue
Table of Contents

 Introduction
  Plants
 Animals

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tissue
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Also known as: tissue system
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xylem; Scots pine
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Tissue, in physiology, a level of organization in multicellular organisms; it consists
of a group of structurally and functionally similar cells and their intercellular
material.

By definition, tissues are absent from unicellular organisms. Even among the
simplest multicellular species, such as sponges, tissues are lacking or are
poorly differentiated. But multicellular animals and plants that are more advanced
have specialized tissues that can organize and regulate an organism’s response to
its environment.

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human nervous system: Tissues

Plants
Bryophytes (liverworts, hornworts, and mosses) are nonvascular plants; i.e., they
lack vascular tissues (phloem and xylem) as well as true leaves, stems, and roots.
Instead bryophytes absorb water and nutrients directly through leaflike and stemlike
structures or through cells comprising the gametophyte body.

In vascular plants, such as angiosperms and gymnosperms, cell division takes place
almost exclusively in specific tissues known as meristems. Apical meristems, which
are located at the tips of shoots and roots in all vascular plants, give rise to three
types of primary meristems, which in turn produce the mature primary tissues of
the plant. The three kinds of mature tissues are dermal, vascular, and ground tissues.
Primary dermal tissues, called epidermis, make up the outer layer of all plant organs
(e.g., stems, roots, leaves, flowers). They help deter excess water loss and invasion by
insects and microorganisms. The vascular tissues are of two kinds: water-
transporting xylem and food-transporting phloem. Primary xylem and phloem are
arranged in vascular bundles that run the length of the plant from roots to leaves.
The ground tissues, which comprise the remaining plant matter, include various
support, storage, and photosynthetic tissues.

Secondary, or lateral, meristems, which are found in all woody plants and in some
herbaceous ones, consist of the vascular cambium and the cork cambium. They
produce secondary tissues from a ring of vascular cambium in stems and roots.
Secondary phloem forms along the outer edge of the cambium ring, and secondary
xylem (i.e., wood) forms along the inner edge of the cambium ring. The cork
cambium produces a secondary dermal tissue (periderm) that replaces the epidermis
along older stems and roots.
Animals
Early in the evolutionary history of animals, tissues became aggregated into organs,
which themselves became divided into specialized parts. An early scientific
classification of tissues divided them on the basis of the organ system of which they
formed a part (e.g., nervous tissues). Embryologists have often classified tissues on
the basis of their origin in the developing embryo; i.e., ectodermal, endodermal, and
mesodermal tissues. Another method classified tissues into four broad groups
according to cell composition: epithelial tissues, composed of cells that make up the
body’s outer covering and the membranous covering of internal organs, cavities, and
canals; endothelial tissues, composed of cells that line the inside of
organs; stroma tissues, composed of cells that serve as a matrix in which the other
cells are embedded; and connective tissues, a rather amorphous category composed
of cells and an extracellular matrix that serve as a connection from one tissue to
another.

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The most useful of all systems, however, breaks down animal tissues into four classes
based on the functions that the tissues perform. The first class includes all those
tissues that serve an animal’s needs for growth, repair, and energy; i.e., the
assimilation, storage, transport, and excretion of nutrients and waste products. In
humans, these tissues include the alimentary (or digestive) tract, kidneys, liver, and
lungs. The digestive tract leads (in vertebrates) from the mouth through the pharynx,
stomach, and intestines to the anus. In vertebrates and some larger invertebrates,
oxygen and the nutrients secured by the alimentary tissues or liberated from storage
tissues are transported throughout the body by the blood and lymph, which are
themselves considered by many to be tissues. Tissues that secure oxygen and
excrete carbon dioxide are extremely variable in the animal kingdom. In many
invertebrates, gas exchange takes place through the body wall or external gills, but in
species adapted to a terrestrial life, an internal sac capable of expansion and
contraction served this purpose, and gradually became more complex over
evolutionary time as animals’ demand for oxygen increased.

The second class of tissues consists of those used in coordination. There are basically
two types: physical (nervous and sensory tissues), which operate via electrical
impulses along nerve fibres; and the chemical (endocrine tissues), which release
hormones into the bloodstream. In invertebrates, both physical and chemical
coordination are performed by the same tissues, because the nervous tissues also
serve as hormone sources. In vertebrates, most endocrine functions are isolated in
specialized glands, several of which are derived from nervous tissue.

The basic unit of all nervous tissue is the neuron, aggregations of which are called
ganglia. The bundles of axons along which neurons transmit and receive impulses are
called nerves. By comparison, chemical control by hormones is much slower and
longer-acting. In many invertebrates, chemical stimulators are secreted by the
neurons themselves and then move to their site of action along the axon. In higher
vertebrates, the principal endocrine tissues are the thyroid, parathyroid, pituitary,
and endocrine constituents of the pancreas and adrenal glands.

The third class of tissues includes those contributing to the body’s support
and movement. The connective tissues proper surround organs, bones, and muscles,
helping to hold them together. Connective tissues proper consist of cells embedded
in a matrix composed of an amorphous ground substance and collagen, elastic, and
reticular fibres. Tendons and ligaments are examples of extremely strong connective
tissues proper. The other major structural tissues are cartilage and bone, which, like
connective tissues proper, consist of cells embedded in an intercellular matrix. In
cartilage the matrix is firm but rubbery; in bone the matrix is rigid, being
impregnated by hard crystals of inorganic salts. Muscle tissue is primarily
responsible for movement; it consists of contractile cells. There are two general types
of muscle: striated muscle, which moves the skeleton and is under voluntary control;
and smooth muscle, which surrounds the walls of many internal organs and cannot
normally be controlled voluntarily.

A fourth class of tissues includes reproductive tissues, hemopoietic tissues, and tissue
fluids. The most important reproductive tissues are the gonads (ovaries and testes),
which produce the gametes (eggs and sperm, respectively). Hemopoietic tissues
produce the cellular components of the blood. Among the important tissue fluids are
lymph, cerebrospinal fluid, and milk (in mammals).
The Editors of Encyclopaedia BritannicaThis article was most recently revised and updated
by Adam Augustyn.
Paneth’s cell
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Paneth’s cell
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Also known as: Davidoff’s cell, cells of Paneth
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Paneth’s cell, specialized type of epithelial cell found in the mucous-membrane
lining of the small intestine and of the appendix, at the base of tubelike depressions
known as Lieberkühn glands. Named for the 19th-century Austrian physiologist
Joseph Paneth, the cell has one nucleus at its base and densely packed secretory
granules throughout the rest of its body. The cells’ function is not totally known, nor
is their manner of discharging their granules. They are known to secrete large
amounts of protein-rich material and are thought to secrete the enzyme peptidase,
which breaks peptide molecules into amino acids suitable for assimilation by the
body. In humans the granules are found to contain carbohydrates, proteins, and
radioactive zinc. In mice a specific protein, lysozyme, known to destroy
some bacteria, is believed to be present in the granules. This suggests that the Paneth
cell might also have an antibacterial function.
This article was most recently revised and updated by Amy Tikkanen.
integument
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 Introduction
 Invertebrate integuments
 The vertebrate integumentary system
 Embryology and evolution
 Biodynamics
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Also known as: integumentary system
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Integument, in biology, network of features that forms the covering of an organism.
The integument delimits the body of the organism, separating it from
the environment and protecting it from foreign matter. At the same time it gives
communication with the outside, enabling an organism to live in a particular
environment.

Among unicellular organisms, such as bacteria and protozoans, the integument

corresponds to the cell membrane and any secreted coating that the organism
produces. In most invertebrate animals a layer (or layers) of surface (epithelial) cells
—often with additional secreted coatings—constitutes the integument. Among the
vertebrates the boundary covering—with a variety of derived elements such as scales,
feathers, and hair—has assumed the complexity of an organ system, the
integumentary system.

The integument is composed of layers that may be of single cell thickness, as in many
invertebrates, or multiple cell thickness, as in some invertebrates and all vertebrates.
In every case the cells that give rise to the integuments belong to that class
of tissue called epithelium, which in most animals is called epidermis. Underlying the
epidermis and supplying it with nourishment is the dermis. In addition to the
cellular layers, the integument often includes a noncellular coating, or cuticle, that is
secreted by the epidermis. Such coatings are found in most invertebrates. The
vertebrate skin has generated many kinds of glands and a variety of horny structures,
but it lacks coatings.

The wide diversity of integuments among vertebrates further exemplifies the

adaptive character of the body covering: from the almost impenetrable shield of an
armadillo and the dense furry coat of an Arctic bear to the slimy, scaled covering of a
cod and the exceptionally smooth skin of a porpoise. Amphibians and fishes often
have mucous glands that lubricate their skins and prevent waterlogging and
deterioration. Reptiles have thick, leathery skins that help reduce water loss and
serve as an armour against enemies. Birds use their feathers—skin derivatives—to fly
and to insulate their bodies. The hairy or furry coats of many
terrestrial mammals insulate them, shed water, and provide a dense guard against
injury.
Invertebrate integuments
Components
The integuments of unicellular organisms comprise the cell membrane and any
coating it secretes. Almost all bacteria have an external cell wall that maintains the
shape and turgidity of the cell and affords protection. Multicellular invertebrates,
however, have a single outer layer of epithelial cells, and these may secrete a variety
of surface coatings, ranging from the mucous coat of cnidarians (polyps, sea
anemones, jellyfish) to the tough cuticle of insects. The epithelial layer may include
cells of several types, such as sensory cells, gland cells, and stinging cells, and the
outer surfaces may bear microvilli, cilia, or other fine projections. In addition, the
cells may produce excrescences such as bristles, spines, knobs, and ridges.

The firmness of some invertebrate animals, such as annelids (earthworms, marine

worms, and leeches) and certain mollusks, depends on the distension by water of the
individual cells that form the body wall. In many other forms rigid skeletal materials
are deposited either within the cells or on the outer surface. The noncellular coatings
of invertebrate integuments are exceedingly varied in composition and extent, and
they cut across taxonomic categories. These rigid structures may provide no more
than a protective armour, but in the arthropods, including crustaceans, insects, and
spiders, a multilayered and hardened integument forms an exoskeleton to which
muscles are attached. In the echinoderms, the exoskeleton lies below the epidermis.
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Differences among invertebrate groups

Protozoans
The secreted coatings of protozoans exhibit all grades between soft forms (as
in Amoeba) and forms with a cuticle that may be proteinaceous (as in Monocystis) or
composed of cellulose (as in the plantlike flagellates). Other protozoans have
definite shells, composed of protein incorporating various foreign bodies, such as
siliceous plates or calcium carbonate (in most foraminiferans), or cellulose (in the
resting stages of slime molds). The radiolarians have an internal lattice of silica that
is laid down inside the cell—a kind of internal skeleton, or endoskeleton.
Sponges
Sponges have a simple epithelium, known as the pinacoderm, which both covers the
external surfaces and lines the internal waterways. Some sponges deposit needlelike
spicules of calcium carbonate in the jelly (mesoglea) beneath this outer epithelium.
Cnidarians
In the cnidarians the epidermis provides all the basic features of an integument. It
may contain not only epithelial cells, some of which may be contractile, but
also gland cells, pigment cells, stinging cells, and sensory cells with projecting hairs.
The outer surface often bears flagella or microvilli. The surface secretion may help in
capturing food, adhering to substrates, cleaning away settling debris, or providing
support and protection. Some hydrozoans produce a horny covering for the polyps,
and others have an external skeleton that is calcareous (containing calcium
carbonate). Anthozoans show the same diversity. In the common reef-building
corals, the calcareous skeleton is secreted by a part of the epidermis that forms a
basal disk. This secretory process is continuous, and the polyp raises itself
progressively upon a constantly growing stem of calcium carbonate.

Flukes and roundworms

The parasitic flukes have a relatively thick integument, which bears many spines and
sensory papillae, an apical membrane that is thrown into ridges and pits, and
microvilli. The outer part of the integument contains secretory bodies, which are
continuously released at the surface to renew the apical membrane. This appears to
be a protective device for the parasite related to the immune reaction of the
host. Roundworms have a thick, flexible cuticle, with three distinguishable zones,
covered by an epicuticle.
Annelids
Annelids have a thin, horny cuticle pierced by pores through which epidermal glands
secrete mucus. In some marine annelids, glands are also present that secrete
materials constituting a parchmentlike or calcareous tube within which the worm
dwells. Earthworms and leeches secrete cocoons from a specialized epidermis in a
region of the body known as the clitellum. A major feature of all annelids except
leeches is the possession of bristles, or chaetae, of which there are many varieties.
The bulk of each chaeta is secreted by a single cell, though the surrounding lateral
cells may contribute materials that bring about its hardening.