latrobe.edu.

au

CHE1CHF
Chemistry
Foundations
Lecture 2

Prof. David Wilson

CRICOS Provider 00115M

Language matters. Mahaffy, 2.3

The ‘Thinking Hats’ of Chemistry

From experiment to modelling Chemists communicate
their observations and
ideas with each other
through words, labels,
drawings and symbols to
refer to particular events
and substances.

A chemist connects the

observable world and the
invisible molecular world.

Language (including
symbols) must be precise
to give precise meaning.

2
 Mahaffy, 2.3
What is a model, theory, law…
All science (model, theory, law) must be evidence-based –
which excludes crackpot ideas as being scientific theories.

Model
A model is neither right nor wrong.
But, a model can be more of less useful.

3
Structure of Atoms and Matter (Ch 2)

4
Structure of Atoms and Matter (Ch 2)

Learning Outcomes:
• Employ scientific notation and identify significant figures
• Identify and classify states of matter
• Identify and define elements, atoms, compounds
• Define and describe the differences between compounds and
mixtures
• Recognise elements of the Periodic Table

These Are The Fundamental Language and Tools of Science

5
1.1 Measurement & Scientific Notation
Système International (SI) = metric system

6
 Scientific Notation
In science (and life) we deal with very large and very small numbers. An ordinary coin
contains about 20,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 atoms. The average size of an atom is
about 0.00000003 centimeters across. We use Scientific Notation as a shorthand way
of writing numbers.

N is a number N x 10n n is a positive or

between 1 and 10 negative integer
(often a decimal)
Helpful Hint
Example: The number of atoms in 12 g of carbon:
The sign of the exponent
23 1 tells which direction to
602,200,000,000,000,000,000,000 6.022 x 1023 move the decimal. A
positive exponent means
move the decimal to the
Example: The mass of a single carbon atom in grams: right, and a negative
exponent means move the
0.0000000000000000000000199 1.99 x 10-23 decimal to the left.

7
 Measurement & Scientific Notation

1.35 ´ 10 5 105 = 100,000

1.35 ´ 100,000
135,000 Think: Move the decimal right 5 places.

–3
2.7 ´ 10 Think: Move the decimal left 3 places.
0.0027

Write 0.00709 in scientific notation.

7.09 Move the decimal to get a number between 1 and 10.
7.09 ´ 10 Set up scientific notation.
Think: The decimal needs to move left to change 7.09 to
0.00709, so the exponent will be negative.
7.09 ´ 10–3 = 0.00709
8
Accuracy and Precision in Measurements

Accuracy: how close a measurement is

to the accepted value.

Precision: how close a series of

measurements are to one another or
how far out a measurement is taken.

A measurement can have high precision,

but not be as accurate as a less precise one.
9
1.2 Significant Figures
Significant Figures are used to indicate the precision of a measured
number or to express the precision of a calculation with measured
numbers.

In any measurement
the digit farthest to the
right is considered to
be estimated (carries
some uncertainty).

0 1 2
2.0
1.3
10
 Significant Figures
Significant figures are necessary to indicate uncertainty in measurements.

4.5 cm 2 significant
figures

More certain due

4.54 cm 3 significant to greater
figures precision

Significant figures indicate the precision of the measured value!!

11
 Significant Figures
Ø Any digit that is not zero is significant
1.234 kg 4 significant figures
Ø Zeros between non-zero digits are significant
606 m 3 significant figures
Ø Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are not significant
0.08 L 1 significant figure
Ø If a number is greater than 1, then all zeros to the right of
the decimal point are significant
2.0 mg 2 significant figures
Ø If a number is less than 1, then only the zeros that are at the
end and in the middle of the number are significant
0.00420 g 3 significant figures

12
Significant Figures – Use Scientific Notation!
Ø Any digit that is not zero is significant
1.234 kg 1.234 x 100 kg 4 significant figures
Ø Zeros between non-zero digits are significant
606 m 6.06 x 102 m 3 significant figures
Ø Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are not significant
0.08 L 8 x 10-2 L 1 significant figure
Ø If a number is greater than 1, then all zeros to the right of
the decimal point are significant
2.0 mg 2.0 x 100 mg 2 significant figures
Ø If a number is less than 1, then only the zeros that are at the
end and in the middle of the number are significant
0.00420 g 4.20 x 10-3 g 3 significant figures

13
 Significant Figures
The one-sentence rule:
All digits ARE significant except
• Zeros preceding a decimal fraction (eg: 0.0045)
• Zeros at the end of a number containing NO decimal point
(eg: 45,000)

How many significant figures?

0.0002 _____Significant
1 Figures
6.02 x 1023 _____Significant
3 Figures
100.000 _____Significant
6 Figures
150000 2
_____Significant Figures 1.5 x 105
800 1
_____Significant Figures 8 x 102
14
What is Chemistry?
Chemistry is concerned with the composition, behaviour, structure, and
properties of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes

Copyright © 2011 by Nelson Education Limited 15

15
Matter Road Map of Weeks 1-5
Structure Properties Transformations
Physical Chemical
Ø mixtures
Ø compounds
Ø elements

Atoms Molecules Reactions

Ø atomic theory Ø composition Ø chemical equations
Ø atomic number Ø nomenclature Ø stoichiometry
Ø mass number Ø Structure (Lewis Ø balancing chemical
Ø mole concept symbols) equations
Ø periodic table Ø chemical bonds (ionic, Ø solutions
Ø isotopes covalent, polarization) Ø redox reactions
Ø ions Ø electronegativity Ø acid-base reactions
Ø quantum theory Ø geometry Ø electrochemistry
Ø electron configuration Ø Quantum mechanics Ø thermodynamics
Ø radioactive decay Ø spectroscopy Ø chemical kinetics
Ø nuclear reactions Ø analysis Ø synthesis
Ø coordination chemistry
Ø simulation
16
 Mahaffy, 2.2
Classifying Matter
States of Matter: Solid, Liquid and Gas
Particles are
Particles are not in fixed
Liquids and positions and
closely packed
and vibrate
gases are can move past
one another
about fixed FLUIDS!
positions

Gases occupy
the volume
of the
container

Liquids have
fixed volume 17
 Mahaffy, 2.3
Classifying Matter – Kinetic Molecular Model

• Kinetic-molecular model of matter (motion of matter)

– Particles: atoms, molecules or ions
– Motion of particles opposed by the forces of attraction
between particles

Forces of attraction Fast motion of particles

dominate due to the increase in
Temperature kinetic energy. Resulting
increases forces overcome forces
of attraction

18
Physical and Chemical Changes Mahaffy, 3.2

A change of state (solid, liquid, gas) is a physical change: matter

changes its property but not it’s chemical nature.

A physical change can be ‘undone’

(there are exceptions).

Eg. boiling water

A chemical change in matter is when matter changes into

something different (not just a change of state).

New substances are formed. Products have different properties from the reactants
(the molecules are different)

Some changes can be ‘undone.’ Some not. 19

 Mahaffy, 2.2
Classifying Matter
• Substance is a single, pure form of matter
– Example: water, copper, sugar
– Pure substance has a fixed composition and cannot be
further purified (it has distinct properties)
• Properties: What matter is like. For example, water can
dissolve many substances, caffeine is a stimulant.

What caffeine is made of… What caffeine is like…

Substance = single form of matter

20
 Mahaffy, 2.2
Pure Substances
For example…

Carbon, C Oxygen, O Carbon monoxide, CO

Carbon, C Oxygen, O Oxygen, O Carbon dioxide, CO2

Two different compounds,

each has a definite composition.

21
 Mahaffy, 2.2
Classifying Matter
• Mixtures contain two of more substances physically mixed
together but not chemically bound together
– Example: air, steel, soft-drink
– Mixtures can be:
• Homogeneous mixtures
• Heterogeneous mixtures
Mix of pure substances

A solution of salt in water Noodle soup is a heterogeneous

is a homogeneous mixture mixture
The sample has a uniform Materials are not uniformly
composition throughout dispersed over the whole sample 22
 Mahaffy, 2.2
Classifying Matter #

• Solutions (covered in the next 2 weeks)

– Different kind of mixture, homogeneous mixture
– One substance is dissolved in another substance
• Ex. Salt dissolved in water,
• Coffee, Tea
• IV drip

23
 MATTER
yes Can it be physically
no
separated?

MIXTURE PURE SUBSTANCE

yes Is the composition no yes Can it be chemically no

uniform? decomposed?

Homogeneous Heterogeneous
Mixture Mixture Compound Element
(solution)

24
 Mahaffy, 2.4
Atoms

• Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass

• All matter is made of atoms
• A substance can be made up of one or several types of atoms
• Atoms are the building blocks of matter, sort of how bricks are
the building blocks of houses

25
Atomic Structure Mahaffy, 2.7

Atoms are composed of:

• Electrons – negative
• Protons – positive
• Neutrons – neutral (no charge)

Nucleus - Centre of the atom

- Only Protons + Neutrons
- Has nearly all of the atomic mass
- Has minority of atomic volume
- Contains all the positive charge

Electrons are located outside (around) the nucleus

26
 Atomic Structure
A Brief History… (we come back to this in week 4-5)
Rutherford
Atom = nucleus + electron cloud

“It was quite the most incredible event that

has ever happened to me in my life. It was atomic radius ~ 100 pm = 1 x 10-10 m
almost as incredible as if you fired a 15-inch
shell at a piece of tissue paper and it came
nuclear radius ~ 5 x 10-3 pm = 5 x 10-15 m
back and hit you.”
27
 Mahaffy, 2.4
Elements

• Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass

• All matter is made of atoms
• Elements are the alphabet to the language of molecules. To
make molecules, you must have elements.
• An element is a substance that is made up of a single type of
atom (only one type of atom that are all the same).
• An element cannot be broken down into simpler substances by
chemical reactions.
• Lavoisier 1798 (conservation of mass) -> Dalton 1803 (first list
of relative atomic weights).
28
 Mahaffy, 2.4
Elements
• The periodic table is a list of all the elements that can build
matter. It’s a bit like the alphabet of chemistry.
• There are only 118 (so far) known elements
• 90 elements are found in nature, the rest have been made in
the laboratory
Example of elements:

29
29
Periodic Table – List of all elements

30
Not all elements are equally common.

31
 Elements Used Everyday

Can you think of any elements you use every day? 32

Summary – Atoms, Elements, Molecules, Mixtures

Classify each as:

1) Atom or molecule

2) Pure substance
or mixture
Atoms of an element Molecules of an element

Molecules of a compound Mixture of two elements

and a compound
33
 Mahaffy, 2.7-2.8
Elements and The Periodic Table
Each element is identified by its atomic number. The periodic table is
organized in increasing order of atomic number.
Element Name

Atomic Number (Z)

Chemical Symbol
Atomic Mass
(average)

Atomic Number = Number of Protons

Atomic Number = Number of Electrons
Atomic Mass - Atomic Number = Number of Neutrons 34
 Mahaffy, 2.7-2.8
Elements

Element Name
Atomic Number
Indicates the number of protons.
C has 6 protons
Chemical Symbol
C has 6 electrons
1-2 letter abbreviation
1st letter capitalized
2nd always lowercase
Atomic Mass
The weighted average
of the masses of the Why is atomic mass not 6 + 6 = 12?
naturally occurring (electrons do not weight much)
isotopes.
35
 Mahaffy, 2.8
Elements (Isotopes)
• All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons.
An atom that has 6 protons is always carbon (C).
• The number of electrons and neutrons can change.
• Isotopes of an element have the same number of electrons and
protons and only differ in the number of neutrons
A = Z + number of neutrons
Mass Number A
Atomic Number Z
X Element Symbol

12 14
6C 6C
6 protons, A = 12 6 protons, A = 14
ie 6 neutrons ie 8 neutrons
36
 Mahaffy, 2.8
Elements (Isotopes)
• Atomic number (Z) = number of protons.
• Mass number (A) = sum of protons and neutrons in an atom
A = Z + number of neutrons

Mass Number A
Atomic Number Z
X Element Symbol

35 37
17Cl 17Cl
17 protons 17 protons
18 neutrons 20 neutrons

Atomic mass (35.45) is the weighted average of the naturally occurring

isotopes. 35 37
76% Cl and 24% Cl 37
 Mahaffy, 2.8
Isotopes of Hydrogen

EXAMPLE: Hydrogen has 3 isotopes (atomic number 1):

– Hydrogen 1 (protium) has one proton and no neutrons in its nucleus:
99.985%
– Hydrogen 2 (deuterium) has one proton and one neutron in its

nucleus:
0.015%
– Hydrogen 3 (tritium) has one proton and two neutrons in its nucleus:

Does not occur naturally

38
Isotopes of Hydrogen

Protium Deuterium Tritium

(radioactive)

39
 Measuring Mass and Isotope Abundance
Mass spectrometry (has a long history at La Trobe)

B American Society for Mass Spectrometry, 2013 J. Am. Soc. Mass Spectrom. (2013) 24:1326Y1327
DOI: 10.1007/s13361-013-0675-0

OBITUARY

s Douglas Morrison AO (1924–2013)

Prof. Jim Morrison Prof. John Fenn
m) Morrison, the father of Australian mass
etry, died on February 1, 2013, at the age of 88.
s innovative contributions to different areas of
metry, many of which were ahead of their time,
r significance was not broadly recognized until
e to play a role in modern day research.
Nobel Laureate.
born in Glasgow on November 9, 1924 and
ertiary education at the University of Glasgow
1948. His Ph.D. was carried out under the
f J. Monteath Robertson in the area of X-ray
Mass Spec for
y. It was during this time that he met and married
stine. In 1949, Jim and Christine migrated to
earch of a sunnier and warmer climate, where Jim
biomolecules.
Spent 12 months
an appointment as a research officer with the
uncil for Scientific and Industrial Research (later
RO). It was here that he became involved with
metry, having been asked to explore the potential

at La Trobe.
ications of a newly acquired CEC21-102 mass
At that time, just a handful of commercial
xisted worldwide and it was only through direct
etween Prime Minister John Curtin and President
that a US embargo was lifted, enabling Australia
w field of research.
chemical analysis was the major focus of Jim’s
, he soon recognized that mass spectrometry
d to examine the fundamental processes of ion

The instrument Fenn and

d energy transfer, providing valuable informa-
s-phase ion structures and energetics. This work
etermination of threshold laws for different First triple-quadrupole mass
ocesses, confirming the theoretical ideas of
Wannier and allowing the interpretation of
cesses in terms of differing and competing spectrometer, which was built colleagues used to develop
ionization energies, and dissociation limits.
time, Jim became involved with building assorted
but is now widely accepted and used in numerous fields in
addition to mass spectrometry.
at La Trobe in the 1970s. electrospray ionization mass
spectrometry (ESI-MS).
ty selectors in order to reduce the energy spread of In 1956, Jim spent a sabbatical period at the University of
lectron beam and, hence, to improve the energy Chicago with Mark Inghram who, as a graduate student, had
plagued experimental ionization efficiency curve worked with Al Nier and Arthur Dempster on the Manhattan
of the variable success of such devices, in 1959 Project building large mass spectrometers. It was during this
X-ray crystallography training to develop a novel stay that Jim became involved with the construction of the
cess he called ‘deconvolution’ that nullified the first far UV monochromator-mass spectrometer combination

40
ct of these energy spreads. This he first carried out to study the energetics of photon induced ionization-
h Beevers-Lipson strips and an adding machine, fragmentation processes. This was the genesis of Jim’s
using CSIRAC, one of the world’s first digital subsequent passion for machine building.
e technique was not believed by many at the time, Following his return to CSIRO, Jim continued with the
construction of various mass spectrometers until 1966, when
he made the big leap to academia by taking up the position
to: John C. Traeger; e-mail: J.Traeger@latrobe.edu.au of foundation chair in Physical Chemistry at Melbourne’s
Summary

• All matter is composed of atoms

• Elements are composed of the same types of atoms
• Identify atomic number, numbers of protons, neutrons,
and electrons.
• Identify isotopes
• Periodic Table of Elements lists all elements

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iM_I6rtIgn0

41