Project Number:

Project Title:
Aim:

Project requirements
Problem to consider.

Load characteristics.

Load Design
The load dynamics is fundamen6tal in determining the amount of power required avail hot
water to residents. An in-line water heater is considered for realization as opposed to geyser
since does not require storage which adds on system cost and is much easier to adapt to
residentials billing strategies. The typical domestic water pressure is 3-5 bars

Input/source dynamics

Converter topologies

Converter design

Converter components.
The boost DC-DC converter utilizes the following components:

• Semiconductor switches/Transistors (IGBTs and MOSFETS).

Ø IGBTs are suitable for high voltage, low current, and frequency applications.
Ø MOSFETs are suitable for high current and high frequency applications. The
transistors also utilize freewheeling diodes for protection against back emf.
Moreover, they are less bulky as compared to IGBTs which makes them suitable
for driver implementation.
• Diode-Fast switching diodes such as Schottky diodes are suitable for high frequency
DC-DC converters
• Inductor-The inductor is the main energy storage component and limits the load current
ripple to within acceptable range in order to protect sensitive loads.
• Capacitor-Filters the converters output ac components therefore limiting the output
voltage ripple to a suitable range. Filtering is useful in protecting sensitive loads that
might be decimated by non-ripple free drive voltage. The capacitance should be sized
such that it constrains the voltage ripple to acceptable values.
The schematic of a convectional boost DC-DC converter is illustrated in Figure 1.
 Figure 1. The figure shows the schematic of the DC-DC Boost converter.

The topology can readily be used with a low side transistor/semiconductor switch but can also
be adapted to use a high side switch if need be. For a high side switch configuration, a
P(Positive) channel transistor is the most suitable choice as opposed to an N(Negative) channel
because of ground reference glitches associated with the gate pulse of the latter. The downside
is the on-resistance of a P channel is greater than that of an N channel, resulting to elevated
switch losses. The low side switch configuration is therefore the most suitable alternative for
the design.

The input and output voltage relationship is obtained by presuming continuous conduction
mode (CCM) for the inductor. This results to two states for each switching cycle are.

• Switch on/ diode off (0 < 𝑡 > 𝛿𝑇)

• Switch off /diode on (𝛿𝑇 < 𝑡 > 𝑇)
Where:
𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝛿 = 𝑑𝑢𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑇 = 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

Switch on and diode off (𝟎 < 𝒕 > 𝜹𝑻)

When the switch/transistor is gated, the diode is reverse biased, prompting the inductor to
charges up. Performing KVL and KCL (Kirchhoff’s Voltage and Current Law) analysis on
meshes and nodes containing the energy storage elements (inductor and capacitor) yields.

𝑑𝐼! 1(𝑖)
𝑉! = 𝐿 = 𝑉"# − 𝑉$%&'( − 𝐼! 𝑟!
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑉) 𝑉) 1(𝑖𝑖)
𝐼$ = 𝐶 =−
𝑑𝑡 𝑅

Where:
𝑉! = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝐼! = 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑟! = 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 *𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑑
= 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝑑𝑡
𝑉$%&'( = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ

Switch off and Diode on (𝜹𝑻 < 𝒕 > 𝑻)

Reiterating the process when the switch is off/diode on and the inductor discharging yields.

𝑑𝐼! 1(𝑖)
𝐿 = 𝑉"#−𝑉+ − 𝑉,-. − 𝐼! 𝑟!
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑉) 𝑉) 1(𝑖𝑖)
𝐶 = − + 𝐼!
𝑑𝑡 𝑅

Where:
𝑉,-. = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒

Merging the two sets of equations through comparison and application of the time on
(𝛿 𝑜𝑟 (1 − 𝛿) for first and second states respectively) for dissimilar parameters results to:

𝑑𝐼! 1(𝑖)
𝐿 = 𝑉"# − 𝛿𝑉$%&'( − 𝐼! 𝑟! −(1 − 𝛿)𝑉+ − (1 − 𝛿)𝑉,-.
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑉) 𝑉) 1(𝑖𝑖)
𝐶 = − + (1 − 𝛿) 𝐼!
𝑑𝑡 𝑅

AC and DC terms/components as well as transfer equations are obtained by splitting each

parameter into the respective AC and DC component/terms. The AC terms are signified by an
apostrophe symbol (’). The small signal AC equations derived are:

𝑑 𝐼! * 1(𝑖)
𝐿 + 𝐼! *𝑟! = 𝑉"#* + (𝑉) + 𝑉,-. − 𝑉$%&'( )𝛿 * − (1 − 𝛿) 𝑉/*
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑉) 𝑉/* 1(𝑖𝑖)

𝐶 + = (1 − 𝛿 )𝐼! * − 𝐼! 𝛿 *
𝑑𝑡 𝑅

Performing Laplace transformation on both sides of the respective equations yields:

(𝑠𝐿 + 𝑟!) 𝐼! *(𝑠) = 𝑉"#*(𝑠 ) + (𝑉) + 𝑉,-. − 𝑉$%&'( )𝛿 *(𝑠 ) − (1 − 𝛿) 𝑉/*( 𝑠) (𝑖)

1
J𝑠𝐶 + K 𝑉/* (𝑠 ) = (1 − 𝛿)𝐼! * (𝑠 ) − 𝐼! 𝛿 * (𝑠 ) (𝑖𝑖)
𝑅
 0! " (&)
For output voltage control purposes, small signal transfer function - is obtained by
3"(&)
0! " (&)
equating 𝑉"#* (𝑠 ) = 0 and using the two equations to make the subject of the equation.
3" (&)
The transfer function obtained is:

𝑉/* (𝑠) (1 − 𝛿)(𝑉) + 𝑉,-. − 𝑉$%&'( ) − (𝑠𝐿 + 𝑟! )𝐼! (2)

=
𝛿 * (𝑠) 𝐿 𝑟
𝑠 4𝐶𝐿 + 𝑠 L𝑅 + 𝑟! 𝐶M + 𝑅! + (1 − 𝛿)4

It should also be noted that the output current to duty ratio relationship can be obtained by
noting 𝑉/* (𝑠) = 𝐼/* (𝑠) 𝑅.

The DC terms for determining the duty ratio equation were obtained as follows.

0 = (𝑉"# − 𝑉) − 𝑉,-. − 𝐼! 𝑟! ) + (𝑉) + 𝑉,-. − 𝑉$%&'( )𝛿 (𝑖)

𝑉) (𝑖𝑖)
0=− + (1 − 𝛿 )𝐼!
𝑅

Considering Eq. 59(𝑖) and making 𝛿 the subject results to:

𝑉) + 𝑉,-. +𝐼! 𝑟! − 𝑉"# (3)

𝛿=
𝑉) + 𝑉,-. − 𝑉$%&'(

To determine the practical duty ratio as well as size the boost converter’s components, the
following parameters are considered:
• 𝑉"# = 48 − 72 𝑉, 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒 72𝑉
• 𝑉+ = 180 − 240 𝑉, 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒 200 𝑉
• 𝑅! = 20 Ω
• 𝐼+ = 10 𝐴
• 𝑃+ = 𝑉+ 𝐼+ = 2 𝑘𝑊
• 𝑉$%&'( = 1.5𝑉 − 3𝑉 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 , 𝑢𝑠𝑒 2.25 𝑉
• 𝑉,-. = 1𝑉 − 2𝑉 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙, 𝑢𝑠𝑒 1.5 𝑉
• 𝑟! = 10𝑚Ω − 30𝑚Ω, 𝑢𝑠𝑒 20 𝑚Ω
• 𝑓&- = 100 − 125 𝑘𝐻𝑧, 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒 125 𝑘𝐻𝑧 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒

For a boost converter, the average inductor current is obtained by utilizing the following
equation:

𝐼+ (4)
𝐼! = 𝐼!_'6% =
1−𝛿

The duty ratio equation simplifies to:

 𝐼+ (5)
𝑉) + 𝑉,-. + 𝑟 − 𝑉"#
𝛿= 1−𝛿 !
𝑉) + 𝑉,-. − 𝑉$%&'(

Substituting the relevant parameters in equation 5 and solving for 𝛿 yields 𝜹 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓𝟐𝟖. The
average inductor current in equation 4 is therefore 𝑰𝑳_𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟖𝟎𝟒 𝑨.For reference purposes,
the duty ratio assuming ideal components is 𝜹𝑰𝒅𝒆𝒂𝒍_𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟒 and is obtained using
equation 6.

𝑉) − 𝑉"# (6)
𝛿E.%'F_$+GH+#%#(& =
𝑉)

The capacitor and inductor are sized to limit the capacitor’s voltage ripple (∆𝑉$ HIJHI ) and
inductor’s current ripple (∆𝐼! HIJHI ) to:

∆𝐼! HIJHI ≤ 10%𝐼+ (7)

∆𝐼! HIJHI ≤ 1 𝐴

∆𝑉$ HIJHI ≤ 2%𝑉+ (8)

∆𝑉$ HIJHI ≤ 4 𝑉

The assumed continuous conduction mode (CCM) can be validated by noting that it occurs
when 𝑰𝒐 > 𝟎. 𝟓∆𝑰𝑳𝒑𝒌J𝒑𝒌.This holds for the calculated parameters. The inductor rms and peak
current are then calculated.
4 (9)
1 ∆𝐼! HIJHI
𝐼!_MG& = 𝐼!_'6% i1 + j k
12 𝐼!_'6%

= 28.805 𝐴

∆𝐼! HIJHI (10)

𝐼!_HI = 𝐼!_'6% +
2

= 29.304 𝐴

Where:
𝐼!_MG& , 𝐼!_'6% , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼!_HI denotes the rms, average, and peak inductor currents.
 a) Transistor and diode sizing
The ratings (current and voltage) for the semiconductor devices are determined by considering
a safety factor (𝑆. 𝐹 = 1.5 → 2 ).

𝐼&-_'6% = 𝐼!_'6% 𝛿 (11)

= 18.803 𝐴
𝐼."+.%_'6% = 𝐼!#$% (1 − 𝛿) (12)

= 10.001 𝐴

𝐼&-_MG& = 𝐼!_MG& √𝛿 (13)

= 23.273 𝐴
𝐼&-_MG& × 𝑆. 𝐹 = 34.91𝐴 → 46.547 𝐴

𝐼."+.%&'( = 𝐼!&'( √1 − 𝛿 (14)

= 16.973 𝐴
𝐼."+.%_MG& × 𝑆. 𝐹 = 25.459𝐴 → 33946 𝐴
Where:
𝐼&-_'6% 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼&-_MG& denotes the average and rms switch currents, respectively.
𝐼."+.%_'6% 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼&-_MG& refers to the average and rms diode currents, respectively.

KVL analysis was used to determine the switch’s blocking voltage when the diode is
conducting and the diode’s blocking voltage when the switch is gated/conducting.

𝑉&-_NF+$I = 𝑉+ + 𝑉,-. (15)

= 201.5 𝑉

𝑉&-_NF+$I × 𝑆. 𝐹 = 302.25 𝑉 → 403 𝑉

𝑉."+.%_NF+$I = −(𝑉+ − 𝑉$%,&'( ) (16)

= −197.75 𝑉
𝑉."+.%_NF+$I × 𝑆. 𝐹 = −296.625 𝑉 → −395.5 𝑉

Semiconductor devices with rated currents and blocking voltages within the calculated range
were chosen from the commercially available options while paying respect to efficiency and
economic feasibility. An N-Channel MOSFET with a drain-source resistance of 𝑹𝒅𝒔_𝒐𝒏 ≤
𝟗. 𝟓𝒎Ω ,rise/fall times of 𝒕𝒓 = 𝟏𝟐𝒏𝒔 /𝒕𝒇 = 𝟏𝟖𝒏𝒔 and gate-source voltage of 𝑉RS ± 20𝑉 from
the TK34A10N1 series was chosen. A Schottky diode with a blocking voltage of 60𝑉,
maximum drain current of 16 𝐴 , reverse recovery time of 𝒕𝒓𝒓 = 𝟔𝟏 𝒏𝒔 and 𝑽𝒇𝒘𝒅 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 𝑽
from the MBR1660-E3/45 series was the most suitable option.
b) Capacitor and inductor sizing
The Switching frequency (𝑓&- = 125 𝑘𝐻𝑧 ) was chosen to reduce the required inductor size.
Capacitance and inductance values are computed as follows:
 𝐼+ 𝛿 (17)
𝐶=
∆𝑉$ HIJHI 𝑓&-

= 13.056 𝜇𝐹

The ratings (current and voltage) for the filter capacitor at the driver output are computed by
utilizing a safety factor of 𝑆. 𝐹 = 1.25 − 1.5 as follows:

4 (18)
4 1 ∆𝐼! HIJHI
𝐼$&'( = i𝛿(𝐼+ )4 + (1 − 𝛿)|𝐼!,'6% − 𝐼+ } (1 + j k )
12 𝐼!#$%

= 13.713 𝐴

𝐼$_MG& × 𝑆. 𝐹 = 17.142𝐴 → 20.570 𝐴

𝑉$ = 𝑉+ (19)

= 200 𝑉

𝑉$ × 𝑆. 𝐹 = 250 𝑉 → 300 𝑉

The inductor size is determined by utilizing:

𝑉! = 𝑉"# − 𝑉$%&'( − 𝐼! 𝑟! (20)

= 69.174 𝑉

Where:
U
𝑉! -Inductor’s voltages drop when the switch is gated for 0 < 𝑡 > 𝛿 𝑇𝑠𝑤. 𝑇𝑠𝑤 = , (period).
()

𝑉! 𝛿 (21)
𝐿=
∆𝐼! HIJHI 𝑓&-
 = 0.3613 𝑚𝐻

c) Inductor Design

For the inductor realization, a material with high flux density (to reduce the core size as well
as required number of turns), low core losses and low relative permeability (to boost the energy
storage capacity and hence reduce the size of the airgap required) is the most preferred.EE core
structure with geometrical dimensions: 𝒃 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝒂, 𝒅 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝒂 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒉 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟓𝒂 was assumed
for the inductor implementation. Three core materials were considered:

• Met glass 2605SA1.

• N27
• DMR40

Met glass is the most suitable material for the DC inductor realization due its low permeability,
high operating flux density and low core losses. It is unfortunate that it is hard to come by in
South Africa.N27 properties are very similar to that of DMR40.
The material characteristics at different conditions of operations are summarized in
Table 2.

Conditions N27 DMR40

@100℃, 𝐻 = 1200 A/m, f = 𝐵'$ = 410 𝑚𝑇 𝐵'$ = 380 𝑚𝑇
10 kHz
@100 kHz, 100 °C, 200 mT 𝑃6 = 920 kW/𝑚V 𝑃6 = 410 kW/𝑚V
PF-Performance factor in 𝑇. 𝑘𝐻𝑧 𝑃𝐹 = 9 𝑃𝐹 = 9
@125kHz
@𝑃𝐹 = 9 T. kHz, 100 °C , f = 𝐵'$ = 72 𝑚𝑇 𝐵'$ = 72 𝑚𝑇
125kHz
@𝐵'$ = 72 𝑚𝑇, 100 °C and f = 𝑃6 = 130 kW/𝑚V 𝑃6 = 60 kW/𝑚V
125 kHz
𝑢" 2000 ± 25% 2300 ± 25%
Table 2. The table shows the material characteristics at various operating conditions.

Where:
𝐵'$ = Flux density
𝑃6 = core losses density
𝑃𝐹 = 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑢" = initial magnetic permeability

DMR40 was chosen for the design as a result of the following attributes:

• It has reasonably high magnetic density(𝐵'$ ).

• It has comparatively high-performance factor (𝑃𝐹).
• It has fairly lower core losses (𝑃6 ).
• It has a considerably high initial magnetic permeability (𝑢" ) suitable for energy storage.
 General Design inputs:
• 𝐿 = 0.3613 𝑚𝐻
• ∆𝐼! HIJHI ≤ 1 𝐴
• 𝐼!_'6% = 28.804 𝐴
• 𝐼!_MG& = 28.805 𝐴
• 𝐼!_HI = 29.304 𝐴
• 𝑇& = 100 °𝐶
• 𝑓&- = 125 𝑘𝐻𝑧
• ρ$W = 2.2 × 10JX 𝑚. Ω -copper resistivity.
• µ/ = 4𝜋 × 10JY H/m
• µM = µ" = 2300
It would be worth noting that most of the losses for DC inductor design are mostly winding
losses. With that being said, the core losses (core power dissipation) can be represented by
the area under the B-H curve and mainly as a result of ac variation. Keeping in mind that for
DC current only the 1st quadrant of the B-H curve is considered zone of operation and the ac
variation/ripple of DC current is minimal, the core size of the inductor can be minimized by
using the twice the estimate of the ac inductor power dissipation for the dc inductor design.
To determine this value, the design approach is to commence the process as if designing for
an ac inductor.
AC Inductor Design inputs:
• 𝑘$W = 0.2 → 0.3 . A copper fill factor of 𝒌𝒄𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 is chosen for ac inductor design.
• 𝐵&'( = 390 𝑚𝑇 (𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦) @100 °𝐶, as per DMR40 datasheet.
• 𝐵'$@I#%%F H+"#( = 300 𝑚𝑇 @ 100 °𝐶 , 𝑎 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐵\] =
280 𝑚𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒.
• @𝐵\] = 280 𝑚𝑇, 𝑃6J'$ = 𝑃&HJ'$ = 1200 𝑚𝑊/𝑐𝑚V . Core losses are constrained at
𝑷𝒗 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝑾/𝒄𝒎𝟑 for the design.

DC Inductor Design inputs:

• 𝐵\] = 250 𝑚𝑇
• 𝑷𝒔𝒑J𝒅𝒄 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝑾/𝒄𝒎𝟑
• 𝑅'$ = 𝑅.$ as skin depth is of less concern for DC inductor and round conductors can
be utilized.
• 𝑘$W = 0.4 → 0.5 . A copper fill factor of 𝒌𝒄𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓 is used for the design since the
ripple is sufficiently small and round conductors can be utilized for the implementation.

All relevant computations are computed as follows:

Current density (𝑱𝒓𝒎𝒔):

 (22)
𝑃6 𝑅.$
𝐽MG& =i
ρ$W𝑘$W𝑅.$

𝐽MG& = 10.050 × 10_𝐴/𝑚4

= 10.050 𝐴/𝑚𝑚4
Area product (𝑨𝒑) :

𝐿𝐼!_HI 𝐼!_MG& (23)

𝐴H = 𝐴$ 𝐴- =
𝐵$,HI 𝐽MG& 𝑘$W

𝐴H = 0.2697 × 10J_ 𝑚`

Core area (𝑨𝒄) :

𝐴$ = 𝑎𝑑 (24)

= 1.2 𝑎4 𝑚4
Window area (𝑨𝒘) :

𝐴- = 𝑏ℎ (25)

= 1.35 𝑎4 𝑚4
Area product (𝑨𝒑) 𝒂𝒔 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 :

𝐴H = 𝐴$ 𝐴- (26)

= 1.62 𝑎` 𝑚`

Dimension a:

𝐴H /.4b (27)
𝑎=( )
1.62

= 0.0202 𝑚 𝑜𝑟 2.02 𝑐𝑚
∴𝑏 = 𝑐𝑚 , 𝑑 = 𝑐𝑚 , ℎ = 𝑐𝑚, 𝐴𝑐 = 489.652 𝑚𝑚2 , 𝐴𝑤 = 550.859 𝑚𝑚2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝑝 =
269729.111 𝑚𝑚4

The core 𝐴H = 269729.111 𝑚𝑚` was utilized while selecting the specific core from the
available choices. The E65 2x stack core had the closest area product (402040 𝑚𝑚`) and was
therefore chosen for inductor realization.

Winding/copper cross section area (𝐴$W):

 𝐼!JMG& 𝐷$W 4 (28)
𝐴$W = = 𝜋( )
𝐽MG& 2
= 2.916 × 10J_ 𝑚4 𝑜𝑟 2.916 𝑚𝑚4
𝐷$W = 1.927 × 10JV 𝑚
= 1.927 𝑚𝑚

Where:
𝐷$W𝑖𝑠 copper wire(winding) diameter.

Skin effect is not a concern for DC flux and therefore stranded wire was not required. Copper
wire with 𝑫𝒄𝒖 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎 and a resistance of 𝒓𝑺𝑾𝑮 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟒𝛀/𝐦 and weight
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕𝑺𝑾𝑮 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟖𝟗 𝒌𝒈/𝐦 (as per the Standard Wire Gauge -SWG table at 𝐷$W =
2.03 𝑚𝑚).

Flux mean length (𝑙G):

𝑙G = 2 (𝑏 + ℎ) + 2.5𝑎 (29)

= 0.1656 𝑚 𝑜𝑟 16.56 𝑐𝑚

Airgap length (𝑙k):

𝐿𝐼!_HI 𝐼!_MG& µ+ 𝑙G (30)

𝑙k = −
𝐴$ 𝐵$ 4 µM

= 0.01245 𝑚 𝑜𝑟 12.451 𝑚𝑚

∴ 𝐴𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝟏𝟐. 𝟒𝟓𝟏 𝒎𝒎 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑔 > 0 (𝑙𝑔

≤ 0 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑 )

Core reluctance (ℛ$ ):

𝑙G (31)
ℛ$ =
µ+ µM 𝐴$

= 117.042 × 10V 𝐻JU

Airgap reluctance (ℛk):

𝑙k (32)
ℛk =
µ+ 𝐴$

= 20.235 × 10_ 𝐻JU

Total reluctance (ℛ m ):

ℛ m = ℛ$ + ℛk (33)

= 20.352 × 10_ 𝐻JU

Number of turns (N):

𝑘$W𝐴- 𝐿𝐼!JHI (34)

𝑁 = ¼𝐿ℛ m = =
𝐴$W 𝐵$ 𝐴$+M%
= 85.751 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠

∴ 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑒 86 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔

Mean turn length (𝑀𝑇𝐿):

𝑀𝐿𝑇 = 4𝑏 + 2(𝑎 + 𝑑) (35)

= 0.1374 𝑚 𝑜𝑟 13.736 𝑐𝑚

Inductor/winding parasitic resistance (𝑟! ):

𝑟! = 𝑟SnR × 𝑀𝑇𝐿 × 𝑁 (36)

= 𝑚Ω

Energy stored in field (𝑊,F. ):

1 (37)
𝑊,F. = (𝐿𝐼 𝐼 )
2 !*+ !&'(

= 𝑚J

Energy stored in core (𝑊$ ):

𝐵$ 4 (38)
𝑊$ = 𝑙 𝐴
2µ+ µM G $

= 𝑚J
Energy stored in airgap (𝑊k):

𝐵$ 4 (39)
𝑊k = 𝑊,F. − 𝑊$ = 𝑙 𝐴
2µ+ k $

= 𝑚J
It is vivid that the airgap is paramount in realizing the required inductor size as it accounts for
the share of the field energy storage capacity.

The computed parameters are summarized in Table 3.

Parameter Value
Material DMR40
• 𝐿 (inductance) 0.3613 mH
• 𝐼!_'6% 28.804 𝐴
• ∆𝐼! HIJHI 1.0 𝐴
• 𝐼!_MG& 28.804 𝐴
• 𝐼!_HI 29.304 𝐴
• 𝑇& 100 °𝐶
• 𝑓&- 𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝒌𝑯𝒛
• 𝑘$W 0.45
• ρ$W 2.2 × 10JX 𝑚. Ω
• 𝑃6 = 𝑃&H 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝑾/𝒄𝒎𝟑
• 𝐵$,HI 250𝑚𝑇
• 𝐽MG& 10.050 𝐴/𝑚𝑚4
• 𝐴H(Area product) 269729.11 𝑚𝑚`
• 𝐴$ (Core area) 489.652 𝑚𝑚4
• 𝐴-(Window area) 550.859 𝑚𝑚4
• Core geometry 𝑎 = 20.2 𝑚𝑚
𝑏 = 0.6𝑎 , 𝑑 = 1.2𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ = 2.25𝑎
• Core chosen E65 2x stack with an area product
𝑨𝒑 = 𝟒𝟎𝟐𝟎𝟒𝟎 𝒎𝒎𝟒 but it might be
possible to fit inductor in E65
(65/32/27)with 𝑨𝒑 = 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟎 𝒎𝒎𝟒
• 𝐴$W (Copper cross- 2.916 𝑚𝑚4
section area)
• 𝐷$W (Copper 1.927 𝑚𝑚
diameter)
• 𝐷$W (Wire chosen) 𝟐. 𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎 (𝟐. 𝟎𝟑𝒎𝒎 𝑺𝑾𝑮)
• 𝒍𝒈(Length of airgap) 12.451 𝑚𝑚
• Number of turns 85.75 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑛 86
• Wire weight 0.3414 𝑘𝑔 (341.396 𝑔 )
Table 3. The table shows the summary of inductor design.