Environmental Health - Theory and Practice

Ramesha Chandrappa
Diganta Bhusan Das
Environmental
Health -
Theory and
Practice
Volume 1: Basic Sciences and their
Relations to the Environment
Environmental Health – Theory and Practice
Ramesha Chandrappa • Diganta Bhusan Das
Environmental Health –
Theory and Practice
Volume 1: Basic Sciences and their Relations
to the Environment
Ramesha Chandrappa Diganta Bhusan Das
Environmental Management Policy Department of Chemical Engineering
Research Institute Loughborough University
Bangalore, India Loughborough, Leicestershire, UK
ISBN 978-3-030-64479-6 ISBN 978-3-030-64480-2 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64480-2
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

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The authors dedicate this book to Corona
Warriors, which include but not restricted to
frontline doctors, paramedical staff, and
waste management personnel, who worked
tirelessly despite imminent dangers to their
lives during the COVID-19 outbreak. Our
sincere condolences go to all those who lost
their lives in the battle against the virus.
Preface
While we were working on this two-volume book for the last 2 years, sitting in
two opposite hemispheres of the world and were moving towards completing it,
COVID-19 shook the world. As authors, we have now suddenly learnt a great
many things in just a few months while being locked down in our respective
countries.
Diseases do not simply search for people and attack them. We, as human beings,
invite them to us by producing chemicals and releasing them into our environ-
ments or invading forests and wild landscapes, which harbor viruses that jump to
new hosts – humans – from the conventional hosts – wild animals. However, it was
great to see most of the civic society across the world self-distancing or self-quar-
antining themselves as the case may be and stayed wherever they could to tackle
the COVID-19 pandemic.
Vested interest and corruption are some of the reasons why pollution goes
unabated, waste goes unmanaged, and the environment goes unprotected. As natural
forests become fragmented, urban settlements integrate, bringing people closer,
thereby increasing the risk of infection and other ailments.
Bushmeat and wet markets act as springboards to pass on the pathogens in the
wild to civic society. Destruction of biodiversity creates the conditions for new dis-
eases with profound economic and health impacts. Species in degraded habitats
infect humans, and when they reach urban ecosystems, the systems get an amplified
effect. With the destruction of landscapes and the wild species, humans get the
diseases.
Like all living beings, pathogens grow and reproduce, which requires energy
from food. They are mobilized from one species to another via either the food chain
or social activity or accidental contacts. When the pathogens reach humans, their
biological activity (e.g., spreading and transmission) flourish as humans live in
closely packed environments.
Diseases spring up in the urban environment as humans have created densely
packed settlements for themselves with rodents and pets, facilitating the spread of
pathogens from species to species due to close interaction.
vii
viii Preface
Indeed, pollution and pathogens do not respect political boundaries. Humans are
creating channels for the spread of diseases by decreasing the natural barriers
between themselves and the usual hosts, that is, the animals, in which pathogens are
naturally circulating.
Consequences of environmental alterations are different at different scenarios.
After going through many literatures and walking through many countries, cities,
and streets, we would like to share our learning in the form of this book, so that the
knowledge baton can be passed on to the future generations.
The general saying “one solution does not suit all circumstances” holds well for
environmental health also. Furthermore, with the changing scenarios, new solutions
would arise.
At the time of completion of this book, the world was facing a severe challenge
from COVID-19, imposing restrictions and declaring self-quarantine to safeguard
millions from the invisible virus. This situation has reduced air pollution, noise pol-
lution, and to some extent water pollution due to reduction in manufacturing as well
as trade activity.
The COVID-19 pandemic resulted in the reduction in other diseases related to
the environment! Traffic accidents have reduced, social distancing has reduced
spreading of other infectious diseases, closure of pubs has reduced alcoholism, and
travel restriction has helped to reduce waste burden in tourist places. People around
the world have reacted to the situation and old theories have been tested with new
theories and practices.
COVID-19 has surprised the world wherein the developed countries, which have
better built environment and medical infrastructure along with strong knowledge
base, have suffered more compared to the developing ones. That means we need to
learn much more than what we already know and respond to many such problems
that humankind may face in the future.
We envisage that this book will catalyze success wherein people at different
capacities can take better decisions or recommend a better possible solution to deci-
sion makers for betterment of human lives.
To help readers understand the interrelated concepts of fundamental science to
that of many applied solutions, the book is written in two volumes. Volume I con-
centrates on fundamentals of sciences related to environmental health while Volume
II concentrates on coping with environmental health by mitigation and adaptation
strategy.
We would like to thank all past authors whose work is cited in this book apart
from anonymous proposals and book reviewers who showed us the way we trav-
elled over the last 2 years.
The preface would be incomplete without our acknowledgement to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG whose continued encouragement and guidance have made
us work towards this book.
Bangalore, India Ramesha Chandrappa

Loughborough, Leicestershire, UK Diganta Bhusan Das
(December 2020)
Contents
Part I Introduction to Basic Sciences

1 Fundamentals of Chemistry for Environmental and Medical
Professionals �� 3
1.1 Introduction�� 3
1.2 General Chemistry�� 4
1.2.1 The Gas Laws �� 13
1.2.2 Solutions �� 18
1.3 Physical Chemistry �� 18
1.3.1 Thermochemical Reactions�� 19
1.3.2 Osmosis�� 20
1.3.3 Dialysis �� 21
1.3.4 Electrochemistry �� 21
1.4 Catalytic Chemistry�� 21
1.4.1 Chemical Kinetics�� 22
1.4.2 Adsorption�� 24
1.5 Inorganic Chemistry�� 24
1.6 Organic Chemistry�� 25
1.7 Equilibrium Chemistry�� 29
1.8 Colloid Chemistry�� 32
1.9 Biochemistry �� 33
1.9.1 Biogeochemical Pathways�� 35
1.10 Nuclear Chemistry�� 42
References�� 45
2 Fundamentals of Physics for Environmental and Medical
2.2 General Physics�� 50
2.3 Solid Mechanics�� 57
2.4 Fluid Mechanics�� 59
2.4.1 Density and Its Importance �� 60
ix
x Contents
2.4.2 Pressure of Fluid at Rest �� 60

2.4.3 Flow in Pipes�� 61
2.4.4 Flows Around a Body �� 64
2.4.5 Scales of Environmental Fluid Processes and Systems�� 66
2.5 Optics�� 67
2.5.1 Basic Behavior of Light�� 68
2.5.2 Frequency�� 68
2.5.3 Wavelengths and Colors�� 69
2.5.4 Angle of Incidence, and Refraction�� 69
2.5.5 Index of Refraction �� 69
2.5.6 Snell’s Law�� 70
2.5.7 Total Internal Reflection �� 71
2.5.8 Interactions with Materials �� 71
2.5.9 Prism �� 71
2.5.10 Lenses �� 73
2.5.11 Chromatic Dispersion �� 74
2.5.12 Mirror�� 75
2.6 Acoustics�� 76
2.6.1 Wave Terminology�� 77
2.6.2 Sound Energy Density�� 77
2.6.3 Sound Intensity �� 78
2.6.4 Intensity Level�� 78
2.6.5 Sound Pressure Level�� 79
2.6.6 Sound Power Level �� 79
2.7 Electrical and Electronics �� 80
2.8 Thermal Physics�� 84
2.9 Thermodynamics�� 86
2.9.1 First Law of Thermodynamics�� 89
2.9.2 Second Law of Thermodynamics �� 90
2.9.3 Third Law of Thermodynamics�� 90
2.9.4 Survival in Cold Climates �� 91
2.9.5 Survival in Hot Climates�� 91
References�� 91
3 Fundamentals of Biology for Environmental and Medical
3.2 General Biology�� 98
3.3 Microbiology�� 101
3.4 Interrelation Between Environment and Human/Animal Health�� 112
3.4.1 Zoonosis�� 113
3.4.2 Vector-Borne Diseases�� 120
3.4.3 Impact of Poor Environmental Management
on Human and Animal Health�� 121
References�� 126
Contents xi
Part II Introduction to Environmental and Medical Sciences

4 Introduction to Environmental Sciences�� 131
4.2 Micro- and Macro-Environment �� 132
4.3 Physical and Biotic Environment�� 133
4.4 Climate Change�� 136
4.5 Pollution of the Environment�� 138
4.6 Solid Waste�� 153
5 Introduction to Medical Sciences�� 175
5.2 Anatomy�� 177
5.3 Physiology�� 178
5.4 Forensic Medicine and Toxicology�� 179
5.5 Pathology�� 181
5.6 Pharmacology �� 185
5.7 Anesthesiology�� 186
5.8 Community Medicine �� 186
5.9 Dermatology and Venereology�� 191
5.10 Obstetrics and Gynecology �� 194
5.11 Ophthalmology �� 194
5.12 Orthopedics �� 195
5.13 Otorhinolaryngology�� 196
5.14 Pediatrics�� 197
5.15 Neurology and Psychiatry�� 198
5.16 Surgery�� 199
5.17 Pulmonology �� 199
5.18 Nephrology�� 200
5.19 Gastroenterology�� 201
5.20 Oncology �� 202
5.21 Hematology�� 202
5.22 Endocrinology�� 203
5.23 Epidemiology�� 203
5.24 Immunology�� 204
5.25 Nutrition Science and Dietetics�� 205
Part III Health and Environment

6 Public Health�� 219
6.2 Human and Environmental Conflict �� 220
6.3 Impact of Pollution on Health�� 227
6.4 Impact of Climate Change on Health�� 234
xii Contents
6.5 Impact of Solid Waste on Health�� 238

7 Occupational Health�� 257
7.2 Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment�� 261
7.3 Hazard Prevention and Control�� 273
Glossary�� 289
Index�� 311
Abbreviations
3R Reduce, Recycle, and Reuse

ABS Australian Bureau of Statistics
AC Alternating Current
ACM Asbestose Containing Material
ADP Air-Dried Pulp
AFO Amorphous Ferric Oxide
AIDS Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
ANN Artificial Neural Networks
AOP Advanced Oxidation Process
As Arsenic
ASP Activated Sludge Process
BaO Barium Oxide
BF Blast Furnace
BFS Blast Furnace Slag
BMW Biomedical Waste
BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand
BOF Basic Oxygen Furnace
Br− Bromide
BrO3− Bromate Ion
C&D Construction and Demolition
C4H10 Butane
CaCl2 Calcium Chloride
CaCO3 Calcium Carbonate
CaO Calcium Oxide
CBA Cost Benefit Analysis
CCl4 Calcium Tetra Chloride
Cd Cadmium
Ce Cerium
CEA Cost Effectiveness Analysis
CETP Common Effluent Treatment Plant
CFC ChloroFlouro Carbon
xiii
xiv Abbreviations
CFL Compact Fluorescent Lamp

CH3COOH Acetic Acid
CH4 Methane
CHNS Chorbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Sulphur
CN− Cyanide Ion
CNCl Cyanogen Chloride
CNS Central Nervous System
CO Carbon Monoxide
Co Cobalt
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
CP Cleaner Production
Cr Chromium
Cr2(SO4)3 Chromium Sulfate
CRED Centre for Research on the Epidemiology and Disaster
CRT Cathode Ray Tube
CTC Carbon Tetra Chloride
CTMP Chemithermal Mechanical Pulping
Cu Copper
°C Degree Celsius
DBP Disinfection Byproduct Control
DC Direct Current
DCB Dichlorobenzine
DDD Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane
DDT Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
DMP Disaster Management Plan
DWAF Department of Water Affairs and Forestry
Dy Dysprosium
EAF Electric Arc Furnace
ECF Elemental Chlorine Free
EEA European Environment Agency
EEE Electrical and Electronic Equipment
EH&S Environment Health and Safety
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
ELV End of Life Vehicle
EMF Electro Magnetic Fields
EMP Environment Management Plan
EMPRI Environmental Management and Policy Research Institute
EoL End of Life
EPA Environment Protection Agency of the USA
EPP Emergency Preparedness Plan
EPR Extended Producer Responsibility
Er Erbium
EU European Union
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
Abbreviations xv
FDI Foreign Direct Investment

Fe Iron
FMD Floating Marine Debris
FML Flexible Membrane Liners
FOG Fat, Oil, Grease
FTW Floating Treatment Wetland
GCL Geosynthetic Clay Liner
Gd Gadolinium
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GFCI Ground-Fault Circuit-Interrupters
GHG Greenhouse Gases
GI Gastro-Intestine
GPP Green Public Procurement
GPS Global Positioning System
GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft fürTechnischeZusammenarbeit (German
Technical Cooperation)
H2CO3 Carbonic Acid
H2CrO4 Chromic Acid
H 2O Water
H2S Hydrogen Sulfide
H2SO4 Sulphuric Acid
Hb Hemoglobin
HC Hydrocarbons
HCB HexoChloroBenezenes
HCl Hydrochloric Acid
HEX-BCH Hexachlorobicycloheptadiene, Bicyclo(2.2.1)hepta-2,5-diene
Hg Mercury
HgCl2 Mercury Chloride
HgSO4 Mercury Sulfate
HHP Household Hazardous Product
HHV Human Herpesvirus
HHW Household Hazardous Waste
HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus
HLW High-Level Wastes
HSLT High Speed Low Torque
IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency
IARC International Agency for Research on Cancer
IATA International Air Transport Association
ICLEI International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives
ICT Information Communication Technology
IFC International Finance Corporation
IFRC International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent
IGES Institute for Global Environmental Strategies
ILO International Labour Organisation
ILW Intermediate Level Waste
xvi Abbreviations
IMDG International Marine Dangerous Goods

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
ISL In Situ Leach
ISWA International Solid Waste Association
ISWM Integrated Solid Waste Management
IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature
IUPAC International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
IWRM Integrated Water Resource Management
K2Cr2O7 Potassium Dichromate
K 2O Potassium Oxide
KCl Potassium Chloride
KOH Potassium Hydroxide
kVA Kilovolt-Ampere
kWh Kilowatt Hour
L Liter
La Lanthanum
LCA Life Cycle Assessment
LCD Liquid Crystal Display
LDAR Leak Detection and Repair
LDC Least Developed Countries
LFG Land Fill Gas
LILW Low and Intermediate Level Wastes
LILW-LL Low and Intermediate Level Wastes-Long Lived
LILW-SL Low and Intermediate Level Wastes-Short Lived
LLW Low Level Waste
LNWT Low or No Waste Technology
lpd Liters per day
LSHT Low Speed High Torque
Lu Lutetium
LWD Large Woody Debris
LWP Limited Work Permit
MCB Monochlorobenzene
MCi Megacurie, 1,000,000 times a curie
mCi Millicurie, 1/1000 of a curie
MCM Million Cubic Meters
MDG Millennium Development Goal
MED Multi-effect distillation
MEIP Metropolitan Environmental Improvement Programme
metHb Methomoglobin
MFA Material Flow Analysis
MgO Magesium Oxide
MLD Million Liters per Day
MLSS Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids
Mn Manganese
MRF Material Recovery Facility
Abbreviations xvii
MRI Magnetic Resonance Imaging

MSDS Material Safety Data Sheet
MSEW Mechanically Stabilized Earth Wall
MSF Multistage Flash Distillation
MSW Municipal Solid Waste
N2O Nitrous Oxide
NA Not Applicable
Na2S2O5 Sodium Metabisulfite
NaCl Sodium Chloride
NaHSO3 Sodium Bisulfite
NaO Sodium Oxide
NaOH Sodium Hydroxide
NAPL Nonaqueous Phase Liquid
Nb Niobium
Nd Neodymium
NDMA N-nitrosodimethylamine
NF Nanofilter
NFC Nuclear Fuel Cycle
NGO Nongovernmental Organization
NH4OH Ammonium Hydroxide
Ni Nickel
Ni(NO3)2 Nickel Nitrate
Ni-Cd Nickel-Cadmium
Ni-Cr Nickle-Chromium
NiMeH Nickel Metal Hydride
NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
NMRS Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectrometer
NO2 Nitrogen Dioxide
NO3 Nitrate
NO3− Nitrate ion
NORM Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials
NOx Oxides of Nitrogen
NTO Nanocrystalline Titanium Dioxide
NTUA National Technical University of Athens
NWM Nuclear Waste Management
O3 Ozone
ODS Ozone Depleting Substance
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
OF Overflow
OPC Ordinary Portland Cement
OPCW Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons
OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration
P&T Partitioning and Transmutation
PAH Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon
PAN Peroxy Acetyl Nitrates
xviii Abbreviations
Pb Lead
PBDE Poly-Brominated Diphenyl Ethers
PbO Lead Oxide
PCB Polychlorinated Biphenyl
PCDD Polychlorinated Dioxins
PCDF Polychlorinated Dibenzofurans
PCP Pentachlorophenol
PDF Plastic Derived Fuels
PDR Peoples Democratic Republic
PEF Process Engineered Fuel
PFA Pulverized Fly Ash
PFOA Perfluorooctanoic acid
PIM Potentially Infectious Material
PMF Powder Metal Fuel
PO4 Phosphate
POHC Principal Organic Hazardous Constituents
POP Persistent Organic Pollutant
POST Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology
POTW Publicly Owned Treatment Works
PP Polypropelene
PPE Personal Protective Equipment
Pr Praseodymium
PRB Permeable Reactive Barriers
PRC Pneumatic Refuse Collection
PS Polystyrene
PTW Permit to Work
Pu+3 Plutonium (III)
Pu+4 Plutonium (IV)
PVC Poly Vinyl Chloride
RA Risk Assessment
RBC Rotating Biological Contactors
RCT Reinforced Concrete Trenches
RDF Refuse Derived Fuel
RDW Reactor Decommissioning Waste
REF Recovered Fuel
RFB River Bank Filtration
RFID Radio Frequency Identification
RI Rapid Infiltration
RO Reverse Osmosis
RSS Royal Scientific Society
RTS Reservoir Triggered Seismicity
RWI Recreational Water Illnesses
SA Sustainable Assessment
SAT Soil-Aquifer Treatment Systems
Sb Antimony
Abbreviations xix
SBA Sustainable Business Associate

SBR Sequential Batch Reactors
SCE Snow Cover Extent
SCN Safety Clearance Notice
Se Selenium
SEA Strategic Environmental Assessment
SHG Self Help Group
SIDS Small Island Developing States
SiO2 Silicon Dioxide
SLF Substitute Liquid Fuel
SLT Stone-Lined Earth Trenches
Sm Samarium
SMS Steel Melting Shop
SMZ Surfactant Modified Zeolite
Sn Tin
SNF Spent Nuclear Fuel
SO4 Sulfate
SOC Synthetic Organic Compound
SoEA Socioeconomic Assessment
SOP Standard Operating Procedure
SPW Solid Petroleum Waste
SR Slow Rate
SRS Sealed Radioactive Sources
SST Sea Surface Temperature
STP Sewage Treatment Plant
SWM Solid Waste Management
TA Technology Assessment
Tb Terbium
TBBPA Tetra Bromo Biphenol-A
Tc Technetium
TCF Total Chlorine Free
TCU True Color Units
Th Thorium
TH Tile Hole
THMs Triholomethanes
Ti Titanium
TKN Total Kjedal Nitrogen
Tm Thulium
TOC Total Organic Compound
TRU Transuranic
TRUW Transuranic Waste
TSDF Treatment, Storage, and Disposal Facility
TTD Tirumala Tirupathi Devastanam
TWRF Tsunami Waste Recovery Facilities
U Uranium
xx Abbreviations
UC European Community
UDDT Urine Diversion Dehydrating Toilets
UFW Unaccounted for Water
UK United Kingdom
ULB Urban Local Body
UN United Nations
UNDRR United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction
UNECA United Nations Economic Commission for Africa
UNECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
UNEP United Nations Environment Protection Agency
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNICEF United Nations Children Fund
UNISDR United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction
UNU United Nations University
UPS Uninterrupted Power Supply
USA United States of America
USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency
USFA United States Fire Administration
VFA Volatile Fatty Acid
VLH Volatile Liquid Hydrocarbons
VLLW Very Low Level Waste
VOC Volatile Organic Compounds
VRF Volume Reduction Factor
WCED World Commission on Environment and Development
WEEE Waste from Electrical and Electronic Equipment
WHO World Health Organization
WTE Waste to Energy
WWF World Wide Fund for Nature
WWTP Wastewater Treatment Plant
Y Yttrium
Yb Ytterbium
Zn Zinc
ZnO Zinc Oxide
Zr Zirconium
List of Figures
Fig. 1.1 Chemical substance refers to any form of matter that has
constant chemical composition of its constituent entities�� 4
Fig. 1.2 A typical reactor in an industry�� 8
Fig. 1.3 Waste dump and stack from which emissions occur.
Stoichiometric equations are often used by environmental
professionals for calculating emissions from such waste
dump and stack�� 9
Fig. 1.4 Leachates formed due to reaction among the chemicals
in the solid waste�� 9
Fig. 1.5 Oxidation occurs during combustion�� 10
Fig. 1.6 Aeration of wastewater�� 10
Fig. 1.7 pH values of various water and wastewater, and discharge
standards for treated wastewater�� 12
Fig. 1.8 Schematic depiction of Boyle’s law�� 13
Fig. 1.9 Schematic depiction of Charles’ law�� 14
Fig. 1.10 Pictorial depiction of pressure law�� 15
Fig. 1.11 Pictorial depiction of Dalton’s law of partial pressure�� 16
Fig. 1.12 The volume of 1 mol of an ideal gas at standard temperature
and pressure is 22.41 L, the standard molar volume�� 19
Fig. 1.13 A typical reverse osmosis installation�� 20
Fig. 1.14 The shiny greenish surface of the statue is formed by corrosion
of the copper of the statue, which forms a thin layer of
an insoluble compound that contains copper, sulfate,
and hydroxide ions�� 22
Fig. 1.15 The corrosion process involves redox reaction in which
metallic iron is converted to reddish-brown Fe(OH)3�� 23
Fig. 1.16 Structure of carbon atom�� 24
Fig. 1.17 Arrangement of atoms in methane�� 25
Fig. 1.18 Benzene structure�� 26
Fig. 1.19 Different ways of representing the benzene structure�� 27
Fig. 1.20 Frothing in surface water streams due to detergents�� 30
xxi
xxii List of Figures
Fig. 1.21 Water cycle�� 36

Fig. 1.22 Carbon cycle�� 37
Fig. 1.23 Nitrogen cycle�� 39
Fig. 1.24 Oxygen cycle�� 40
Fig. 1.25 Phosphorous cycle�� 41
Fig. 1.26 Toxic cycle�� 42
Fig. 1.27 Common types of nuclear decay�� 43
Fig. 1.28 Nuclear transmutation reaction�� 44
Fig. 1.29 Neutron-induced nuclear fission�� 45
Fig. 2.1 Schematic diagram explaining Newton’s universal law

of gravitation�� 52
Fig. 2.2 Pictorial representation of polygon law of forces�� 53
Fig. 2.3 Illustration of compressive strain in solids�� 57
Fig. 2.4 Illustration of shear strain�� 57
Fig. 2.5 Schematic diagram for explaining surface tension in a fluid
droplet�� 59
Fig. 2.6 Line diagram of flow with varying cross-section�� 62
Fig. 2.7 Flow in partially filled conduit�� 62
Fig. 2.8 Flow in river around bodies�� 63
Fig. 2.9 Obstruction to free flow of storm water drains could result in
stagnation of water and becoming a mosquito-breeding place�� 64
Fig. 2.10 Propagating light ray from a low refractive index medium
to one with a higher index�� 69
Fig. 2.11 Illustration of critical angle�� 70
Fig. 2.12 Total internal reflection�� 71
Fig. 2.13 Pictorial depiction of transmission, absorption, and reflection�� 72
Fig. 2.14 Schematic diagram of specular and diffusive reflections�� 72
Fig. 2.15 Different views of a prism�� 72
Fig. 2.16 Line diagram of light passing through a prism�� 73
Fig. 2.17 A simple convex lens�� 74
Fig. 2.18 Line diagram showing the object between f and 2f�� 74
Fig. 2.19 Line diagram showing the object at f�� 75
Fig. 2.20 Line diagram showing the object between f and o�� 75
Fig. 2.21 Line diagram showing the object at 2f�� 76
Fig. 2.22 Line diagram showing the object beyond 2f�� 76
Fig. 2.23 Line diagram showing the object at infinity�� 77
Fig. 2.24 Chromatic dispersion in a prism�� 77
Fig. 2.25 Line diagram of incident ray and reflected ray�� 78
Fig. 2.26 Line diagram of sound wave�� 80
Fig. 2.27 Line diagram explaining acoustics near field and far field�� 80
Fig. 2.28 Transmission and distribution of electricity�� 82
Fig. 2.29 The melting of snow is a thermodynamic process�� 86
Fig. 2.30 Water vapor from tank receiving hot water from a paper industry�� 87
Fig. 2.31 Entropy of a solid < entropy of a liquid < entropy of a gas�� 88
List of Figures xxiii
Fig. 3.1 Health and environment�� 96

Fig. 3.2 Pristine natural environment�� 97
Fig. 3.3 Alteration of environment for human benefit�� 98
Fig. 3.4 Urban settling with improper planning�� 99
Fig. 3.5 Characteristics of living beings�� 99
Fig. 3.6 Illustration showing complex arrangement of chemicals that
makes an organism�� 100
Fig. 3.7 Structure of a typical bacterium�� 104
Fig. 3.8 Chain of infection�� 106
Fig. 3.9 A waste picker with insufficient personal protective equipment
exposing herself for direct transmission of infection�� 107
Fig. 3.10 Water overflowing due to accidental damage to water supply
line exposing public water supply to microbial contamination�� 108
Fig. 3.11 Sylvatic disease cycle�� 119
Fig. 3.12 Wildlife to domestic animal to human disease transmission�� 120
Fig. 3.13 Vector transmitted urban/rural disease cycle�� 122
Fig. 3.14 Paddy fields�� 123
Fig. 4.1 Different types of interaction among the organisms�� 133

Fig. 4.2 Food cycle�� 134
Fig. 4.3 Humans in the food web�� 135
Fig. 4.4 Linking between biosphere and organisms�� 135
Fig. 4.5 Photos of some captive animals�� 136
Fig. 4.6 Photos of some free animals�� 137
Fig. 4.7 Defecation in riverbed�� 140
Fig. 4.8 Man washing clothes in river�� 140
Fig. 4.9 Dead calf thrown in a riverbed during a lean season�� 141
Fig. 4.10 Urban discharge into Hooghly River, near Kolkata
(Calcutta), India�� 142
Fig. 4.11 Disposal of solid waste in Hooghly River, Kolkata
(Calcutta), India�� 142
Fig. 4.12 Water contamination by regular human activities in urban
setting�� 143
Fig. 4.13 Fecal matter is being managed and diverted into a natural lake,
which is being used to feed in fisheries�� 143
Fig. 4.14 Land preparation for agricultural activity would loosen the
soil particles that would be air borne along with
agrochemicals fed to it�� 144
Fig. 4.15 Poor road condition�� 144
Fig. 4.16 Examples of industry near human settlements�� 145
Fig. 4.17 Mining�� 145
Fig. 4.18 Cooking�� 146
Fig. 4.19 Fuel combustion in vehicles�� 146
Fig. 4.20 Waste handling/combustion�� 147
Fig. 4.21 Material handling at construction site�� 148
xxiv List of Figures
Fig. 4.22 Diesel generator at a construction site for electric generation�� 148
Fig. 4.23 Road sweeping�� 149
Fig. 4.24 People exposed to pollutants�� 150
Fig. 4.25 Examples of physical, chemical, and biological characteristics
of pollutants, which define their impacts on health�� 150
Fig. 4.26 Classification of pollutants�� 153
Fig. 4.27 Water pollution due to waste discarded next to stream�� 155
Fig. 4.28 Schematic diagram of health impact due to solid waste�� 156
Fig. 4.29 Cathode ray tube of television disposed on road�� 157
Fig. 4.30 View of waste dump site�� 161
Fig. 4.31 Chicken and cow feeding on garbage�� 163
Fig. 4.32 Spillage and seepage during transportation of waste�� 164
Fig. 4.33 Waste segregation�� 164
Fig. 4.34 Waste coconut being dried before being sent for oil extraction�� 165
Fig. 4.35 Segregated paper and cardboard waste�� 165
Fig. 4.36 Waste being received at collection centers�� 166
Fig. 4.37 Manual waste segregation�� 166
Fig. 4.38 Waste storage�� 167
Fig. 4.39 Leachate generation from waste dump�� 167
Fig. 4.40 Construction and demolition waste at the site of demolition�� 168
Fig. 5.1 Usual forms of exposure–response relationships�� 176

Fig. 5.2 The clinical course of an ailment�� 177
Fig. 5.3 Branches of medicine�� 177
Fig. 5.4 Different way of classifying medical specialties�� 178
Fig. 5.5 Stages of infectious disease�� 181
Fig. 5.6 Categorization of diseases based on the significance of diseases�� 181
Fig. 5.7 Main causes of diseases�� 183
Fig. 5.8 Major environmental factors that affect human health�� 184
Fig. 5.9 Froth formations in lake due to misuse of the common
property for discharge of untreated effluent�� 187
Fig. 5.10 Use of lakes by animals to keep them cool�� 188
Fig. 5.11 Use of lakes for disposing solid waste�� 188
Fig. 5.12 Use of lakes by people to wash cloths�� 189
Fig. 5.13 Remains reinforcement idols of clay idols after immersing
in water�� 189
Fig. 5.14 People washing cattle in surface water�� 190
Fig. 5.15 People washing vehicle in surface water�� 190
Fig. 5.16 Remains of worshiping material disposed in surface water body�� 191
Fig. 5.17 Classification of immunity system�� 204
Fig. 5.18 Schematic diagram for explaining herd immunity�� 205
Fig. 5.19 Exposure to polluted air could lead to food contamination�� 209
List of Figures xxv
Fig. 6.1 Land use conflict such as temporary road blockage by putting
rented ceremonial tent for ceremony by a resident in front
of his house and motorist trying to pass road divider are
common scene in India. In theory such cases are not
permitted but in practice they happen regularly�� 222
Fig. 6.2 Photos of coastal area�� 223
Fig. 6.3 In the absence of separate space for washing a lady in poor
community is washing her cloths and utensils in front
of her house adjacent to road�� 224
Fig. 6.4 Demolition in progress with partial coverage to combat air
pollution and objects falling on ground—another example
for theory and practice�� 229
Fig. 6.5 Impact of pollution on human health�� 229
Fig. 6.6 Death of pollinators due to pollution may reduce food
production�� 231
Fig. 6.7 Overflow of manholes and drains due to poor maintenance
that leads to overflow of sewage with pathogens and toxins
can become breeding ground for vectors or remission
of pathogen by contact�� 233
Fig. 6.8 Major factors affecting vulnerability�� 234
Fig. 6.9 Impact of climate change on health�� 234
Fig. 6.10 Impact of health due to flood�� 235
Fig. 6.11 Impacts due to draught�� 235
Fig. 6.12 Abandoned construction material and waste at a
construction site�� 237
Fig. 6.13 A cow let to feed on waste�� 238
Fig. 6.14 Haphazard disposal of poultry litter�� 240
Fig. 6.15 A vegetable vendor next to waste in a vegetable market—a
situation that can lead to food contamination�� 241
Fig. 6.16 Waste dumped adjacent to mango and coconut trees from
which toxins may enter fruits�� 242
Fig. 6.17 A drinking water bore well next to usual waste throwing
area—a situation that can lead to water contamination�� 242
Fig. 7.1 Photograph of people working in an informal setup�� 259

Fig. 7.2 Photograph of people working in a formal setup but with
weak enforcement�� 260
Fig. 7.3 Poverty often pushes people to unsafe practices�� 260
Fig. 7.4 Some of the risks in the work environment�� 269
Fig. 7.5 Radiation and safety�� 270
Fig. 7.6 Methods to reduce effects of noise�� 270
Fig. 7.7 Some of occupational hazards due to biological agents�� 271
Fig. 7.8 Hierarchy of hazard prevention and control�� 273
xxvi List of Figures
Fig. 7.9 Elimination of tree for safety of workers and road users�� 274
Fig. 7.10 Substation of jet bridge to bus in airports for boarding
passengers engineering control�� 274
Fig. 7.11 Engineering control and administrative control in airport
wherein strict safety producers are followed along with
proper infrastructure and machineries�� 275
Fig. 7.12 Systematic arrangement of boarding stairs�� 276
Fig. 7.13 Safe parking of aircraft by administrative control such
as training, legislation and policy�� 276
Fig. 7.14 Floor signage�� 277
Fig. 7.15 Use of personnel protective equipment in an airport�� 278
Fig. 7.16 Unsafe workplace�� 279
Fig. 7.17 Maintenance of a railway track�� 279
Fig. 7.18 Vegetable vendors on roads�� 280
Fig. 7.19 Trash pickers�� 281
List of Tables
Table 1.1 Common terms used in general chemistry�� 5

Table 1.2 Examples of solutions�� 7
Table 1.3 Comparison of organic compound and inorganic compound�� 7
Table 1.4 Main classes of organic compounds�� 28
Table 1.5 Examples of colloidal suspension�� 33
Table 1.6 Properties of protons, neutrons, and electrons�� 44
Table 2.1 Frequently used terms in physics�� 51

Table 2.2 Common terms used in dynamics�� 53
Table 2.3 Common terms used in solid mechanics�� 56
Table 2.4 Common terms used in fluid mechanics�� 58
Table 2.5 Density of blood and its components�� 60
Table 2.6 Length, velocity, and time scales of environmental fluid
processes and systems�� 65
Table 2.7 Application of fluid mechanics in environmental science�� 66
Table 2.8 Definition of common terms with respect to lens�� 73
Table 2.9 Definition of common terms with respect to mirror�� 78
Table 2.10 Important wave terminologies�� 79
Table 2.11 Common terms used in electrical and electronics sciences�� 81
Table 2.12 Common terms used in thermal physics�� 84
Table 2.13 Relationships of different temperature scales�� 85
Table 3.1 Movements of substance into and out of the cell�� 102
Table 3.2 Description of domains and kingdoms of living organisms�� 103
Table 3.3 Requirements of complex multicellular animals�� 103
Table 3.4 Description of bacterium structure�� 105
Table 3.5 Major types of shapes and groups of bacteria�� 106
Table 3.6 Examples of intervention to reduce or eliminate infectious
and parasitic diseases in human beings�� 109
Table 3.7 Disease classification prepared by the World Organisation
for Animal Health for the year 2018�� 114
xxvii
xxviii List of Tables
Table 3.8 Some of the common zoonosis, main reservoir of causative

agents, and usual mode of transmission to humans�� 118
Table 3.9 Some of the common vector-borne diseases�� 121
Table 3.10 Hierarchy of controlling ailment due to environmental factors�� 125
Table 4.1 Types of environmental pollution�� 139

Table 4.2 Examples of secondary pollutants�� 153
Table 4.3 Examples of solid waste categorization and health hazard�� 158
Table 4.4 Some of the major disasters due to improper waste disposal�� 162
Table 5.1 Major toxic causative agent�� 180

Table 5.2 Examples of important terms used in pathology�� 182
Table 5.3 Example of culture and impact on the environment and health�� 192
Table 5.4 Some sources of nutrients�� 206
Table 5.5 Some sources of vitamins�� 207
Table 5.6 Sources of common minerals�� 208
Table 5.7 Types of adulteration�� 208
Table 6.1 Major air pollution episodes�� 228

Table 6.2 Some of the published food contamination studies�� 230
Table 6.3 Categories of health-care waste�� 243
Table 7.1 Common possible risks in some of the workplaces�� 262

Table 7.2 Hazard identification and risk assessment for water sample
collection and field monitoring�� 265
Table 7.3 Sample OCP for general safety measures�� 282
Table 7.4 Sample OCP for safe handling of chemicals�� 283
List of Boxes
Box 1.1 Radiation and Importance to Health�� 44

Box 1.2 Radioactive Waste Case Study�� 45
Box 3.1 Microorganism and Infection�� 104

Box 3.2 Cancer Express�� 123
Box 4.1 Plastic Pollution of Ocean�� 141

Box 4.2 Case Studies�� 156
Box 5.1 Toxic Exposures at Workplace�� 180

Box 5.2 Drinking Water and Skin Health�� 193
Box 5.3 Fluoride and Fluorosis: Case Studies�� 196
Box 5.4 Pollution and Neurological Disease�� 198
Box 5.5 Pesticide in Modern Agriculture and Health�� 199
Box 5.6 Forest Fire and Lung�� 200
Box 5.7 Industrial Gas Accident and Pulmonary Health�� 200
Box 5.8 Itai-Itai�� 201
Box 5.9 Cross Contamination of Water System
and Gastroenteritis�� 202
Box 5.10 Armadale Case Study�� 203
Box 5.11 Contamination of Food at Home�� 205
Box 5.12 Nutrition Versus Poison�� 206
Box 6.1 Thoothukudi Massacre�� 231

Box 6.2 Disability Adjusted Life Years explained�� 232
xxix
Part I
Introduction to Basic Sciences
Chapter 1
Fundamentals of Chemistry
for Environmental and Medical
Professionals
Abstract Accurate understanding of the human health and environment needs

strong foundation of chemistry. The continuous chemical changes in the environ-
ment have significant influences on human health. Chemistry is a specialization of
science that typically deals with the composition, structure, properties, as well as
change of matters. All biotic and abiotic components of the environment are made
up of entities that qualify as chemicals, for example, the proteins of animals and
plants, soil on which we walk, rock on which we climb, diamond in our rings, cloth
we wear, water we drink, air we breathe, and the food we eat. In order to save the
environment, the environmental professionals, especially the advisers in the govern-
ment, should have sound knowledge of chemistry. Many of the decisions taken
depend on the environmental monitoring. Erroneous sampling, preservation, and
analysis would lead to erroneous decisions that directly affect public health. Further
engineering solutions to combat pollution economically need understanding of
chemistry besides formulation of medicine to an ailment. This chapter discusses the
fundamentals of chemistry, which is often the basis of environment and medical
science.
1.1 Introduction
Chemistry is a specialization of science that deals with the composition, structure,

properties, as well as change of matters. The term “chemical substance” (Fig. 1.1)
refers to any form of matter that has constant chemical composition of its constitu-
ent such that its physical properties are determinable. All the matter on earth includ-
ing human body is made up of one or the other chemicals or combination of
chemicals. Changes in the chemical compositions beyond a certain limit in the envi-
ronment may affect the health of a person who interacts with it. Pollution does not
honor international political boundaries, and so does the epithelial tissue that acts as
the boundary between our body and the surrounding environment.
Environmental chemistry draws on a range of concepts from chemistry including
understanding solutions, units, sampling, chemical reactions and equations, and
analytical techniques (Williams 2001).
Chemistry has many applications in medical and environmental sciences. Boron
compounds now have applications in Medicinal Chemistry (Ali et al. 2020). Outdoor
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 3

R. Chandrappa, D. B. Das, Environmental Health - Theory and Practice,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64480-2_1
4 1 Fundamentals of Chemistry for Environmental and Medical Professionals
Fig. 1.1 Chemical substance refers to any form of matter that has constant chemical composition
of its constituent entities
environment is an oxidant-driven system compared to indoor environments where

gas-phase oxidant concentrations are relatively low (Abbatt and Wang 2020).
The changes in the environment could be slow due to release of pollutants or
sudden as in case of gas leakage or bomb blast. Furthermore, the earth is a continu-
ous reactor where millions of reactions happen at a time and so is our body where
at least a few hundreds of reactions keep happening without our knowledge. We do
not have the complete control on the biochemical reactions in our body that are
directly linked to our environment. With better understanding of chemistry, the con-
cerned experts on both environmental health and medical sciences can provide well-
informed advice to decision makers on how to take precautionary measures or
corrective actions to safeguard the public health to the maximum extent possible.
1.2 General Chemistry
Chemicals are not just substances that are present in chemistry laboratory or ware-
house of a chemical industry. Chemical substances refer to any forms of matters that
have constant chemical compositions of their constituent entities (Fig. 1.1).
All biotic and abiotic components of the environment are made up of entities that
qualify as chemicals, for example, various proteins of animals and plants, soil on
which we walk, rock on which we climb, diamond in our rings, cloths we wear,
water we drink, air we breathe, and the food we consume.
The common terms used in general chemistry are given in Table 1.1.
1.2 General Chemistry 5
Table 1.1 Common terms used in general chemistry

Sl.
No. Term Description
1. Atom Smallest component unit of matter that has the same properties of a
chemical element
2. Protons Positively charged particles of an atom
3. Neutrons Neutral particle of an atom
4. Nucleus of an atom Dense region at the center of atom comprising of protons and
neutrons
5. Electrons Negatively charged particles of an atom that revolve around nucleus
of an atom in different orbits (or shells)
6. Element A chemical element is a chemical substance containing of atoms
having the same atomic number (IUPAC 2015a)
7. Compound An entity comprising of two or more different atoms connected with
chemical bonds, with a fixed ratio among constituent elements; the
ratio of each element is normally expressed by its chemical formula
8. Molecule Smallest particles of an element or compound that possess all the
properties of that substance and are made up of one or many atoms
9. Atomic mass unit In 1961, a universally accepted atomic mass unit of carbon-12
(AMU) (represented as 12C) isotopes was chosen as the standard reference for
measuring atomic masses; according to this convention, atomic mass
of a single 12C atom is 12 atomic mass unit (AMU)
10. Atomic number Atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom of the element; each atom of an element will have the same
number of protons; neutral atoms will have the same number of
electrons as well as protons
11. Molecular weight The molecular weight is the mass of one mole of a substance usually
expressed as grams per mole
12. Mole (gram Quantity of any chemical material that comprises of as many
molecular weight) elementary entities (atoms/molecules/ions/electrons) as there are
atoms in 12 grams of pure carbon-12 (12C)
13. Ions Any atom that gains or loses electrons will become electrically
charged; thus, any charged atom or group of atoms is called ions;
ions are expressed as a superscript to the symbol (e.g., Na+1 or cl−1)
14. Atomic mass Sum of the numbers of protons as well as neutrons
number
15. Isotopes Variants of chemical elements that have the same atomic number but
different mass number; each isotope of an element has the same
atomic number but a different mass number (A), which is the sum of
the numbers of protons as well as neutrons
16. Anion Negatively charged ions
17. Cation Positively charged ions
18. Radical A group of atoms with a charge that goes through a reaction without
change is called a radical
19. Chemical bond Force that holds atoms together in a chemical compound
20. Covalent bond In covalent bonding, electrons are shared between atoms in a
molecule or polyatomic ion
(continued)
Table 1.1 (continued)

Sl.
No. Term Description
21. Ionic bond In ionic bonding, positively as well as negatively charged ions are
connected together by electrostatic forces
22. Chemical symbol Symbol is a code for a chemical element usually derived from the
name of the element; use of symbol serves two purpose—It reveals
(a) the elements in it, and (b) the ratio of each element; examples of
symbol
23. Chemical formula A mathematical relationship between elements that builds a
compound; examples of chemical formulae
24. Valence (or valance Number of electrons present in the outermost orbit (or shell) of an
number) atom
25. Valency Measure of an atom’s combining power with other atoms when it
forms molecules; examples of valence
26. Structural formula Graphical representation of the arrangement of atoms in a chemical
substance
27. Avogadro’s Each mole will have approximately the same number of elementary
number entities, which is called Avogadro’s number or Avogadro’s constant
(Avogadro’s (symbols: L, NA), which has a value 6.022140857 × 1023 mol−1 (Mohr
constant) et al. 2008; IUPAC 1992, 1996)
28. Stoichiometry Stoichiometry is a collective term for the quantitative relationship
between the numbers of atoms/molecules/ions, the masses, and the
numbers of moles
The matter is made up of pure and impure substances. Pure substances are made
up of only one type of atom or molecule whereas the impure substances contain
more than a single type of atom or molecule.
As of 2019, there are 118 elements that have been identified, of which 98 occur
naturally and the remaining 20 being synthetic elements.
Actual mass of hydrogen is found to be 1.673 × 10−24 g, which is extremely
small. It is found to be easy to compare the masses of different atoms with some
reference atom.
Moles are used in chemical/environmental engineering process by using concept
of molar flow rate, which is the number of moles of a solution that passes a fixed
point per unit time. Molar flow rates are useful because using moles instead of mass
allows writing material balances in terms of reaction conversion as well as
stoichiometry.
The molecular weight of a compound is the summation of the atomic weights of
the atoms that form a molecule of the compound; for example, atomic oxygen (O)
has an atomic weight of 16 and hence molecular oxygen (O2) has a molecular weight
of 32. A gram-mole (g-mole or mol in SI units) of a species is the quantity of that
species whose mass in grams is numerically equal to its molecular weight. Hence,
one mole of oxygen is 32 g.
Figure 1.2 shows a typical reactor in an industry. Engineers are often interested
in reactions between large quantities of chemicals. Hence, kg-moles, lb-moles, and
Table 1.2 Examples of solutions

Sl. No. Type of solution Solute Solvent Example
1. Solid solutions Solid Solid Alloy
Liquid Solid Hydrated crystals such as blue vitriol
Gas Solid Gases adsorbed over the surface of metals
2. Liquid solutions Solid Liquid Sea water
Liquid Liquid Dilute sulfuric acid
Gas Liquid Aerated drinks
3. Gaseous solutions Solid Gas Iodine in air
Liquid Gas Water vapor in air
Gas Gas Air
Table 1.3 Comparison of organic compound and inorganic compound

Description Inorganic compound Organic compound
Type of bonding Ionic Covalent
Molecular size Small Large
Water solubility Soluble Insoluble
Solubility in organic solvents Insoluble Soluble
Classes of compounds Acid, base, or salt Many (functional groups)
Structural formulae Unimportant Very important
ton-moles are used in engineering calculations. For example, carbon monoxide has
a molecular weight of 28; hence, 1 mol of CO contains 28 g, 1 lb-mole of CO con-
tains 28 lbm, 1 ton-mole of CO contains 28 tons.
When a chemical is released into the environment, it becomes distributed among
the four major environmental compartments: (1) air, (2) water, (3) soil, and (4) flora
and fauna, that is, living organisms. Figure 1.3 shows a waste dump and stack from
which emissions occur. The distribution of chemicals in the environment is gov-
erned by physical processes such as (1) sedimentation, (2) adsorption, and (3) vola-
tilization, and the chemicals can then be degraded by chemical and/or biological
processes.
Stoichiometric equations are often used by environmental professionals for cal-
culating the amount of emissions. One of the classic examples where the “mole” is
used is while calculating the quantity of pollutants emitted from combustion.
S + O2 → SO2
One mole of Sulfur + one mole of Oxygen → One mole of Sulfur Dioxide
16 g of Sulfur + 16 g of Oxygen → 32 g of Sulfur Dioxide
In other words, 1 g of S reacts with 1 g of O2 to produce 2 g of SO2.

Fig. 1.2 A typical reactor in an industry
Suppose that coal fed to a boiler of a thermal power plant has 4% of sulfur con-
tent. Each ton of the coal will have 4 kg of sulfur and, therefore, 8 kg of sulfur
dioxide is produced.
Reactions wherein the products recombine/disintegrate to form chemicals from
which they are originated are called reversible reactions. If the products remain
unaltered, then they are called irreversible reactions.
Reactions happen in nature every day and almost every place: in atmosphere,
below the earth, inside water bodies, within our bodies, etc. The environmental
engineers are concerned with undesirable consequence like the one shown in
Fig. 1.4, wherein presence of numerous chemicals in solid waste dumpsite has
resulted in the formation of complex chemicals in the form of leachate.
Chemical processes in the environment usually occur in water or the atmosphere.
The chemical reactions in the environment follow one of the following four
reactions:
1. Oxidation.
2. Reduction.
3. Hydrolysis.
4. Photolysis.
The oxidation that occurs during a combustion process (Fig. 1.5) leaves behind
reduced substances in the form of ash or that are released to the atmosphere r esulting
in pollution. Combustion of fuel in vehicles, thermal power plants, and waste incin-
eration occur due to oxidation/reduction reactions that liberate energy.
Oxidation reaction involves the loss of an electron by a molecule, atom, or ion. It
is often the reaction with oxygen. Reduction involves gain of an electron by a mol-
ecule, atom, or ion. It is often the reaction with hydrogen. Hydrolysis involves split-
ting of a compound into other compounds by reaction with water. Photolysis is
decomposition or separation of molecules by the action of light.
Fig. 1.3 Waste dump and

stack from which
emissions occur.
Stoichiometric equations
are often used by
environmental
professionals for
calculating emissions from
such waste dump and stack
Fig. 1.4 Leachates formed due to reaction among the chemicals in the solid waste
Fig. 1.5 Oxidation occurs

during combustion
Oxidation is of great interest to environmental professionals as the phenomenon

can be used to treat wastewater by transferring oxygen from air to wastewater by
aerating wastewater (Fig. 1.6.).
Biological mechanisms in living organisms involve oxidation, reduction, hydro-
lysis, and conjugation to degrade chemicals. Conjugation is joining of two or more
chemical compounds.
Our body depends on chemical reactions throughout our life. The digestion pro-
cess involves chemical reaction for breaking down into smaller molecules.
Chemical reactions obey two fundamental laws:
1. Law of conservation of mass (matter can neither be created nor destroyed).
2. Law of conservation of energy (energy can neither be created nor destroyed).
Fig. 1.6 Aeration of wastewater

Matter can neither be created nor destroyed. Hence, the number of each type of
atom on both sides of a chemical reaction should be the same. Balancing chemical
reactions is the process of making certain the conservation of matter.
As per IUPAC (2015b), the “oxidation state” of an atom in a molecule is the
number of valence electrons it has gained or lost.
Metals and non-metals play important roles in human health and so do acids as
well as bases. The distinction between metals and non-metals is by no means clear
(Cracolice and Peters 2011), and some elements that lack a preponderance of either
non-metallic or metallic properties are grouped as metalloids.
Metals are diverse substances, with different properties and characteristics.
Metals in the environment vary and distribution of metals is governed by the proper-
ties of the metal and influences of environmental factors. Out of the 92 naturally
occurring elements, following metals and metalloids (intermediate between metals
and non-metals) are potentially toxic to humans:
1. Aluminum.
2. Antimony.
3. Arsenic.
4. Barium.
5. Beryllium.
6. Bismuth.
7. Boron.
8. Cadmium.
9. Cesium.
10. Chromium.
11. Cobalt.
12. Copper.
13. Gold.
14. Lead.
15. Lithium.
16. Manganese.
17. Mercury.
18. Molybdenum.
19. Nickel.
20. Palladium.
21. Platinum.
22. Selenium.
23. Silver.
24. Strontium.
25. Tellurium.
26. Tin.
27. Titanium.
28. Tungsten.
29. Vanadium.
Heavy metals are the generic term for metallic elements with an atomic weight
higher than 40.04 (Ming-Ho 2005). Heavy metals in the environment can affect
human health. Heavy metals in the environment reach human body through atmo-
sphere, soil, water, and foods. Although toxicity to human health depends on con-
centration of toxic substance, chronic exposure to heavy metals and metalloids at
relatively low levels can cause adverse effects.
A chemical with at least one hydrogen atom that can dissociate to form an anion
and hydrogen ion (H+) in aqueous solution is called as an acid. A chemical that
produces one or more hydroxide ions (OH−) and a cation when dissolved in aqueous
solution is called a base. An acid in which the dissociable H+ ion is attached to an
oxygen atom of a polyatomic anion is called oxoacids or oxyacids.
The pH scale provides an easy way of expressing the hydrogen ion (H+) concen-
tration of a solution. pH is defined as negative of the logarithm to base 10 of the
concentration of hydrogen ions in moles per liter.
pH = − log10 H + 
Where.
[H+] = hydrogen ion concentration in moles per liter.
In the absence of foreign materials, the hydrogen ion concentration is 1.0 × 10−7
moles in pure water at 25 °C, and hence the pH of pure liquid water is 7 as per the
following calculation.
Fig. 1.7 pH values of 1 M NaOH

1
various water and
wastewater, and discharge 4
standards for treated
wastewater
Dairy Wastewater
Discharge Standard
7 Sewage Pure
pH
Water
Rain Water
Electroplating
Wastewater
Acid Rain
1 1 M HCl
-14
10-7
10-0
10
[H+]
pH = − log10 1.0 × 10 −7  = 7
pH values of various water and wastewater, and discharge standards for treated
wastewater are shown in Fig. 1.7. The standards of 6–9 is usually practiced even
though standards of 6.5–8.5 are sometimes prescribed by some countries as it is not
practically possible to bring down the pH value to exactly 7.
Reaction between acid and base will result in salts. In other words, a salt is the
product of an acid–base reaction. A salt is an ionic compound having some cation
other than hydrogen as well as some anion other than hydroxide as well as oxide.
1.2.1 The Gas Laws
The gas laws are important to the environmental professionals as we live and breathe
in air that has direct impact on our health. The numerous chemical molecules within
the environment and our body interact as per natural phenomena explained by the
gas laws, briefly explained in subsequent sections.
1.2.1.1 Boyle’s Law
Boyle’s law states that the volume of an ideal gas is inversely proportional to its
pressure at a constant temperature (Fig. 1.8).
The law is written as:
1 kg
1 kg
1 kg
T = Xo C T = Xo C
Fig. 1.8 Schematic depiction of Boyle’s law

1
Pα
V
Where
P = pressure of gas.
V = volume of gas.
When we inhale air, muscles increase the size of chest cavity and expand the
lung that increases their volume thereby reducing pressure inside the lungs. Damage
to the lungs due to infection and pollution would affect pulmonary health of the
affected person.
1.2.1.2 Charles’ Law
Charles’ law states that the volume of gas is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature (Fig. 1.9). Mathematically the law is written as:
Vα T
Where V is the volume of a gas and T is the absolute temperature (details of absolute
temperature is discussed in Chap. 2).
Increase in volume of air due to the warming of air in the respiratory system can
be explained in the light of Charles’s law.
1.2.1.3 Pressure Law
Pressure law states that for a fixed mass and constant volume of an ideal gas, the
pressure is directly proportional to absolute temperature (Fig. 1.10).
1 kg
1 kg
T = 2Xo C T = Xo C
Fig. 1.9 Schematic depiction of Charles’ law

Fig. 1.10 Pictorial 1 kg
depiction of pressure law 1 kg
1 kg 1 kg
T = 2Xo C
Mathematically it implies that:
Pα T
Where P is the pressure and T is the absolute temperature.
1.2.1.4 Generalized Gas Law
Charles’ and Boyle’s laws can be combined to get the following equation:
T
PV = β T orV = β
P
Where
β = a constant that is proportional to the weight of the gas.
P = pressure of gas.
V = volume of gas.
T = temperature of the gas.
1.2.1.5 Gay-Lussac’s Law of Combining Volumes
Gay-Lussac’s law of combining volumes states that the ratio among the volumes of
the reactant gases as well as the gaseous products can be expressed as whole
numbers.
1.2.1.6 Henry’s Law
Henry’s law states that the quantity of the dissolved gas in liquid is proportional to
its partial pressure above the liquid.
Mathematically, Henry’s law is written as:
Cequil = α Pgas
Where
Cequil = the concentration of gas dissolved in the liquid at equilibrium.
Pgas = the partial pressure of the gas above the liquid.
α = Henry’s law constant for the gas at the given temperature.
1.2.1.7 Graham’s Law
Graham’s law states that the rates of diffusion of gases are inversely proportional to
the square roots of their densities.
1.2.1.8 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure
Dalton’s law of partial pressure states that the total pressure exerted by mixture of
non-reacting gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the individual gases
(Fig. 1.11).
Mathematically,
Ptotal = Pgas1 + Pgas 2 + Pgas3 +…+ Pgasi
Where Ptotal is the pressure exerted by all gases on a body and P1, P2, P3,…Pi are the
partial pressure exerted by each gas.
Gas 1 + Gas 2 + Gas 3 → Gas 1, 2, 3
Pgas1 = 1 atm Pgas1 = 1 atm Pgas1 = 1 atm Pgas1,2,3 = 3 atm
Fig. 1.11 Pictorial depiction of Dalton’s law of partial pressure

1.2.1.9 Avogadro’s Law
Avogadro’s law states that under the same conditions of pressure and temperature,
equal volumes of different gases have an equal number of molecules.
Mathematically, this law is written as:
V1 V2
=
n1 n2
Where
n1 = number of molecules in gas with volume V1.
n2 = number of molecules in gas with volume V2
1.2.1.10 Combined Gas Laws
The combined gas law is obtained by combining the relationship between the pres-
sure, volume, and temperature for a fixed quantity of gas, written as:
p1V1 p2V2
=
T1 T2
1.2.1.11 Ideal Gas Law
By the addition of Avogadro’s law, the combined gas law develops into the ideal
gas law:
pV = nRT
Where
p = pressure of gas.
V = volume of gas.
n = the number of moles.
R = the universal gas constant (value of 0.08206 [atm∙ L/mol∙K]).
T = absolute temperature (K).
An equivalent formulation of this law is:
pV = kNT
Where
p = the pressure of gas.
V = the volume of gas.

N = the number of gas molecules.
k = the Boltzmann constant (1.381 × 10−23 J·K−1 in SI units).
T = the absolute temperature.
Hence, the volume of 1 mol of an ideal gas at standard temperature and pressure
(0 °C and 1 atm) can be calculated as follows (Fig. 1.12):
 atm ⋅ L 
 0.08206 ( 273.15K )
nRT mol ⋅ K 
V= = (1.000mol )  = 22.41 L
P 1.000atm
1.2.2 Solutions
Air and water always exist as mixtures in nature. Homogeneous mixtures of two or
more substances are termed as solutions. A solution can be in gas, liquid, or solid
form. Table 1.2 illustrates typical examples of solutions.
Solutions are of great interest to the environmental professionals as the water in
nature exists as solution of many substances dissolved in it. The air we breathe from
the atmosphere has many gases in it. Most of the hazardous solid waste also usually
occurs as a solution. Polluted air and water need treatment to bring down the pollut-
ants to acceptable limits.
Solution is made up of solutes and solvents. A solute is a substance dissolved in
another substance, called as a solvent. Each solution can have many solutes.
Wastewater will have many pollutants that qualify as solutes, and its separation
from waste stream is done based on the property of pollutants.
Many conventional technologies in the manufacturing facility are used to treat
waste streams as well. For example, distillation separates mixture or solution by use
of variation in volatility. Crystallization processes make use of variation in solubility.
1.3 Physical Chemistry
Physical chemistry specialization of chemistry is concerned with particulate,

atomic, macroscopic, as well as subatomic phenomena in terms of laws/concepts of
physics in chemical systems. This branch of chemistry applies the principles, prac-
tices, as well as concepts of physics such as force, energy, motion, time, thermody-
namics, statistical mechanics, quantum chemistry, dynamics, and equilibrium.
Physical forces within and outside molecules within our environment and our
body have an impact on health. While some forces are beyond our control, others
1.3 Physical Chemistry 19
He O2 NH 3 CH4
V = 22.41 L V = 22.41 L V = 22.41 L V = 22.41 L
P = 1 atm P = 1 atm P = 1 atm P = 1 atm
Fig. 1.12 The volume of 1 mol of an ideal gas at standard temperature and pressure is 22.41 L, the
standard molar volume
can be manipulated to safeguard human health by changing reaction kinetics and

thermodynamics.
1.3.1 Thermochemical Reactions
Reactions showing changes in both matter and energy are called thermochemical
reactions.
Reactions can be exothermic or endothermic. Exothermic reactions are those that
releases heat (e.g., combustion of fuel generating mixture of gases). Endothermic
reactions are those that absorb heat (e.g., dissolving table salt in water).
Chemical reactions are spontaneous when they continue on their own. Reactions
may need initiation with a spark and/or other source of energy. Photosynthesis and
biodegradation are examples of exothermic reaction.
Most spontaneous reactions are also exothermic, which produce heat and/or
other forms of energy, as in the case of fire. However, a few reactions are endother-
mic, which consume energy from their environment.
Physical states of reactants/products are sometimes indicated in chemical equa-
tions, as shown in the above equations. Notations s, l, g, and aq in such equations
stand for solid, liquid, gas, and aqueous solution (dissolved in water), respectively.
Examples:
C ( s ) + O2 ( g ) → CO2 ( g ) + 94 kcal
2H 2 O ( g ) + 116 kcal → 2H 2 ( g ) + O2 ( g )
Intermolecular forces also cause another phenomenon called capillary action,

which is the tendency of a polar liquid to ascend against gravity into a capillary tube
(small-diameter tube).
Example of thermochemical reaction within human body includes formation of

glucose from starch, fats, proteins, and other sugars. Energy consumption per unit
of body weight decreases with size as the rate of heat loss to the environment
depends largely on the surface area of an organism in a given environment. Thus,
the interrelationship between environment and human body is a factor that deter-
mines health of humans due to thermochemical reaction.
1.3.2 Osmosis
Osmosis is a property observed with respect to solutions with semipermeable mem-

brane. Osmosis is the net flow of solvent through a semipermeable membrane where
the solvent flows from lower concentration of solute to the higher concentration.
Cellular health is the cornerstone of health for humans. The cell membrane per-
mits only water and very small molecules to pass through it. Osmosis plays a major
role in the gastrointestinal system of the kidneys to upkeep the health of a person.
The osmotic pressure is the pressure difference between the two sides of a semi-
permeable membrane that separates solution with different concentrations. Osmosis
is one of the reasons for the intracellular movement of body fluids within our body
that has direct interrelation with the environment.
Reverse osmosis (Fig. 1.13) is a process by which the solvent flows in the reverse
direction, through a porous membrane, to that of natural osmosis.
Fig. 1.13 A typical reverse

osmosis installation
1.3 Physical Chemistry 21
The major desalination processes around the world use reverse osmosis for more
than half of the installed capacity (Zhou and Tol 2005; Veerapaneni et al. 2007).
1.3.3 Dialysis
Some specialized membranes are slightly more permeable to solutes and use a
related process known as dialysis (a process that uses a semipermeable membrane
with pores big enough to allow small solute molecules as well as solvent molecules
to pass through but not large solute molecules).
Failure of kidneys would compel patients to use dialysis wherein dialysis
machine blood is pumped next to a membrane with dialysis fluid on the other side
so that the water in the blood, and small molecules of waste, move across the mem-
brane into the dialysis fluid.
1.3.4 Electrochemistry
Electrochemistry is a specialization of physical chemistry that is concerned with the

relationship between electricity and chemical reactions. In oxidation–reduction
(redox) reactions, electrons are transferred from one reductant to the oxidant. This
transfer of electrons gives a means for changing electrical energy to chemical energy
or vice versa.
The brain is an electrochemical machine and the neuron is the basic working unit
of the brain. Many neurological diseases are linked to neurotoxicity arising from
exposure to toxic substances in the environment.
The corrosion process involves oxidation and reduction reaction (Figs. 1.14
and 1.15).
1.4 Catalytic Chemistry
A catalyst is a substance that influences the rate of chemical reaction by decreasing

its activation energy. Quantity of catalyst remains the same before as well as after
the chemical reaction.
Catalysts influence a chemical reaction by changing its mechanism, as
expressed below.
Reaction without catalyst:
A + B = AB
Reaction with catalyst:

Fig. 1.14 The shiny

greenish surface of the
statue is formed by
corrosion of the copper of
the statue, which forms a
thin layer of an insoluble
compound that contains
copper, sulfate, and
hydroxide ions
A + C = AC ( transient product )
AC + B = AB + C
Where A and B are reactants, C is a catalyst, AB is a product, and AC is a transient

product.
Catalysis reactions could be homogeneous (catalysts and reactants are in the
same phase) or heterogeneous (catalysts and reactants are in different phases).
Environmental professionals usually use heterogeneous catalysis for air/water pol-
lution control.
Our health is controlled by enzymes produced within our body, which acts as a
catalyst to an array of biochemical reactions that has direct relation with outside
environment.
1.4.1 Chemical Kinetics
Chemical kinetics is the study of reaction rates (the changes in concentrations of

reactants as well as products with time). Exposure to toxic substances of the envi-
ronment has direct relation to the chemical kinetics and metabolism within the
human body.
1.4 Catalytic Chemistry 23
Fig. 1.15 The corrosion process involves redox reaction in which metallic iron is converted to
reddish-brown Fe(OH)3
The same reactants can produce different products under different conditions.
Factors that influence the rate of a chemical reaction include the concentration and
temperature of reactants, the solvent, their dispersion as well as physical state of
reactants, and the presence of a catalyst.
Dilute sulfuric acid and ethanol are converted to diethyl ether at a temperature of
around 100 °C whereas at 180 °C, ethylene is formed as the major product. The
reaction rates normally increase as the concentration of the reactants enhances.
The phase and surface area play major role in a chemical reaction. The reaction
rate in a single homogeneous solution depends on concentration and temperature. If
the reaction is heterogeneous, rate of reaction depends on the surface area of the
more condensed phase.
Consider a reaction with the general equation:
aA + bB → cC + dD
The rate of reaction can be expressed as
Rate of reaction = k [ A ] [ B]
m n
Where k is rate constant; m and n are reaction order to be derived from experimental
measurement.
The overall order of reaction is the sum of all the exponents (i.e., m + n).
1.4.2 Adsorption
Adsorption is the process in which molecules/ions in one phase tend to attach as

well as concentrate on the surface of another phase. The opposite process is called
desorption. The adsorbed material is called adsorbate. The adsorbing substance is
called adsorbent. Adsorption is an exothermic process, whereas desorption is
endothermic; for this reason, heat must be applied to separate the adsorbate from the
adsorbent.
Activated carbon, silica gel, alumina, as well as zeolites (molecular sieves) are
used widely as adsorbents in pollution control (Chandrappa and Kulshrestha 2015).
Adsorption process is used both in air pollution control and water/wastewater treat-
ment to remove various components.
Adsorbents are also used in permeable reactive barrier wherein polluted ground-
water is made to flow through a barrier of adsorbent or reactive substance for decon-
taminating the polluted groundwater (Santisukkasaem and Das 2019).
Adsorption of toxic substance on human body from environment has direct link
to human health.
1.5 Inorganic Chemistry
Inorganic chemistry is a specialization of chemistry that covers the synthesis and

behavior of inorganic and organometallic compounds.
This specialization of chemistry is concerned with all chemical compounds
except the myriad of organic compounds (carbon-based compounds, usually con-
taining C–H bonds, are dealt with in organic chemistry). Organic and inorganic
chemistry overlap especially in the sub-specialization of organometallic chemistry.
Environmental professionals often come across inorganic chemistry (which
overlaps with other branches of chemistry) while dealing with pollutants in the envi-
ronment and its effect on living and non-living components of environment.
Fig. 1.16 Structure of

carbon atom
1.6 Organic Chemistry 25
Fig. 1.17 Arrangement of

atoms in methane
Hydrogen Hydrogen
Carbon
Hydrogen
Hydrogen
Human health risks due to exposure to chemicals include inorganic chemicals,

some of which are potential toxic substances.
1.6 Organic Chemistry
Carbon is one of the most copious elements in our world and it is part of all living
organisms.
Covalent compounds containing predominantly carbon as well as hydrogen are
called organic compounds. Comparisons of organic and inorganic compounds are
given in Table 1.3.
Carbon has six electrons distributed with two electrons on the small orbit closest
to the nucleus, and the four electrons in the orbit further away (Fig. 1.16). The outer
orbit has enough space for up to eight electrons. Hence, carbon will bond up to four
times with other atoms, until it reaches eight electrons in its outer ring.
Carbon’s ability to form four bonds (Fig. 1.17) gives it a remarkable amount of
flexibility. It can exist in a simple state, such as carbon dioxide, in long chains such
as proteins, in ring structures such as sugar, as well as numerous other complex
structures.
There are several general differences between the chemistries of organic com-
pounds and inorganic compounds, which will help give an overall view of organic
chemistry.
Carbon atoms have the capability to bond to another carbon atom and form lon-
ger chains.
Three types of bonds are formed between carbon atoms: single bond, double
bond, and triple bond.
Single bond is a covalent bond formed by two carbon atoms sharing two elec-
trons. Compounds with only single bonds between carbon atoms are known as
alkanes.
C−C−C
I
C
Double bond consists of two covalent bonds formed by two carbon atoms shar-
ing four electrons. Compounds with at least one carbon–carbon double bonds are
called as alkenes.
Triple bonds comprise of three covalent bonds made by two carbon atoms shar-
ing six electrons. The compounds with at least one triple bond between carbon
atoms are known as alkynes.
−C ≡ C −
The simplest organic compounds are the hydrocarbons, which contain not only
carbon but also hydrogen. Exposure to hydrocarbons may impact human health in
Fig. 1.18 Benzene

structure
H
H
H C H
C C HC CH
C C HC CH
H C H
C
Fig. 1.19 Different ways of representing the benzene structure
terms of pulmonary (related to lungs) effects, central nervous system (CNS) effects,
cardiovascular (connected with heart and blood vessels) effects, gastrointestinal
(related to stomach and intestine) effects, renal (relating to kidney) effects, or der-
matologic effects.
Hydrocarbons come in four structural classes.
1. Aromatic: these contain a benzene ring (most toxic; Figs. 1.18 and 1.19).
2. Aliphatic: these possess straight or branched chains; alkanes, alkenes, and
alkynes are collectively termed as aliphatic hydrocarbons.
3. Heterocyclic: these compounds possess a ring structure in which one member is
an element other than carbon.
4. Halogenated: these hydrocarbons are fluorinated, chlorinated, or brominated,
and used for refrigeration (freon) or as herbicides and insecticides.
Benzene is totally insoluble in water. It is a volatile liquid at room temperature,
and it is fairly unreactive. Hence, it is important for the environmental engineers to
eliminate it from water, air, and soil to safeguard health of living organisms includ-
ing humans. The properties of the aromatics depend on substituents added to
the ring.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) generated during the incomplete com-
bustion of organic materials are toxic substances that have direct effect on human
health by interfering with the function of enzyme systems and cellular membranes
(Abdel-Shafy and Mansour 2016). Benzene and PAHs are toxic air pollutants asso-
ciated with emissions from motor vehicles (Whaley et al. 2020).
The aliphatic hydrocarbons are derived almost exclusively from petroleum or
petroleum processing. Ethylene, propylene, butadiene, isoprene, and acetylene have
weak anesthetic properties at high concentrations (Vale and Meredith 1981). The
associations of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) methylation (adding methyl group on
DNA) to environmental exposure and human diseases have been widely demon-
strated (Cho et al. 2018) and may contribute to adverse neurodevelopmental out-
comes (Kimberly and Pamela 2016).
Aliphatic hydrocarbons are of two types: saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons and
unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbons.
Table 1.4 Main classes of organic compounds

Common suffix/
Class prefix General formula Example
Hydrocarbons
Alkanes -ane RH Ethane, methane
Alkenes -ene RR′C=CR″R′″ Ethylene
Alkynes (−yne) RC ≡ CR′ Acetylene (ethyne)
Arenes -ene ArH Benzene
Halogen-containing compounds
Alkyl halides -halide (halo-) RX Ethyl chloride, methyl chloride,
ethylene bromide
Aryl halides Halo- ArX Chlorobenzene
Oxygen-containing compounds
Alcohols -ol ROH Methyl alcohol (methanol)
Phenols -ol ArOH Phenol, resorcinol
Ethers Ether ROR′ Diethyl ether
Aldehydes -aldehyde (−al) RCHO Acetaldehyde (ethanal),
benzaldehyde
Ketones -one RR′C=O Acetone (2-propanone)
Carboxylic -ic acid (−oic RCO2H Acetic acid (ethanoic acid), benzoic
acids acid) acid
Carboxylic acid derivatives
Esters -ate (oate) RCO2R′ Methyl acetate (methyl ethanoate)
Amides -amide RCONHR′ N-methyl acetamide
Nitrogen-containing compounds
Amines -amine RNH2, RNHR′, Ethylamine, aniline, benzylamine
RNR′R″
Nitriles -nitrile RC ≡ N Acetonitrile
Nitro -nitro ArNO2 Nitrobenzene
compounds
Note: Ar represents aryl group, R indicates alkyl group, X indicates halogen
Saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons in which all of the carbon–

carbon bonds are single bonds.
Unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons that have at least one dou-
ble or triple bond (they are either alkenes or alkynes).
Organic compounds are conveniently classified according to the functional
groups (group of atom or atoms that is substituted for hydrogen or a hydrocarbon).
Table 1.4 shows the main classes of organic compounds. The usual name for a
group of atoms resulting from an alkane is an alkyl group. The name of an alkyl
group results from the name of the alkane by adding the suffix -yl. Thus, the –CH3
fragment is a methyl group, the –CH2CH3 fragment is an ethyl group, and so forth.
Groups of atoms derived from aromatic hydrocarbons are aryl groups. The –
C6H5 fragment is called a phenyl group. Alkyl and aryl groups are often abbrevi-
ated as R.
The term carbohydrate is used for compounds with carbon, hydrogen, and oxy-
gen. Fats, oils, and waxes are esters. The oil exists as liquid at room temperature
whereas fats and waxes remain as solid at room temperature. Hydrolysis of fats and
oils is induced usually by treatment with NaOH or bacterial enzymes.
Pesticides used to control pests can be inorganic, natural organic, or synthetic
organic.
The main types of synthetic pesticides are as follows:
1. Chlorinated pesticides.
2. Organic phosphorous pesticides.
3. Carbamate pesticides.
R and R′, R″, R′″ represent any two alkyl and aryl groups, which may be alike or
different.
Synthetic detergents are formulations containing surfactants such as alkyl ben-
zene sulfonate (ABS), fatty alcohol, fatty acid soaps, bleaching agents, ester and
similar compounds, phosphates as well as anti-redeposition agents, optical bright-
eners, fabric softeners, as well as certain other chemicals to enhance the deter-
gent action.
Detergents are important to environmental professional as they form foam
(Fig. 1.20), cause eutrophication (process of transformation from nutrient-scarce
conditions to nutrient-rich conditions, resulting in algal blooms in water bodies),
and hinder oxygen transfer to surface water bodies.
The traditional heavy-duty laundry powder contains about 15% active surfactant
such as linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS) and 20–25% builder such as sodium
tripolyphosphate (STPP). This phosphate builder is added to soften the water. One
kilogram of phosphorus can generate up to 500 kg of algae causing vast dead zones
in seas completely devoid of aquatic life (WWF 2011). Hence, the European Union
has adopted stringent standards for phosphate content in detergents, which is not the
case in other parts of the world.
Prior to the widespread adoption of LAS as a surfactant, branched alkyl benzene
sulfonate (ABS) was commonly used in detergents, which is a non-biodegradable
or a hard detergent and has been gradually replaced by LAS.
1.7 Equilibrium Chemistry
Consider the following reaction wherein carbon dioxide reacts with water to form
carbonic acid:
CO2 + H 2 O  H 2 CO3
In this reaction, carbonic acid disintegrates to form carbon dioxide and water.
This phenomenon calls for one more set of definition—forward and backward (or
reverse) reactions.
Fig. 1.20 Frothing in

surface water streams due
to detergents
Forward reaction in the above case is the combination of carbon dioxide and
water. Reverse reaction is disassociation of carbonic acid to form carbon dioxide
and water.
The rates of forward and backward reactions are different depending on various
factors such as temperature, pressure, quantity of reactants, and products. When the
rates of forward reaction are equal to the rates of reverse reaction, the condition is
said to be in equilibrium. The process of equilibrium occurs in many chemical reac-
tions in the human body. The enzymes in human body catalyze forward as well as
reverse reactions so that our body do not overproduce certain chemicals. The carbon
dioxide formed during cellular respiration combines with water to create carbonic
acid, which then dissociates into bicarbonate and a hydrogen ion to resist changes
in pH within a narrow range (Hopkins and Sharma 2019).
According to Le Chatelier’s principle, a reaction, at equilibrium, will adjust
itself in such a way to relieve any force, or stress, that disturbs the equilibrium.
Three types of stresses can change an equilibrium system:
(1) Adding/removing reactants/products.
(2) Changing the temperature of the system.
(3) Changing the total pressure/volume.
Consider a reaction wherein A and B react to produce C and D.
wA + xB +…..  yC + zD +…..
Where w, x, y, and z are number of molecules of respective reactants and products

in the reaction.
1.7 Equilibrium Chemistry 31
A chemical reaction in true equilibrium can be expressed by the following

equation:
[C ] [ D ] ……
y z
K=
[ A] [ B] ……
w x
Where K = Equilibrium constant.

Any system at equilibrium, including those in the body, obeys Le Chatelier’s
principle. Disruption of equilibrium of chemical reaction may result in human
diseases.
Most toxic effects are reversible but complete recovery may take a long time. But
some poisons cause irreversible damage affecting one or many organ systems result-
ing in death.
Five methods are commonly employed to shift chemical equilibrium to bring
about essentially a complete reaction:
1. Formation of insoluble substances (e.g., precipitation of metals with calcium
hydroxide).
2. Formulation of a weakly ionized compound (e.g., neutralization of acid and
base).
3. Formation of complex ions (e.g., during reaction between silver chloride and
ammonium hydroxide).
4. Formation of gaseous product (e.g. formation of hydrogen sulfide during reac-
tion of ferrous sulfide and hydrochloric acid).
5. Oxidation and reduction (e.g., destruction of cyanide by chlorination).
Consider the treatment of chromium-bearing wastewater by electroplating to
reduce release of toxic substances to the environment.
In the first stage, hexavalent chromium (Cr6+) is reduced to trivalent chromium
(Cr3+) using reducing agents such as sodium bisulfite (NaHSO3), sulfur dioxide
(SO2), or sodium meta-bisulfite (Na2S2O5).
This reaction will progress fast when pH is between 2 and 3. The pH can be
adjusted by adding an acid such as sulfuric acid.
3SO2 + 2H 2 CrO 4 + 3H 2 O  Cr2 ( SO 4 )3 + 5H 2 O
After the first-stage reaction is complete, calcium hydroxide is added to increase

and maintain pH at 8 or higher for formation of chromium hydroxide to occur,
which is separated by precipitation.
Cr2 ( SO 4 )3 + 3Ca ( OH )2  2Cr ( OH )3 + 3CaSO 4
A body’s homeostasis (equilibrium within a cell or the body) can be upset by

physical, chemical, and/or biological agents. when homeostasis cannot be main-
tained or restored, disease occurs. So, the changes in environment in which we live
is important as any change in environment can change homeostasis affecting
our health
1.8 Colloid Chemistry
Colloid chemistry is a specialization of chemistry that deals with material disper-

sions (e.g., particulates) in solids, liquids, and gases. Table 1.5 gives some examples
of colloidal suspensions. Dispersion of microscopically insoluble particles in
another substance is called colloid and term colloidal suspension is used to refer to
the overall mixture. To qualify as a colloid, the particles should not settle or should
take a very long time to settle.
The size of colloidal particles varies between about 1 and 1000 nanometers.
Some colloids are known to be translucent due to Tyndall effect, which is the
scattering of light by particles in suspension.
The following forces are responsible for suspension of colloid particles:
• Excluded volume repulsion (not able to overlap among hard particles).
• Electrostatic interactions (repulsion of colloidal particles due to electrical charges
possessed by them).
• Van der Waals forces (interaction between two dipoles that are permanent or
induced).
• Entropic forces (force resulting from the tendency of a thermodynamic system to
maximize its entropy).
• Steric repulsion (repulsion due to overlapping electron clouds around atoms/
molecules).
Unstable colloidal dispersions can form flocs and the phenomenon is widely
used by environmental professionals for removal of turbidity by following means:
• Removal of the electrostatic barrier accomplished by the addition of salt to a
suspension.
• Changing the pH of a suspension to neutralize the surface charge of the particles
in suspension.
• Addition of polymer flocculant to bridge individual colloidal particles or by
causing aggregation due to entropic effects.
Colloids are present in everybody’s cells, in the blood, and in all body fluids. Any
disturbance to colloidal nature would lead to disease. Particulate air pollution is
likely to contribute to their cardiovascular mortality and morbidity due to throm-
botic (formation of a blood clot obstructing the flow of blood inside a blood vessel)
effects (Brook et al. 2010; Robertson and Miller 2018).
1.9 Biochemistry 33
Table 1.5 Examples of colloidal suspension

Dispersed phase
Gas Liquid Solid
Dispersion Gas None (all gases are Liquid aerosol: Solid aerosol: e.g., smoke,
medium miscible with other e.g., fog, spray atmospheric particulate
gases) matter
Liquid Foam: e.g., shaving Emulsion: e.g., Sol: e.g., paint
cream milk
Solid Solid foam: e.g., Gel: e.g., agar, Solid sol: e.g., cranberry
aerogel/Styrofoam gelatin glass
1.9 Biochemistry
Biochemistry is a specialization of chemistry concerned with chemical processes in

living organisms.
The biochemical reactions that usually occur at 0–60°C, outside or inside the
cell, play a significant role in health of humans and environment. Cells of living
organisms oxidize inorganic as well as organic materials for energy, and bacteria are
not an exception. Bacteria that oxidize organic matter for energy are called hetero-
trophic bacteria and those that oxidize inorganic matter are called autotrophic
bacteria.
The elements required by living organisms in large quantities are called bulk ele-
ments and include carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus. The
elements required by living organisms in small quantities are called trace elements
and are important parts of enzymes. Some elements such as arsenic that are toxic in
large quantities are vital in very small amounts, and they are called ultratrace
elements.
Chemicals, in human body, include organic and inorganic compounds. Inorganic
substances normally disintegrate in water, forming ions. Most of the organic matters
dissolve in ether or alcohol and certain organic compounds dissolve in water but do
not release ions.
Common inorganic compounds in living organisms include water, oxygen, car-
bon dioxide, as well as inorganic salts, and its availability in sufficient quality and
quantity in environment is essential for health of an organism and so humans.
Important groups of biochemicals in cells include lipids, carbohydrates, and pro-
teins, besides nucleic acids.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are biochemical molecules made up of carbon, oxygen, and hydro-
gen. They are water-soluble biochemicals that provide most of the energy required
by cells. They also supply building blocks to build certain cell structures.
Carbohydrates are often stored as reserve energy supplies. They usually have hydro-
gen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1. Examples of carbohydrates include starch, sugar, and
cellulose.
Lipids
Lipids are a group of biochemicals that are not soluble in water but soluble in
organic solvents such as chloroform and ether. The most common lipids in human
body are the fats, which primarily supply energy for cellular activities. Fat mole-
cules are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen but has a much smaller pro-
portion of oxygen compared to carbohydrates.
Proteins
Proteins consist of atoms of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes
sulfur that form the building blocks of protein called as amino acids. Proteins are
structural materials, chemical messengers, and energy sources for cells. Protein
misfolding can result in serious diseases.
Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids carry the instructions that regulate a cell’s activities by encoding the
amino acid arrangements of proteins in its building blocks. Nucleic acids comprise
oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, phosphorus, and nitrogen atoms, which form the build-
ing blocks termed as nucleotides. Nucleic acids are of two types: deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). RNA, a single-stranded molecule, con-
tains the sugar ribose while DNA, a double-stranded molecule, contains the sugar
deoxyribose. DNA is responsible for storing and transferring genetic information,
while RNA directly codes for amino acids and acts as a messenger between DNA
and ribosomes to make proteins.
Viruses contain either DNA or RNA (but not both), and a protein coat. Viral
replication occurs in seven stages in host cell during the infection process, namely:
1. Adsorption.
2. Entry.
3. Uncoating.
4. Transcription/mRNA production.
5. Synthesis of virus components.
6. Virion assembly.
7. Release.
As intracellular pathogens, viruses utilize various cellular structures and mole-
cules for their propagation. Enveloped viruses attain lipid as their outer coat during
interactions with cellular membranes at the time of morphogenesis within, and leav-
ing, infected cells. Non-enveloped viruses usually exit cells by cell lysis. Even
though lipid membranes are not part of the released non-enveloped virions, they
interact with lipid membranes during entry into target cells (Ono 2010).
Understanding chemistry would help in fighting against viral infections. For
example, alcohol-based sanitizers will disrupt the lipid layer, thus stopping the virus
to stick to the host cells. Soaps are effective to kill enveloped virus. Soap molecules
will have hydrophilic (attracted to water) and oleophilic (attracted to oil) tails.
Oleophilic tail portion of the soap molecule gets inserted into the envelope and
breaks the lipid envelope of the virus.
1.9 Biochemistry 35
1.9.1 Biogeochemical Pathways
A biogeochemical cycle is a pathway in which chemical transport occurs through

abiotic and biotic components of the earth.
The most well-known biogeochemical cycles are as follows:
• Carbon cycle.
• Nitrogen cycle.
• Oxygen cycle.
• Phosphorus cycle.
• Sulfur cycle.
• Water cycle.
The newly studied biogeochemical cycles include the following:
• Atrazine cycle.
• Mercury cycle.
Concentrations of the atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and
nitrous oxide (N2O) in 2011 surpassed the concentrations recorded in ice cores for
the period of the past 800 kyr (Stocker et al. 2013).
1.9.1.1 Water Cycle
Water cycle (Fig. 1.21) is one of the important biogeochemical cycles. The sun heats
the water in the oceans and on surface of the earth. Some of it evaporates and some
parts of water will enter the atmosphere by transpiration (loss of water from aerial
parts of the plants). Some parts of water trapped in snow and ice will sublimate
directly into vapor. Evaporation and transpiration together are termed as evapotrans-
piration. The water vapor rises in the atmosphere and condenses to form clouds and
falls as precipitation. Some precipitation falls as rain, hail, and snow. Snow in
warmer climates melts and joins surface water bodies. Some water bodies are
formed due to melting of hail and collection of surface water. Surface water trickles
into the ground. Some groundwater emerges whereas some groundwater discharge
into surface water.
Some water will be trapped in living things, which will be released to the envi-
ronment during death, decay, drying, excretion, and transpiration. Some of the water
molecules may react with other chemicals and become a new chemical.
1.9.1.2 Carbon Cycle
The carbon cycle (Fig. 1.22) is one more important biogeochemical cycle.
Following are the major reservoirs of carbon:
• Atmosphere.
Precipitatio
n
Evapotranspiration
Absorption by plants
Urban
Use
Evaporation
Runoff
Infiltration to ground water
Fig. 1.21 Water cycle
• Earth’s mantle and crust.

• Living and non-living marine biota.
• Oceans.
• Terrestrial biosphere.
• The sediments.
The carbon exchanges between carbon reservoirs occur by chemical, physical,
geological, and biological processes.
Light
6CO2 + 6H 2 O → C6 H12 O6 + 6O2
Carbon in the earth’s atmosphere exists mostly as methane and carbon dioxide.
Apart from these compounds, carbon also exists as soot, smoke, dust, and variety of
other chemicals. Carbon dioxide is converted into glucose and oxygen by
photosynthesis.
Human activity by combustion of fuel, manufacturing, waste disposal, mining,
etc. has hugely added carbon compounds to the atmosphere.
Photosynthesis traps carbon dioxide and turns it into glucose, which is further
converted into biomass. Animals that feed on plants will pass on the carbon along
the food chain. Decay of waste excreted by living organisms and dead living organ-
1.9 Biochemistry 37
Atmospheric CO2, CO, CH4 etc.
Photosynthesis by terrestrial
Respiration, Decay,
Respiration, Decay,
Photosynthesis by aquatic flora
Dissolved carbon
Marine Sediments, Sedimentary rocks and fossil
Fig. 1.22 Carbon cycle
isms release carbon to the environment, apart from release of carbon through weath-
ering of biotic components of the environment.
Increase in human activity has enhanced CO2 levels in the atmosphere resulting
in climate change that has immense impact on human health.
Carbon emissions from fossil fuel combustion and cement production from 1750
to 2011 and 2002 to 2011 were 375 and 8.3 giga tons of carbon, respectively. On the
other hand, carbon emissions due to land use change (mainly deforestation) from
1750 to 2011 and 2002 to 2011 were about 180 and 0.9 giga tons of carbon, respec-
tively. Of the 555 giga tons of carbon released to the atmosphere from fossil fuel and
land use emissions from 1750 to 2011, 240 giga tons of carbon accumulated in the
atmosphere. The amount of CO2 in the atmosphere grew by 4.0 giga tons of carbon
per year in the first decade of the twenty-first century. As a result, CO2 concentration
raised from 278 ppm in 1750 to 390.5 ppm in 2011 (Stocker et al. 2013) resulting in
climate change. The CH4 concentration has also increased by a factor of 2.5 since
pre-industrial times, from 722 ppb in 1750 to 1803 ppb in 2011.
Some parts of carbon, carbon dioxide, and other carbon compounds dissolve in
water of water bodies as well as precipitate as rain/snow/hail. When dissolved in
water, carbon is converted into carbonic acid, and can then be absorbed by rocks/
soil/minerals and be washed into the ocean as well as other water bodies.
Oceanic uptake of anthropogenic CO2 resulted in acidification of the ocean, with

the pH of ocean surface water decreasing by 0.1 since the beginning of the industrial
era corresponding to a 26% increase in hydrogen ion concentration.
Beneficial impact of climate change includes milder winters that would decrease
the seasonal winter-time peak in deaths that occur in temperate countries. Increase
in temperatures may reduce the disease-transmitting mosquito populations. Climate
change can result in thermal extremes and related health impacts, in winter as well
as summer. Change in climate would also result in rising sea levels, disturbance of
food-producing ecosystems, and hydro-meteorological disasters that include ava-
lanches, coastal storm surges, drought, hailstorms, tornados, blizzards, tropical
cyclones, thunderstorms, heavy snowfall, floods, heat waves, as well as cold spells.
1.9.1.3 Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen cycle (Fig. 1.23) is the process in which nitrogen is converted into numer-
ous chemical forms through chemical, physical, as well as biological processes.
Nitrogen is present in the environment in various organisms in the form of
organic nitrogen, ammonia, ammonium, nitrous oxide, nitrate, nitric oxide, nitrous
oxide, nitrite, inorganic nitrogen gas, as well as other compounds. Nitrogen in the
organic form will be present as living organisms.
The N2O concentrations in the atmosphere have increased by a factor of 1.2 since
pre-industrial times. Changes in the nitrogen cycle, besides interactions with CO2
sources and sinks, affect emissions of N2O from the oceans and from land (Stocker
et al. 2013).
The nitrogen cycle has five steps: (1) nitrogen fixation, (2) nitrification, (3)
assimilation, (4) ammonification, and (5) denitrification.
Conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia is called nitrogen fixation.
This process is carried out by microorganisms present in the roots of legumi-
nous plants.
Nitrogen in the atmosphere is converted into N2O5 and its union with water pro-
duces HNO3, which is carried to the earth with rain and becomes nitrate by a series
of reactions. Anthropogenic activities such as transportation, power generation, and
manufacturing will generate oxides of nitrogen, which will contribute to acid rain
and may become nitrate by a series of reactions. Photolysis also contributes to atmo-
spheric nitrogen, wherein high-energy ultraviolet radiation disintegrates nitrous
oxide in the atmosphere.
Biological oxidation of ammonia into ammonium and then into nitrite followed
by oxidation into nitrates is known as nitrification. Nitrate is assimilated into the
plant tissue by absorption followed by a series of biochemical reactions. Animals
eat plants and pass on nitrogen along the food chain.
The remains of plants/animals as well as their waste products are decomposed by
microorganisms into ammonia.
Nitrates are reduced into inert nitrogen gas by denitrification, which completes
the nitrogen cycle.
1.9 Biochemistry 39
Combustion
Oxides of and
nitrogen antropogenic
2N2+5O2→2N2O5
Photolysis activity
Denitrification
N2 Assimilation
Nitrogen
Animal Plant
tissue Ammonification tissue
-
NO3
NH4
-
NO2 NH3
Nitrification
Fig. 1.23 Nitrogen cycle
Increasing use of fertilizer and fossil fuel has resulted in rise in losses of reactive
nitrogen (Nr) to the environment. As a result, thresholds for environmental and
human health have been exceeded due to Nr pollution, which can affect freshwater
eutrophication, nitrates in drinking water, oxides of nitrogen in air, stratospheric
ozone depletion, biodiversity loss, climate change, and coastal ecosystems (dead
zones). Negative environmental effects can be exaggerated by the “nitrogen cas-
cade.” Release of NOx into the lower atmosphere can result in increased tropo-
spheric ozone formation, aerosols, smog, particulate nitrate, ammonium nitrate, and
organic aerosol particles. Nitrate pollution of water poses a risk to human health
(Erisman et al. 2013).
1.9.1.4 Oxygen Cycle
The oxygen cycle (Fig. 1.24) is one of the important biogeochemical cycles.
Largest reservoir of earth’s oxygen exists as silicate, besides oxide minerals.
Only a small portion of oxygen exists as free oxygen in the atmosphere (0.36%).
Photosynthesis is the main major source of atmospheric free oxygen.
Photolysis also contributes to atmospheric oxygen, wherein high-energy ultra-
violet radiation disintegrates nitrous oxide and water in the atmosphere.
Anthropogenic Activity
Photosynthes Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
Photosynthes
Respiration and
Fig. 1.24 Oxygen cycle
Energe
2H 2 O → 4H + O 2
Energe
2N 2 O → 4N + O2
Free oxygen is lost from the atmosphere by combustion, decay, respiration, and
other atmospheric processes including reactions.
The lithosphere consumes free oxygen by chemical weathering as well as surface
reactions, for example, formation of iron oxides (rust).
4 FeO + O2 → 2 Fe 2 O3
Some marine organisms create calcium carbonate shell material by biochemical

reactions. Animals as well as plants extract nutrient minerals from minerals/rocks
and release oxygen. Oxygen concentrations have declined in the open ocean ther-
mocline (transition layer between warmer mixed water and cooler water in surface
water body) in numerous ocean regions since the 1960s, leading to a decline in the
oxygen supply to the thermocline from near surface waters (Stocker et al. 2013).
1.9.1.5 The Phosphorus Cycle
Phosphorus usually occurs in nature as part of a phosphate ion (PO4)3−. In the phos-
phorous cycle (Fig. 1.25), the phosphorus enters the soil as well as water due to the
weathering of rocks and minerals. Rich deposits are normally formed in the ocean
1.9 Biochemistry 41
Animal
intake
Leachet
Death and Decay
Plant intake
Weathering of rock
Deep
Sedimentation
Fig. 1.25 Phosphorous cycle
from where it is moved to land by geologic process. Plants absorb phosphate from
the soil.
Phosphorus does not enter the atmosphere and remains mostly on land in rocks,
soil, and minerals. Nearly 80% of the mined phosphorus is used to manufacture
fertilizers. Phosphates from fertilizers, sewage, as well as detergents can cause mas-
sive algae blooms resulting in eutrophication.
Animals that feed on these plants will assimilate phosphorous into their bodies
and pass the phosphorous along the food chain. The phosphates absorbed by the
animals are returned to the environment through excretion as well as decomposition
of dead organisms and other waste products by the action of microorganisms.
Eutrophication can lead to dead zones or hypoxic zones, which are very low
oxygen areas in the ocean where marine life cannot survive. Overall, 405 dead
zones were identified by a 2008 study worldwide (Diaz and Rosenberg 2008).
Some cyanobacteria can produce toxins that are dangerous to human beings that
can induce damage in humans and animals by acting at the molecular level and
affecting cells, tissues, and organs in the digestive, respiratory, nervous, and cutane-
ous (relating to skin) systems (WHO and European commission 2002).
Dead Plant
Healthy Plant
Toxins
Leaching Uptake by Absorption
Fig. 1.26 Toxic cycle
1.9.1.6 Toxic Cycle
Apart from nutrients, toxins also follow biogeochemical path even though it harms
living organisms (Fig. 1.26). Toxins, both natural and manmade, often enter water
stream and air that would affect health of the flora and fauna.
The heavy metals poisoning may occur due to industrial exposure, pollution,
foods, medicines, food containers, or exposure to lead-based paints. Apart from
heavy metals, human health may get affected due to exposure to array of chemicals
that include agrochemicals, household pesticides, pollution, and hazardous waste.
1.10 Nuclear Chemistry
Atoms comprise of nucleus made up of protons and neutrons surrounded by elec-

trons. Table 1.6 gives properties of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
The protons as well as neutrons are called nucleons as they make up the nucleus
of an atom. Nucleons are attracted to each other by the strong nuclear force. Stable
nuclei normally have neutron-to-proton ratio of at least 1 and “even” numbers of
both protons and neutrons.
1.10 Nuclear Chemistry 43
Alpha Decay
Alpha Particle
Parent
Beta Decay
Beta Particle
Offspring
Positron
Positron
Electron Capture
Parent Electron Offspring x -ray
Gamma emission
Parent Offspring Gamma ray

(Excited Nuclear
State)
Spontaneous
Neutron
s
Parent
(Unstable)
Offspring
Fig. 1.27 Common types of nuclear decay
The two types of nuclear reactions are nuclear decay (Fig. 1.27) reactions and
nuclear transmutation (Fig. 1.28) reactions. In a nuclear decay (or radioactive
decay), an unstable nucleus emits radiation and is changed into the nucleus of one
or more other elements. In a nuclear transmutation, a nucleus reacts with another
nucleus or subatomic particle to form a product nucleus that is bigger than the start-
ing material.
Slow-moving
Fast-moving New element
Fig. 1.28 Nuclear transmutation reaction
Table 1.6 Properties of protons, neutrons, and electrons

Particle Mass (g) Atomic mass (amu) Electrical charge (coulombs) Relative charge
Proton 1.673 × 10−24 1.007276 +1.602 × 10−19 +1
Neutron 1.675 × 10−24 1.008665 0 0
Electron 9.109 × 10−28 0.0005486 −1.602 × 10−19 –1
Any nucleus that decays spontaneously is said to be radioactive. Radioactive

decay happens due to emitting of subatomic particles as well as electromagnetic
radiation. The process of emitting these particles is collectively termed as radioac-
tivity. Isotopes that emit radiation are known as radioisotopes.
The decline in the number of radioactive nuclei per unit time is known as the rate
of radioactive decay. Radioactive decay reactions are known to be first-order reac-
tions. The time required for decay of half of the initial number of nuclei (plural of
nucleus) present is called half-life, which can vary from the fractions of a second to
billions of years.
Atoms of one element can be changed into atoms of another. Conversion of one
chemical element or isotope into other is called nuclear transmutation.
An example of the natural decay is conversion of potassium-40 to argon-40.
Nuclear reactions are accompanied by huge changes in energy and mass. Changes
in energy are normally reported in kiloelectronvolts or megaelectronvolts. The vari-
ation between the sum of the masses of the components of an atom and the mea-
sured atomic mass is termed as mass defect. The radioactive substance if not
properly handled will affect health (Box 1.1) and environment (Box 1.2).
Box 1.1 Radiation and Importance to Health

Alpha, beta, and gamma radiation from radioactive substances are termed as
ionizing radiation due to their ability to add/remove electrons to/from atoms.
Removal of electron by ionizing radiation can disturb physiology at the chem-
ical level resulting in clouding the lens of the eye, cancer, and interfering with
normal growth as well as development.
References 45
In nuclear fission (Fig. 1.29), nuclei are divided into lighter nuclei, neutrons, and
energy. The minimum mass required to support a self-sustaining nuclear chain reac-
tion (a series of nuclear fission reactions) is called the critical mass. In nuclear
fusion, two nuclei combine to generate a heavier nucleus as well as high energy
(Averill and Eldredge 2012).
Box 1.2 Radioactive Waste Case Study

Nuclear reactions are used to generate electricity in power plants by adopting
neutron-induced nuclear fission (Fig. 1.29), wherein neutrons are used to split
large atoms, thereby, releasing energy. Heavy-water reactors use unenriched
uranium as a fuel, whereas light-water reactors use enriched uranium as a fuel.
Fig. 1.29 Neutron-induced nuclear fission
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Chapter 2
Fundamentals of Physics
Professionals
Abstract Knowledge of physics has been widely used in engineering and medical
sciences. Movement of pollutants in the environment, separation of pollutants from
waste streams, design and use of instruments required in medical and environmental
fields, and spread of pathogens in air/water/soil need understanding of the funda-
mentals of physics. Knowledge of branches of physics such as electricity, radiation,
mechanics, and heat transfer is also required by both medical and environmental
professionals. This chapter discusses the fundamentals of physics, which are often
the bases of environment and medical sciences.
2.1 Introduction
Knowledge of physics has been widely used in engineering and medical sciences.
While the medical physics deals with the application of physics in medical science,
environmental professionals would be more interested in physical concepts relating
to the movement of pollutants in the environment and separation of pollutants from
waste streams in air, water, and soil.
The human body goes through a complex series of interactions among the skel-
etal, muscular, and nervous systems. Biomechanics (mechanics of living organisms)
and kinesiology (the study of movement of living organisms) are specializations
that consider fundamentals of mechanics in human body. Kinesiology addresses
biomechanical, physiological, psychological, and dynamic principles besides
mechanisms of movement. Locomotion, including human movement, requires
energy to overcome various forces such as friction, inertia, drag, and gravity that
varies with environment. In a nutshell, understanding of statics and dynamics helps
to safeguard human health at workplaces and environment by use of personal pro-
tective equipment (PPE), housekeeping, social distancing, warning signage, control
of workplace environmental temperature/humidity, etc.
Health physics is devoted to protecting the people and environment from poten-
tial radiation hazards, and making it possible to enjoy the beneficial uses of radiation.
Chemical energy is the form of potential energy stored in chemical bonds; when
they break, chemical energy is released. In addition to chemical energy, radiant,
mechanical, and electrical energies are important in functioning of human body.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64480-2_2
50 2 Fundamentals of Physics for Environmental and Medical Professionals
Mechanical energy stored in the human body powers the movement of matter by
muscles.
Radiant energy is energy emitted as waves. Human body uses energy of sunlight
to convert a compound in skin cells to vitamin D. The human eye evolved to see
“visible light.” Electrical energy, supplied by electrolytes in body fluids and cells,
help transmit information in nerve cells.
Changes in the physical environment, such as radiation, temperature, and force
(due to wind, falling objects during earthquake, rainfall, etc.), do have their implica-
tions on human health.
We do not have complete control on physical activities, such as heartbeat, pas-
sage of electrical impulse in nerve cells, flow of body fluids in our body, which are
directly linked to our environment. Further physical damage to body can occur due
to natural and anthropogenic disasters such as earthquake, flood, road/industrial
accidents, wars, and mutiny. With better understanding of physics, the concerned
experts can advise decision makers to take precautionary measures or corrective
action to safeguard the public health to the extent possible.
2.2 General Physics
Physics is a specialization of science that is concerned with properties of energy as

well as matter. It covers an array of sub-specialization and topics that include
mechanics, magnetism, light and other radiation, heat transfer, electricity, sound,
and the structure of atoms.
Understanding the structure of atoms forms the foundation to chemistry; it is
often discussed in chemistry as well. Since the structure of atoms has been dis-
cussed in the previous chapter, it will not be discussed again. Some of the frequently
used terms in physics are listed in Table 2.1.
Nature has four fundamental forces that exist in the environment:
1. Electromagnetic force
2. Gravitational force
3. Strong nuclear force
4. Weak nuclear force
The electromagnetic force is the sum of all electrical and magnetic forces. The
strong nuclear force holds protons and neutrons in the nuclei of atoms together. The
weak nuclear force is the interactions between subatomic particles responsible for
radioactive decay. Gravitational force acts between two objects.
As per Newton’s universal law of gravitation, gravitational force is directly pro-
portional to the product (multiplication) of their masses and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between geographical centers.
In Fig. 2.1, bodies with mass m1 and m2 attract each other. Since forces exerted
by each other are in opposite directions,
2.2 General Physics 51
Table 2.1 Frequently used terms in physics

Sl.
no. Term Description
1. Vector Physical quantity that has magnitude and direction but not position
2. Scalar Physical quantity that has only magnitude but no direction
3. Force Force is any action that alters or maintains the motion of a body or
distorts it
4. Magnetic force Force between electrically charged particles due to their motion;
it is the fundamental force responsible for attraction of magnets for iron
and action of electric motors
5. Magnetic field A vector field around electric current, a magnet, or changing electric
field, in which magnetic forces are noticeable
6. Work Work is said to be done when force causes displacement
7. Power Rate of doing work is called power
8. Energy Capacity for doing work is called energy
9. Mechanics Specialization of science that deals with the motion of bodies under the
action of forces, including the bodies at rest
10. Statics Specialization of mechanics that deals with bodies at rest as well as
forces in equilibrium
11. Dynamics Specialization of mechanics that deals with the motion of bodies under
the action of forces
12. Coplanar forces Forces acting in the same plane are called coplanar forces
13. Non-coplanar Forces acting in different planes are called non-coplanar forces
force
14. Concurrent Forces whose lines of action pass through a common point
force
15. Non-concurrent Forces whose lines of action do not pass through a common point
force
16. Parallel force Forces whose lines of action are parallel to each other
17. Non-parallel Forces whose lines of action are not parallel to each other
force
18. Collinear force Forces with a common line of action
19. Non-collinear Forces that do not have a common line of action
force
20. Gravitational The gravitational force is the force of attraction between two objects
force with mass
21. Center of An imaginary point in a body of matter where the total weight of the
gravity body may be thought to be concentrated for convenience in some
calculations
22. Moment of a Tendency of a force to rotate the body to which it is applied about an
force axis or a point
23. Resolution of Splitting a force into its components
force
24. Resultant of A single force that has the same effect on the body as all the forces
force acting together are having
m2
m1
F12 F21
Fig. 2.1 Schematic diagram explaining Newton’s universal law of gravitation

F12 = − F21
Magnitude of force is mathematically explained as:
m1 m2
F=
12 F=
21 G
r2
Where
G is Newton’s constant = 6.67 × 10−11 Nm2/kg2.
For a body of mass near the surface of earth, magnitude of gravitational
force will be
m1 me
Fgravity = G
R2
Where
me = mass of earth = 5.98 × 1024 kg
R = radius of earth = 6.38 × 106 m
Many forces may act upon a body during which resultant force can be identified
in accordance with polygon law of forces (Fig. 2.2). If many forces are acting at a
point that can be represented in direction and magnitude by the sides of open poly-
gon in order, then their resultant shall be closing side of the polygon in the opposite
direction.
Motion occurs in both natural and anthropogenic environment. Dynamics is the
specialization of mechanics that is concerned with the motion of bodies due to the
action of forces. Some of the common terms used in dynamics are given Table 2.2.
Fig. 2.2 Pictorial B

representation of polygon
law of forces
A A C
E B
DP C RO DP
EO
Table 2.2 Common terms used in dynamics

Sl.
1. Kinematics Study of motion without reference to the forces that cause motion
2. Kinetics Relates the action of forces on objects to their resulting motions
3. Displacement Change in position of an object is called displacement
4. Velocity The rate of change of displacement with respect to frame of reference
5. Speed Rate of change of position without considering direction; it is scalar
absolute value of velocity
6. Acceleration Rate of change of velocity is called acceleration
7. Inertia Opposition to any change in velocity of an object
8. Centrifugal The force away from axis of rotation of a body moving in circular
force motion
9. Centripetal The force toward axis of rotation of a body moving in circular motion
force
10. Momentum Product (multiplication) of mass of moving body and its velocity
Newton’s Laws of Motion

Newton’s laws of motion are the foundation for mechanics.
Newton’s first law states that a body will remain at rest or in uniform motion in
the same direction unless acted by force.
The second law of motion defines a force to be equal to the change in momentum
per change in time.
Newton’s third law of motion states that every action has an equal and opposite
reaction.
Newton’s second law of motion is mathematically expressed as:
dv
F=m
dt
Since the rate of change of velocity is acceleration,
F = ma
Recalling “Newton’s law of gravitational force,” force in freely falling body on

earth is mathematically represented by following formula:
m1 me  m 
Fgravity = G 2
= m1  G 2e 
R  R 
Substituting values of me and R,

me = mass of earth = 5.98 × 1024 kg
R = radius of earth = 6.38 × 106 m
Fgravity = 9.81 (m/s2) × m1
The value “9.81 m/s2” is the acceleration due to gravity usually denoted by
abbreviation “g.”
Newton’s second law is not valid when small particles (e.g., particles settling in
wastewater treatment works) move at a low velocity and in non-turbulent (laminar)
condition. In such condition, Stokes’ law shall be used, which has the follow-
ing form:
Fd = 6πµ Rv
Where:
Fd is the drag force (Stokes’ drag) between the particle and fluid
μ is the dynamic viscosity
R is the radius of the spherical object
v is the flow velocity relative to the object
Stokes’ law makes the following assumptions:
• Laminar flow
• Spherical particles
• Homogeneous (uniform in composition) material
• Smooth surfaces
• Particles do not interfere with each other
Movements of all particulate matter or “particulates,” which include dust, mist or
fume, are governed by laws of physics. Such particles affect health when a person
breathes them in. The movement of particles in lungs depends on the size, shape,
and density of the particulate material. Apart from the physical properties, the
impact on health also depends on the chemical and toxic properties of the material.
Particles are deposited in the lungs by one or combination of the following four
different ways: interception, impaction, sedimentation, and diffusion.
• Interception: Deposition when a particle travels close to a surface of the airway
passages and an edge of the particle touches the surface.
• Impaction: Deposition of particles interfacing an obstacle due to inertia.
• Sedimentation: Deposition due to gravitational forces.
• Diffusion: Transport of particles in random motion in the lung airway by chance

due to difference in particle concentration.
The strategy of social distancing and lockdown during Coronavirus Disease-2019
(COVID-19) pandemic in 2019 and 2020 is based on established phenomena of
physics with respect to movement of particle in the air into lungs to avoid the virus
entering the lungs. Since strict social distancing is practically not fully achievable,
as a mode of defense the people were advised to wear personal protective equipment
such as mask and face shield.
Potential and Kinetic Energies
Energy changes occur due to change in position of the object. Energy possessed by
an object due to the virtue of its position is called potential energy.
Potential energy is an energy that is “hidden” in some way that can be converted
to other forms.
Types of potential energy include the following:
• Gravitational potential energy
• Chemical energy
• Nuclear energy
• Elastic potential energy
• Electrical potential energy, especially in a capacitor
Equation for potential energy can be derived by definition of work done:
Potential energy = work done = force × displacement
Free acceleration of free-falling body = g = 9.81 m/s2.

Mathematically,
Potential energy = mgh
Where
m = mass of the object at rest
g = acceleration due to gravity
h = height at which object is placed from reference level
Energy possessed by an object by virtue of being in motion is called kinetic
energy. An object will have kinetic energy due to its movement. If it is at rest, it will
not have any kinetic energy.
When a body falls, the potential energy stored at the top becomes converted into
kinetic energy.
The quantity of kinetic energy of an object depends on mass and velocity.
Mathematically,
1 2
Kinetic energy = mv
2
According to the theory of special relativity by Albert Einstein, mass and energy
can be interchanged. As per the theory, energy of a body is related to speed of light
and mass by following equation.
E = mc 2
Where
E = total energy of possessed by object with mass m
c = speed of light = 3,00,000 km/s
Table 2.3 Common terms used in solid mechanics

Sl.
no. Terms Description
1. Intermolecular Force exerted by molecules on each other in an object
force
2. Elasticity Property of a body due to which it regains its original configuration
after removing deforming forces
3. Perfectly elastic A body that returns to its original configuration completely and
body immediately after removing deforming force from it
4. Plasticity Property of a body due to which it is unable to regain its original shape
or size even after removal of deforming force
5. Stress The ratio of internal force generated when a body is deformed in the
area on which this force acts; in equilibrium, internal force is equal to
external force in magnitude; in SI unit, stress is measured in N/m2
6. Normal stress Normal stress is the stress generated when a force is applied
perpendicular to surface of a body; normal stress is of two types—
compressive stress and tensile stress
7. Tangential stress Tangential stress is the stress generated when a force is applied parallel
to surface of a body
8. Strain It is the ratio of the alteration in size/shape to the original size/shape;
strain is a dimensionless number
9. Longitudinal Ratio of alteration in length to initial length (Fig. 2.3)
strain
10. Volumetric The change in volume divided by the original volume
strain
11. Shear strain Ratio of the length of deformation to perpendicular length in the plane
of the application of force (Fig. 2.4)
12. Elastic limit The maximum stress to which the body can recover its original size and
shape on the elimination of the deforming force
13. Modulus of Ratio of stress to the corresponding strain within elastic limits; it is
elasticity constant within elastic limit as per Hooke’s law
2.3 Solid Mechanics 57
Fig. 2.3 Illustration of

compressive strain Force Force
in solids
∆X
X
Longitudinal Strain (ε) = ∆ X / X
Fig. 2.4 Illustration of ∆X Force

shear strain
Force
Shear Strain (γ) = ∆X / Y
2.3 Solid Mechanics
Human body and the environment are made up of solid and fluid. The behaviors of
body fluids to force such as movement or deformation depend on established theory
of mechanics. Explanation to the behavior of movement of polluting particles in
gases and liquid requires knowledge of fluid mechanics. Treatment and disposal of
waste need knowledge of solid mechanics.
Application of the mechanics can be mainly divided into fluid mechanics and
solid mechanics. Solid mechanics deals with stressing and deformation, besides
failure of solid materials. The common terms used in solid mechanics are given in
Table 2.3.
All living organisms, including humans, are subjected to forces within and sur-
rounding the body. Human movement is achieved through a highly coordinated and
complex mechanical interactions between ligaments, muscles, bones, and joints
within the musculoskeletal system (Lu and Chang 2012).
Climate change and pollution will impact material properties and biomechanics
of living organisms, including human beings. Climate changes are likely to result in
altered wind speeds, acidification, ocean circulation, wave action, as well as
increased frequency of hypoxic events (the depletion of oxygen in the bottom waters
of coastal areas). These environmental drivers affect neural control and muscle
function. Altered environmental conditions such as ocean acidification coupled with
increased temperatures affect byssal threads of mussels as well as shells and
Table 2.4 Common terms used in fluid mechanics

Sl.
no. Term Definition
1. Compressible A fluid flow is compressible if its density changes; all real fluids are
fluid compressible and expand when heated
2. Density Mass of fluid per unit volume
3. Compressible Flow in which the fluid density changes during the flow
flow
4. Incompressible Flow in which the fluid density is constant throughout the flow
flow
5. Fluid statics Subdiscipline of fluid mechanics that is concerned with fluids at rest as
well as the pressure in a fluid or that exerted by a fluid on an immersed
object
6. Fluid dynamics Branch of fluid mechanics that is concerned with the flow of fluids
7. Biofluid Discipline of science concerned with motion of biological fluids
dynamics
8. Hemodynamics Hemodynamics is the dynamics of blood flow
9. Incompressible Fluid whose density is constant everywhere
fluid
10. Viscosity Fluid property that relates the resistance to gradual deformation
11. Inviscid fluid Fluid that is not viscous is called inviscid fluid
12. Irrotational fluid Flow in which streamlines do not loop on themselves
flow
13. Laminar flow Flow in which fluid moves in parallel layers
14. Perfect fluid Fluid with zero viscosity
15. Rotational fluid Flow whose streamlines loop on themselves
flow
16. Turbulent flow Flow in which the fluid undergoes irregular fluctuations
17. Buoyancy Force (F) applied on a body that is wholly or partly immersed in a fluid;
mathematically,
F = ρgV
where
ρ = the density of the fluid
g = the acceleration due to gravity
V = the volume of fluid directly above the curved surface
18. Adhesion The force of attraction between molecules of different liquids or between
the molecules of a liquid and a solid
19. Cohesion Intermolecular attraction between molecules of the same liquid
20. Surface tension Elastic tendency of a fluid surface (Fig. 2.5); it is measured as energy per
unit area—joule per square meter (J/m2): a molecule inside the drop of a
liquid is surrounded by other molecules that impart attractive forces
from all the directions, but a molecule on the surface experiences a net
attraction toward the drop, which results in surface tension
21. Capillary action Ability of a liquid to flow against gravity in a narrow channel: adhesion
of water to the walls of a container will cause an upward force on the
liquid at the edges and result in a meniscus that turns upward; the surface
tension acts to hold the surface intact; capillary action occurs when the
adhesion to the walls of container is stronger than the cohesive forces
between the liquid molecules
2.4 Fluid Mechanics 59
Fig. 2.5 Schematic

diagram for explaining
surface tension in a
fluid droplet
skeletons of marine invertebrates leading to decline of population and disintegration

of habitats (Domenici and Seebacher 2020).
2.4 Fluid Mechanics
A fluid is a material that continually flows under an applied shear stress.

Fluid mechanics is the specialization of physics that is concerned with the
mechanics of fluids as well as the forces on them.
Common terms used in fluid mechanics are given Table 2.4.
Adding surfactants (material capable of affecting the surface properties of a liq-
uid) such as soaps and detergents that disrupt the intermolecular attractions between
neighboring water molecules can decrease the surface tension of water. Lower sur-
face tension would improve cleansing action by easy diffusion on the surface of skin
(Chaudhary et al. 2020).
Human biological fluids contain various biochemicals such as proteins and phos-
pholipids capable of adsorption at fluid interfaces and play a very important role in
the functioning of human organs. Surface tension of body fluids correlates directly
to the development of pathological states (Fathi-Azarbayjani and Jouyban 2015).
Table 2.5 Density of blood and its components

Density (kg/
Bibliographic entry Substance m3)
Cutnell and Johnson (1998) Human blood 1060
Funk and Wagnalls (1985) Human blood 1056–1066
Hinghofer-Szalkay and Human blood 1043–1057
Greenleaf (1987)
Ageyama et al. (2001) Blood of cynomolgus monkeys, squirrel 1052.2–
monkeys, and tamarins 1058.1
2.4.1 Density and Its Importance
Density is the mass of substance per unit volume. It varies with temperature.
Mathematically, density is defined as:
ρ = m /V
Where
ρ = density
m = mass
V = volume
The density of any fluid depends on components in it such as contaminants in
polluted water. Blood is composed of roughly 55% fluid plasma as well as 45%
cells. Blood density (Table 2.5) also varies among species and genders within a
species.
2.4.2 Pressure of Fluid at Rest
If a point in the fluid is assumed of as an infinitesimally small cube, then from the
principles of equilibrium the pressure on every side of this unit of fluid will be equal.
Pressure on a body submerged in a fluid is:
P = ρ gh
Where
ρ = density of the fluid
h = height of the fluid above the object
If the container is open to the atmosphere above, then:
Ptotal = Patmosphere + Pfluid

Weight of the column of air above humans is very heavy. The reason humans, or
other organism, are crushed by the weight of this air is that this external pressure is
balanced by internal pressure within humans, which arises from various fluids as
well as materials humans are composed of.
2.4.3 Flow in Pipes
Flow of fluid differs from that of channel in a way that it is at pressure wherein
continuity equation and Bernoulli’s theorem are used for various calculations.
2.4.3.1 Continuity Equation
A continuity equation in physics explains the conservation of mass or conservation.

For an incompressible fluid flowing in a tube of changing cross-sectional area, the
mass flow rate is the same throughout the tube.
Mathematically:
A1V1 = A2V2
Where
A1 = cross-section of area of tube at point 1
V1 = velocity in the tube at point 1
A2 = cross-section of area of tube at point 2
V2 = velocity in the tube at point 2
2.4.3.2 Bernoulli’s Theorem
Bernoulli’s theorem is applicable for non-compressible liquids. It states that the

“total energy of a liquid flowing from one point to another remains constant.”
In a frictionless pipe, it can be expressed as:
1
P+ ρ v2 + ρ gz = constant
2
Where
P = fluid pressure
ρ = fluid density
v = fluid velocity
z = elevation of the fluid above a fixed reference point
Fig. 2.6 Line diagram of

Point 1 Point 2
flow with varying
cross-section
a1
a2
z1
z1
1
2
p1
p2
For the flow illustrated in Fig. 2.6 the conservation of energy equation take fol-
lowing form:
1 2 1
P1 + ρ v1 + ρ gz1 = P2 + ρ v22 + ρ gz2
2 2
Where
a1 = cross-section of area of tube at point 1
v1 = velocity in the tube at point 1
z1 = the elevation of the fluid above a fixed reference point at point 1
a2 = cross-section of area of tube at point 2
v2 = velocity in the tube at point 2
z2 = the elevation of the fluid above a fixed reference point at point 2
2.4.3.3 Flow in Channels
A flowing stream of liquid with free surface exposed to the open air is called a liquid
channel.
Artificial channels and rivers convey water with a free surface exposed to air.
Fig. 2.7 Flow in partially

filled conduit
Fig. 2.8 Flow in river around bodies
If the fluid is partially occupying the pipe, leaving other portion filled with air at
atmospheric pressure, then one has to apply theory of channel flow (Figs. 2.7 and
2.8) discussed later in this chapter.
Conventionally, for calculation with respect to flow in channel, Chézy formula or
Manning’s equation is used.
Chézy Formula
v = C Ri
Where
v = average velocity
C = Chezy coefficient
Cross − sectional area

R = hydraulic radius =
Wetted perimeter
i = hydraulic gradient
Manning’s Equation
KAR 2 / 3 S 1/ 2
Q=
n
Where
Q = flow rate
A = cross-sectional area of flow
Cross − sectional area
R = hydraulic radius =
Wetted perimeter
Fig. 2.9 Obstruction to

free flow of storm water
drains could result in
stagnation of water and
becoming a mosquito-
breeding place
S = slope of the channel

n = surface roughness
K = constant dependent unit (k = 1 in SI system, and K = 1.49 in FPS system)
Surface roughness varies for different materials. For concrete, the value of “n” is
around 0.014 and the value varies for different materials, exact value of which can
be empirically evaluated. But many common materials’ values are available in the
literature (Nassehi and Das 2007).
Both formulae are empirical; however, Manning’s equation is more widely used
as it is more accurate.
Design of channels with incorrect theoretical knowledge or maintenance after
construction of channels may often result in obstruction to free flow of channels. In
the case of storm water drains, obstructions could result in stagnation of water that
can become a mosquito-breeding place (Fig. 2.9).
2.4.4 Flows Around a Body
Fluid flow around a body placed in a flow channel develops eddies (current of fluid
running contrary to the main current).
Table 2.6 Length, velocity, and time scales of environmental fluid processes and systems
Velocity Vertical Horizontal
Time scale scale length scale length scale
Process Micro turbulence Few 1–10 cm/s 1–10 cm 1–10 cm
seconds
Shear turbulence Few 0.1–1 m/s 0.1–10 cm 0.1–10 m
minutes
Water waves Seconds to 1–10 m/s 1–100 cm 0.1–10 m
minutes
Convection Hours/days/ 0.1–1 m/s 1–1000 m 10–1000 m
seasons
Atmospheric Urban airshed Hours 1–10 m/s 100–1000 m 1–10 km
systems Sea breeze Hours 1–10 m/s 100–1000 m 1–10 km
Thunderstorms Hours 1–10 m/s 100–5000 m 1–10 km
Mountain waves Days 1–10 m/s 10–1000 m 1–10 km
Tornado Minutes to 1–10 m/s 100–1000 m 1–10 km
hours
Water systems Watershed Hours to 1–10 m/s 1–10 m 1–10,000 km
days
Aquifers Seasons to 1–10 m/s 10–1000 m 1–1000 km
decades
Wetlands Days to 1–10 m/s 1–10 m 10–1000 m
seasons
Small streams Seconds to 1–10 m/s 0.1–1 m 1–10 m
minutes
Major river Days to 1–100 cm/s 1–10 m 10–1000 m
seasons
Lakes Hours to 1–10 m/s 10–1000 m 1–100 km
days
Estuaries Hours 0.1–1 m/s 1–10 m 1–10 km
Coastal ocean Few days 0.1–1 m/s 1–100 m 1–100 km
Upper ocean Weeks to 1–100 cm/s 100–1000 m 10–1000 km
decades
Abyssal ocean Decades 0.1–1 cm/s Basin depth Global
and beyond
Body system Human Seconds to 0.3–40 cm/s Few Few
circulatory system minutes centimeters centimeters
Human Seconds to 0.4–1.4 m/s Few Few
respiratory system minutes centimeters centimeters
Source: Cushman-Roisin et al. (2018); Tang et al. (2013); Wikipedia (2018)
Table 2.7 Application of fluid mechanics in environmental science

Sl.
no. Application Brief description
1 Pollution dispersion Water and air pollution prediction is important for decision-
prediction making during new projects and disaster managements to the
know the movement of pollutants; concepts of fluid mechanics are
used mathematically for predictive calculations
2 Water distribution Water distribution in urban local bodies, industries, commercial
system design establishment, and housing is done through pipes under pressure;
designing of the water distribution network relies on established
fluid mechanics theory
3 Wastewater collection Wastewater from industries and urban local bodies is managed
system design through systems of open channel and pipes; proper collection
system needs an understanding of fluid mechanics concept
4 Water and wastewater Water and wastewater treatment require laminar flow at some
treatment plant design stage and turbulence in other stages; proper treatment design
needs knowledge of fluid mechanics
5 Air pollution control Air pollution control equipment requires many fluid mechanics
equipment design concepts depending on the type and quantity of pollutants to be
controlled
6 Representative sample Pollution is not uniformly distributed in the environment;
collection and improper sampling planning and method may result in un
monitoring representative sampling; the understanding of basic concepts helps
in proper sample collection and monitoring
The flow-related force in immersed body comprises of the following:

(a) A drag force in the flow direction
(b) A lift force
(c) A side force
The drag, lift, and side forces exerted on an immersed body by a flowing fluid are
perpendicular to each other.
2.4.5 Scales of Environmental Fluid Processes and Systems
The factors and processes governing fluid flow in the environment occur in different
sizes and scales. Table 2.6 gives some of the environmental fluid processes and
systems at various dimensions. Table 2.7 gives application of fluid mechanics in
environmental science.
Dynamics of blood flow in human body, controlled by homeostatic mechanisms,
is continuously monitored and adjusted to conditions in the body and its environment.
Study of skin blood flow at 20 and 40 °C revealed constant skin blood flow until
skin temperature is more than 31 °C, which varied rapidly to a further decrease in
skin temperature, indicating a temperature threshold at which vascular constriction
begins (Vuksanović et al. 2008). Low temperatures make blood vessels and arteries
2.5 Optics 67
narrow, restricting the blood flow and hence increasing heart beat and blood pres-
sure to pump blood harder through the constricted blood vessels. Cold weather can
impact blood flows and increase risk of a heart attack.
2.5 Optics
Optics is the specialization of physics that deals with the properties and behavior
of light.
Working underground may increase exposure to artificial lighting, shift working as well as
poor sleep quality associated with vitamin D deficiency, excessive noise, radon exposure,
sick building syndrome, and negative psychological effects. (Nang et al. 2019)
Optics is of interest to environmental professionals as most of the time environ-

mental degradation is noticed by physical observation. The change in color of water,
air, soil, and snow is often an indication that not everything is normal with the envi-
ronment. In some other instances, abnormality is observed due to fish kill, withering
flora, abnormal increase in insects, etc.
Environmental factors such as pollution by particles, toxic chemicals, microbes,
variable humidity, cosmetics, ultraviolet radiations, temperature variations, affect
the eyes resulting in several of eye disorders.
Light pollution occurs in several forms, including sky glow (bright halo that
occur over urban areas at night due to light scattering by particles in the air), light
trespass (unwanted artificial light spills onto a neighboring property), glare (light
that shines horizontally), over-illumination (use of artificial light beyond what is
needed for a specific activity).
The level of light pollution (excessive, misdirected, or obtrusive artificial light)
is growing exponentially. Even after control of the light distribution, some upward
light emission exists due to atmospheric scattering and reflections from the lit sur-
faces (Falchi et al. 2011).
Anthropogenic aerosols are responsible for radiative forcing (or climate forcing,
defined as the difference between sunlight absorbed by the earth and energy radi-
ated back to space) due to aerosol–cloud interactions, aerosol–radiation interac-
tions, and land use changes such as deforestation. Apart from radiative forcing,
climate change feedbacks (increase/decrease in temperature of the atmosphere)
play an important role in climate change due to changes in biogeochemical cycles,
ice caps, glaciers, and sea ice, which may increase temperature (positive feedback)
or decrease temperature (negative feedback). Albedo is a measure of how much
light that hits a surface is reflected without being absorbed, measured on a scale
from 0 (corresponds to body that absorbs all incident radiation) to 1 (corresponding
to a body that reflects all incident radiation).
The ecologic effects of artificial light include the following:
• Behavior alteration by wildlife such as:
–– Discouragement of turtle nesting in illuminated area

–– Flying pattern of birds
• Disruption of plants for seasonal variation
The circadian clock (24-hour day/night cycle) influences physiologic processes
in almost all organisms, which include the following (Chepesiuk 2009):
• Brain wave patterns
• Hormone production
• Cell regulation
• Other biologic activities
Circadian clock disruption is linked to many medical disorders in humans, which
includes the following (Chepesiuk 2009):
• Depression
• Sleep disorder
• Cardiovascular disease
• Cancer
The subsequent section provides fundamentals of optics that affect environment
and humans.
2.5.1 Basic Behavior of Light
Light can be explained in three ways, which seems to be mutually incompatible:

1. Photons: In photon theory, light is considered as minute particles of energy mov-
ing in space at high speeds. This explanation is useful when considering the
quantity of light received by a receptor or sensor.
2. Waves: In this theory, light is considered as ripples through space. This explana-
tion is useful when explaining formation of spectrum of colors.
3. Rays: In this theory, light is considered as a path of motion of a single hypotheti-
cal photon. This explanation is helpful when defining the concept of visibility as
well as explaining lenses.
2.5.2 Frequency
The frequency (f) of wave is the number of times the wave peaks pass through a
fixed location in unit time.
Mathematically:
f = sλ
2.5 Optics 69
Fig. 2.10 Propagating Normal

light ray from a low
refractive index medium to
one with a higher index θ1
Rarer medium
Denser medium
θ2
Where
λ = wavelength
s = speed of wave
2.5.3 Wavelengths and Colors
Wavelength of light corresponds to a spectral color. Wavelengths from 700 to

1000 nm are called infrared, and wavelengths from 100 to 400 nm are called ultra-
violet, which are not part of visible spectrum.
Visible light spectrum (range of wavelengths visible to humans) corresponds to
the range of electromagnetic waves with wavelengths ranging from 400 to 700 nm.
2.5.4 Angle of Incidence, and Refraction
When light travels from a rarer medium to a denser medium, it bends toward the
normal and vice versa (Fig. 2.10). The angle that an incident or ray makes with a
line perpendicular to the surface at the point of incidence is called angle of inci-
dence. The angle made by a refracted ray with a line perpendicular to the refracting
surface is called angle of refraction.
In Fig. 2.10, θ1 is the angle of incidence and θ2 that of refraction.
2.5.5 Index of Refraction
The index of refraction of a media is the ratio of speed of light in vacuum to speed
of light in the medium, which can be expressed mathematically as follows:
c
n=
v
Where
n = index of refraction
c = speed of light in vacuum
v = speed of light in medium
2.5.6 Snell’s Law
Snell’s law or law of refraction relates to the refractive indices of two different
materials with the angles of reflection and refraction as:
n1 sin θ 2
=
n2 sin θ1
or
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ 2
Where
n1 = refractive index of material 1
n2 = refractive index of material 2
θ1 = angle of incident light ray in material 1
θ2 = angle of refracted light ray in material 2
Fig. 2.11 Illustration of

critical angle
n1>n2
n2
θ2=90o Rarer medium
Denser medium
n1
θ1=θc
2.5 Optics 71
Fig. 2.12 Total internal

reflection
n1>n2
n2
θ2=90o Rarer medium
n1
Denser medium
n1
θ1>θc
2.5.7 Total Internal Reflection
Complete reflection of light within a medium is called total internal reflection.

The angle of incidence beyond which light ray from denser to rarer medium will
no longer be refracted but totally reflected is called critical angle (Figs. 2.11
and 2.12).
2.5.8 Interactions with Materials
When light rays fall on the surface of an object, they can be absorbed, transmitted,
or reflected (Fig. 2.13). In the case of a transparent material, the transmitted light
rays will slow down and bend in accordance with Snell’s law. In the case of translu-
cent materials, the rays scatter in different directions before going out.
In a perfectly smooth surface, if angle of reflection is equal to the angle of inci-
dence it is called specular reflection. If the reflected rays scatter in different direc-
tions, it is called diffusive reflection (Fig. 2.14).
2.5.9 Prism
Prism is a solid shape with the same polygonal base on both sides. In optics, a prism
is of interest due to the ability of transparent prism to disperse light.
Triangular prism with a triangular base and rectangular sides (Figs. 2.15 and
2.16) is colloquially called “prism” in optics. Typical materials that are used to
make prism for optical application include glass, plastic, and fluorite.
Fig. 2.13 Pictorial

depiction of transmission,
absorption, and reflection
Reflection
Absorption
Absorption
Transmission
Specular Diffusive Gas
Fig. 2.14 Schematic diagram of specular and diffusive reflections
Fig. 2.15 Different views

of a prism
2.5 Optics 73
Fig. 2.16 Line diagram of

light passing
through a prism
Table 2.8 Definition of common terms with respect to lens

Sl.
1. Convex lens Lenses that are thinner at edges and thicker at the middle; rays of light
that pass through the lens converge
2. Concave lens Lenses that are thicker at edges and thinner at the middle; rays of light
that pass through the lens diverge
3. Optical center of Central point of the lens through which a ray of light passes without
lens suffering any deviation
4. Focal point lens Point in space where parallel light rays meet after passing through the
lens
5. Focal length lens Distance between the focal point of lens and its optical center
6. Optical axis of Straight line passing through the geometrical center of a lens and two
lens/principal centers of curvature
axis
7. Real image A real image is formed in the plane of convergence of rays of light that
originate from an object; real image will generally become visible on a
screen placed in the plane of a real image
8. Virtual image The virtual image appears to be formed when light rays that originate
from the object diverge but cannot be projected onto a screen
2.5.10 Lenses
Lens is a transparent substance with curved sides for dispersing or concentrating

light rays. The common terms with respect to lenses are given in Table 2.8.
2.5.10.1 Simple Convex Lens
A simple convex lens with parallel light rays falling on the surface is shown in
Fig. 2.17.
Suppose a lens has focal length f and an object is placed at distance s1 from the
lens, then the image will be formed only when the equation given below is satisfied:
Fig. 2.17 A simple Focal Plane

convex lens
Focal Point
f
Focal Length
S1 S2
Object
f f f f Image
Fig. 2.18 Line diagram showing the object between f and 2f
1 1 1
+ =
s1 s2 f
Image formed by convex lens depends on distance of the object from the lens.
Figures 2.18, 2.19, 2.20, 2.21, 2.22, and 2.23 depict line diagrams of image forma-
tion by convex lens when the object is placed at different locations.
2.5.11 Chromatic Dispersion
The change in speed of light as it travels from one medium to another causes the
light to be refracted. The degree of bending depends on the angle of incidence as
well as the refractive indices of the media.
The refractive indices of many materials differ with the wavelength of the light,
which causes light of various colors to be refracted differently.
Chromatic dispersion is a phenomenon by which different spectral components
of light travel at varied velocities. Chromatic dispersion results in separation of
colors in a prism (Fig. 2.24) and chromatic aberration in lenses.
2.5 Optics 75
Image
f f f
Fig. 2.19 Line diagram showing the object at f
Image
f f f f
Fig. 2.20 Line diagram showing the object between f and o
2.5.12 Mirror
Mirror is an object that reflects light from its surface, with little or no diffusion. The
common terms associated with respect to mirror are given in Table 2.9.
2.5.12.1 Law of Reflection
The law of reflection states that:

1. The reflected ray, the incident ray, and the normal to the surface of the mirror lie
in the same plane.
2. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection (Fig. 2.25).
2.5.12.2 Application of Optics in Environmental Health
Optics has many applications in environmental science and health. Some of them
are as follows:
Image
f f f f
Fig. 2.21 Line diagram showing the object at 2f
Image
f f f f
Fig. 2.22 Line diagram showing the object beyond 2f
• Pollution monitoring instrumentation and devices (e.g., optical sensors for heavy
metal detection)
• Health check-up instrumentation
• Using solar energy
Studies on spatial and temporal characteristics of night time light (NTL) before
and during the COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China revealed the monthly aver-
age NTL brightness was much lower during the quarantine period than before—due
to lockdown and quarantine policies (Liu et al. 2020).
2.6 Acoustics
Sound is the sense felt by the human ear due to rapid variations in air pressure.
Acoustics was originally restricted to sound, which is created due to pressure waves
in air, which can then be detected by the human ear. Later, the scope of acoustics
was extended to ultrasound and infrasound, which have higher and lower frequen-
cies, respectively, compared to sound.
Noise exposure is linked to disturbance of the homeostasis, annoyance, sleep
disturbance, hypertension, physiological distress, sleep loss, increasing allostatic
2.6 Acoustics 77
Image
f f f f
Fig. 2.23 Line diagram showing the object at infinity
Fig. 2.24 Chromatic

dispersion in a prism
load (the wear and tear on the body), concentration difficulties, and cardiovascular
disease (Basner et al. 2014; Münzel et al. 2020; Eriksson et al. 2018; Basner et al.
2014; WHO 2018; Brown and Van 2017; Guski et al. 2017).
2.6.1 Wave Terminology
There are a number of terms in common, of which the more important terms are
defined in Table 2.10.
2.6.2 Sound Energy Density
The quantity of sound energy per unit volume of a sound wave is called the
sound energy density.
Sound energy affects a receiver depending on the distance of the receiver from
the source of sound.
Acoustics near field is a distance up to two wavelengths from sound source
(Fig. 2.27). Distance beyond two wavelengths is considered as far field. A diffusive
Table 2.9 Definition of common terms with respect to mirror

Sl.
1. Plane mirror Mirror with a flat (planar) reflective surface
2. Convex mirror Mirror with reflective surfaces that curve outward; convex mirrors
reflect light outward
3. Concave mirror Mirror with reflective surfaces that curve inward; convex mirrors
reflect light inward
4. Focal point of Point in space where parallel light rays meet after reflecting through
mirror the mirror
5. Focal length Distance between the center of a mirror and its focal point
mirror
6. Optical axis of Straight line that passes through its center of curvature and geometric
lens center
Fig. 2.25 Line diagram of Normal

incident ray and Incident Ray Reflected Ray
reflected ray
Angle of Angle of
Incident Reflection
field is an acoustic field where sound waves reach the receiver from all directions
directly or indirectly by reflection.
In free acoustic field, there are no reflections. Receiver receives sound directly
from the sound source.
2.6.3 Sound Intensity
Sound power per unit area is called sound intensity.
2.6.4 Intensity Level
The intensity level is defined by:
IL = 10 log10 ( I / I o )
Where
2.6 Acoustics 79
Table 2.10 Important wave terminologies

Sl.
no. Term Definition/description
1. Wave front Imaginary surface representing similar points of a wave that vibrate in
unison
2. Plane wave A wave whose wave fronts are in finite parallel planes
3. Diverging wave Wave in which the energy is spread over a larger and larger area
4. Spherical wave Wave created by a sound source that radiates the energy equally in all
directions
5. Progressive When there is a transfer of energy in the direction of transmission of the
wave sound, the wave is called as progressive
6. Period of wave Time taken for the oscillation to repeat itself (Fig. 2.26)
7. Amplitude of The maximum displacement of a vibrating particle (Fig. 2.26)
wave
8. Sound power Rate at which sound energy is transmitted, emitted, received, or
reflected per unit time; the SI unit of sound power is watt
9. Sound energy Form of energy generated when an object vibrates; in SI unit, it is
measured in joules
IL = intensity level expressed in decibels

I = intensity of sound
Io = the reference intensity usually taken as 10−12 W/m2
2.6.5 Sound Pressure Level
The sound pressure level is defined by:
SPL = 20 log10 ( Prms / Po )
Where
SPL = sound pressure level in decibels
Po = the reference sound pressure levels of 0.00002 Pa
Prms = root mean square pressure of sound
The instrument used to measure sound pressure level is called sound level meter.
2.6.6 Sound Power Level
The sound power level is a measure of the acoustic energy emitted from a
sound source.
Mathematically:
Wavelength
Amplitude
Distance
Period1kg
Amplitude
Time
Fig. 2.26 Line diagram of sound wave
Wavelength
Amplitude
Distance
2 wave length 2 wave length to infinity
Near Field Far Field
Sound Source
Fig. 2.27 Line diagram explaining acoustics near field and far field
SWL = 10 log10 ( W / Wo )
Where
SWL = sound level power expressed in decibels
W = the acoustic power of the source
Wo = the reference acoustic power of 10−12 W
2.7 Electrical and Electronics
As discussed in Chap. 1, atoms are made up of negatively charged particles elec-

trons, positively charged particles protons, besides neutral particles neutrons.
2.7 Electrical and Electronics 81
Table 2.11 Common terms used in electrical and electronics sciences

Sl.
1. Electric charge Property of matter responsible for electrical phenomena;
it is measured by coulomb; electron has a charge of
“−1.602 × 10−19 coulomb” while proton has a charge of
“1.602 × 10−19 coulomb”
2. Coulomb Coulomb is the SI quantity of electricity transported in 1 s by
a constant current of 1 A
3. Electrical current Electric current is the rate of flow of electrons, through a
conductor
4. Ampere Electric current is measured in ampere, which is the flow of
1 coulomb of electric charge (or 6.242 × 1018 electrons) per
second
5. Electric potential Potential energy of a unit charge; it is the property of location
within the electric field
6. Volt Units of electric potential: 1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb
7. Potential difference The variance in electrical potential amid two points is called
potential difference
8. Electrical conductance The ease of flow of electric current; it is measured in mhos
9. Electrical resistance Opposition to the movement of electric current; unit of
measurement of electrical resistance is ohm (Ω)
10. Electric power Electric power is the work done by an electrical current; it is
measured in Watt
11. Electric circuit An electric circuit is a route in which electrons from source of
electric current move
12. Electric field Electric fields are region around an electrically charged object
or particle wherein an electric charge feels the force; strength
of electric field depends on electric potential; unit of electric
field strength is volt per meter (V/m)
13. Magnetic field The area around an object where magnetic force is felt is
called magnetic field; magnetic fields are formed around
electrical flow and magnets; higher current will generate
stronger magnetic field; magnetic field is measured in tesla
(T)
14. Electromagnetic field Property of space produced by motion of an electric charge;
(EMF) while a stationary charge produces only an electric field,
electric current will generate magnetic field also, which
together form electromagnetic field
15. Electric load Electric load is the part of the circuit that performs work (e.g.,
a television, motor)
16. Direct electric current Electric current flowing only in one direction
(normally termed as direct
current)
17. Alternating electric current Electric current that reverses its direction numerous times in a
(normally termed as time period
alternating current)
(continued)

Sl.
18. Electronics Specialization of science that is concerned with control of the
motion of electrons
19. Diode Electronic device that permits electric current to move
through it in single direction
20. Capacitor Electronic device that stores electrons
21. Transistor Device used to regulate electric current or potential difference
and that acts as a gate for electronic signals
22. Transformer Electrical device used to transfer electrical energy among two
or more circuits
23. Step-up transformer Transformer in which the output electric potential difference
is greater than its input
24. Step-down transformer Transformer in which the output electric potential difference
is less than that of the input
Fig. 2.28 Transmission and distribution of electricity
Three basic descriptions used in electrical and electronics sciences is given in

Table 2.11.
Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law states that electric current is inversely proportional to electrical resis-
tance and directly proportional to the potential difference amid two points.
Mathematically:
I =V /R
Where
I = electric current
V = potential difference between two points
2.7 Electrical and Electronics 83
R = resistance between two points

Resistance of any material is affected by the type of material, length of material,
temperature of material, and cross-section area of the material that is perpendicular
to the transmission of the electric charge.
Electric and magnetic fields are present where electricity is generated/transmit-
ted/distributed (Fig. 2.28). These fields are omnipresent in our environment.
Electric fields in a circuit are created by potential difference. Higher the potential
difference, the stronger the electrical field.
Extremely low-frequency magnetic fields are categorized as a “possible human
carcinogen” by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC 2002).
Electromagnetic fields exist ubiquitously in our environment. Electric fields are
generated in the atmosphere due to thunderstorms. All materials (e.g., soil) also
have electric properties, e.g., electrical permittivity and conductivity (Hummel
1998; Rabiu et al. 2017).
The electricity used in day-to-day life generates low-frequency electromagnetic
fields. Higher-frequency radio waves are used in day-to-day life in television, radio,
and mobile phone for transmitting information.
Electromagnetic waves are series of invisible waves traveling at a huge speed.
Frequency of electromagnetic wave is the number of occurrences of cycle per unit
time. Wavelength of these waves is the distance between two adjacent waves. Effects
of EMF vary with different frequencies.
Some electromagnetic waves have the ability to break bonds between molecules.
Such waves and are called “ionizing radiation.” Other waves are called “non-
ionizing radiation.”
Exposure to external magnetic and electric fields at very low frequencies induces
electric fields as well as currents within the body and stimulates excitable tissues
such as muscle and nerve.
Electric current of higher magnitude will affect muscles making fingers into a
fist. Hand touching live wire will grasp the wire firmly, and victim will not be able
to leave the wire with current. Even after stopping the current, the victim may not
reclaim voluntary control of their muscles for some time. Relatively low electric
currents affect heart functioning making heart flutter instead of beating, thereby
hindering flow of blood to vital body organs. Strong enough electric current can also
lead to death due to cardiac arrest and/or asphyxiation. As electric current through a
material results in a release of energy, normally as heat, so in living organisms it
may result in burning of the tissue and organs (Health and Safety Authority 2019).
Apart from electric safety, waste from electrical and electronic equipment is of
great health concern for environmental and health professionals, which is dealt in
detail in the subsequent chapters.
Table 2.12 Common terms used in thermal physics

Sl.
1. Thermal energy Thermal energy is internal energy in a system in a state of
thermodynamic equilibrium due to its temperature
2. Heat Heat is the flow of thermal energy
3. Temperature Relative hotness or coldness of an object
4. Melting point Temperature at which a solid will melt is called melting point of that
solid
5. Flash point Lowest temperature at which vapors of a material ignite by external
ignition source
6. Ignition point The lowest temperature at which a volatile material will be vaporized
into a gas that ignites without external ignition source is called
ignition point
7. Boiling point Temperature at which liquid is transformed into its vapor without
raising the temperature
8. Thermometer Thermometer is an instrument for measuring temperature
9. Calorie The energy required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1 °C
10. Specific heat Quantity of heat required per unit mass to increase the temperature
by 1 °C;
mathematically,
q
Cp =

M ∆T
where
Cp = specific heat
q = the heat added in Calories
M = the weight of the material in grams
ΔT = the rise in temperature of material in degree Celsius
11. Latent heat Energy released or absorbed by a substance during a transformation
in its physical state that occurs without change in temperature
12. Heat of fusion Amount of heat necessary to melt a substance at its normal melting
temperature
13. Latent heat of Quantity of heat required to convert unit mass of solid into its liquid
fusion state without change in its temperature
14. Heat of Heat necessary to evaporate the substance at its normal boiling point
vaporization
15. Latent heat of The amount of heat required to convert unit mass of liquid into its
vaporization vapor state without change in its temperature
16. Heat capacity Ratio of heat absorbed by a substance to the change in temperature
17. Standard heat of Amount of heat evolved at one atmosphere pressure and at 25 °C
combustion when one mole of a substance is burned in excess oxygen.
2.8 Thermal Physics
Thermal physics is the study of heat. Heat is generated naturally and artificially.
Heat transfer has much applications, but uncontrolled heat can lead to disasters and
2.8 Thermal Physics 85
Table 2.13 Relationships of different temperature scales

Scale
Kelvin (°K) Celsius (°C) Fahrenheit (°F) Rankine (°R)
Absolute zero 0° −273.15° −459.67° 0°
Freezing point of water 273.15° 0° 32° 491.67°
Boiling point of water 373.15° 100° 212° 671.64°
affect health.
Application of heat is well known in the following:
• Transportation
• Industry
• Domestic activity
• Mining
• Wars and mutiny
• Waste management
The above applications are also the causes of many types of pollution and release
many pollutants. Table 2.12 gives the common terms used in thermal physics.
The centigrade scale was developed in 1742, now known as the Celsius tempera-
ture scale named after the Anders Celsius, which uses the boiling point of pure
water as 100 °C and the freezing point of pure water 0 °C (Fuller et al. 1978). Other
scales were named after William John Macquorn Rankine, Daniel Gabriel
Fahrenheit, and Lord Kelvin. Relationships of different temperature scales are
shown in Table 2.13.
Molecules in the gas phase can re-enter the liquid via a phenomenon called con-
densation. When the number of molecules evaporating as well as condensing per
unit time is the same, the system is said to be in a state of dynamic equilibrium.
Liquids with high vapor pressures are called volatile liquids and tend to evapo-
rate readily from an open container whereas non-volatile liquids have low vapor
pressures.
As the temperature of a liquid increases, the vapor pressure of the liquid rises
until it is same as the external pressure (atmospheric pressure in the case of an open
container). At this point of time, bubbles of vapor are formed in the liquid resulting
in boiling. The temperature at which a substance boils at 1 atm pressure is called the
normal boiling point of the substance.
Temperature has a role to play in human health and global ecological balance. As
per Geneva et al. (2019), the temperature ranges published were 36.32–37.76 (rec-
tal), 35.76–37.52 (tympanic), 35.61–37.61 (urine), 35.73–37.41 (oral), and
35.01–36.93 (axillary). People with age ≥60 had lower temperature than younger
adults with age <60 by 0.23 °C on average.
More energy from the sun entering than exiting the top of the atmosphere is cre-
ating radiative imbalance since at least about 1970 (Stocker et al. 2013), resulting in
climate change as per following observation made:
• Changes in temperature
• Changes in energy budget and heat content

• Changes in circulation and modes of variability
• Changes in the water cycle and cryosphere
• Changes in sea level
• Changes in extreme climatological events
• Changes in carbon and other biogeochemical cycles
Cold spells and heat waves have shown adverse effects on mortality. Cold spells
were responsible for a greater proportion of deaths compared to heat waves, while
moderate high/low temperatures responsible for most of the total health burden.
With global populations rapidly aging, the age group of more than 60 years is
expected to cover 21.1% of the population by 2050, which is expected to increase
temperature-related mortality and morbidity in future (Schneider and Breitner
2016). Further, it is projected that a reduction in the green cover by 10% would raise
urban temperatures by 8.2 °C over the next 70 years (Gill et al. 2007), which high-
lights the importance of maintaining global temperature to safeguard health of
humans across the world.
2.9 Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is specialization of physical science that is concerned with the

relationships among heat and other forms of energy. For example, the melting of
snow is a thermodynamic process (Fig. 2.29).
Many industrial processes involve evaporation and drying in which cooling
water is needed. In these processes, the heat of vaporization is transferred to the
coolant (Fig. 2.30) and the warm water may become a thermal pollution problem of
the receiving body of water.
Fig. 2.29 The melting of snow is a thermodynamic process

2.9 Thermodynamics 87
Fig. 2.30 Water vapor from tank receiving hot water from a paper industry
As discussed earlier, work is the force timed distance, which, for a closed sys-
tem, is comparable to the pressure timed the change in volume:
dw = P dV
According to the law of conservation of energy, a heat of work that flows into or
out of the system should result in a change in the total energy stored in the system.
Mathematically:
∆E = q − w
Where
∆E = change in internal energy of the system
q = energy flow into the system
w = work done by the system
If heat is absorbed by the system, q has a positive value.

If the heat is generated by the system, q has a negative value.
If the system does work on the surroundings, w has a positive value.
If surroundings do work on the system, w has a negative value.
If the volume of the system remains constant, then w = 0. Therefore,
∆E = qv
Physical as well as chemical changes are usually encountered under constant

pressure during manufacturing to keep the system under control. Absence of such
control may result in the explosion of reactor leading to disaster.
The molecules in a solid are very close together as

well as very ordered. This means a solid has very low
entropy.
The molecules in a liquid are closer together

compared to gas. They are not as ordered as they are
in a solid. Therefore, a liquid has greater entropy than
solid, but less entropy than a gas.
The molecules of a gas are very far apart and they are
moving randomly. Gases have very high entropy.
Fig. 2.31 Entropy of a solid < entropy of a liquid < entropy of a gas
Lost or gained heat in reactions under constant pressure is called enthalpy change.
The total potential as well as kinetic energy of particles of matter is called
enthalpy. It is usually denoted by the letter “H.”
Enthalpy of matters cannot be measured but the change in enthalpy can be
measured.
Consider the following equation:
Reactants → Products
2.9 Thermodynamics 89
If HP is the enthalpy of products and HR is the enthalpy of reactants, change in

enthalpy ∆H can be expressed mathematically as:
∆H = H P − H R
Enthalpy change can be negative or positive
The property of entropy of any system is also important to determine whether a

given process occurs spontaneously.
Entropy means lack of order or disorder
Entropy is a thermodynamic property of all substances and it is proportional to

their degree of disorder. Figure 2.31 shows the relative comparison of entropies of a
solid, liquid, and gas.
After adsorption and penetration, a virus hijacks a cell’s metabolic machinery.
Growth is competitive, and the virus uses cell as a medium for its reproduction
besides growth through multiplication. Gibbs energy (the energy associated with a
chemical reaction that can be used to do work) that represents the driving force of
viral lytic cycle (destruction of the infected cell and its membrane by virus for
reproduction) implies that synthesis of viral components is more thermodynami-
cally favorable (Popovic and Minceva 2020).
2.9.1 First Law of Thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics (law of conservation of energy) states that energy
can neither be created nor destroyed in an isolated system.
Health of humans depends on metabolism, which is a result of all the chemical
and biochemical processes that occur in the cells of a body. They consist of anabo-
lism in which molecules are built-up and catabolism in which molecules are bro-
ken down.
Energy transfers in metabolic processes are governed by the first law of thermo-
dynamics. If no mechanical work is done, then the chemical energy input will be
transferred as thermal energy (Bhalse et al. 2016).
2.9.2 Second Law of Thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics states that the total entropy (a measure of the
unavailable energy in a closed system) of a system either increases or remains con-
stant; it never decreases.
With respect to human body, the energy generated by human body by metabo-
lism is transferred to the environment by radiation, convection, and conduction.
If an amount of heath Q flows into human body at constant temperature T, then
its entropy S increases by ΔS = Q/T.
If two heat reservoirs, the environment (R1) and the human body (R2), are at tem-
peratures T1 and T2, and if an amount of heat Q flows from R1 to R2, then the net
entropy change for these two reservoirs is:
∆S = ( Q / T2 ) − ( Q / T1 )
ΔS is positive, provided that T1 > T2.

As per the second law of thermodynamics, total entropy of a system either
increases or remains constant; it never decreases.
Since the temperature of the environment varies, temperature within the human
body is maintained by increasing (by shivering, increase in blood transport) or
decreasing (by sweating) it in natural settings.
When the body fails to comply with the second law of thermodynamics in natural
settings, the person has to:
• Change the temperature of the immediate surroundings (e.g., by air conditioner/
cooler or room heater as per the situation).
• Wear warm cloths to conserve energy if the person is feeling cold.
• Perform physical activity to increase catabolic activity to release energy within
the body.
• Consume food/drinks with warm/cold temperature (as per the situation).
Failure to comply with the second law of thermodynamics by a healthy person
will disturb his health.
2.9.3 Third Law of Thermodynamics
The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a perfectly ordered solid
at absolute zero (0° K) is zero.
Thermal energy is transferred from one point to another by radiation, convection,
and conduction. In conduction, heat is transferred by direct transfer of heat through
the matter, due to the variation in temperature, among adjacent parts of the object.
In convection, heat is transferred by movement of matter in fluids. In radiation, the
heat transferred is by radiation.
References 91
2.9.4 Survival in Cold Climates
Metabolic rate decreases with age and hence energy cannot be generated as fast as
it is dissipated. Hypothermia, a dangerous drop in human body temperature below
35°, can be serious if not treated immediately. Respiratory epidemics, direct hemo-
dynamic responses to cold, poor indoor air quality, and sudden exertion (expendi-
ture of energy) likely contribute to cold-related mortality (Gronlund et al. 2018).
Under normal conditions, human body readjusts in the temperature range of
37–35 °C. When the body’s temperature decreases, the body produces the extra
energy to compensate. Below 35 °C, the human body cannot produce sufficient
energy as fast as temperature is being lost.
2.9.5 Survival in Hot Climates
Thermal energy from human body is displaced due to radiation, convection, con-
duction, respiration, and evaporation of sweat by skin. Long-term augment in tem-
perature variability may amplify the risk of mortality in various subgroups of
vulnerable older populations (Zanobetti et al. 2012).
Transfer of energy from the environment into the human body without dissipat-
ing mechanism leads to increase in the body’s temperature, and thus to heat stress,
which could further lead to heat stroke and death. This is brought to steady state by
perspiration.
Energy from the body would vaporize sweat resulting in cooling effect.
Heat exposure leads to the following abnormalities:
• Heat edema: swelling of human body in those who are unaccustomed to working
in hot surroundings
• Heat rashes: development of tiny red spots on the skin with prickling sensation
• Heat cramps: sharp pains in the muscles
• Heat exhaustion: excessive sweating
• Heat syncope: heat-induced dizziness besides fainting
• Heat stroke: partial loss of consciousness
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Popovic M, Minceva M (2020) A thermodynamic insight into viral infections: do viruses in a lytic
cycle hijack cell metabolism due to their low Gibbs energy? Heliyon 6(5):e03933. https://doi.
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porous media. Environ Process 4:303–317. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40710-017-0222-2
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cations. EBioMedicine 6:29–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ebiom.2016.04.003
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109(17):6608–6613. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1113070109
Chapter 3
Fundamentals of Biology
Professionals
Abstract Prevention of diseases is better than cure. Achievement of prevention of

diseases requires efforts from anyone starting with the head of a state to social sci-
entists, financial experts, wildlife professionals, people from the media, and other
individuals. Body fluids are known to be mixtures of biochemicals and cells.
Similarly, rivers, lakes, estuaries, and oceans are also complex mixtures of unicel-
lular and multicellular organisms that are unique to each water body, and within
each one of these, the ecological setup is different. Injury or illness to humans dis-
turbs the body’s homeostasis (the state of steady internal conditions conserved by
living things). Alteration or pollution of water body could lead to epidemics, floods,
and other incidents that may affect the health of individuals. Further human activi-
ties can alter the quantity of disease causative agents. In other words, anthropogenic
activity can either increase or decrease the quantity of disease causative agents such
as pathogens or toxic substances in the environment. Many of the causative agents
can be prevented from entering the environment by adopting a proper waste man-
agement approach and other good practices. This chapter discusses the fundamen-
tals of biology, which forms part of the basis of environmental and medical
sciences.
3.1 Introduction
Prevention of diseases is better than cure. It saves life, money, and time. Instead of
approaching a doctor with ailment and pain, humans themselves can prevent dis-
eases to a great extent, if not completely. Achievement of prevention of diseases
requires efforts from anyone starting with the head of a state to social scientists,
financial experts, wildlife professionals, people from the media, and other
individuals.
Blood is a mixture of biochemicals and cells. Rivers, lakes, estuaries, oceans are
still complex mixture of unicellular and multicellular organisms that are unique to
each water body and within each water body the ecological setup is different.
Injury or illness disturbs the body’s homeostasis (the state of steady internal
conditions conserved by living things).
Optimal functioning for the organism depends on several variables, such as body
temperature and fluid balance; the concentrations of sodium, potassium, and cal-

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64480-2_3
96 3 Fundamentals of Biology for Environmental and Medical Professionals
cium ions; or pH of extracellular fluid. These variables should be kept within certain
pre-set limits (homeostatic range) and need to be regulated despite changes in the
environmental conditions.
Alteration or pollution of water body could lead to epidemics, floods, and other
incidents, which may affect health of individuals.
The term “disease causative agent” refers to the any agent such as toxic chemical
and biological pathogens that causes disease. Disease could be communicable dis-
ease or noncommunicable disease or injury, which can be further subcategorized.
The disease causative agent is part of the environment. The natural (animal attack,
natural disaster, etc.) and anthropogenic activities (industrial activity, waste man-
agement, etc.) can cause sickness.
Disease causative agents present in the environment can cause sickness in a
healthy person. Over the period of time, disease causative agents such as an
infection-causing organism or toxic substance will be released to the environment,
which in turn will cause disease in a healthy person. Even healthy people contribute
to disease causative agents through air/water/noise/soil pollution (Fig. 3.1).
Further human activities can alter the quantity of disease causative agents. In
other words, anthropogenic activities can either increase or decrease the quantity of
disease causative agents such as pathogens or toxic substances in the environment.
Many of the causative agents can be prevented from entering the environment by
adopting a proper waste management approach and other good practices discussed
in the subsequent chapters.
Disease
Healthy
Causative
Person
agent
Sick Person
Fig. 3.1 Health and environment

3.2 General Biology 97
Fig. 3.2 Pristine natural environment
Human activity has affected the nature changing pristine environment (Fig. 3.2).
Alteration of the environment for human benefit (Fig. 3.3) and urban settling with
improper planning (Fig. 3.4) have direct impacts on environmental health. The
increase in temperature is due to greenhouse gas (GHG) in the atmosphere, and it
has been a concern due to associated disasters and other diseases.
Physiological systems of animals, namely muscle and neural function, the car-
diovascular system, and metabolism, are sensitive to environmental disturbances
such as changes in pH, temperature, humidity, water flow, oxygen level, and wind
speed. Ocean acidification has a strong negative effect on the structural properties
of shells and skeletons of many marine invertebrates.
Exposure to chemical pollutants causes change in the gut microbiome and is
linked to changes in metabolism, problems with the immune system, as well as
neurological and behavioral issues.
Fig. 3.3 Alteration of environment for human benefit
3.2 General Biology
Biology is the study of life. All living things are collectively known as organisms.
Living beings are different from non-living beings by seven characteristics explained
in Fig. 3.5.
All living things are made up of microscopic structures called cells. Some organ-
isms have single cell and are called unicellular organisms. Organisms made up of
multiple cells are called multicellular organisms. Figure 3.6 shows an illustration of
the complex arrangement of chemicals that makes up an organism.
Atoms combine to form the molecules. Small molecules bond together to form
larger molecules and these larger molecules form organelles of cells that perform
specific activities. These organelles form the cells.
Some simple organisms are made up of single cell, which are called unicellular
organisms, while others are made up of many cells that are similar in nature.
In complex organisms, cells form tissues, which make their organs. The organs
form organ systems, which in turn make complex multicellular organisms including
the humans.
3.2 General Biology 99
Fig. 3.4 Urban settling with improper planning
Nutrition Respiration Movement Growth Reproduction Sensitivity
•Organisms •Organisms •Organisms •Organisms •Orgnaisms •Organisms

obtain raw break down are abile to are capable have abilit to have ability
material for food within move in of removal of produce new to respnd to
energy and their cells to some way toxic individual stimuli
growth release without substance, organisms
energy outside help waste
products of
metabolism
as well as
substances in
excess from
an organism
Fig. 3.5 Characteristics of living beings

Fig. 3.6 Illustration

showing complex Subatomic particle
arrangement of chemicals
that makes an organism
Atom
Molecule
Macromolecule
Organelle
Cell
Tissue
Organ
Organ System
Complex Multicellular
Organism
Cells may be prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus that
contains deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) whereas in prokaryotic cells, the DNA is not
encapsulated in a nucleus.
DNA is the cell’s genetic material that contains many genes. Genes are the basic
physical as well as functional units of heredity.
3.3 Microbiology 101
Most of the living organisms are unicellular. Complex organisms contain mil-
lions of cells. Humans are made up of about 70 trillion cells. These cells need a
certain pH range of extracellular fluids, temperature, concentration of mineral ions,
as well as glucose in the extracellular fluid. The cells, as part of the organism, inter-
act in ways that keep internal environment relatively constant, in spite of the
changing external environment. The upholding of a stable internal environment by
an organism is called homeostasis.
Sometimes homeostatic imbalance can occur due to which cells may not obtain
everything they need, or toxic wastes may build up in cells resulting in disease.
Table 3.1 summarizes the types of movement into and out of the cell.
In biological taxonomy (classification of biological organisms), a domain, also
empire or super-kingdom, is the highest taxonomic rank of organisms. It comprises
of Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya in three domain classifications. Kingdom is the
second highest taxonomic rank, which is divided into groups called phyla. Some
textbooks list six kingdoms (Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, Archaea/
Archaebacteria, and Bacteria/Eubacteria) while others list five kingdoms (Fungi,
Plantae, Animalia, Protista, and Monera). The description of each of the term is
given in Table 3.2.
Taxonomic classifications have changed over years and likely to change in the
future. Among the non-living beings, viruses are complicated assemblies of mole-
cules that replicate only in living cells of other life forms.
Requirements of Complex Multicellular Animals
Lives of complex multicellular organisms depend upon the water, oxygen, food,
heat, and pressure described in Table 3.3. As evident, the quantities and qualities of
water, oxygen, food, heat, and pressure are important for health of humans.
In a nutshell, health and un-health are not phenomena that occur only to humans.
Health and un-health are associated with all living beings.
3.3 Microbiology
Microorganisms play a major role in spreading infectious diseases. Understanding

of microorganisms is more important to medical and public health professionals
than carnivores, which may attack humans.
A microorganism is an organism that is invisible to the naked eye, and is micro-
scopic (visible only with a microscope). Study of microorganisms is called micro-
biology. Microorganisms may be unicellular organisms or multicellular. Some
multicellular organisms are microscopic. But some unicellular organisms are visible
to the naked eye.
Due to the invisibility to the naked eyes, it is hard to understand their movement
and character by common man. Over the millions of years humans have been able
to stay away from or kill carnivores to protect themselves. It is only after the inven-
tion of microscope and discovery of microorganisms that the medical practitioners
Table 3.1 Movements of substance into and out of the cell

Source of
Process Characteristics energy Example
I. Passive (physical) processes
A Simple Molecules, atoms, or ions move Molecular Exchange of carbon
diffusion from higher concentration to motion dioxide and oxygen in
lower concentration the lungs
B Facilitated Molecules travel across the Molecular Glucose movement
diffusion membrane from a region of higher motion through a cell membrane
concentration to one of lower
concentration through channels or
by carrier molecules
C Osmosis Movement of water molecule Molecular Distilled water entering
from less concentration to higher motion a cell
concentration region
D Filtration Smaller molecules are forced to Hydrostatic Molecules leaving blood
move across by virtue of pressure pressure capillaries
II. Active (physiological) processes
A Active transport Carrier molecules move atom, Cellular Movement of different
ions, or molecules through energy atoms, ions, and amino
membranes from regions of lower acids through cell
concentration to regions of higher membranes
concentration
B Endocytosis
1. Pinocytosis Engulfment of liquid droplets by Cellular Membrane-forming
membrane from surroundings energy vesicles comprising
large particles dissolved
in water
2. Phagocytosis Membrane engulfs solid particles Cellular Engulfing of bacterial
from surroundings energy cells by membranes of
white blood cells
3. Receptor- Engulfment of selected molecules Cellular Cell removing
mediated combined with receptor proteins energy cholesterol-containing
endocytosis by membranes low-density lipoprotein
(LDL) particles from its
surroundings
C Exocytosis Expelling vesicle-containing Cellular Protein secretion
particles (or chemicals) energy
D Transcytosis Transcellular transport of Cellular Insulin crossing a cell
macromolecules across cells energy
were able to relate diseases with microorganisms and invent new effective treatment
procedures and knowledge to cure diseases by killing the disease-causing microor-
ganisms. However, microorganisms are not always associated with diseases. They
live within human body and even on surface of human body. They are essential for
the making of foods such as bread, beer, wine, cheese, yogurt, and other fermented
foods. Spirulina (biomass of cyanobacteria) can be consumed by humans/animals.
Table 3.2 Description of domains and kingdoms of living organisms

Term Description
Archaea/ Archaea/Archaebacteria comprises of group of prokaryotic organisms that
Archaebacteria have different molecular characteristics making them different from bacteria
and eukaryotes
Bacteria/ Bacteria/Eubacteria term is used to describe and distinguish prokaryotic
Eubacteria bacteria from the archaebacteria
Eukarya Eukarya includes organisms with cells that contain membrane-bound
organelles and a nucleus
Animalia Animals are eukaryotic multicellular organisms that obtain nutrition from
organic sources; cells of animal are characterized by absence of rigid cell
wall observed in fungi and plants
Plantae Plants are multicellular eukaryotic organisms characterized by:
(1) Photosynthetica nutrition
(2) Cells with cellulose in their walls
(3) Absence of nervous system
Fungi Fungi are living organisms with cell walls containing chitin; they digest
organic matter before absorbing
Protista Protists are eukaryotic organisms that do not qualify as plant, animal, or
fungus
Monera Monera refers to group of prokaryotic organisms that typically reproduce by
asexual reproduction
Photosynthesis: Process by which green plants as well as some other organisms use sunlight to
a
make nutrients from water and carbon dioxide
Table 3.3 Requirements of complex multicellular animals

Factor Characteristic Description
Water A chemical Water is required for a variety of metabolic processes, regulating
substance body temperature, and management of substances within organisms
Food Various Food is substances that provide necessary nutrients to organisms;
chemical nutrients supply energy as well as building blocks of cells
substances
Oxygen A chemical Oxygen is used in the process of releasing energy from food for
substance metabolic processes
Heat A form of Heat released by metabolism and surrounding environment partially
energy controls the rate of metabolic reactions
Pressure Force per unit The atmospheric pressure on terrestrial animals plays an important
area role in breathing; organisms inside water are subjected to
hydrostatic pressure; heart action in humans and other complex
multicellular organisms produces blood pressure, which makes
blood flow through blood vessels
Food-borne infections or intoxication are caused by pathogenic microorganisms

that include bacteria, viruses, fungi that may not cause food spoilage.
The major factors that contribute to food-borne diseases are as follows:
1. Allowing long time gap between preparation and consumption of food
2. Contaminated cooking utensils or cooking place
3. Cross-contamination by contaminated food

4. Eating/drinking raw food from unsafe sources
5. Food handling by infected persons
6. Improper storing
7. Inadequate cooking
8. Inadequate reheating
9. Using of food ingredients from unsafe sources
Bacteria
Bacteria are single-celled protists that feed on soluble food. Although they may
form chains as well as clusters, they are independent organisms.
The structure of a typical bacterium is given in Fig. 3.7 and description of the
bacterium structure is given in Table 3.4.
Bacteria occur in many shapes, which include spheres (coccus), round-ended
cylinders (bacillus), helically twisted cylinders (spirochetes), and curved. They also
join together to form diplos, staphylos, streptos, etc. (Table 3.5).
Chain of infection (Box 3.1) comprises of reservoir (Fig. 3.8) mode of transmis-
sion and susceptible host. Infection enters susceptible host through portal of entry
and leaves reservoir through a portal of exit.
Box 3.1 Microorganism and Infection

Penetration of an organism’s body tissues by germs (microorganism/parasite/
fungi), their multiplication, and the reaction of host tissues to the infection-
causing germs and the toxins produced by them is called infection. The dis-
eases caused by germs are called infectious diseases.
All communicable diseases are infectious, but not all infections are
communicable.
Cytoplasmic membrane
Cell wall
DNA
Flagella
Ribozomes Pilus(plural: pili)
Fig. 3.7 Structure of a typical bacterium

Table 3.4 Description of bacterium structure

Structure Description
Cytoplasmic Cytoplasmic membrane regulates transport of food into and waste products
membrane out of cell
Cell wall Cell wall is a rigid wall composed of polysaccharide that surrounds the
cytoplasmic membrane
Capsule Some species of bacteria have capsule made up of polysaccharides outside
cell wall; they keep the bacterium from drying besides protecting from
engulfing by bigger microorganisms
Cytoplasm Cytoplasm is a gel-like matrix present inside the cell membrane; it contains
nutrients, water, wastes, enzymes, gases, and cell structures
Plasmids Plasmids are extrachromosomal genetic structures present in many strains of
bacteria
Flagella Flagella (singular, flagellum) are sting-like structures present in some bacteria
that provide a means of locomotion
Nucleoid Nucleoid is a region in the bacteria cell where DNA is localized
Pili Pili (singular, pilus) are small hair-like outgrowths present in many species of
bacteria that assist in attaching to other cells/surfaces
Ribosomes Ribosome is an organelle where biological protein synthesis occurs
Protozoa
Protozoa are single-celled organisms that reproduce by binary fission. Protozoa
ingest solid organics for food. Since protozoa are larger than bacteria by one to two
orders of magnitude, the protozoa diet includes bacteria and colloidal organics.
Most of protozoa are strict aerobes (organism able to live only in the presence of
free oxygen). Like heterotrophic bacteria, they obtain both energy and material for
growth and reproduction from the same organic food source.
Algae
Algae are autotrophic (organism capable of make its own food from inorganic nutri-
ents using light [photosynthesis] or chemical energy [chemosynthesis]), photosyn-
thetic organism.
A portal of entry is the place through which microorganisms get into susceptible
host such as the respiratory tract, the skin, the gastrointestinal tracts, and mucous
membranes. A portal of exit is the place from where microorganisms leave the host.
Virus
Viruses are small intracellular parasites that contain ribonucleic acid (RNA) or
DNA genome bounded by a protein coating. They replicate only inside the living
cells of organism. They are characterized by a long co-evolution of virus as well as
host. Propagation of viruses depends on host cells supplying the complex metabolic
as well as biosynthetic machinery of cells (Gelderblom 1996). Viruses spread dis-
ease by cell lysis or disruption of healthy homeostasis. Cell lysis is the breaking
open that leads to death of the cell. In multicellular organism, death of many cells
affects the whole organism. Disruption of homeostasis (the state of steady internal
conditions conserved by living things) can affect health of individuals.
Table 3.5 Major types of shapes and groups of bacteria

Shape Term in microbiology Pictorial depiction
Sphere shaped Coccus
Sphere-shaped bacteria arranged in Diplococci

pairs
Sphere-shaped bacteria arranged in Streptococci
chains
Sphere-shaped bacteria arranged in Staphylococci
clusters
Intermediate shape between spherical Coccobacillus

and elongated
Rod shaped Bacillus
Rod-shaped bacteria arranged in pairs Diplobacilli
Rod-shaped bacteria arranged in chains Streptobacilli
Filament shaped Filamentous
Curved Curved
Spindle shaped Fusiform
Spiral form Spirochete
Dangerous diseases by viruses affecting humans include Marburg virus diseases,

Ebola, Rabies, AIDS, Smallpox, Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS), Influenza,
Fig. 3.8 Chain of

infection
Dengue, Rotavirus infection, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Middle

East respiratory syndrome (MERS), and Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19).
The reservoir of infectious agents is the place where the agent usually lives,
grows, and multiplies, such as humans, animals, lakes, and soil.
An infectious agent may affect in many ways. Infection may be transmitted
directly—through direct contact (Fig. 3.9) or droplet spread—or indirectly—which
may be air borne; vehicle borne, e.g., through food, water (Fig. 3.10), blood, hand-
kerchiefs, bedding, plates, or surgical scalpels; and vector borne (e.g., through mos-
quitoes, fleas, and ticks).
Some species of insects such as mosquitoes are vectors. But not all mosquitoes
are vectors.
Mosquitoes like other insects play important role in ecosystem; some of them are
as follows:
(a) Many mosquitoes drink flower nectar, plant sap, and fruit juices. Hence, they
help in pollination of some plants.
(b) Mosquito larvae consume detritus in water and act as food to insect predators
such as fish and frog.
Susceptible host is the organism (including humans) that gets disease.
Knowledge of the portals of exit/entry and modes of transmission is essential to
prevent spread of disease.
As discussed, all living organisms grow and reproduce. Each organism has its
own nutrition requirement to survive and live, which is different from others, and so
also for pathogens. Pathogenic bacteria may have one or more of the following
characteristics:
Fig. 3.9 A waste picker

with insufficient personal
protective equipment
exposing herself for direct
transmission of infection
Fig. 3.10 Water

overflowing due to
accidental damage to water
supply line exposing public
water supply to microbial
contamination
1. They have optimal growth temperature to match with the body temperature of
the host. Hence, the pathogenic bacteria of human have optimum growth tem-
perature of around 35–37 °C.
2. They may have capsules to prevent the bacterial cell from being phagocytosed
(bacteria getting enveloped and destroyed) and adhere to host cells.
3. They may generate materials that are toxic to their host.
4. They may have enzymes such as DNAase (capable to denature DNA) and coagu-
lase (capable to clot blood).
5. They may possess antigen (substance that induces an immune response in the
host body).
6. They may have flagella.
7. They may have resistance to antibiotics (a substance that destroys or inhibits the
growth of microorganisms).
Infection and disease are not recent phenomena. Diseases make living organisms
weak, making them vulnerable to predators or death, eliminating weaker organisms
from the ecosystem. Examples of intervention to reduce or eliminate infectious and
parasitic diseases in human beings are given in Table 3.6.
Table 3.6 Examples of intervention to reduce or eliminate infectious and parasitic diseases in human beings
Required
environmental
Causative agent Mode of transmission Symptoms Major reservoir intervention
Respiratory Caused by many viruses and Air, contact secretions of Runny, stuffy nose and Contaminated Reduce air
infections microorganisms; viral pathogens include infected people sneezing, fever, muffled air; infected pollution; improve
rhinoviruses, influenza virus, respiratory speech, difficulty in person ventilation in
syncytial virus, parainfluenza virus, breathing, laryngotracheitis living places;
mumps, human metapneumovirus, (croup), drooling and ensure proper
measles, adenovirus, and corona viruses;. stridor, tachypnea, stridor housekeeping
the most common bacterial agent is and cyanosis
Streptococcus pneumonia, Mycoplasma
pneumoniae, Legionella, Coxiella
burnetii, Chlamydia spp., Haemophilus
influenzae
Diarrheal Caused by many viruses and Water, food, contact Passage of three or more Contaminated Proper waste
diseases microorganisms, which include secretions of infected loose/liquid stools each water/food; management;
Rotavirus, Escherichia coli, people day infected person proper sanitation
Cryptosporidium, and Shigella
Intestinal Nematode egg/larvae Soil Contaminated Use of
nematode soil/water/food; wastewater;
infections infected person manure with eggs
3.4 Interrelation Between Environment and Human/Animal Health
of nematode
Malaria Microorganisms Anopheles mosquito Fever, tiredness, vomiting, Vector-breeding Vector control
besides headaches places (stagnant
water); infected
people
(continued)
109
110
Required
environmental
Trachoma Microorganisms Water, contact with Eye infection Crowded Proper sanitation
secretion of eyes/nose/ unhygienic
throat of infected people human habitat;
3
water pollution;
infected people
Schistosomiasis Microorganisms Schistosomiasis is Contaminated Proper excreta
caused by parasitic water; infected management; safe
worms; people are people agricultural
infected due to contact practices; safe
with infested water water supply
during fishing/
recreational/agricultural
activity or other reasons
Chagas disease Microorganisms Triatomine bug Swelling at the infected Contaminated Vector control
region, fatigue, rash, fever, water/soil;
body aches, headache, infected people
eyelid swelling, nausea,
diarrhea or vomiting, loss
of appetite, enlargement of
liver or spleen, and swollen
glands
Lymphatic Filarial worms Wide range of Most cases are Vector-breeding Vector control
filariasis mosquitoes symptomless; the disease places (stagnant
causes long-term damage water); infected
to the lymphatic system people
(system of thin tubes and
nodes distributed
throughout the body)
Fundamentals of Biology for Environmental and Medical Professionals
Required
environmental
Onchocerciasis Onchocerca volvulus (parasitic worm) Black flies Skin nodules as well as Water resource Vector control
(river blindness) itching may develop; eye management
infections may result in projects
vision damage (particularly
dams); infected
people
Leishmaniasis Protozoa of the genus Leishmania Sand flies Fever, loss of appetite, low Infected people/ Vector control;
blood counts, malaise, or dogs/cats/rodents control of dogs/
night sweats; eruption of cats/rodents;
skin sores weeks/months proper solid waste
after the person is infected management
Dengue fever Dengue virus Mosquito High fever, headache, rash, Infected people/ Management of
and muscle and joint pain monkey mosquito-breeding
places
Japanese Japanese encephalitis virus Mosquito Mosquito Infected people/ Management of
encephalitis pigs/birds mosquito farm
animals; personal
protection
Source: Baron (1996) and WHO (1990, 2016, 2019a)

111
3.4 I nterrelation Between Environment and Human/Animal

Health
Humans coexist with the environment in a complex, interdependent relationship.

Human cells reside in mechanically rich and dynamic microenvironments.
Mechanobiology of cells has major roles in human physiology and
pathophysiology.
Etiology, which is the cause of an abnormal condition or disease, depends on
many factors such as:
• Emotional stress
• Free radicals/inflammation
• Genes
• Microorganisms
• Nutritional stress
• Radiation
• Toxins
An idiopathic disease is a disease with an unknown cause or mechanism.
The interface between humans and the environments can also be a source of
diseases. Apart from diseases originating from animals, human–wildlife conflict has
resulted in injury and death of humans due to animal attacks. Human–animal con-
flict can damage livestock, crops, and houses apart from injury/death of humans
resulting in psychological trauma as well as adverse effects on food security
(FAO 2010).
Effect of human exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) has been
well documented (Kelley et al. 2019; Meeker 2012; Takahashi et al. 2004). Exposure
to EDCs (e.g., brominated flame retardants [BFRs], polychlorinated biphenyls
[PCBs], phthalates bisphenol A [BPA], pesticides, and herbicides) found in con-
sumer goods, personal care products, food, drinking water, and other sources may
adversely impact child development (fetal growth, neurodevelopment, pubertal
development, early reproductive tract development, and obesity).
Examples include Niassa National Reserve in Mozambique where Nile croco-
diles killed 57 people, spotted hyenas killed 4, lions killed 34 and injured 37, and
leopards injured 9 in 30 years prior to 2007 (Begg et al. 2007). Human–elephant
conflict caused death of 1713 humans between 2015 and 2018 in India (Ganesh 2019).
As per WHO (2019b), 4.5–5.4 million people are bitten by snakes every year, out
of which 1.8–2.7 million develop clinical illness, and about 81,000–138,000 die
after the bite.
Anatomy and immune system vary from species to species. Hence, there are
many common features among different species. Biologically the humans are just
one among many species, so some of the diseases that may be contracted by animals
can also be contracted by humans.
International classifications of animal and human diseases (WHO 2019c) follow
different thinking. The classifications of diseases are modified time to time to incor-
3.4 Interrelation Between Environment and Human/Animal Health 113
porate new innovations. The list of disease classification for the year 2018 adopted
by the World Organisation for Animal Health (2019) is given in Table 3.7. For the
year 2019, the list includes 117 animal diseases, infections, and infestations.
Disease classifications in the humans are elaborate and well researched, which
includes psychological disorder, injury, poisoning, or certain other consequences of
external causes; the classification of diseases with respect to humans is based on
organs while classification of animal diseases is based on species.
The negative effects linked with animal husbandry include risk of zoonosis,
food-borne diseases, development of antimicrobial resistance, as well as chronic
diseases, such as cancers, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes due to excessive con-
sumption of saturated animal fat (EMPRI 2018).
3.4.1 Zoonosis
A zoonosis is a disease that is naturally contagious from vertebrate animals to

humans. Zoonosis comprises a hefty percentage of all infectious diseases. Cross-
sectoral collaboration is essential for the human–animal–environment interface as
well as improving global health security. Some of the common zoonosis, main res-
ervoir of causative agents, and usual modes of transmission to humans are given in
Table 3.8.
Human diseases that are newly discovered or those that are increasing either in
geographical range or incidences are referred as emerging infectious diseases
(EIDs). EIDs have accelerated to more than 300 distinct diseases recorded since the
middle of last century with more than 35 new EIDs emerging since 1980 (Kurpiers
et al. 2016; Lederberg et al. 2003; Jones et al. 2008), out of which more than 75%
of human EIDs are of zoonotic origin (Taylor et al. 2001; Jones et al. 2008; Karesh
and Noble 2009). Many of the EIDs (71.8%) begin from wildlife species (Jones
et al. 2008), even though several zoonotic pathogen spillovers originate in domestic
animals.
Even though movement of pathogens between wild animals and humans usually
occurs with sylvatic (Jungle) disease cycles (Fig. 3.11), since domestic animals live
in close proximity to wildlife in numerous nations they result in the transmission of
pathogen from wildlife to domestic animal to human (Fig. 3.12). Examples of wild-
life to domestic animal to human transmission include Henipah viruses and rabies
infections (Childs et al. 2007; Daszak et al. 2007).
Diseases can also spread further from humans to humans through animal host in
urban/rural setup (Fig. 3.13). Zoonotic diseases can be transmitted between humans
and animal hosts in many ways that include the following:
(a) Shared vectors, such as mosquitoes for malaria
(b) Indirect contact, such as exposure to feces of rodent
(c) Direct contact, through animal bites, tissues, consumption, scratches, body flu-
ids, and excrement (Wolfe et al. 2005)
Table 3.7 Disease classification prepared by the World Organisation for Animal Health for the year 2018
114
1. Multiple species diseases, infections and infestations 2. Cattle diseases and infections
(a) Anthrax (a) Bovine anaplasmosis
(b) Bluetongue (b) Bovine babesiosis
(c) Crimean Congo hemorrhagic fever (c) Bovine genital campylobacteriosis
(d) Epizootic hemorrhagic disease (d) Bovine spongiform encephalopathy
(e) Equine encephalomyelitis (Eastern) (e) Bovine tuberculosis
3
(f) Heartwater (f) Bovine viral diarrhea

(g) Infection with Aujeszky’s disease virus (g) Enzootic bovine leukosis
(h) Infection with Brucella abortus, Brucella melitensis and Brucella (h) Hemorrhagic septicemia
suis (i) Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis/infectious pustular vulvovaginitis
(i) Infection with Echinococcus granulosus (j) Infection with Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides SC (contagious
(j) Infection with Echinococcus multilocularis bovine pleuropneumonia)
(k) Infection with foot and mouth disease virus (k) Lumpy skin disease
(l) Infection with rabies virus (l) Theileriosis
(m) Infection with Rift Valley fever virus (m) Trichomonosis
(n) Infection with rinderpest virus (n) Trypanosomosis (tsetse-transmitted)
(o) Infection with Trichinella spp.
(p) Japanese encephalitis
(q) New world screwworm (Cochliomyia hominivorax)
(r) Old world screwworm (Chrysomya bezziana)
(s) Paratuberculosis
(t) Q fever
(u) Surra (Trypanosoma evansi)
(v) Tularemia
(w) West Nile fever
3. Sheep and goat diseases and infections 4. Equine diseases and infections
(a) Caprine arthritis/encephalitis (a) Contagious equine metritis
(b) Contagious agalactia (b) Dourine
(c) Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (c) Equine encephalomyelitis (Western)
(d) Infection with Chlamydophila abortus (Enzootic abortion of ewes, (d) Equine infectious anemia
ovine chlamydiosis) (e) Equine influenza
(e) Infection with peste des petits ruminants virus (f) Equine piroplasmosis
(f) Maedi-visna (g) Glanders
(g) Nairobi sheep disease (h) Infection with African horse sickness virus
(h) Ovine epididymitis (Brucella ovis) (i) Infection with equid herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1)
(i) Salmonellosis (S. abortusovis) (j) Infection with equine arteritis virus
(j) Scrapie (k) Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis
(k) Sheep pox and goat pox
5. Swine diseases and infections 6. Avian diseases and infections
(a) Infection with African swine fever virus (a) Avian chlamydiosis
(b) Infection with classical swine fever virus (b) Avian infectious bronchitis
(c) Infection with Taenia solium (Porcine cysticercosis) (c) Avian infectious laryngotracheitis
(d) Nipah virus encephalitis (d) Avian mycoplasmosis (Mycoplasma gallisepticum)
(e) Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (e) Avian mycoplasmosis (Mycoplasma synoviae)
(f) Transmissible gastroenteritis (f) Duck virus hepatitis
(g) Fowl typhoid
(h) Infection with avian influenza viruses
(i) infection with influenza A viruses of high pathogenicity in birds other
than poultry including wild birds

(j) Infection with Newcastle disease virus
(k) Infectious bursal disease (Gumboro disease)
(l) Pullorum disease
(m) Turkey rhinotracheitis
(Continued)
115
Table 3.7 (Continued)
116
7. Lagomorph diseases and infections 8. Bee diseases, infections and infestations

(a) Myxomatosis (a) Infection of honey bees with Melissococcus plutonius (European
(b) Rabbit hemorrhagic disease foulbrood)
(b) Infection of honey bees with Paenibacillus larvae (American foulbrood)
(c) Infestation of honey bees with Acarapis woodi
(d) Infestation of honey bees with Tropilaelaps spp.
3
(e) Infestation of honey bees with Varroa spp. (Varroosis)

(f) Infestation with Aethina tumida (Small hive beetle).
9. Other diseases and infections
(a) Camelpox
(b) Leishmaniosis
10. Fish diseases 11. Mollusc diseases
(a) Epizootic hematopoietic necrosis disease (a) Infection with abalone herpesvirus
(b) Infection with Aphanomyces invadans (epizootic ulcerative (b) Infection with Bonamia exitiosa
syndrome) (c) Infection with Bonamia ostreae
(c) Infection with Gyrodactylus salaris (d) Infection with Marteilia refringens
(d) Infection with HPR-deleted or HPRO infectious salmon anemia virus (e) Infection with Perkinsus marinus
(e) Infection with salmonid alphavirus (f) Infection with Perkinsus olseni
(f) Infectious hematopoietic necrosis (g) Infection with Xenohaliotis californiensis
(g) Koi herpesvirus disease
(h) Red sea bream iridoviral disease
(i) Spring viraemia of carp
(j) Viral hemorrhagic septicemia
12. Crustacean diseases 13. Amphibians
(a) Acute hepatopancreatic necrosis disease (a) Infection with Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis
(b) Infection with Aphanomyces astaci (crayfish plague) (b) Infection with Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans
(c) Infection with Hepatobacter penaei (necrotizing hepatopancreatitis) (c) Infection with Ranavirus species
(d) Infection with infectious hypodermal and hematopoietic necrosis
virus
(e) Infection with infectious myonecrosis virus
(f) Infection with Macrobrachium rosenbergii nodavirus (white tail
disease)
(g) Infection with Taura syndrome virus
(h) Infection with white spot syndrome virus
(i) Infection with yellow head virus genotype
Note: Reproduced from OIE-Listed diseases, infections and infestations in force in 2019, http://www.oie.int/en/animal-health-in-the-world/oie-listed-
diseases-2019/ with Permission from World Organisation for Animal Health on 6 February 2020
117
Table 3.8 Some of the common zoonosis, main reservoir of causative agents, and usual mode of
transmission to humans
Main reservoir of Usual mode of transmission to
Disease causative agents humans
Anthrax Livestock, wild Direct contact, ingestion
animals, environment
Animal influenza Livestock, humans Maybe reverse zoonosis
Avian influenza Poultry, ducks Direct contact
Bovine tuberculosis Cattle Milk
Brucellosis Livestock Dairy products, milk
Kyasanur Forest disease Monkey Tick
Cat scratch fever Cats Bite, scratch
Cysticercosis Livestock Meat
Cryptosporidiosis Livestock Water, direct contact
Enzootic abortion Livestock Direct contact, aerosol
Erysipeloid Pigs, fish, Direct contact
environment
Fish tank granuloma Fish Direct contact, water
Campylobacter Livestock Raw meat, milk
Salmonella Livestock Food borne
Giardiasis Humans, wildlife Water borne, person to person
Glanders Horse, donkey, mule Direct contact
Hemorrhagic colitis Ruminants Direct contact (and food borne)
Hantavirus syndromes Rodents Aerosol
Hepatitis E Wildlife, livestock, Consumption of meat, blood
humans transfusion
Hydatid disease Dogs, sheep Ingestion of eggs excreted by dog
Leptospirosis Rodents, ruminants Infected urine, water
Listeriosis Cattle, sheep, soil Dairy products, meat products
Louping ill Sheep, grouse Direct contact, tick bite
Lyme disease Ticks, rodents, sheep, Tick bite
deer, small mammals
Lymphocytic choriomeningitis Rodents Direct contact
Monkey fever (Kyasanur Forest Monkey Mosquito
disease)
Nipah virus infection Bats Fruits partially consumed by infected
bats, food and water contamination
by infected bat excreta
Orf Sheep Direct contact
Pasteurellosis Dogs, cats, many Bite/scratch, direct contact
mammals
Plague Rats and their fleas Flea bite
Psittacosis Birds, poultry, ducks Aerosol, direct contact
Q fever Cattle, sheep, goats, Aerosol, direct contact, milk, fomites
cats
Rabies Dogs, foxes, bats, cats Bite
(continued)

Main reservoir of Usual mode of transmission to
Disease causative agents humans
Rat bite fever (Haverhill fever) Rats Bite/scratch, milk, water
Rift Valley fever Cattle, goats, sheep Direct contact, mosquito bite
Ringworm Cats, dogs, cattle, Direct contact
many animal species
Streptococcal sepsis Pigs Direct contact, meat
Streptococcal sepsis Horses, cattle Direct contact, milk
Tick-borne encephalitis Rodents, small Tick bite, unpasteurized milk
mammals, livestock products
Toxocariasis Dogs, cats Direct contact
Toxoplasmosis Cats, ruminants Ingestion of fecal oocysts, meat
Trichinellosis Pigs, wild boar Pork products
Tularemia Rabbits, wild animals, Direct contact, aerosol, ticks,
environment, ticks inoculation
Ebola, Crimean-Congo Rodents, ticks, Direct contact, inoculation, ticks
hemorrhagic fever, Lassa and livestock, primates,
Marburg viruses bats
West Nile fever Wild birds, Mosquito bite
mosquitoes
Zika fever Monkey and rodents Mosquito
Zoonotic diphtheria Cattle, farm animals, Direct contact, milk
dogs
Source: EMPRI (2018), Public Health England (2013), and Park et al. (2016)
Emergence of zoonotic diseases from wildlife depends on the zoonotic pool, that
is, the diversity of wildlife microbes (Morse 1993), impact of environmental change
on the occurrence of pathogens in wildlife, and the frequency of the zoonotic pool
Fig. 3.11 Sylvatic disease

cycle
Humans
Wild life Domestic animal Humans
Fig. 3.12 Wildlife to domestic animal to human disease transmission
with human and domestic animals (Wolfe et al. 2005). As per Taylor et al. (2001),
33% of zoonotic pathogens that have spilled over are transmissible between humans.
Infectious diseases are linked to land use changes, habitat fragmentation, and
biodiversity loss (Allan et al. 2003; Cleaveland et al. 2007; Gillespie et al. 2005;
Gottdenker et al. 2014; Keesing et al. 2006; Maganga et al. 2014; Salzer et al. 2007;
Cottontail et al. 2009; Young et al. 2014). Construction and broadening of truck
roads in forests increased access of bushmeat hunters to wildlife in Cameroon,
which is the origin of several emerging virus/diseases that includes Ebola, HIV/
AIDS, monkey pox, and Marburg viruses (Wolfe et al. 2005).
Pathogen spillover from bushmeat (meat from wild animals for human consump-
tion) may happen through consumption. But risks are associated with exposure to
feces and body fluids during butchering and handling (Kilonzo et al. 2014; Paige
et al. 2014). Ebola virus disease (EVD) epidemic that emerged in West Africa in
2014 and resulted in more than 28,600 cases and 11,300 deaths in Sierra Leone,
Guinea, and Liberia (Johnson et al. 1977; Mari Saez et al. 2015; Baize et al. 2014;
WHO 2016), transmitted to humans by contact with body fluids of infected wildlife
(Leroy 2004; Judson et al. 2016).
With the increase in human population, densities, and connections, diseases have
spread more easily resulting in devastating outcomes across the world causing hun-
dreds of thousands of deaths annually with some outbreaks becoming pandemics.
3.4.2 Vector-Borne Diseases
The word vector in medicine is an organism that does not cause sickness itself but
transmits infection by spreading pathogens from one host to another.
Vectors can transmit infectious diseases from animals to humans or between
humans. Vectors include mosquitoes, ticks, flies, sandflies, triatomine bugs, fleas, as
well as some freshwater aquatic snails.
Key facts of vector-borne diseases as per the WHO (2017) are as follows:
• Over 17% of all infectious ailments are vector-borne ailments, resulting in over
700,000 deaths per year.
• Over 3.9 billion people in more than 128 nations are at risk of contracting den-
gue, with estimated 96 million cases annually.
• Malaria causes over 400,000 deaths annually worldwide.
Many of the vector-borne diseases are preventable through proper environmental

management. Some of the common vector-borne diseases are given in Table 3.9.
Distribution of vector-borne diseases depends on complex demographic, envi-
ronmental, as well as social factors. Changes in agricultural practices, lack of reli-
able drinking water supply, growth of urban slums, and poor solid waste management
can result in the spread of the vector-borne diseases (WHO 2017).
3.4.3 I mpact of Poor Environmental Management on Human

and Animal Health
Environmental health addresses all external factors to a person and all the related
factors impacting behaviors but do not include behaviors not related to environment
and genetics.
Biodiversity comprises of the genetic diversity within species as well as the pop-
ulation richness of other species in an ecosystem. Healthy ecosystems are vital to
Table 3.9 Some of the common vector-borne diseases

Vector Disease
Mosquitoes Chikungunya
Dengue fever
Lymphatic filariasis
Rift Valley fever
Yellow fever
Zika
Malaria
Japanese encephalitis
West Nile fever
Sandflies Leishmaniasis
Sandfly fever (Phlebotomus fever)
Ticks Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever
Lyme disease
Relapsing fever (borreliosis)
Rickettsial diseases (spotted fever and Q fever)
Tick-borne encephalitis
Tularemia
Monkey fever
Triatomine bugs Chagas disease (American trypanosomiasis)
Tsetse flies Sleeping sickness (African trypanosomiasis)
Fleas Plague (transmitted by fleas from rats to humans)
Rickettsiosis
Black flies Onchocerciasis (river blindness)
Aquatic snails Schistosomiasis (bilharziasis)
Lice Typhus and louse-borne relapsing fever
Fig. 3.13 Vector

transmitted urban/rural
disease cycle
the human existence, prosperity, and well-being (WWF 2016). Humans cannot live
in isolation from the environment. Early industrial societies frequently discharged
waste/emissions from industrial operations directly into the air, groundwater, and
water bodies (WWF 2016), the trend that is now being carried out in the develop-
ing world.
As per Smith et al. (1999), 25–33% of the global burden of disease occurs due to
the environmental risk factors. As per the findings of WHO (2016), 23% of global
deaths as well as 26% of deaths among the children under five are attributed to
modifiable environmental factors. Disease burden linked to the environment varies
from country to country. Overall, 9–14% of disease burden is linked to the environ-
ment in some developed countries whereas 23–31% in some developing countries,
thereby inferring that most of the deaths and disease could be tackled through
improvements in the environment in low- and middle-income countries (WHO 2016).
The Japanese encephalitis is transmitted by Culex mosquitoes, that nourish on
infected pigs, birds, and other mammals, which spread the infection to humans
around paddy fields (Fig. 3.14) and irrigation systems.
Improper increase in livestock production contributes to land degradation due to
overgrazing, erosion, decrease in soil fertility, and desertification. Animal health
activities such as vaccination or parasite control programs may lead to land degrada-
tion (FAO 1991).
Increase in livestock production can also lead to increase in waste, such as
manure from feedlots resulting in pollution. Improper disposal of waste from live-
stock management firms may increase predatory animal species such as hyenas and
dogs on land and sharks in sea.
The decrease in the population of one species in a locality may lead to unex-
pected consequences. Disproportionate use of parasiticides and antibiotics can lead
to the development of strains of pathogens resistant to the drug used. Poisoning
coyotes to control rabies in Mexico led to rise in the population of jackrabbit that
became a pest in agriculture (FAO 1991).
References 123
Administration of veterinary drugs may result in their presence in edible prod-

ucts of treated animals resulting in health hazards related to toxicity, immunity, and
infection.
Control of residues of hormones, pesticides, and drugs in milk, meat, eggs, and
other animal products can have impact on both animal and human health.
Changes to agricultural practices over the year are also responsible for many
diseases including cancer (Box 3.2).
Box 3.2 Cancer Express

Abohar-Jodhpur Passenger train is nicknamed as cancer express due to num-
ber of cancer patients traveling in it every day. Cancer patients get on from
Bathinda to Bikaner to avail affordable treatment in Bikaner.
“Green Revolution” during the 1960s resulted in excessive use of pesti-
cides, insecticides, etc., in southern districts of Punjab, which has made the
region as cancer prone belt of Punjab.
Bathinda witnessed fast growth in cancer patients and is nicknamed as
Cancer capital of Punjab.
This is one of the examples where an attempt to bring down the ailment
due to malnutrition for some faction of the society has resulted in noncom-
municable disease.
Fig. 3.14 Paddy fields

Hierarchy of controlling ailment due to environmental factors is given in

Table 3.10.
Kyasanur Forest disease (monkey fever) is an exemplar of ailment of develop-
ment linked with deforestation in southern part of India (Nichter 1987). In the
1950s, there was a significant increase in the human population in the Sagar taluk of
Shimoga district in the Karnataka State of India, which resulted in noteworthy
changes in the local ecosystem giving rise to conditions favoring expression of a
hidden enzootic process (Boshell 1969), and the disease, which was earlier endemic
to Karnataka state, has been detected from neighboring states as well (Chaubal
et al. 2018).
Theoretically the control of ailment due to the environmental factors may look
simple, but in reality the issues such as disasters, institutional capacity, fund avail-
ability, skills and knowledge, and corruption of country/community will guide the
end results, which are far from satisfactory. Consequently, the subsequent chapter
discusses the theory of environmental health issues and established/possible solu-
tion along with deviations in practice.
The pathogenesis (manner of development of a disease) of many ailments
involves host, genetic, and environmental factors. Apart from other health disorders,
these factors disturb the innate system besides adaptive immune systems as well as
composition of the intestinal microbiota. Epidemiologic and migration studies sup-
porting environmental risk factors for Crohn’s disease (CD) include childhood
hygiene, air pollution, breastfeeding, smoking, diet, stress, exercise, seasonal varia-
tion, and appendectomy (surgical removal of the appendix; Dam et al. 2013).
Although several neurodegenerative (associated with loss of neuronal structure
and function) diseases have been linked to the environmental exposures, single
environmental factor accounting for a noteworthy number of cases has not been
identified. Exposure to pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, organochlorines,
organophosphates, and carbamates have been linked to Parkinson’s disease (Cannon
and Greenamyre 2011). Exposure to lead, mercury, and pesticides have all been
cited as potential risk factors for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS; Johnson and
Atchison 2009).
3
Table 3.10 Hierarchy of controlling ailment due to environmental factors

Causative agent
Hierarchy of control Occupational hazard Pollutants Vectors Wildlife Virus/microorganism/pathogen
Elimination/substitution Eliminate/substitute hazardous Elimination Elimination of Avoid Destroy material contaminated with
technology/procedure/substance of pollution vector- wandering in virus/microorganism/pathogen
source; breeding region with
substitution places wildlife; avoid
with less development
hazardous project in
material wildlife
habitat
Control Provide barricade, building, Treat Spray Use crackers Immunization
automation polluted insecticide to threaten
stream wildlife
Administrative control Awareness, training, legislation, signage, planning, impact assessment
Personal protective Respirator, mask, cloth, slipper, shoe, Cloth, Use mosquito Gum boots, Respirator, mask, cloth, slipper, shoe,
equipment goggle slipper, shoe, net/repellent vehicle with goggle
goggle protection
125
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Part II
Introduction to Environmental and
Medical Sciences
Chapter 4
Introduction to Environmental Sciences
Abstract Environmental health literacy should integrate perceptions from both

environmental and health literacy to ensure informed choices, improve quality of
life, reduce health risks, and protect the environment. In this context, the term “envi-
ronment” means a space surrounding a microbe, or neighborhood of house, or the
village/city where we live, or the planet earth along with space surrounding it. The
overall human health can be affected due to adverse changes in the different compo-
nents of the environment and human health. Interaction of biological communities
with their physical environment changes the environment that in turn can affect the
health of the human beings. In addressing the above, this chapter discusses the fun-
damentals of environmental science and the relation of the environment to human
health.
4.1 Introduction
The word “environment” is new in quite a lot of languages. In French language, its
beginning comes from the verb “environner” terming “Environnement.” Equivalent
words were formed in other languages: “Paryavaranam” in Telugu, “vide” in
Latvian, “Parisara” in Kannada, “Miljö” in Swedish, “Meioambiente” in Portuguese,
“Medioambiente” in Spanish, “Al biah” in Arabic, etc.
The expenditures for environmental management are multitiered and assured
forecasts of future events are difficult. But the risks in the future as well as the
related costs can be minimized and eliminated by selecting suitable preventive mea-
sures (Nicholas 2003).
Global environmental issues are related to economic prosperity, human health,
and social well-being. The human behavior has array of impacts on the atmosphere,
biodiversity, water, oceans, and land, resulting in serious irreversible environmental
degradation threatening human health (UN Environment 2019).
Rapid development, though overall continuous reversion, has been the reason for
many of health issues linked with environment. The built environment has an impact
on the prevention and containment of disease.
Cities create job opportunities to survive. With more than half the world’s popu-
lation living in cities, cities with a high concentration of urban poor are potentially
more vulnerable than those that are better resourced, less crowded, and more equal.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64480-2_4
132 4 Introduction to Environmental Sciences
4.2 Micro- and Macro-Environment
The term “environment” means a space surrounding a microbe, or neighborhood of

house, or the village/city where we live, or the planet earth along with space sur-
rounding it.
Health of human body can be affected by microorganisms when recipient body
is favorable for microorganisms to live and multiply. On the other hand, human
health can be affected by changing climate or changing constituents of air/
water/food.
Understanding the microenvironment is essentially important for professionals
working in Environmental Health field. In case of glioblastoma (GBM), the most
common and most aggressive brain tumor, GBM cells coexist with normal non-
neoplastic cells constituting a complex and dynamic tumor microenvironment
(TME) (Simon et al. 2020).
The human gastrointestinal tract has a microenvironment for divergent physio-
logic processes; the dysbiosis (also called dysbacteriosis—microbial imbalance or
maladaptation) of this microecology has a strong connection with the development
of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD; Yan and Li 2020).
In the absence of any fresh air, the CO2 concentration in a vehicle interior can
increase above the ambient level. When the vehicle heating, ventilating, and air
conditioning system is operating in recirculation mode, very little to no fresh air is
ingested into the cabin interior. The transient CO2 diffusion from vehicle cabin
depends on the microenvironment that depends on wind speed outside the vehicle
cabin, the air temperature inside the vehicle cabin, and the dimensions of the diffus-
ing holes (Stitnimankarn et al. 2020).
Ecological health is a term that is used differently in different contexts. In medi-
cal sciences, ecological health refers to medical sensitivity due to exposure to syn-
thetic chemicals in the environment. In the context of urban planning, ecological
health refers to the “greenness” of cities, which includes composting, recycling, as
well as energy efficiency.
The health of ecology reflected by productivity, organization, as well as resil-
ience that characterize sustainability in the earth’s ecosystems is extremely impor-
tant to human health. Transformation of healthy ecosystems to pathological
conditions is often irreversible. The breakdown of ecosystems is generally favorable
to an augment in human pathogens, scarcity of potable water, reduced crop yields,
recycling of toxic substances, compromised food supplies, and air pollution, all of
which augments human health vulnerability. Addressing the human health from an
ecological perspective depends on the social, ecological, and biophysical determi-
nants (David 2002).
4.3 Physical and Biotic Environment 133
4.3 Physical and Biotic Environment
The term environment refers to everything that is around us, which includes living
and non-living things. Several organisms together make communities. Communities
and their physical environment make the ecosystem. Energy and mass can neither
be created nor destroyed. Hence, the organisms interact with each other as depicted
in Fig. 4.1 to get their energy/food.
Energy moves life. Energy flows through different levels in an ecosystem. In the
first level, primary producers utilize solar energy to generate organic material
through photosynthesis. Herbivores eat plants as food to get energy for the meta-
bolic activity such as breathing, digesting food, growth of tissues, blood circulation,
as well as body temperature maintenance.
Carnivores feed on the herbivores and get energy. Decomposers reduce wastes
and dead organisms and release the energy into the environment.
Interactions between organisms happen for nutrition and habitation though
mutualism, parasitism, commensalism, predation, amensalism, and competition.
Parasitic infections, caused by protozoan parasites and intestinal helminths, are
among the most prevalent infections in developing countries. As against protozoan
parasites in developed countries, intestinal parasites cause a noteworthy mortality
and morbidity in endemic (native to particular people or country) countries
(Haque 2007).
Interactions among the organisms depicted in Fig. 4.2 are also the basis of food
cycle. A simple food cycle is shown in Fig. 4.3. The nutrients in the form of ele-
ments are consumed by producers (e.g., plants and some microorganisms) capable
of converting nutrients into their body mass. These producers are consumed by
primary consumers (e.g., herbivores—animals that eat plants). Secondary consum-
ers (e.g., frogs, lizards) consume primary consumers. Tertiary consumers (e.g.,
Mutualism Commensalism Parasitism Amensalism Competition Predation
Parasitism is an Amensalism is an
Commensalism is an interaction between interactoin Predation is a
Mutualism is an interaction wherein one organisms in which one Competition is an relationship between
interaction between organism is benefited organism benefits and in which the one interaction organisms in which the
two or more species, for while other organism is other is harmed. The organism has a negative between organisms for one orgnism kills
mutual benefit. neither benefited nor parasite obtains food as effect on another, while same resource another organism for
harmed. well as shelter from the other organism species food.
host. is unaffected
ex: Mutualistic
relationship between ex: Remora (type of
fungi and algae that fish) living with a shark.
ex: Herd of elephants
form lichens. The Remoras eat food left ex: Tape worm living in ex: Competition for ex: Humans killing
walking on plants may
photsynthesizing algae out by shark while the the intestine of humans worms by birds animals for food
harm plants
provides nutrients to shark is not affected in
fungi while gains the interatction.
protection in return.
Fig. 4.1 Different types of interaction among the organisms

Nutrients Producers
Primary
Decomposers
consumers
Quartenry Secondary
consumers consumers
Tertiary
consumers
Fig. 4.2 Food cycle
snakes) consume secondary consumers. Quaternary consumers (e.g., hawks, eagles)

consume tertiary consumers.
But the food cycle is not always simple. Carnivores eat meat, herbivores eat
plants, and omnivores eat both. An example of a complex food cycle is shown in
Fig. 4.3. Some species of the plants capable of surviving using light energy and ele-
ments in nature are carnivores and trap insects. On the other hand, some people eat
deer, snakes, insects, and birds making the food cycle a web. In some circumstances,
animals such as pythons, tigers, panthers, and lions eat humans during human–ani-
mal conflicts. Humans also consume microorganisms in yogurt and other sources.
One-third of fish captured from the oceans in the world is used for animal feed
(Telegraph 2008) to enhance milk production (Atwal and Erfle 1992). Hence,
anthropogenic activity has altered energy/nutrient cycle that existed in the natural
environment.
The biosphere is the global ecological system combining all living beings as well
as their relationships. Pictorial representation of the linking between biosphere and
organisms is given in Fig. 4.4.
Humans as organisms have kept some animals in the world free (Fig. 4.5) and
others in captivity (Fig. 4.6), benefitting themselves in both the cases. Domination
of humans has resulted in the extinction of many species as well. On the other hand,
close proximity to different animals has resulted in transmission of some of the
diseases originally observed only in animals.
4.3 Physical and Biotic Environment 135
Nutrients Pitcher Plant
Insect/
Deer/
Bacteria
sheep/
goat
Frog/Lizard/
Humans
Tiger
Snake
Fig. 4.3 Humans in the food web
Fig. 4.4 Linking between

biosphere and organisms Organisms
Communities
Ecosystems
Biosphere
Urban ecosystem imports food and energy from outside its boundary and gener-
ates wastes. Some of the urban settling import water from long distance. Megacities
are to some extent not dependent on their surroundings for fuel, food, water, as well
as other materials. With growth of cities, the import of energy and material into cit-
ies increased. As per O’Meara (1999), half of 20,000 tons of food that enters
New York City is wasted before it is sold.
Fig. 4.5 Photos of some captive animals
Even though megacities in many developed nations appear to have resolved the
economic and health problems, rapid growth in the developing world has resulted in
shortage of basic social services and infrastructure, and pollution (Ethan et al.
2000). Demand of food and water has depleted ground water and surface water
sources around urban bodies of developing countries, forcing village dwellers to
migrate away from villages. The release of untreated and partially treated wastewa-
ter and solid waste has impacted quality of water and air.
4.4 Climate Change
The term climate refers to the average weather conditions over a long duration of
time (typically averaged over 30 years). Climate is never static. Earth has changed
from being a global snowball to warmer planet in the past few billion years.
Global climate changes depend on Milankovitch cycles (deviations in axial tilt,
eccentricity, as well as precession of the earth’s orbit that result in cyclical changes
in earth’s climate), aerosols, increase in greenhouse gases (GHGs) in atmosphere,
and deforestation.
More energy from the sun is entering than exiting the top of the earth’s atmo-
sphere resulting in radiative imbalance since at least about 1970. Global mean
4.4 Climate Change 137
Fig. 4.6 Photos of some free animals
s urface temperature (GMST) has increased since the end of nineteenth century with
a warming of 0.65–1.06 °C over the period 1880–2012, about 0.69–1.08 °C over the
period 1901–2012, and about 0.49–0.89 °C over the period 1951–2012 (Stocker
et al. 2013).
Climate change will affect health of humans due to the following:
• Varying weather patterns (humidity, temperature, precipitation, extreme events,
and sea-level rise)
• Changes in the quality of the environment
• Changes in food production
• Changes in human settlements
• Changes in the economy (Chandrappa et al. 2011)
Human health is sensitive to shifts in climate change and weather patterns
directly by the following (Smith et al. 2014):
• Changes in temperature and precipitation
• Occurrences of heat waves, droughts, floods, and fires
The climate change can indirectly affect health by the following (Smith
et al. 2014):
• Ecological disruptions
–– Crop failures
–– Shifting patterns of disease vectors
• Social responses to climate change
–– Displacement of populations due to climate change induced disasters
Health outcomes depends on complex interactions among the direct and indirect
effects of climate change besides social dynamics, such as access to health services,
economic development, and population demographics (Watts et al. 2015).
Over 220 million additional exposures to heatwaves (with each exposure defined
as one person aged 65 years or older exposed to one heatwave) occurred in 2018
compared with a 1986–2005 climatological baseline higher than ever previously
tracked. Vulnerability to extremes of heat continues to increase among older popu-
lations throughout the world, with the African, South-East Asia, and Western Pacific
regions seeing a raise in vulnerability of more than 10% since 1990, with people
older than 65 years old becoming increasingly vulnerable. Overall, Europe remains
the most vulnerable to heat exposures, due to its aging population, high prevalence
of diabetes, cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, and high rates of urbanization
(Watts et al. 2019).
Seasonal change in temperature is likely to cause bronchitis, goiter, eczema,
glaucoma, adrenal ulcer, peptic ulcer, and herpes zoster (Tromp 1963). Variations in
ambient temperatures can be linked to heart failure as well as cerebrovascular acci-
dents (Persinger 1980). Ambient ultraviolet levels as well as maximum summertime
day temperatures are related to the occurrence of cataracts and non-melanoma skin
cancers in the eye (van der Leun et al. 2008).
The health effects of wildfires include direct thermal injuries and chronic respira-
tory symptoms (Black et al. 2017). The global economic burden per person affected
by wildfires is more than 48 times higher than that by floods and twice that by earth-
quakes (Doerr and Santín 2016). Many neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) are
likely to be affected by climate change over the seasonal, annual, and decadal terms
(Booth 2018).
4.5 Pollution of the Environment
Along with the word “environment” the word “pollution” took importance too.
Since the late eighteenth century, the world has seen significant changes in agricul-
ture, mining, energy production manufacturing, and transportation. The current cen-
tury saw tremendous changes in the service sector such as the health care, software,
education, communication, pest control, entertainment, waste management, adver-
tisement, and event management, which has increased demand for energy, manufac-
tured products, and transportation.
The industrial revolution changed quantity and constituents of wastes and associ-
ated pollution. With time, while some countries invested and brought down pollu-
tion level in their environment others still have to catch up. Since pollutants do not
4.5 Pollution of the Environment 139
respect political boundaries, the pollutants spread to other countries from countries
of origin.
The word “pollution” is usually associated with air, water, noise, and soil even
though the words thermal pollution, light pollution, radiation pollution, and land
pollution also occur in media and literature.
The definitions of various types of pollution are given in Table 4.1.
Since all the components of the environment are interconnected, pollutants may
change media—air to water to soil and other ways. The pollution issue is further
complicated as pollutants that enter the environment do not remain the same. The
chemical reaction in the environment among the pollutants and other chemicals in
nature would end up in complex hazardous compounds that are often not monitored
or remain undetected.
Water pollution can occur from numerous sources (Figs. 4.7, 4.8, 4.9, 4.10, 4.11,
4.12, and 4.13), which include the following:
• Defecation in riverbed
• Washing cloth/vehicle/vegetable/animal
• Throwing dead animals in water body
• Industrial discharges
• Discharge from urban body
• Urban/rural/mining/forest/agricultural runoff
Table 4.1 Types of environmental pollution

Sl.
no. Type of pollution Description
1. Air pollution Presence of substances in the atmosphere at concentrations
greater than their usual ambient levels that affects biotic and
abiotic components of the environment significantly
2. Water pollution Presence of substances in water bodies at concentrations
greater than their usual levels that affects biotic and abiotic
components of the environment significantly
3. Soil pollution Presence of substances in soil at concentrations greater than
their usual levels that affects biotic and abiotic components of
the environment significantly
4. Land pollution Presence of substances in land at concentrations greater than
their usual levels that affects biotic and abiotic components of
the environment significantly
5. Noise pollution Propagation of noise with harmful impacts on the human and
animal life; conventionally, noise pollution is not linked to
damage of abiotic components and species of other kingdoms
6. Light pollution (photo Excessive and inappropriate artificial light
pollution)
7. Radiation pollution Pollution caused by radioactive materials
(radioactive pollution or
nuclear pollution)
8. Thermal pollution The discharge of liquid with higher temperature into natural
waters that would cause harm to the environment
Fig. 4.7 Defecation in riverbed
Fig. 4.8 Man washing clothes in river
• Scrubbing of air pollutants present in air

• Disposal of solid waste into water body
• Accidental/incidental material/oil spills from ships/boats
• Act of terrorism
• Religious dumping of worship material/ash
• Accidental and/or intentional disposal of dead animals in water body
Accidental and incidental release of raw and waste materials into the oceans have
been causes of concern in recent years (Box 4.1).
Box 4.1 Plastic Pollution of Ocean

Due to versatility of plastic, their uses have increased and have occupied
many aspects of life. Non-degradability and durability of plastics and buoy-
ancy have become a threat to the environment and make them disperse over
long distances.
Recreational fishing and boats account for nearly 52% of all the solid
wastes dumped in the US waters (UNESCO 1994). In 1975, nearly 23,600 tons
of artificial packaging and 135,400 tons of plastic fishing gear and substances
were discarded into the sea by fishing boats/ships (Cawthorn 1989; DOC
1990). As per an article published by Horsman (1982), merchant ships discard
nearly 639,000 plastic containers daily across the world.
Plastic pellets were seen in non-industrial locations such as Rarotonga,
Tonga, and Fiji. In New Zealand beaches, more than 100,000 raw plastic gran-
ules/sqm were observed in 1989 (Gregory 1989).
As per the work published by Ryan and Moloney (1990), plastic trash in
South African beaches has raised in five years.
Air pollution can happen naturally due, but not limited, to the following:
• Soil erosion
• Forest fire
Fig. 4.9 Dead calf thrown in a riverbed during a lean season

Fig. 4.10 Urban discharge into Hooghly River, near Kolkata (Calcutta), India
• Volcano
• Pollen grain from plants and trees
• Decomposition of organic matter
• Atmospheric chemical reaction
Anthropogenic air pollution sources (Figs. 4.14, 4.15, 4.16, 4.17, 4.18, 4.19,
4.20, 4.21, 4.22, and 4.23) include the following:
Fig. 4.11 Disposal of solid waste in Hooghly River, Kolkata (Calcutta), India
Fig. 4.12 Water contamination by regular human activities in urban setting
• Agricultural activity
• Particulate matter (PM) resuspension due to poor quality of road
• Smoking
• Industry
• Cracker bursting
• Mining and quarrying activities
• Exploration/production of oil/natural gas
Fig. 4.13 Fecal matter is being managed and diverted into a natural lake, which is being used to
feed in fisheries
Fig. 4.14 Land preparation for agricultural activity would loosen the soil particles that would be
air borne along with agrochemicals fed to it
Fig. 4.15 Poor road

condition
• Cooking
• Fuel combustion in vehicles (used for air/water/land transportation)
• Solid waste handling/combustion
• Construction activity
Fig. 4.16 Examples of industry near human settlements
Fig. 4.17 Mining
• Energy production from fuel

• Road sweeping
• Religious activity, where worshiping material are burnt and dust is smeared
• Painting and varnishing
Fig. 4.18 Cooking
• Riots
• Rocket launching
• Laboratory activity
• Bomb testing
• Drilling bore well
• Practicing use of war weapons
• Terrorism
• Wars
In some situations, anthropogenic activity is likely to contribute to air pollution
after several years. Entry of disintegrated paint after few years into the air is often
associated with entry of heavy metals, present in the pigments of paints, in the air.
Air pollution occurs due to many anthropogenic activities of varying magnitudes
and pollutants. Some activities such as lighting candle may not cause significant
health hazard immediately but the data are not available to prove beyond doubt that
it will not affect health.
Fig. 4.19 Fuel combustion in vehicles

Fig. 4.20 Waste handling/combustion
Venting and leakage during the extraction, transportation, and processing of nat-
ural gas result in emissions of pollutants and GHGs.
Many sources intentionally vent gases, like depressurization of equipment before
maintenance, vented storage tanks, dehydrators, and oil/gas extraction wells when
accumulated liquids are removed after hydraulic fracturing.
Solid waste is one of the most challenging source of air pollution, especially in
the developing countries where sufficient funds are not allocated for waste manage-
ment or strict enforcement is not made or, in many cases, laws with respect to waste
management do not exist. Often, the waste reduction is done by open burning at
source or dump yard.
Demolition of buildings and earthwork activities such as excavation and piling
generally pose air pollution risks than construction and dragout (trucks dragging out
trucks).
In order to affect health, pollutants need to reach recipients (Fig. 4.24). And the
human activities would often bring them to the proximity of pollutants either in road
side or in multistoried buildings, as pollutants spread out by momentum, dispersion,
convection, and complex atmospheric phenomena.
Port of entry and concentration of pollution determine health impacts due to air
pollution (Fig. 4.25).
Fig. 4.21 Material

handling at construction
site
Fig. 4.22 Diesel generator at a construction site for electric generation

Fig. 4.23 Road sweeping
Not all particles in the air have the same properties. Some of the particles may be
pathogenic resulting in infection. Other particles may be radioactive resulting in
cancer in the recipient. Chemistry of particle determines the health of recipient.
While some may be carcinogenic, others may not. Particles such as acid mist may
be highly reactive and react with cells of body, damaging cells and tissues they are
associated with.
The health impact also depends on recipient organ of human body. For example,
hot particles may kill biological cells and damage tissues. While respirable particles
may enter the lungs and get absorbed affecting the cells in the immediate vicinity,
the same particles may not harm the skin the same way if they fall on nail/skin. The
chili powder in small quantity, which may not irritate skin/tongue, will irritate if it
enters the eyes. Similarly, asbestos, which do not affect the skin in small quantity,
may cause asbestosis if they enter the lungs.
Biological characteristics also determine extent of health impact based on the
recipient organs and environmental conditions. While pollen grains do not multiply,
the bacteria/fungi will multiply depending on the temperature, humidity, and nutri-
ent supply at the portal of entry and subsequent location it moves to within the
Fig. 4.24 People exposed to pollutants
Physical Chemical Biological
• State of matter • Reactivity • Bacteria

(solid/liquid/gas) • Radioactivity • Virus
• Size • Fungal Spores
• Shape • Pollen grains
• Temperature
Fig. 4.25 Examples of physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of pollutants, which
define their impacts on health
human body. As discussed in Chap. 3, not all microorganisms are pathogenic

in nature.
Outdoor and ambient air pollution has been attributed as one of the major causes
of death (Ostro 2004; WHO 2015a, b, c). Health of children (WHO 2005), food, and
water are affected by air pollutants (Chandrappa and Kulshrestha 2016). Ambient
air pollution is the cause for about 4.2 million premature deaths worldwide due to
their ailments including heart disease, stroke, chronic obstructive lung cancer, pul-
monary disease, as well as acute respiratory infections (WHO 2018a).
Conventionally sulfur dioxide (SO2), particulate matter (PM), nitrogen dioxide
(NO2), and ozone (O3) are measured in the ambient air worldwide. But the particu-
late matter could contain microbes as well as toxic substances. Overall, 143 million
chemicals have been registered since 1800s (CAS 2018), which are not completely
understood by the scientific community. Any chemical registered/unregistered in
Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) registry can enter the environment and human
body. But not all chemicals are analyzed in the water/air/soil samples collected.
Some gases such as SO2 cause irritation, while gases such as CO and acetylene
cause asphyxiation. Nasal allergy may be caused due to pollens and pollutants that
can remain on skin/respiratory/digestive system or enter the blood and can be trans-
ported all over the body. Apart from smoking, other causes for cancer include radon,
secondhand smoke, asbestos, benzene, formaldehyde, and array of other substances
published by International Agency for Research on Cancer time to time.
Lead in air, even in low concentration, is toxic, but the organo-lead compounds
are still more toxic. They can cause cardiovascular, hematological, gastrointestinal,
neurological, renal, as well as reproductive disorders. Lead accumulated in bones
can turn into source of exposure afterward in life (UNEP 2010).
The lung of infants as well as developing fetus is more vulnerable to damage as
a result of lung toxicants.
Air pollution on October 26, 1948, besides the River Monongahela, in close
proximity to Pittsburgh in United States, resulted in demise of 20 people due to
respiratory and cardiac diseases.
Exhausts from gasoline and diesel combustion are probably carcinogenic to peo-
ple (IARC 1989) and children residing around locations with high traffic are more
prone to danger of cancer.
Air-borne particles can stay in air for several days (Wells and Stone 1934; Wells
1934; Duguid 1946) and, hence, pathogens can spread by dispersion in air.
As per Wang and Pinkerton (2007), exposure to air pollution at the time of fetal
development as well as early postnatal life can be associated with the following:
1. Behavioral problems
2. Childhood asthma
3. Congenital defects
4. Decreased lung growth
5. Rise in respiratory tract infections
6. Intrauterine as well as infant mortality
7. Intrauterine growth restriction
8. Neurocognitive decrements
9. Preterm birth
10. Very low/low birth weight
Air pollution can lead to silicosis and asbestosis due to inhaling silica and asbes-
toses, respectively. PM in air increases risk for cardiovascular diseases (Pope II
et al. 2004; O’Neill et al. 2005; Miller et al. 2007; Whitsel et al. 2009; Ursula et al.
2010). Although there was a general consensus that higher air pollution exposure is
linked to middle ear inflammation, commonly known as otitis media (OM), which
is a multifactorial disease of the middle ear and globally affects more than 80% of
children below the age of three years, the evidence for associations with specific
pollutants is not consistent (Bowatte et al. 2018).
The eye is vulnerable to air pollution leading to eye irritation and persistent dis-
comfort (Bourcier et al. 2003; Schwela 2000; Klopfer 1989; Zhiwei et al. 2016).
As per Mancebo and Wang (2015), ambient air pollutants affect skin health by
the following mechanisms:
• Beginning of aryl hydrocarbon receptor
• Changes to skin microflora
• Generation of free radicals
• Introduction of inflammatory cascade as well as succeeding damage to skin
barrier
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) can move long distances besides bioaccu-
mulation in animals and humans. Usual POPs in air include dioxins, pesticides, as
well as dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls. Dioxins in air might bioaccumulate
in plants as well as food products (Schecter et al. 2006).
In order to eliminate/restrict the production/use of POPs, Stockholm Convention
on Persistent Organic Pollutants was signed in 2001. As of February 2019, there are
182 parties to the Convention (United Nations 2019).
Old paint is the common source of lead air pollution. Deteriorating paint chips
and suspended particles due to natural weathering, remodeling, dry scraping, as
well as demolition result in resuspension of paint particles with lead. Lead poison-
ing in children was reported in 1892 in Australia for the first time (Gibson et al.
1892); after 12 years peeling lead-based paint, lead poisoning was observed in 10
children (Gibson 1904). Even in countries with efforts to control lead, it still exists
in soil/dust/house paint.
The phenomenon of formation of new pollutants in nature is the basis of the
terms: primary and secondary pollutants (Table 4.2). The terms primary and second-
ary pollutants are usually associated with air pollutants. Pollutants directly released
into the environment are called primary pollutants. Pollutants formed in the atmo-
sphere are called secondary pollutants and are due to reaction of primary pollutants
with other substances.
Pollutants can be natural or anthropogenic (Fig. 4.26).
Pollution can happen incidentally (transportation, industry, etc.) or accidentally
(oil spill, fire hazard, etc.).
4.6 Solid Waste 153
Fig. 4.26 Classification of

pollutants
4.6 Solid Waste
Solid waste is a problem associated with solid wastes existing since the prehistoric
days. Both the quantities and qualities of the wastes have changed over the years
due to the invention of new technologies, products, and services. The waste charac-
teristics depend on income, culture, geographical locations, economy, and situa-
tions like disasters.
Health impact is one of the consequences of poor solid waste management.
Improper solid waste management can lead to the following (Chandrappa and
Das 2012):
• Resource depletion
• Injury
• Epidemic
• Fire hazards
• Air pollution
• Water pollution
• Dog nuisance
• Snake/insect bite
• Food contamination
• Generation of GHGs
Table 4.2 Examples of secondary pollutants

Sl.
no. Secondary pollutant Description
1. Acid rain Formed due to reaction of sulfur dioxide or nitrogen oxide
with water
2. Ground-level ozone Formed when hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen combine
in sunlight
3. Nitrogen dioxide formed Formed due to reaction of nitric oxide with oxygen present in
in atmosphere air
4. Particulate matter formed Solid particles such as sulfates formed from sulfur dioxide
in atmosphere and nitrates form nitrogen dioxide in atmosphere
5. Peroxyacetyl nitrate Formed when oxidized volatile organic compounds combine
(PAN) with nitrogen oxide
• Problems linked with aviation due to birds flying above dump sites
• Erosion and stability problems in land fill or waste dump
• Increase in rodents and vectors
• Poor aesthetics
The word waste has many definitions. Primarily, it is any matter that does not
have an immediate use. However, a substance that is useless to some could be useful
to other persons.
A vegetarian can find a dead animal useless, but, for non-vegetarian, it is food.
Similarly, the excess food leftover in his or her plate may be useless to him or her,
but it is useful for piggeries, compost maker, and biogas generator.
The old tires may not be useful for the vehicle owner. However, cement kilns
may find it useful as fuel.
Any waste that is solid can be termed as solid waste. Waste in semisolid form is
semisolid waste. The semisolid waste will not have any definite shape and, also,
may not qualify to become liquid due to its resistance to flow. Many slurries from
industries and waste clotted blood from slaughterhouses may be considered as
examples of semisolid waste.
Solid waste is not something a developer or city planner thinks of in the early
stages of planning. Most often development authorities are different from that of
urban bodies. In the developing world, the city grows haphazardly without planning
engulfing the villages and agricultural area nearby, catering to the demand of
housing and development. As people start moving into new area and start generating
waste, the local bodies will then gear up to pick the waste either by outsourcing the
garbage collection service or recruiting new personnel.
The inability to pay salaries to waste collecting personnel or delay in payment to
waste collection subcontractors may add to additional burden on public health.
The non-identification or non-availability of waste disposal sites near urban bod-
ies often results in disposal of waste in outskirts on common property such as forest,
lakes, wetlands, and beaches.
Some of the cities have seen sudden population explosion before administrators
can cope with the challenge. Delay in the recruitment of new personnel, indenting
contractors, locating suitable place for processing disposal, training new personnel,
hiring/buying new vehicle, allocating budget, etc. add to mismanagement of waste
at the cost of public health.
Solid waste can not only cause injury (due to sharp objects, slipperiness, fall of
objects, obstruction to movement, and other physical hazard) but also it can lead to
air and water pollution (Fig. 4.27) resulting in associated diseases.
Air pollution due to poor solid waste management can cause increase in the rates
of respiratory tract infections, intrauterine and infant mortality, behavioral prob-
lems, childhood asthma, congenital defects, decreased lung growth, neurocognitive
decrements, cardiovascular diseases, silicosis, and asbestosis.
Water pollution due to poor solid waste management can cause an array of dis-
eases depending on the pollutants it carries, which can be communicable or
non-communicable.
4.6 Solid Waste 155
Fig. 4.27 Water pollution

due to waste discarded
next to stream
Schematic diagram of health impact due to solid waste is given in Fig. 4.28.
Apart from water-borne diseases, mismanagement of solid waste can also encour-
age rodents and vectors. The waste can also host snakes and other species such as
scorpions, resulting in snake bites and scorpion bites. The animals near waste dump
can also attract carnivorous animals such as panther leading to man and wildlife
conflict. The hot objects due to burning of solid waste could result in burns. Several
published papers on health issues associated with solid waste mainly concern can-
cer, birth outcomes, snake bite, dog bite, respiratory diseases, as well as annoyance
due to improper solid waste disposal (Dolk et al. 1998; Vrijheid 2000; Hu and Shy
2001; Jarup et al. 2002; Rushton 2003; DEFRA 2004; Chandrappa and Das 2012;
Ashworth et al. 2014; WHO 2015d; EMPRI 2018a, b).
Solid waste can be classified into many types and subtypes. Examples of solid
waste categorization and health hazard are given in Table 4.3.
Indiscriminate disposal of solid waste can result in biomagnification, wherein
chemicals can accumulate in each level of food chain. The chemicals can enter milk
through ingestion/inhalation of chemicals by cow/buffalo. The chemicals also find
its way into egg of hen/ducks, which consume contaminated food from waste heaps.
Figure 4.29 shows cathode ray tube of television disposed on road and Fig. 4.30
Burns due
to hot Air
objects Pollution
Combustion and air suspension
Solid Waste Animal

bites
Leachet and overflow
Bio-
Water
magnification
Pollution
Water borne diseases
Fig. 4.28 Schematic diagram of health impact due to solid waste
shows a view of waste dump site, which are unscientific disposal methods and can
lead to health hazards as discussed in Box 4.2.
Box 4.2 Case Studies

Case: Plague-Like Epidemic in Surat, India, 1994
Surat of Gujarat state, India, grew over the years and increased eightfolds
in the four decades leading to poor sanitation conditions that led to an out-
break of plague in the year 1994 claiming many lives (Central Pollution
Control Board 2017). Ineffective management of waste led to the obstruction
of storm water drains resulting in flooding of some areas of the city. The later
corrective action brought back health status and stopped plague.
The disease occurrence resulted in 693 cases and 56 deaths. In addition,
the country suffered about USD 2 billion in economic losses, which include
nearly USD 420 million in lost export earnings. The disease outbreak resulted
in cancellation of trips to India by over 45,000 people (UNEP and International
Solid Waste Association [ISWA] 2015).
Case: Accra, Ghana
In Accra, Ghana, drains blocked by wastes resulted in floods in 2011,
which resulted in the death of 14 people, and 43,000 were affected, with
17,000 losing their homes. In addition, 100 incidents of cholera were reported
a week after the flooding occurred.
4.6 Solid Waste 157
Case: Naples, Italy, 1994–2014

Improper solid waste management in Naples metropolitan area resulted in
piling up of wastes in the streets leading to breeding grounds for vector-borne
diseases.
Case: Mysore, India
Improper and illegal disposal of hazardous wastes covered by soil led to
the death of a boy in Mysore during playing (Star of Mysore 2017).
Studies by Ray et al. (2004) revealed that respiratory symptoms as well as lung
function reduction were 94% and 52%, respectively, among the rag-pickers as
compared to 56% and 34% among the controls. The rag-pickers showed a greater
prevalence of frequent diarrhea, low hemoglobin and monocyte counts, high circu-
lating eosinophil, unhealthy gums, as well as dermatitis, when compared to controls.
Similar studies on rag-pickers revealed that they suffer from mental and physical
illnesses. Usual health concerns associated with rag-pickers are: rat bite, dog bite,
redness of eyes, backache, accidental injuries, and headache. Many of them suffer
Fig. 4.29 Cathode ray

tube of television disposed
on road
Table 4.3 Examples of solid waste categorization and health hazard

Sl.
no. Type Subtype Health hazard
1. Municipal solid Metal waste May cause injury
waste Food waste Hosts pathogen, attracts rodents
Ash Heavy metal contamination
Waste leather Hosts infectious fungus
Waste rubber Combustible material, may cause injury
Waste glass May cause injury
2. Electronic End-of-life (EOL) Some metal may be poisonous (mercury, lead, etc.)
waste electronic Some chemicals used in consumables may be toxic
equipment (mercury, cadmium, lead, etc.)
End-of-life
electronic
consumables
Rejected electronic
components during
manufacturing
Electronic items
damaged during
transportation
Waste generated
due to absolute
technology
3. Biomedical Anatomical waste Causes infection, toxic
waste Pharmaceutical Radiotoxicity, injury, and infection
waste
Radioactive waste
Waste sharps
Soiled waste
Ash of incinerated
biomedical waste
Animal waste
Chemical waste
Genotoxic waste
Pathological waste
4. Slaughter waste Bones May cause injury and infection; may host rodents
Feathers and vectors
Waste from
digestive system
(continued)
4.6 Solid Waste 159

Sl.
5. Plastic waste High-density Carcinogenic; likely to release dioxins and furans
polyethylene when burnt, which are known to be carcinogenic;
Low-density may result in hormone imbalance and birth defect
polyethylene
Polyvinyl chloride
Polyethylene
terephthalate
Polystyrene
Polypropylene
Other types of
plastic
6. Hazardous Discarded Carcinogenic; likely to release dioxins and furans
waste containers when burnt, which are known to be carcinogenic;
Sludge from may result in hormone imbalance and birth defect;
effluent treatment can lead to acute or chronic toxicity; combustible
plant and explosive waste may lead to injury
Waste from
manufacturing
process
Contaminated soil
7. Construction Adhesive and Sharp object may cause injury; carcinogenic; likely
and demolition sealants to release dioxins and furans when burnt, which are
waste Bituminous known to be carcinogenic; may result in hormone
mixture, coal tar, imbalance and birth defect; can lead to acute or
and tar chronic toxicity; combustible and explosive waste
Cement may lead to injury; may host rodents and vectors
Concrete, bricks,
ceramics, and tiles
Gypsum
Insulation,
fiberglass, and
asbestos
Metallic waste
Paints and varnishes
Soil, stones, and
dredging spoil
Wood, glass, and
plastic
(continued)

Sl.
8. Agriculture Husk Combustion of agrochemicals is likely to result in
waste Brawn air pollution related health impacts; residual
Straw chemicals in discarded container of agrochemicals
may lead to toxicity; may host rodents, vectors,
Stover
snakes, and other wild animals
Skins trimming
Cobs
Outer peel
Fruit trimming
Discarded container
of agrochemicals
Discarded tools
9. End-of-life EOL ships Carcinogenic; likely to release dioxins and furans
(EOL) vehicles EOL aircraft when burnt, which are known to be carcinogenic;
EOL two/four may result in hormone imbalance and birth defect;
wheelers can lead to acute or chronic toxicity; combustible
and explosive waste may lead to injury
10. Disaster waste Waste due to wars Likely to release dioxins and furans when burnt,
Waste due to strike, which are known to be carcinogenic; may result in
mutiny, sabotage hormone imbalance and birth defects; can lead to
Waste due to fire acute or chronic toxicity; combustible and explosive
accidents waste may lead to injury and spread infection; may
host rodents and vectors
Waste due to
natural disasters
with mild anxiety and mild depression as common mental disorders (Balu
et al. 2016).
Modern health care facilities generate huge quantity of solid wastes (WHO
2018b). The health impact due to improper disposal of hospital wastes may not just
be restricted to health care personnel and people within the immediate vicinity. It
can go beyond the immediate vicinity if the contaminated syringes and waste cotton
are repacked and sold. The waste cotton may also be used to make toys or ear buds
resulting in spread of diseases. Selling expiry drugs to uneducated people would
also lead to deceases.
Apart from health issues, improper waste management can also lead to disasters.
Some of the major disasters due to improper waste disposal are listed in Table 4.4.
The solid waste management depends on socio-economic and cultural back-
ground of the society. In many parts of India, the chickens and cows are left stray to
feed on waste (Fig. 4.31), which becomes source of food (egg, milk, meat) for
humans. The waste bones from the zoos will be auctioned in many parts of the
world, which finds its way to become bone charcoal or bone powder.
Rapidly growing waste from meat shops and food waste have resulted in the
increase in street dog population. Apart from slaughtering in slaughterhouses as
well as meat shops, animals are also butchered at places of worship and individual
4.6 Solid Waste 161
Fig. 4.30 View of waste dump site
residences generating wastes unscientifically. Apart from dog bite, indiscriminate

disposal of animal waste is also a leading cause of zoonosis. About 35 million stray
dogs live in India, with the biggest reason being open garbage (Singh 2018). Dog
bites are the major source of human infection (WHO 2012). In India alone, about
2.8 million people suffer from snake bite every year resulting in about 46,900 death
per year (WHO 2018c).
Figure 4.32 shows spillage and seepage during transportation of waste. Other
hazards due to waste processing are odors, heavy traffic, litter, noise, flies, as well
as birds.
Waste segregation plays an important role in solid waste management. But seg-
regation may happen in crude and unsafe manner (Figs. 4.33, 4.34, and 4.35). While
some countries dump unsegregated wastes, other will segregate to maximum extent.
In the spring of 2001, six million cows, sheep, pigs, and goats were slaughtered
to control an outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease in the UK. The outbreak started on
Burnside farm, Northumberland, where uncooked food leftovers were fed to pigs.
As per the regulations, food wastes had to be cooked to sterilize to prevent disease
transfer (Erasmus 2018).
Feeding animals with food waste is practiced in many places of the world as
waste treatment process. A countrywide ban in China on food waste usage as pig
feed due to African swine fever epidemic resulted in use of cockroach in food waste
management (New York Post 2018). Termites can also be used for waste treatment
in order to produce hydrogen and for increasing the soil fertility (Hussein 2014).
In many parts of the world, waste management is not a priority and still done
crudely (Figs. 4.36, 4.37, and 4.38).
Table 4.4 Some of the major disasters due to improper waste disposal
Incident Description Date Location
Aberfan accident Spillage of coal waste 1966 United
Kingdom
Acerinox disaster Contamination with radioactive 1998 Spain
substance
Addis Ababa Garbage landslide 2017 Ethiopia
Ajka alumina plant disaster Spillage of caustic waste 2010 Hungary
Atari video game burial Burial of electronic hardware 1983 United States
disaster
Bajzë Rail Station disaster Contamination with chemical 1991 Albania
Buffalo Creek Flood Coal slurry impound spill 1972 United States
Friendly Floatees Flotsam 1992 Ocean
Goiânia accident Radioactive contamination 1987 Brazil
Hansa Carrier Flotsam 1990 Ocean
Kingston Fossil Plant disaster Coal fly ash slurry spill 2008 United States
Mapua contaminated site Toxic waste 1932– New Zealand
disaster 1988
Maputo Garbage landslide 2018 Mozambique
Martin County sludge spill Water pollution 2000 United States
Mayapuri Radioactive contamination 1986 India
Meethotamulla Garbage landslide 2017 Sri Lanka
Minamata Bay mercury Cause of Minamata disease 1932– Japan
poisoning 1968
Pune Garbage landslide 2014 India
Seveso disaster Toxic pollutant 1976 Italy
Source: Wikipedia (2018), Pappas (2017), Xinhua (2018), and India Times (2014)
The health impact of solid waste management as well as disposal activities is

partly understood. Living in the surrounding area of a landfill and incinerator can
result in risk for health of people through inhalation, contact with polluted water/
soil, consumption of contaminated food, etc. Contamination of food traded in
unsanitary conditions near waste in developing countries causes major health haz-
ards since food is handled and piled on the ground.
Municipal solid waste composition is not uniform. While some substances in the
waste exist in large quantities, others will be present at extremely low levels
(Johnson and DeRosa 1997). But the substances in low quantity can have high
health risks. Similarly, the composition of landfill gas will have gases in small quan-
tities, which would cause health hazards. Landfill gases comprise mainly of carbon
dioxide and methane, while mercury vapor, hydrogen sulfide, and volatile organic
compounds are at around 0.5% (Zmirou et al. 1994). WHO expert group recom-
mended priority pollutants must be defined on the basis of mobility, environmental
persistence, bioaccumulation toxicity, and other hazards such as explosivity
(WHO 2000).
4.6 Solid Waste 163
Fig. 4.31 Chicken and

cow feeding on garbage
Other phenomenon observed with waste dumps or landfill is generation of leach-

ate (Fig. 4.39) due to moisture within the waste and water entering from environ-
ment due to precipitation or surface runoff.
Waste incineration generates numerous pollutants, which can be classified as
organic compounds, particles, gases, and metals (Harrad and Harrison 1996).
The construction and demolition (C&D) waste (Fig. 4.40) generation in 40 coun-
tries globally exceeded 3.0 billion tons per annum until 2012 (Ali and Ajit 2018)
posing new challenge to waste and environmental managers.
C&D waste is generated mainly from the following activities (CPCB 2017):
(i) Construction of new buildings
(ii) Construction of new infrastructure such as over bridges/under bridges/sub-
ways, etc.
(iii) Demolition of existing, old dilapidated structures
(iv) Excavation/reconstruction of roads
(v) Renovation of existing buildings
(vi) Renovation/installation of water/telephone/internet/sewer pipelines, etc.
The developing countries need to develop complete system to utilize C&D waste
(Ali and Ajit 2018). As per a case study in Bengaluru (India), approximately 30% of
Fig. 4.32 Spillage and

seepage during
transportation of waste
Fig. 4.33 Waste segregation
the C&D wastes are used at a variety of sites for leveling low-lying areas besides
land reclamation. Some C&D waste is dumped illegally in or around wastelands,
old lakes, roads and highways, and valleys (Venkatesh et al. 2016).
Radioactive waste, which is another global challenge, is produced by numerous
sources—nuclear power plants, hospitals, universities, and industries. Radioactive
waste emits radiation, and hence hazard to the environment and human health.
Therefore, it must be managed with special care. Finding appropriate waste disposal
References 165
Fig. 4.34 Waste coconut being dried before being sent for oil extraction
Fig. 4.35 Segregated

paper and cardboard waste
method is a main challenge for all stakeholders (IRSN 2013). Radioactive wastes in
health care establishments are produced due to procedures in various investigative
as well as therapeutic practices.
Radioactive waste is divided into following categories:
(i) Very low radioactive waste
(ii) Low radioactive waste
(iii) Intermediate radioactive waste
Fig. 4.36 Waste being received at collection centers
Fig. 4.37 Manual waste

segregation
References 167
Fig. 4.38 Waste storage
Fig. 4.39 Leachate

generation from waste
dump
Fig. 4.40 Construction

and demolition waste at the
site of demolition
(iv) High-level radioactive waste

If radioactive waste with radionuclides have a half-life of less than 31 years, it is
considered as “short-lived” otherwise the waste will be termed as “long-lived”
(IRSN 2013).
Radionuclides used in health care facilities comprise of the following:
(i) Sealed sources—radioactive substances enclosed in parts of equipment or
encapsulated in impervious or unbreakable objects, such as “seeds” pins, or
needles.
(ii) Unsealed sources—those that are applied directly and normally in liquid form
(WHO 2014).
Hazardous wastes even in low concentrations have the potential to have a note-
worthy and undesirable public health impact due to their toxicological, physical, as
well as chemical characteristics (DWAF 1998). Numerous hazardous waste-
producing industries have moved to the developing nations due to the low manage-
ment cost as well as non-stringent regulations resulting in the generation of
hazardous waste that is mismanaged leading to adverse impact on public health.
References 169
The quantity of waste generated in industries is usually underreported to avoid

statutory obligation while urban local bodies overreport to get funding and route it
to waste mafia. The waste is often tipped off in virgin environment such as forest,
water bodies, estuary, marshes, and beaches. The waste sometimes is buried and
covered with a layer of soil. In some cases, waste is burnt openly releasing
toxic fumes.
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Chapter 5
Introduction to Medical Sciences
Abstract Medical science is a specialty of science that is concerned with the diag-
nosis, treatment, and prevention of diseases. However, the fundamentals of medical
science need to be understood by the environmental practitioners and professionals
to come out with effective solutions to present and future health problems due to
continuous changes in the environmental setup. Similarly, the effects of the environ-
ment on different organs need to be well understood to chart out effective strategies
to guide decision makers take the right decisions to protect public health by main-
taining the environments. The relationship between the disease causative agent and
level of exposure as well as the degree of effect generally occurs in several ways that
form the fundamentals of environmental health. In addressing these points, this
chapter discusses the fundamentals of medical sciences for environmental practitio-
ners and professionals.
5.1 Introduction
Medical science is a specialty of science that is concerned with the diagnosis, treat-
ment, and prevention of diseases. However, the fundamentals of medical science
need to be understood by the environmental practitioners and professionals to come
out with effective solutions to present and future health problems due to changes in
environmental setup. Similarly, the effects of the environment on different organs
need to be well understood to chart out strategies to guide decision makers take the
right decisions to protect public health by maintaining the environments.
Understanding of the environment and human body has a long history. Primitive
people suffered from occasional aches, pains, injuries, bleeding, bone breaks, dis-
eases, and contracted infections. The animal and plant diseases are of less interest to
primitive man.
The shift from a hunter-gatherer to an agricultural regime that occurred from
6000 to 10,000 years ago altered the spectrum of human health and environment.
Before agriculture, discrete group of peoples had little contact with other groups.
Hence, the infectious ailments did not spread easily. In addition, these early peoples
ate wild plants that combated some parasitic infections.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64480-2_5
176 5 Introduction to Medical Sciences
With agriculture activities, the humans were exposed to pathogens, pin worms,
tapeworms, hook worms in excrement that were used as fertilizer. The agriculture
also decreased the dependence on the wild plants that combated diseases.
The development and urbanization brought more infectious disease and malnu-
trition. Many evidences from preserved bones as well as teeth substantiate these
changes. Tooth decay, affected 17% of samples from city residents, 8.7% from
farmers, and 3% of samples from hunter-gatherers (David et al. 2007).
While changes in the environment where humans live changed their health, some
types of illnesses seem inherent to humans. As per the evidence available in fossils
arthritis that troubles people today affected our ancestors’ 3 million years ago;
Neanderthals that lived 100,000 years ago, and preserved “iceman” who lived
5300 years ago (David et al. 2007).
Relationship between the disease causative agents and level of exposure (agent
like toxic chemical or biological pathogen) as well as the degree of effect generally
occurs in four ways as depicted in Fig. 5.1 (David 2003; Chandrappa and
Kulshrestha 2016).
The clinical course of an ailment is pictorially depicted in Fig. 5.2.
Medical science has three main branches: basic medical sciences, medical spe-
cialties, and interdisciplinary field.
Medical specialty area branch of medical practice that can be classified further is
depicted in Fig. 5.3. Different ways of classifying medical specialties are given in
Fig. 5.4.
Interdisciplinary medicines involve the science of medicine as well as other dis-
ciplines such as the following:
• Addiction medicine
• Aerospace medicine
S- Shaped
Curvilinear
Linear. No Threshold
Linear. Threshold
Exposure
Response
Fig. 5.1 Usual forms of exposure–response relationships

5.2 Anatomy 177
Exposure
Beginning of disese
Symptoms
Therapy starts
Recovery Recovery with disability Demise
Fig. 5.2 The clinical course of an ailment
Medical Science
Basic Medical Medical Interdisciplinary

Sceinces Specialties field
Fig. 5.3 Branches of medicine
• Hospital medicine
• Laser medicine
• Travel medicine
5.2 Anatomy
Anatomy is a specialty of medical science that deals with the body structure of liv-
ing beings. The anatomy is divided into microscopic (or histology) and macroscopic
anatomy (or gross anatomy). Microscopic anatomy involves the use of optical
instruments whereas macroscopic anatomy is the examination of organs of a living
organism with unaided eyesight. Human anatomy deals with body structure
of humans.
Medical
Specialties
Surgical or Organ based

Diagnostic or Age range of
General or Technique
Therapeutic Patient
Medicine based
Fig. 5.4 Different way of classifying medical specialties
The whole human body is more than the sum of the parts (David et al. 2007).
Organ systems interact in ways to maintain good health. Human body is just the
minute component of the environment. The human body interactions with different
environmental components are more complex and not fully understood.
The morphology, physiology, metabolism, and behavior of an organism is a
product of both the genes transmitted from the parents and the environment such as
diet, light, humidity, temperature, and local chemicals (Mugerauer 2010).
Each organ part works individually and functions together with other organs. The
body is a complex machine where innumerable chemical reactions lead to physical
change to form a biological entity. The environment hosts human body. On the other
hand, human body hosts millions of microorganisms apart from parasitic macroor-
ganisms such as tape worm and round worm.
Understanding structural similarities from the microscopic to macroscopic levels
of body itself is a great science. Interaction of human and the environment which
may lead to changes in complex systems of human body needs different level of
thinking.
Any change in the environment can affect either part or whole of body. Many
substances such as toilet cleaners, agrochemicals, and vector repellents which are
used for protecting health and nutrition may turn out to be detrimental to health as
they enter the environment. All these can become pollutants if they enter the nature
and will kill many species including humans if the quantities exceed more than the
desirable limits. The desirable limits can vary depending upon the media (air/water/
food) they enter.
5.3 Physiology
Physiology is a specialty of medical science that deals with the functions of living
beings and their parts. Living organisms lead healthy life at the optimum environ-
mental conditions, which include abiotic conditions (temperature, humidity, radia-
tion, noise, light, and proportions of different elements and compounds in the media
in which organisms exist), different organisms live in different media and have dif-
5.4 Forensic Medicine and Toxicology 179
ferent tolerance. The same environment cannot support aquatic and terrestrial ani-
mals because they live in different media though both will remain alive for short
period when their living media are interchanged. In addition to genetic influences, a
number of social demographic, behavioral, cultural, race/ethnic, and environmental
factors are linked to physical function, disability as well as chronic disease (Link
and Phelan 1995; Fried and Guralnik 1997; Koukouli et al. 2002; Banks
et al. 2006; Barabasi 2007; Turrell et al. 2007).
Anatomy and physiology discourse how the body maintains life. Physiology
deals with the functions of organs, whereas anatomy deals with the structures, or
morphology, of organs.
Within the same media, different species show different tolerance like some of
the microbes demand oxygen for living while others can live without it. Some of the
excreta and metabolic waste/byproduct which are not required by a species are food
to other living organisms. Alcohol, which is metabolic waste of microbes, is con-
sumed by many humans. Similarly, the excreta of humans are food for many liv-
ing beings.
5.4 Forensic Medicine and Toxicology
Forensic medicine is a specialty of medical science that deals with the application
of knowledge of medical scenic to establish facts in legal cases. Forensic medicine
is also known as forensic pathology.
Toxicology is the specialty of science that deals with study of undesirable effects
that occur in living being owing to chemicals.
Many pollutants released into the environment by industry, mining, agriculture,
transportation, and even by hospitals are toxic in nature and has high health burden
on immediate community and international community. The increased use of toxic
substances in day to day use as insecticide, insect repellent, paints, toilet cleaners,
disinfectants, and others, will also find their ways into the environment. Toxic sub-
stances may reach humans by food, air, or water. Radiotoxic substances can even
reach humans by radiation. The numbers of potential neurotoxicants in the environ-
ment are increasing and pose a risk for humans and the environment (Legradi et al.
2018). Tiny plastic particles generated due to mechanical abrasion, biological deg-
radation, and photochemical oxidation of larger plastic debris result in the forma-
tion of microplastics (size range 1 μm to 5 mm) and nanoplastics (size range 1 nm to
1000 nm) are considered emerging contaminants and toxicants that affect human
health (Liuwei et al. 2020).
Major toxic causative agent is given in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1 Major toxic causative agent

Health effect Causative agent
Bone damage Cadmium
Carcinogenic (cancer causing) PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyl), dioxins, PAHs
(polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon), cadmium,
arsenic, beryllium, chromium
Cardiovascular Dioxins, mercury, arsenic
Endocrine disruption PBDEs (polybrominated diphenyl ethers), PCBs,
dioxins, manganese
Kidney damage Lead, cadmium, mercury
Liver damage Nickel, iron, cadmium
Lung damage PAHs, cadmium, arsenic, lithium
Metabolic diseases PBDEs, dioxins
Negative birth outcomes (low birth weight, PBDEs, PCBs, dioxins, perfluorooctanoic acid
low head circumference, intrauterine (PFOA), PAHs, cadmium, arsenic
growth restriction)
Neurodevelopment and cognitive function PBDEs, PCBs, PAHs, lead, mercury, cadmium
Reproductive effects PBDEs, PCBs, dioxins, PFOA, lead, chromium,
mercury
Source: Grant et al. (2013), Chen et al. (2011)
Box 5.1 Toxic Exposures at Workplace

A laboratory worker suffered from asthenospermia as well as fertility prob-
lems and, he was suspected of exposure to solvents used at work due to a fault
of the ventilation system in his laboratory between August 1996 and April
1997. After investigation, it was found that the worker was possibly exposed
to 10 or 50 times higher than the permissible exposure limit of chloroform
which is spermatotoxic (Chang et al. 2001).
Toxicology and environmental science have close relationships. Natural

endocrine-disrupting chemicals (N-EDCs) and synthetic endocrine-disrupting
chemicals (S-EDCs) can interact with endocrine receptors and disturb hormonal
balance (Herman et al. 2020). Toxic substance can reach human body from several
sources. Study on microbial contaminants and heavy metal content of stale and
fresh tomatoes sold in selected markets in Nigeria showed presence of chromium,
copper, total heterotrophic bacteria, manganese, zinc, and total fungi (Izah and
Aigberua 2020). Studies on metallic contamination in the neighboring water system
and farmland from abandoned mines in Korea revealed pollution from Cd, As, and
Zn (Lee and Lee 2020).
5.5 Pathology 181
5.5 Pathology
Pathology is a branch of medical science concerning the cause, origin as well as the
nature of disease. It deals with the study of structural and functional alteration
within the body connected with diseases. It involves the examination of organs, tis-
sues, bodily fluids as well as autopsies in order to study as well as diagnose disease.
Clinical pathology is a branch of medical science concerned with the diagnosis
of ailment based on the analysis of body fluid in laboratory. Environmental pathol-
ogy is the study of ailment caused by exposure to external agents. A number of
important terms used in pathology are given in Table 5.2 and stages of diseases are
given in Fig. 5.5.
Diseases can be localized, disseminated, or systemic (Fig. 5.6).
Diseases can be caused due to array of reasons (Fig. 5.7):
Incubation Prodromal Illness Decline Convalescence
•Intial entry of •Pathogen •Signs and •Number of •Patient

pathogen into continues to symptoms of pathogen generally
a host and reproduce and ailment are begins to returns to
start the host most obvious decrease, and normal
multiplying experience and high the signs and functions,
signs and symptoms of
symptoms of ailment begin
illness to decline.
Fig. 5.5 Stages of infectious disease
• Affects one part of the body, e.g.,

Localized disease
eye infection.
Disseminated disease
• Spread to other parts. e,g. cancer.
(metastatic disease)
• Affects the entire body e.g.:

Systemic disease
influenza.
Fig. 5.6 Categorization of diseases based on the significance of diseases

Table 5.2 Examples of important terms used in pathology

Term Definition
Acquired disease Disease that begins at some point during lifetime
Acute disease Disease that lasts a short time
Chronic condition or chronic Disease that persists over long period of time (lasting 3 months or
disease more)
Clinical disease Disease that has identifiable clinical signs/symptoms
Congenital disorder or Disease that is present at birth
congenital disease
Disease Abnormal condition that negatively affects the normal
functioning of the body
Genetic disease Genetic disease caused by abnormalities formed in the genome.
Genetic disorders may be hereditary or due to mutation (changes
to the DNA)
Hereditary or inherited Disease inherited genetically
disease
Iatrogenic disease Disease caused by medical intervention
Idiopathic disease Disease with no identifiable cause
Incurable disease Disease that cannot be cured
Medical disorder Medical disorder is the functional abnormality or disturbance
which is further categorized into mental disorder; genetic
disorder; physical disorder; functional; and emotional and
behavioral disorder
Morbidity The condition of being diseased
Primary disease Disease arising spontaneously which is not associated with or
earlier disease
Progressive disease Disease that is progressing or worsening
Refractory disease Disease that resists treatment
Secondary disease Disease that follows and results from a previous disease
Subclinical disease (silent Stage in some diseases before appearance of symptoms
disease, silent stage,
or asymptomatic disease)
Syndrome Group of symptoms which consistently occur together, and
characterize a particular abnormality/condition
Terminal disease Disease that cannot be satisfactorily treated and is likely to result
in the death
• Toxins
• Physical agents
–– Electromagnetic fields
–– Heat
–– Radiation
–– Force
• Medically induced
–– Medicine
5.5 Pathology 183
Toxins
Physical
Infection
agents
Disease
Medically
Harmful induced
Lifestyle
Consciousness
Lack/loss of
(Emotional
organ capacity
traumas)
Fig. 5.7 Main causes of diseases
–– Surgery
–– Other medical procedure
• Consciousness (emotional traumas)
• Lack/loss of organ capacity
–– Inherited/acquired
–– Weakness/susceptibilities
–– Disregulation/imbalance
–– Damage/decline/degeneration
• Harmful lifestyle
–– Diet
–– Substance abuse
–– Over work, lack of sleep
• Infection
Major environmental factors that affect health areas shown in Fig. 5.8.
Environmental factors modifiable to enhance public health include the following:
Accidents/
Occupatinoal
Risks
Climate
Pollution
Change
Inadequate Land Use and

Water and Land Cover
Sanitation Changes
Human
Health
Chemicals
Agricultural
and
Practives
Radiation
Man-Animal
Solid Waste
Conflict
Fig. 5.8 Major environmental factors that affect human health
• Pollution
• Radiation
• Electromagnetic fields
• Occupational risks
• Built environments including major infrastructural and engineering works
• Man-made vector breeding places
• Agricultural practices
• Waste management
• Man-made ecosystem and climate change
• Unsafe environment such as safe road/bus stand
• Safe water and sanitation
The individuals whose health can be affected due to water pollution could be the
following:
• Someone who is in the vicinity of the water body
• Someone who is consuming water pumped from the water body
• Somebody who is consuming aquatic organisms (fish/crab/shrimp/water chest-
nut/lotus tuber)
5.8 Community Medicine 185
• Somebody who is consuming products manufactured by water pumped from

polluted water body
Alteration of water body can lead to the following:
• Reservoir-induced seismicity
• Floods
• Increase in vector population
• Wildlife migration to human habitats
• Shortage of water for drinking and crops, thereby affecting food supply to
humans
5.6 Pharmacology
Medicines have a significant role in the prevention and treatment of disease in ani-
mals and humans. Medicines may also have unintentional effects on the environ-
ment. Pharmacology is a specialization of medical science that is concerned with
the uses, effects as well as modes of action of medicines. Environmental pharmacol-
ogy is a branch of pharmacology that is concerned with the entry of drugs into the
environment after they are excreted by humans and animals in post-therapy.
Even though the side effects on human as well as animal health are generally
investigated in toxicology and safety studies, the environmental impacts of the man-
ufacture as well as use of pharmaceuticals are less understood. Some medicines can
affect animals and bacteria below the concentrations that are typically used in effi-
cacy and safety tests. Further breakdown products as well as the combination of
other biologically active chemicals may have unexpected effects on the environ-
ment (Boxall 2004).
About more than half of all medicines prescribed, sold, or dispensed inappropri-
ately result in adverse impact on health, and nearly half of all patients do not take
them as directed resulting in resources waste and adverse impact on health, wildlife,
and ecosystems (Felicity 2017). The medicines have been found in varied concen-
tration in surface water, ground water sewage treatment plant effluents as well as
drinking water.
Pharmaceutical waste is affecting the nature negatively, as disused medicines are
not discarded and/or disposed appropriately (Stal-Timins et al. 2013; European
Environment Agency EEA) 2010). A global review reported that 631 out of 713
pharmaceuticals tested were observed greater than their detection limits in the envi-
ronment (aus der Beek et al. 2016). As per Scheytt et al. (2006) up to 16,000 tons of
medicines were disposed of every year from human medical care with 60–80% of
these drugs placed in normal household waste or flushed down the toilet. Studies
published indicate that about 10% of pharmaceutical products were of potential
environmental risk in Germany (Küster and Adler 2014).
5.7 Anesthesiology
Anesthesiology is the science as well as practice of giving anesthetics (substances

to stop patients feeling pain).
Leakage of anesthetic gases from machines, scavenging, and breathing out by
patients find their way to atmosphere and are believed to have noteworthy ozone-
depleting potential resulting in destruction of the stratospheric ozone layer
(Nunn 2008).
Assuming that nearly 200 million anesthetic procedures are performed every
year in the world, Sulbaek et al. (2010) anticipated that the globally inhaled aesthet-
ics emissions will be equivalent to 4.4 million tonnes of carbon dioxide.
5.8 Community Medicine
Community medicine is the branch of medicine concerning health care issues

affecting entire community. Community well-being focus on the protection, mainte-
nance, as well as improvement of the health status of population groups as well as
communities. It deals with the study as well as improvement of the health of bio-
logical communities.
Goals of community medicine
• Focus shift from treatment of sick
• Prevention of diseases
• Promotion of healthiness
• Quality of life improvement for individuals and groups
Human community is formed by families. Family practices as well as cultures
such as alcoholism, smoking, violence, and crime will be easily absorbed by
younger members resulting in negative health. Further offspring will also inherit
many genetic diseases.
There are numerous genetic disease inheritances that include following
four modes:
(a) Single gene inheritance: These disorders are known as monogenetic disorders
(disorders of a single gene).
(b) Multifactorial inheritance: These disorders are caused by a combination of
environmental factors besides mutations in multiple genes.
(c) Chromosome abnormalities: Abnormalities in chromosome can result in
disease.
(d) Mitochondrial inheritance: This type of genetic disorder occurs due to muta-
tions in the DNA in mitochondria.
The health of family members depends on affordability of family to the following:
(a) Balanced nutrition
(b) Good housing

(c) Access to drinking water
(d) Access to sanitation
(e) Medical care
(f) Transportation
(g) Healthy environment
(h) Education
Health depends on social structure as well as culture. The routine organization as
well as restrictions of daily settings shape our human health. Even though depres-
sion has disturbing disabling effects, it is often not recognized by patients or doctors.
A community is a small or large social unit who has something in common. An
individual may belong to much community depending on something what he/she
has common with respect to members of other community. The dimension of the
boundary varies from local community to international community.
Community participation is core element of healthy community. The legislature,
executive, and judiciary wings of the community need to be vibrant and honest if a
human community has to be healthy in the current scenario.
Corrupt and dishonest community will lead to depletion/misuse of resources
which otherwise can be used for education, disaster management, environment
protection, and treatment to sick people. Poor community support will leave the
victim of accident unattended on road. Poor laws and enforcement will lead to pol-
lution and spread of diseases. Community participation in vaccination, health edu-
cation, research, environment protection is essential for vulnerability to diseases.
The cooperation and networking with local and international community are keys to
health of individual and all members of community. A community with conflicts
will expose the members of community to injury, pollution, poor health care, explo-
sion of epidemics, and food/water availability.
Fig. 5.9 Froth formations in lake due to misuse of the common property for discharge of untreated
effluent
Fig. 5.10 Use of lakes by animals to keep them cool
Fig. 5.11 Use of lakes for disposing solid waste
Sociologists have established that the increase of diseases is influenced by the

socioeconomic status of people, other cultural factors, and ethnic traditions/beliefs
(White 2002).
Culture is not static, and it evolves and passes on through generations. Many
good and bad practices followed are also passed on to the next generation in chang-
ing the environment. Figure 5.9 shows froth formation in a lake on Bangalore, India
due to disposal of wastewater from city. Old belief “dilution is solution of pollution”
cannot be continued forever especially when quantity of pollution is beyond assimi-
lation capacity of nature resulting in waterborne diseases.
The culture endures and evolves depending on the exposure of the community to
new believes, behaviors, and circumstances. In some parts of the world, cattle is
reared in the common properties such as grazing land and surface water bodies lead-
ing to health and environmental impact. Figure 5.10 shows continuation of letting
Fig. 5.12 Use of lakes by people to wash cloths
Fig. 5.13 Remains reinforcement idols of clay idols after immersing in water
buffalos to cool themselves in surface water body polluting the surface water body,
which affects human and animal health. Some cultures are unaware of germ theory
and the impact of chemicals they use (Fig. 5.11).
Use of common property such as river, lakes, forest also varies vastly across the
culture. Education may help, but beliefs and practices over generations may domi-
nate the behavior (Figs. 5.12, 5.13, 5.14, 5.15, and 5.16).
Fig. 5.14 People washing cattle in surface water
Fig. 5.15 People washing vehicle in surface water
There can be many cultures within a society. Social inequalities span across cul-
tures. The cultural preference to food, clothing, shelter, nonviolence, and social jus-
tice varies widely.
Some of the culture and impact on the environment and health are given in
Table 5.3.
Different individuals and communities have varied footprints. In other words,
individuals and communities can affect health of others at different dimensions. A
5.9 Dermatology and Venereology 191
Fig. 5.16 Remains of

worshiping material
disposed in surface water
body
head of the state will have larger health footprints to extent of his state and outside
the state also. Decisions he/she makes may result in a spread/curb of diseases out-
side the states also.
A non-alcoholic, non-smoking person without genetic disorder consuming bal-
anced nutrition cannot lead a healthy life if a drunkard hits him while driving.
Drunkard may impact health of few people will small ailment footprint, but shop
keeper of alcoholic drinks will have larger ailment footprint and manufacturer will
have still bigger ailment footprint to the extent of millions of people. Similarly, a
city discharging its untreated sewage into river will affect health of communities
downstream of the city. A drug manufacturing industry cannot guarantee health of
its customers even if the doctors prescribe correct medicine.
Healthy community will have common but differential responsibility to maintain
health of communities. An individual shall educate himself not only to keep himself
healthy but also others.
5.9 Dermatology and Venereology
Skin is the largest organ in general. The functions of skin are as follows:
• Protect body from environmental stressors such as pollution, germs, germs,
radiation
• Regulate body temperature
• Receive sensory information
Even though skin serves as a barrier to infection, any break in the skin per-
mits entrance of pathogens. Dermatology is the branch of study that deals with all
the disorders of the inner mucous membranes as well as outer skin. Venereology
(sexually transmitted disease or sexually transmitted infections) deals with disor-
ders transmitted through sexual contact.
Table 5.3 Example of culture and impact on the environment and health
S.No. Cultural practice Impact on environment Impact on health
1 Burning dead bodies Release of dioxins and furans from Non-communicable
without pollution plastic present in clothsRelease of disease such as metal
control equipment to radioactive material if the body poisoning, and cancer
trap pollutants belongs to patients who have
released during undergone radio therapyRelease of
cremation mercury if the body has traces of
mercury amalgamation in teeth
2 Disposing ash in Release of dioxins and furans from Non-communicable
surface water bodies plastic present in clothsRelease of disease such as metal
radioactive material if the body poisoning, and cancer
belongs to patients who have
undergone radio therapyRelease of
mercury if the body has traces of
3 Disposing dead Release of radioactive material if the Non-communicable
bodies and partially body belongs to patients who have disease such as metal
burnt dead bodies in undergone radio therapyRelease of poisoning, and cancer
surface water bodies mercury if the body has traces of
4 Immersing idols of Water pollution Non-communicable
clay and other disease such as metal
worshiping material poisoning, and cancer
into surface water
5 Cleaning after Water pollution Communicable disease
defecation in surface leading to gastroenteric
water bodies disorder
6 Cleaning cloths in Water pollution Spread of diseases
surface water body
7 Injuring to self by Spread infection and affect psychology Physical and
beating, pricking of viewer inducing fear/anxiety physiological disorder
during festivals and
rituals
8 Sacrificing animals Spread infection and affect psychology Physical and
in unhygienic of viewer inducing fear/anxiety physiological disorder.
condition in public
9 Cutting trees and Reduction in carbon assimilation May lead to respiratory,
plucking leaves of capacity; decrease in oxygen content cardiovascular disease,
trees for use in in atmosphere; increase in solid waste injury, and
religious rituals may result in dog/rodent menace, air communicable disease
pollution and vectors
10 Processions leading Noise pollution Hearing impairment and
to noise pollution psychological disorder
11 Occupying common Traffic congestion, damage to wild life Injury to humans due to
property such as habitat traffic congestion and
footpaths and forest negative impact on
for religious purpose health of wild life due to
loss of habitat
(continued)
5.10 Obstetrics and Gynecology 193

S.No. Cultural practice Impact on environment Impact on health
12 Hunting/fishing Death of wildlife and loss of Death of wild life
biodiversity
13 Throwing/smearing Affects air and water Affects skin, eye
colored water powder
during festival
14 Bursting crackers Water pollution, air pollution, solid May lead to respiratory,
waste management cardiovascular disease,
and injury
The skin is an important interface between environment and humans; it is an

important portal of entry for disease causing agents that include huge array of chem-
ical, physical, and biological agents (Suskind 1977).
Even minute quantity of arsenic can lead to skin hardening, organ damage as
well as cancer. Arsenic-related skin diseases that affected thousands are briefly dis-
cussed in Box 5.2.
Box 5.2 Drinking Water and Skin Health

Surface water supplies in Bangladesh were contaminated with microbes caus-
ing noteworthy morbidity and mortality. During the 1970s, in an attempt to
overcome this problem tube wells were inserted to provide safe source of
drinking water. Since 1983, thousands of skin lesions due to arsenic were
identified in the exposed population (Smith et al. 2000; Langford and
Ferner 2002).
Disease causing agents of sexually transmitted diseases include viruses, bacteria,

fungi, and protozoa (Thappa and Sivaranjini 2011). Venereal diseases can also be
transmitted by several other ways. To date, modes of transmission of HIV-1 include
sexual, percutaneous (through the skin), and perinatal (immediately before and after
birth) (Gershon et al. 1990). Children may sustain injuries from discarded needles
leading to exposure to blood-borne viruses. The important pathogens in such trans-
mission include hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV) and HIV
(Gerberding 1995; American Academy of Pediatrics 2006). HIV virus that causes
AIDS transmitted through sexual contact can be spread through infected sharps in
solid waste.
Many skin diseases are linked to immunologic genetic and environmental fac-
tors. Exposure to environmental influences that affect skin include the following:
• Chemicals or infections
• Climatic determinants
• Such as UV radiation
5.10 Obstetrics and Gynecology
Gynecology is the field of study concerned with the health of the female reproduc-
tive systems as well as the breasts.
Obstetrics is the medical specialization concerned with pregnancy, childbirth, as
well as the postpartum period. Environmental exposures in the womb can have
effects throughout the life.
Magnitude of maternal mortality is high in spite of efforts by governments all
over the world. Globally, around 830 women die daily due to childbirth/pregnancy
complications. In 2015, about 303,000 women died during/following child birth and
pregnancy which could have been prevented (Alkema et al. 2016).
In sub-Saharan Africa, many nations reduced their levels of maternal mortality
by about 50% since 1990 and even greater headway was made in other regions.
Between 1990 and 2015, the maternal mortality ratio in the world declined by only
2.3% per year (WHO 2018).
Despite improving statistics, every year about 2.6 million are still born besides
2.7 million babies die during first month of life (UNICEF, WHO, World Bank,
UN-DESA Population Division 2015; Blencowe et al. 2016). Premature birth
increases the risk of new-born mortality in addition to long-term health problems
(Prüss-Ustün et al. 2016).
Exposure to chemicals and air pollution are known to increase the risks of pre-
mature birth (Ferguson et al. 2013).
5.11 Ophthalmology
Ophthalmology is a specialization of medicine which deals with the functions,

structure, as well as diseases of the eye.
Environmental features such as pollutants, temperature variations, ultraviolet
radiations, variable humidity affect various parts of eyes in several ways resulting in
disorders such as conjunctivitis, cataract, glaucoma as well as dry eye (Shubhrica
2013). Eye is the most susceptible organ to environmental and atmospheric abuse.
Although human eyes are evolved to protect it from foreign objects, they need to
remain open for the purpose of vision. It can act as port of entry to respiratory
viruses besides acting as primary site of virus replication (Belser et al. 2013).
Chronic exposure to pollutants affects the eye from slight irritation to bleeding of
retina. Exposure to contaminated water can degrade eye health over the time
(Yadav 2019).
5.13 Otorhinolaryngology 195
The common eye ailments liked to environment are the following:

• Fungal keratitis—an infection of the cornea caused by fungus
• Trachoma—infectious disease caused by bacteria
• Snow blindness (arc eye or photokeratitis)—loss of vision due to overexposure
to the UV rays
• Actinic keratopathy (also called spheroidal degeneration or climatic droplet
keratopathy)—inflammation of the eye due to prolonged exposure to ultraviolet
rays
Trachoma linked to poor sanitation is the reason behind visual impairment in
about 2.2 million people worldwide (Mohammdpour et al. 2016). Exposure to aug-
mented noise, global warming, flood light sources, intense UV, and infrared radia-
tions too damage human vision (Yadav 2019). Eye infection could be eliminated by
environmental measures as well as changes in behavior.
While incidences of blindness due to ozone depletion and greater solar ultravio-
let radiation have reduced, global warming may turn into a factor in the early onset
as well as rapid succession of cataract (Johnson 2004).
5.12 Orthopedics
Bones provide support to animal body and protect the body’s organs. Muscles are
the only tissue that has the ability to contract and hence move the body parts.
Orthopedics is a specialization of medical science concerned with the correction of
deformities of bones/muscles.
Several environmental toxicants can affect health of bone and muscles directly
and indirectly. Endoncrine disruptors, volatile organic compounds, dioxins and
dioxin-like compounds, fluoride, fungal toxins (toxins released by fungi), arsenic,
boron, cadmium, lead, lithium, iron, strontium, tungsten, and mercury are likely to
affect bone health (Smith et al. 2017). High cadmium exposure will cause bone
damage (Agneta et al. 2006).
Small quantity of fluoride strengthens bones as well as prevents dental caries, but
excess fluoride in water can result in irreversible as well as crippling condition in
children called skeletal fluorosis. Fluoride exposure can occur through drinking
water, excessive ingestion of toothpaste as well as mouth rinses. Exposures to exces-
sive fluoride to children can result in irreversible dental mottling as well as pitting
of enamel.
Box 5.3 Fluoride and Fluorosis: Case Studies

Alteration of water characteristics happen due to natural and anthropogenic
activity. Chemicals naturally present in the environment may be triggered by
anthropogenic activity leading to deterioration of water quality beyond pota-
ble quality. The groundwater in villages as well as its environment in Siddipet
area, Medak district, Telangana State, in India are affected by fluoride con-
tamination due to rock–water interaction dominance besides evaporation
dominance are reasons for the alteration in the quality of water in the aquifer
of the study area, resulting in dental fluorosis of major population living in the
villages (Narsimha and Sudarshan 2017).
Fluoride poisoning in Northern Africa, the Rift Valley system, in addition
to the area extending from Turkey to China due to high fluoride concentra-
tions naturally occurs in the drinking water. This has resulted in skeletal fluo-
rosis as well as associated skeletal abnormalities (Langford and Ferner 2002).
Air pollution may have long-term harmful outcomes with respect to bone in
exposed pediatric populations (Calderón-Garcidueñas et al. 2013).
5.13 Otorhinolaryngology
The ears and nose are sensory organs for hearing and smell, respectively, while the
throat acts as a pathway through which fluids and food travel to the esophagus (tube
that connects throat and stomach) besides air passes to the lungs. Otorhinolaryngology
is a specialization of medicine which is concerned with the diseases of the ear, nose,
and throat.
Nose provides air for respiration besides serving as the sense organ for smell. It
conditions the air by warming, filtering, moistening, cleaning foreign particles
before air travels into body. Nose is also the major port of entry for many disease-
causing agents including SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for COVID-19 dis-
ease that appeared in China in late 2019 and became a pandemic. Studies in China
(Fengying et al. 2016) concluded that air pollutants had health effects on ear, nose,
and throat. Brauer et al. (2007) published a link between air pollution as well as
ear–nose–throat infections apart from respiratory health outcomes in a large group
of children. Diesel exhaust particles can provoke the development of new allergen
sensitization when enter nose (Limaye and Salv 2010).
Sore throat could be noninfectious or infectious. Noninfectious environmental
factors for sour throat include air pollution, temperature, and humidity. Ambient air
pollution is a common reason for sore throat beside occupational exposure hazard-
ous chemicals (Renner et al. 2012).
Apart from nose and ear is an important sense organ that can be affected by noise
pollution and infection.
5.15 Neurology and Psychiatry 197
Noise pollution leads to hearing loss or impairment (Hinchliffe 2002) besides

several psychological and physiological effects (Oguntunde et al. 2019). The com-
bination of air and noise pollution is liked to respiratory ailments, tiredness and
dizziness (Adetoun et al. 2011; Shendell et al. 2009), high blood pressure (Ebare
et al. 2011), cognitive difficulties (Ntui 2009) impact on fetal development (Selander
et al. 2019), annoyance and anxiety (Paiva et al. 2019), mental health crisis (Freiberg
et al. 2019), sleep disturbance and insomnia (Eze et al. 2018; Freiberg et al. 2019),
cardiovascular disorders (Sears et al. 2018), cardiocerebrovascular diseases (Oh
et al. 2019), type 2 diabetes incidence (Thiesse et al. 2018), and medically unex-
plained physical symptoms (Zock et al. 2018), myocardial infarction incidence
(Bräuner et al. 2018), peptic ulcers (Min and Min 2018), and disruption of commu-
nication and retentive ability (Tesoriere et al. 2018).
5.14 Pediatrics
Pediatrics is the branch of medical science dealing with children and their diseases.
A number of diseases in children are related to unsafe environments.
The environment plays important role on children health that is more vulnerable
to diseases due to following reasons:
• Children consume more food and water in proportion to their weight.
• Exposure to certain toxic chemicals can result in irreversible damage, as well as
to diseases during adulthood.
• Their immunity, digestive system, reproductive systems, and central nervous
system are more vulnerable compared to adults.
• They are in an active state of growth.
• They are more exposed through hand-to-mouth activities due to innocence and
ignorance about consequences.
• As children have smaller lungs, they breathe more air in proportion to their
weight.
Child health refers to a state of complete mental, physical as well as social well-
being and development of fetus as well as from birth of the baby till 5 year of age.
The factors that affect the health of children include but not restricted to the
following:
1. Age
2. Climate change
3. Corruption in the governance
4. Environment
5. Ignorance
6. Illiteracy
7. Lack of access to maternal and child health services
8. Malnutrition
9. Poverty
10. Sex
11. Size of the family
Contaminated water leads to many diseases that include diarrhea, the second
largest child-killer in the world.
Nitrate pollution in the water causes the “blue baby syndrome” and increased
carbon monoxide in air affects fetal growth as well as compromises organ/muscular
development in children.
5.15 Neurology and Psychiatry
Neurology is a branch of medical science dealing with disorders of the ner-

vous system.
Long-term exposure to ambient air pollution is linked with cognitive impairment
as well as cerebrovascular disease (Wilker et al. 2015). Traffic-related air pollution
exposure is linked with adverse effects on cognitive, behavior, and psychomotor
development in children. Further, it is associated with cognitive decline as well as
higher risk of dementia in the elderly (Paula et al. 2018).
Box 5.4 Pollution and Neurological Disease

Minamata disease a methyl mercury poisoning with neurological symptoms
named after it is first found in Minimata city in Japan, during 1956.
It was caused by the release of methyl mercury by Chisso Corporation’s
chemical factory in the industrial wastewater. Methyl mercury poisoning with
neurological symptoms was associated with consumptions of fish and shell-
fish that contaminated with toxic chemical discharged into the sea
(Noriyuki 2006).
The neurodevelopmental effects of childhood due to lead exposure and lost pro-
ductivity due to lead exposure cost about US$ 1 trillion every year in low- and
middle-income countries (LMICs) (Attina and Trasande 2013). This is seven times
the entire development assistance given to developing nations each year
(OECD 2015).
Psychiatry is a specialization of medical science that deals with the study as well
as treatment of mental illness, emotional disturbance, as well as abnormal behavior.
Environmental psychology is the study of relationship between environments its
effects on inhabitants.
5.17 Pulmonology 199
Box 5.5 Pesticide in Modern Agriculture and Health

The application of endosulfan by aerial spraying over the cashew plantations
in Kasaragod district of Kerala state, India from 1978 (NIOH 2001) was the
cause of series of health issues. The cashew nut trees are primarily in the
higher portions while the village houses are located in the valleys. Streams
flow with lots of small ponds and tributaries which drain into a nearby river.
Households get their water from open wells or “surangas” (tunnel). The use of
endosulfan resulted in mass deaths of fishes, bees, birds, frogs, and cows. The
endosulfan application also affected large number of diseases related to the
central nervous system affecting about 8000–9000 people in Kasaragod dis-
trict (Joe 2010).
In Karnataka state, India application of endosulfan between 1980 and 2000
on 850 ha in Dakshin Kannada affected population in nearly 20 villages of the
state (Down to Earth 2017).
5.16 Surgery
Injuries or disorders of the body are treated by incision or manipulation with the
help of instruments. Life cycle assessment in the United States revealed that produc-
tion of single-use surgical devices and disposable materials, energy used for heat-
ing, ventilation, and air conditionings, as well as anesthetic gases have been major
sources of environmental emissions (Thiel et al. 2015). Poor solid waste manage-
ment and housekeeping may cause spread of infection within the hospital to outside
the hospital.
Nosocomial is a primary cause of mortality and morbidity in the United States
(McFee 2009) and many other countries. Surgery demands high sterile and clean
environment as the patient who undergoes surgery may contact nosocomial infec-
tion if the equipments and operation theatre are not sterilized and clean. The
COVID-19 pandemic forced a radical decline in surgical activity to protect unin-
fected patients from nosocomial infection. Based on observation made in France,
between March 1, 2020 and April 5, 2020, out of 305 patients admitted to digestive
surgery departments, 4.9% developed nosocomial infection with SARS-Cov-2
(Luong-Nguyen et al. 2020).
5.17 Pulmonology
Pulmonology is a branch of medical science that is concerned with ailments involv-

ing the respiratory tract. A variety of microorganisms can cause infection of upper
respiratory tract that includes the common cold, acute bronchitis, SARS, COVID-19,
influenza, and respiratory distress syndromes. Excessive air pollution from natural
(Box 5.6) and artificial (5.6) sources can lead to respiratory illnesses. Over half of
the world populations now live in cities and the number is increasing (UN 2014).
Ninety-two percent of the global population is exposed to unhealthy levels of ambi-
ent air pollution, caused primarily by road traffic, industrial emissions, and domes-
tic fuel burning (WHO 2016c) affecting their respiratory system.
Box 5.6 Forest Fire and Lung

Oxygen generated from forest is good for lungs and the entire body. However,
when the same forest catches fire, the reverse could happen. Forest fires in
Indonesia during 1997 were associated with a raise in mortality and morbidity
and smoke emitted affected the neighboring nations, namely, Malaysia,
Brunei, Southern Thailand, and Singapore, besides parts of the Philippines.
The forest fire was associated with rise in the many hospital admissions which
was associated with respiratory complaints (Langford and Ferner 2002).
In 2012, the deaths of 169,250 children below 5 years were linked to ambient air
pollution (WHO 2016c) in addition to 531,190 deaths due to indoor air pollution
(WHO 2016a, b).
Box 5.7 Industrial Gas Accident and Pulmonary Health

Accidental release of Bromine at a chemical plant in Geneva, Switzerland in
November 1984 resulted in visit of 91 patients to the hospital with common
symptoms of cough, upper respiratory tract irritation, and headache (Langford
and Ferner 2002; Morabia et al. 1988).
Derailing of freight train in Youngtown, Florida, in 1978 resulted in escape
of 50 tons of chlorine spreading on local motorway resulting in death of eight
motorists due to pulmonary toxicity and affecting 100 people (Langford and
Ferner 2002).
Several viral epidemics such as the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavi-
rus (SARS-CoV) from 2002 to 2003, and H1N1 influenza in 2009, Middle East
respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) in 2012 have been recorded
(Cascella et al. 2020). Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) originated from
Wuhan, China, and spread quickly to 72 countries causing more than 90,000 con-
firmed cases beside more than 2946 deaths as of 3 March 2020 (Li et al. 2020).
5.18 Nephrology
Nephrology is a branch of medical science, which focuses on the treatment of kid-

ney conditions as well as abnormalities.
5.21 Hematology 201
The kidney is vulnerable to environmental pollution as most environmental tox-

ins are concentrated by the kidney in the course of filtration. Long-term exposure to
particulate matter PM2.5 (particle size <2.5 μm in mean aerodynamic diameter) is
linked with augmented risk of membranous nephropathy as well as more rapid
decline in renal function. Exposure to heavy metals results in acute and chronic
kidney injury (Xin et al. 2018).
Box 5.8 Itai-Itai

The outbreak of itai-itai (“it hurts - it hurts”) disease, due to cadmium pollu-
tion in Jinzu River basin in Toyama Prefecture, Japan, contaminated by slag
from zinc mine and refineries upstream. Irrigation contaminated soil of rice
field by heavy metals including cadmium through irrigation water during the
years between 1910 and 1960s (Aoshima 2012). Irrigation with metal-
contaminated water resulted in contamination of the rice with cadmium
resulting in cases of chronic cadmium poisoning consisting of renal disease
and bone pain (osteomalacia) (Tsuchiya 1976; Langford and Ferner 2002).
The anatomic as well as physiologic characteristics differentiate the fetal as well

as newborn kidney from the mature adult kidney. Thus, toxicity to the developing
kidney may involve morphologic as well as functional changes. Several drugs could
interfere with the development of the kidney (Solhaug et al. 2004).
5.19 Gastroenterology
Gastroenterology is a specialization of medical science that is concerned with diges-

tive system and its disorders.
Numerous environmental factors have been linked with the development of
inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Alteration of the gut microbiota, or dysbiosis, is
closely associated with initiation or progression of IBD. Air pollution is a factor
associated with IBD (Ananthakrishnan et al. 2018).
Parasitic diseases and infectious are major reason of death and sickness all over
the world, mostly due to the poor quality of water.
Diarrhea is ranked as the sixth cause of mortality globally in 1997 and the first
cause of morbidity (WHO 1998). Due to underreporting, the correct burden of
waterborne diseases is not known (1999).
Digestive system can also get affected by food contamination (e.g., cysticercosis,
taeniosis, salmonellosis, cryptosporidiosis, and brucellosis) or water contamination
(Box 5.9).
Box 5.9 Cross Contamination of Water System and Gastroenteritis

Routine maintenance work at the wastewater treatment plant in Nokia on 28
November 2007 leads to cross-connection between the town tap wastewater
effluent and water lines. The cross contamination resulted in entry of about
450 m3 of wastewater into the tap water network. The entry of wastewater
resulted in microbial contamination of water supplied to about a third of the
town’s population leading to sharp rise in the patients with gastroenteritis. A
total of 1222 visits to Nokia health center were reported during the outbreak
period, 28 November to 31 December 2007. The boil-water notice issued after
outbreak. In the course of the use restrictions, provision for drinking water
was made by volunteers, the military, and municipal officers.
The boil-water notice issued after outbreak was withdrawn from the non-
contaminated area after 12 days. The contaminated area of Nokia was still
contaminated with revealed pathogens in spite of network disinfection of
water supply network. After procedures, usage restrictions were withdrawn in
the contaminated area 82 days after initial event.
5.20 Oncology
Oncology is a medical specialization that deals with on the prevention, diagnosis, as

well as treatment of cancer. Cancer is caused by an array of physical, chemical, and
biological agents present in the environment.
As on March 2019, International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has
grouped 120 agents in Group 1 (Carcinogenic to humans), 82 agents in Group 2A
(probably carcinogenic to humans), Group 2B (possibly carcinogenic to humans),
and 500 agents Group 3 (not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans)
(IARC 2019).
5.21 Hematology
Hematology (or hematology) is a medical specialization concerned with the study

of diseases related to blood which includes problems with the blood cells, platelets,
spleen, bone marrow, blood vessels, lymph nodes, as well as the proteins involved
in bleeding/clotting. Blood infection or Sepsis can occur due to entry of infecting
agent in environment to blood.
Many environmental factors including ambient air pollutants, cold temperature,
loud noises, and high altitude can considerably increase arterial blood pressure
increasing cardiovascular risk at the global level (Brook 2017).
Air pollution is linked with increase in hospitalization and deaths for cardiovas-
cular disease among the older people (Seaton et al. 1999).
5.23 Epidemiology 203
5.22 Endocrinology
Endocrinology is the specialty of medical science dealing with hormones and their
effect throughout the body. Hormones are organic substances secreted by living
organisms that regulate physiological activities as well as maintain homeostasis.
An endocrine disruptor is an exogenous agent that hinders with the production,
release, transport, binding, action, metabolism, or elimination of natural hormones
(U.S. EPA 1997). Endocrine disruptors include biochemically manufactured com-
pounds such as plasticizers, industrial solvents, pesticides, heavy metals, and phar-
maceutical agents (Eleni et al. 2011).
All hormone-sensitive physiological systems are vulnerable to endocrine disrup-
tors, which include cardiovascular system; brain and hypothalamic neuroendocrine
systems; pituitary; mammary gland; thyroid; pancreas; adipose tissue; testes and
prostate in males; and ovary and uterus in females (Diamanti-Kandarakis et al. 2009).
5.23 Epidemiology
Epidemiology is the specialty of medical science dealing with demographics of

disease processes, and includes the study of epidemics. Since it was defined, several
new definitions of epidemiology evolved since 1978 (Frérot et al. 2018).
Epidemiology has made it possible to recognize risk factors related to the lifestyles
and environment.
Environmental epidemiology is the specialization of epidemiology that specifi-
cally deals with environmental exposure (Baker et al. 1999). An example of case
study related to Epidemiology is given in Box 5.10.
Box 5.10 Armadale Case Study

During 1968–1974, the mortality ratios for lung cancer were observed to be
high in Armadale, Scotland (Lawson and Fiona 1994; Lloyd et al. 1985). A
large group of cases was found in a residential area downwind from a foundry.
Studies revealed that region with high mortality ratios for respiratory as well
as non-respiratory cancer were due to air pollution by metals (Lloyd
et al. 1985).
Since the evolvement of epidemiology mankind is able to use it in several epi-

demics including the emergence of COVID-19 disease in China at the end of 2019
that has caused a large global outbreak.
5.24 Immunology
Immunology is a medical specialization that deals with the immune system

(Fig. 5.17).
Immunity
Innate Adoptive
Natural Artificial
Passive Active
(Antibodies (Antibodies Passive Active
passed to and specialized (Introduction (Antibodies
infant via lymphocytes of antibodies generated
mothers milk induced by by injecting when vaccines
or from body when immune are
mother to antigens enter serum) introduced)
fetus via the body
placenta ) naturally)
Fig. 5.17 Classification of immunity system
The immune system permits an organism to distinguish “self” from “non-self.”

Environmental interactions with the immune system result in immunodeficiency
which, if severe, can be life-threatening.
Herd immunity is a type of indirect protection from infectious ailment that occurs
when a large fraction of a population has turned out to be immune to an infection,
thus provides protection for individuals who are not immune. Vaccination helps
noteworthy protection for a percentage of a population who has not developed
immunity (Fig. 5.18). But herd immunity does not safeguard against all vaccine-
preventable ailments such as tetanus which is caused by bacteria in the environment
and not from sick people.
Substantial doses of ionizing radiation may lead to immunodeficiency. Chemical
toxins such as benzenes as well as toluene can result in various degrees of bone mar-
row suppression. Severe bone marrow aplasia (failure of tissue/organ to develop or
function normally) is usually accompanied by some degree of immunodeficiency.
Further variety of drugs can induce immune-deficient states.
5.25 Nutrition Science and Dietetics 205
Person with
communicable disease
People without
immunity
People with
immunity
Fig. 5.18 Schematic diagram for explaining herd immunity
5.25 Nutrition Science and Dietetics
Nutrition science (theoretical focus) and dietetics (practical focus) are the special-
izations of science that deal with relationship of food/drink to health. Medical nutri-
tion therapy is prescribed for many diseases such as diabetes; neoplastic diseases;
allergies; cardiovascular diseases; malnutrition as well as weight and eating disor-
ders. Nutrition science infers the interaction of nutrients and other substances in
food in relation to growth, reproduction, health as well as disease of a living being.
Nutritional status may modify vulnerability to chemical exposures. The relation
between nutritional status and environmental exposures is complex (Katarzyna
2007). Present food systems are a main contributor to health and environmental
issues that include climate change, food insecurity, water scarcity, and chronic
diseases.
With increase in affluence and urbanization, diets are becoming higher in calo-
ries and comprise more animal products and highly processed foods. These dietary
shifts are driving increase in diet-related ailments and causing environmental degra-
dation (Michael et al. 2018). Further contamination (Box 5.11) by chemical toxins
can lead to immunodeficiency and contamination by pathogens can lead to disease.
Box 5.11 Contamination of Food at Home

Food and beverage can get contaminated even in home. As per paper pub-
lished by Mangas et al. (2001), a person suffered with the symptoms of severe
lead poisoning for 2 years and diagnosis revealed blood lead level (PbB) of 98
μg/dL on admission to hospital. Investigation showed the poisoning of a
homemade red wine made in highly corroded enamel bathtub.
Table 5.4 Some sources of nutrients

Example of food sources
S.No. Nutrients Vegetarian Non-vegetarian Vegan
1. Carbohydrates Wheat, potatoes, Wheat, sweet fruits, Wheat, potatoes,
maize, rice, cassava, potatoes, maize, rice, maize, rice, cassava,
banana, sugar cane, sugar cane, cassava, banana, sugar cane,
honey, vegetables, banana, honey, sweet fruits,
sweet fruits, nuts, and vegetables, nuts and vegetables, nuts, and
seeds seeds seeds
2. Proteins Milk, beans, ground Beans, ground nits, Beans, ground nuts,
nuts, lentils, mushroom meat, lentils, egg, milk, lentils, mushroom
fish, mushroom
3. Fats Cooking oil, butter Cooking oil, butter, Cooking oil
animal fat
4. Vitamins Please refer Table 5.5
5. Minerals Please refer Table 5.6
6. Fiber Fiber-containing vegetables such as cassava, carrots, cabbage;
fiber-containing fruits such as avocado and banana; peas and beans;
whole-grain cereals
7. Water River, lake, pond, ground water, ocean, sea, rain, hail, due, mist, snow
There are seven major classes of nutrients that human body needs—proteins,
fiber carbohydrates, fats, minerals, vitamins, as well as water. Human body needs
both macronutrients and micronutrients. Macronutrients are nutrients that people
need to eat regularly in a fairly large amount. Micronutrients are required in diets in
small quantities, which include minerals and vitamins.
Eating a balanced diet is very important for health as well as well-being. Quality
of food depends on environment. Pollutants can result in food poisoning and change
in environment can alter nutritional value of the food (Fig. 5.19).
Even though many nutritional requirements can be fulfilled by eating animal
products either by killing them or otherwise not everyone is willing to do so.
Veganism is the practice of abstaining from the use of animal products, particularly
in diet, whereas many vegetarians do eat animal products such as honey and milk
product. Some sources of nutrients are given in Table 5.4. Sometimes sources of
nutrition can also become sources of poison (Box 5.12).
Box 5.12 Nutrition Versus Poison

On July 4, 1985, illegal or accidental use of aldicarb in California and other
western states by a few farmers resulted in contamination of watermelon
resulted in 1376 sicknesses due to consumption of watermelons (Goldman
et al. 1990).
Sources of nutrients may be contaminated, and consumption of such food may

do more harm than benefit. Similarly, air pollution, water pollution, soil pollution,
5.25 Nutrition Science and Dietetics 207
Table 5.5 Some sources of vitamins

Vitamins Vegetarian Non-vegetarian Vegan
Vitamin A Dairy products, tomatoes, cabbage, Dairy products, Tomatoes,
lettuce, pumpkins, mangoes, papaya, cabbage, tomatoes, cabbage,
carrots pumpkins lettuce, lettuce,
papaya, liver, pumpkins,
Mangoes, carrots, egg mangoes,
yolk, kidney papaya, carrots
Vitamin D Ultraviolet light from the sun, butter; Ultraviolet light from Ultra violet
fortified food the sun, eggs, butter, light from the
fish; fortified food sun; fortified
food
Vitamin K Green leafy vegetables, fruits, cereals, Green leafy Green leafy
dairy products vegetables, fruits, vegetables,
cereals, meat, dairy fruits, cereals
products
B complexa Dairy products; whole grain cereals; Dairy products; egg Whole grain
meat; bananas yolk; liver, kidney, cereals; meat;
heart of animals; bananas
whole grain cereals;
meat; fish; bananas
Thiamin Mushroom Mushroom Mushroom
Riboflavin Mushroom Mushroom Mushroom
Niacin Mushroom Mushroom Mushroom
Folate Mushroom, beets Mushroom, beets Mushroom,
beets
Pantothenic Mushroom Mushroom Mushroom
acid
Choline Mushroom Mushroom Mushroom
Betaine Mushroom Mushroom Mushroom
Vitamin C Citrus fruits, kiwi fruit, mango, papaya, pineapple, acerola cherry, black currant,
bell peppers, guava, strawberries, raspberries, blueberries, and cranberries,
cabbage, carrots, pepper, tomatoes, Brussels sprouts, melons, dark leafy greens,
gooseberry, broccoli, cauliflower, select herbs, beets
a
The vitamin B complex is a group of water-soluble substances which include thiamine (B1), ribo-
flavin (B2), niacin (B4), pantothenic acid, pyridoxine (B6), folic acid as well as cyanocobalamin
(B12)
and changing climate can damage crops thereby making it non-available for con-
sumption. Biomagnifications of poisonous substance, food poisoning due to use of
agrochemicals, and pathogen contamination may not provide benefits of nutrition.
Poor nutrition can lead to increased susceptibility to disease, reduced immunity,
impaired physical/mental development, as well as reduced productivity.
As per various literature, balanced diet for adults shall include the following:
• At least 400 g of fruits and vegetables a day (WHO 2003).
Table 5.6 Sources of common minerals

Minerals Vegetarian Non-vegetarian Vegan
Calcium Dairy products, foods Dairy products, Foods fortified with
fortified with calcium, foods fortified with calcium, calcium, cabbage,
cabbage, millet, beets eggs, fish cabbage, millet, millet, beets
beets
Copper Mushroom, beets Mushroom, beets Mushroom, beets
Fluorine Water
Iodine Iodized salt, sea Iodized salt, sea vegetables, Iodized salt, sea
vegetables, plants growneggs, and cheese vegetables, plants
in iodine rich soil. Fish; plants grown in grown in iodine-rich
iodine-rich soil soil
Iron Green leafy vegetables, Meat and meat products, eggs, Green leafy vegetables,
pulses, fruits, mushroom, green leafy vegetables, pulses, pulses, fruits,
beets fruits, mushroom, beets mushroom, beets
Magnesium Mushroom, beets Mushroom, beets Mushroom, beets
Manganese Mushroom, beets Mushroom Mushroom, beets
Phosphorus Mushroom, beets Mushroom Mushroom, beets
Potassium Mushroom, beets Mushroom Mushroom, beets
Selenium Mushroom, beets Mushroom Mushroom, beets
Sodium Mushroom, beets Mushroom Mushroom, beets
Zinc Maize, beans, Maize, fish, meat, beans, Maize, beans,
mushroom, beets mushroom mushroom, beets
Table 5.7 Types of adulteration

Types of
S.No. adulterants Example
1 Intentional Sand, stones, marble chips, mud, talc, other filth, chalk powder,
adulterants mineral oil, water, and harmful color
2 Incidental Pesticide residue, water/air pollution
adulterants
3 Accidental Undesirable substance due to anthropogenic/natural disasters
adulterants
• Below 10% of total energy ingestion from free sugars (WHO 2003, 2015), but
preferably less than 5% of total energy intake for additional health benefits
(WHO 2015).
• Below 30% of total energy intake from fats (Hooper et al. 2012; WHO 2003.
Unsaturated fats are preferable to saturated fats.
• Below 5 g of salt per day and use iodized salt.
• Fruits, vegetables, legumes, nuts as well as whole grains.
Poor nutrition or unbalanced diet leads to health disorders. Micronutrient defi-
ciency is deficiency of one or more of the micronutrients due to poor intake or
exacerbation during illnesses due to rapid loss of nutrients through feces/vomit.
References 209
Fig. 5.19 Exposure to polluted air could lead to food contamination
Degradation of environment and climate change may lead to loss of crop leading to
nutritional deficiency.
In order to strengthening or improvement of nutrient fortification is done by
addition of or intensification with another ingredient. The distribution of iodized
salt would control goiter fortifying salt with iron would control anemia. Salt fortified
with both iron and iodine would help to combat anemia and goiter where they coex-
ist (Rao 1994).
Protean malnutrition is insufficient intake of protein to maintain nitrogen equi-
librium or nitrogen balance. To grow, children have to consume enough protein to
maintain a proper nitrogen balance, whereas adults need to consume protein to
maintain nitrogen equilibrium.
Food adulteration is the presence of deleterious substance in food that harms
health. Adulteration could be intentional, incidental, and accidental (Table 5.7).
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Part III
Health and Environment
Chapter 6
Public Health
Abstract Environmental exposures contribute to 19% of global cancer incidences.

Around 10% of all deaths and diseases worldwide are also attributed to environmen-
tal factors. With the increase in human population worldwide, there is a rise in the
impact on the environment pollution. For example, the dangers of migration, trans-
portation, refining, and mining now extend to global climate change. The burden of
disease around the globe attributed to the unhealthy environment is 22% that caused
death of 12.6 million people in 2012 representing 23% of all deaths. Up to 26% of
all losses of life in children below the age of 5 years could be avoided by removing
environmental risks. Understanding public health is therefore important to safe-
guard the health of public. In addressing these issues, this chapter discusses the
fundamentals of public health.
6.1 Introduction
Environmental exposures contribute to 19% of global cancer incidence (Vineis and

Xun 2009). Around 10% of all deaths as well as diseases worldwide are attributed
to environmental factors, namely (WHO 2009):
• Climate change
• Indoor air pollution from solid fuels
• Lead exposure
• Sanitation and hygiene
• Unsafe water
• Urban outdoor air pollution
With the increase in human population worldwide there is a rise in the impact on
the environment. The dangers of migration, transportation, refining, and mining
now extend to global climate change.
As per the WHO (2016a) the burden of disease around the globe attributed to the
unhealthy environment is 22% that caused death of 12.6 million people in 2012
representing 23% of all deaths. As per the report, out of 133 injuries or diseases 101
had noteworthy links with the environment. As per the report, sicknesses with the
highest preventable ailment burden due to environmental risks are as follows:

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64480-2_6
220 6 Public Health
• Asthma
• Cancers
• Cardiovascular diseases
• Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
• Diarrheal diseases
• Lower respiratory infections
• Malaria
• Musculoskeletal diseases
• Neonatal conditions
• Road traffic injuries
• Self-harm
• Unintentional injuries (other than road traffic)
• Unipolar depressive disorder
Up to 26% of all loss of life in children below the age of 5 years could be avoided
by removing environmental risks (WHO 2016a) and following are the key findings
of the report.
• Environmental risks are responsible for a big portion of the burden of global
disease.
• Sustainable development goals (SDGs) are very much interlinked with environ-
mental as well as social determinants of health.
• About two-thirds of all deaths linked to the environment are noncommunicable
diseases.
• Environmental strategies over and over again benefit multiple sicknesses.
• Interference to enhance the environment can very much contribute to targets sus-
tainable development goal.
• Older adults and children below 5 years are impacted by the environment to great
extent.
• Greatest burden of environmental disease occurs at low- and middle-income
countries.
• Impacts of the environment on public health vary across different social group.
6.2 Human and Environmental Conflict
Progressive interactions with fragmented environments and combining the impact

of natural disasters (Daszak et al. 2000) have resulted in an era of sickness emer-
gence and re-emergence (Alison et al. 2016). Airline travel of more than eight mil-
lion persons per day has supported sickness outbreaks beyond their regions of origin
(Morens and Fauci 2013).
Ecosystem provides a series of services that include the following:
• Stabilizing and regulatory processes
–– Control pest species
6.2 Human and Environmental Conflict 221
–– Moderation of weather extremes

–– Regulation of the biogeochemical cycle
–– Self-purification of pollution
–– Stabilization of climate
• Regeneration processes
–– Decomposition and detoxification of wastes
–– Pollination and dispersal of seeds/spores
–– Regeneration of soil fertility
• Production of goods
–– Food
–– Industries
• Life-fulfilling functions
–– Aesthetic beauty
–– Scientific discovery
–– Serenity
Ecosystem services are important for human health, livelihoods, and lifestyles.
Conflict occurs when stakeholders have incompatible differences/values, interests,
perceptions, power, as well as goals (Castro and Nielson 2003; Yasmi et al. 2006)
(Fig. 6.1). If conflicts are unresolved or unmanaged, they are likely to worsen
(Salomé and Urmilla 2010).
Environmental conflicts include the following:
• Biodiversity conflict
• Coastal zone conflict
• Pollution conflict
• Water conflict
• Land conflict
• Climate change conflict
Disease transmission between wildlife and humans can lead to death and
zoonosis.
Coastal zones exhibit high pressures for development, management weaknesses,
and the deterioration of the environment. These conflicts are further affected by the
climate change. Harbors and ports discharge pollutants discharges in the form of
sewage and toxic industrial wastes damaging coastal environments affecting health.
The existence of pesticides and other chemicals can have an impact on the appropri-
ateness of fish for human consumption.
Use of agrochemicals in the agricultural sector may result in food contamination
besides other chemicals such as paints, vanished, soaps, detergents, toilet cleaners,
cosmetics, contaminating environment; thereby, posing health risk to the humans
and animals. Further chemical leaching from food packaging affect the individu-
al’s health.
222 6 Public Health
Fig. 6.1 Land use conflict

such as temporary road
blockage by putting rented
ceremonial tent for
ceremony by a resident in
front of his house and
motorist trying to pass road
divider are common scene
in India. In theory such
cases are not permitted but
in practice they happen
regularly
Escherichia coli and enterococci that are indicator microbes have been found in
sea water. Microbial contamination by viruses, bacteria, parasites, and other organ-
isms in sea is a global problem due to sewage and contaminated runoff exposing
humans to microbial contamination through occupational and recreational exposure
apart from consuming contaminated seafood. Seafood was responsible for o utbreaks
of food poisoning in Japan (22%) and Korea (32%) from 1971 to 1990 (Lee et al.
1996b; Chan 1995).
Bacteria belonging to Vibrio species are natural inhabitants in oceans. Pathogenic
marine Vibrio species, such as Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Vibrio cholerae, and Vibrio
vulnificus, cause sickness when they are ingested in sea food (Lee et al. 1996a;
Matte et al. 1994).
Coastal areas are susceptible to pollution carried by streams as well as rivers,
which includes agricultural runoff. Several epidemiologic studies revealed bathing
in contaminated recreational water has been associated with transmission of com-
municable diseases, such as eye and ear infections, gastroenteritis, skin infections,
and febrile respiratory illness (Fleming et al. 2006).
Pollution and degradation of costal environment can result in decline in the natu-
ral carrying capacity of the coastal area apart from decline in coastal biodiversity.
Some coastal communities dump solid waste that can leach pollutants along with
leach from septic tanks (Fig. 6.2).
Apart from land-based sources of pollution other sources of pollution come from
shipping, offshore mining, and oil production. Resource depletion biodiversity
reduction and problems related to human health may arise from tourism (Clark 1992).
Fig. 6.2 Photos of coastal area
Flood in coastal area of Manado, Indonesia had noticeable health impact. The
area is characterized by with minimal clean water, high density houses, and latrines
discharging waste directly to the beach/river (Ronald et al. 2015).
The increased population density has been the cause of death due to weather
events that include the following:
1. Death of over 9000 and missing of 9200 people in El Salvador, Honduras,
Guatemala, and Nicaragua due to Hurricane Mitch in October 1998
2. Death of more than 2000 deaths due to tsunami and earthquake in Papua New
Guinea in July 1998
3. Deaths of more than 175,000 people due to tsunami and earthquake in Indonesia
and beyond in December 2005
Harmful algal blooms (HABs) of algae such as dinoflagellates, cyanobacteria,
and diatoms in aquatic environments are of human health concern. Numerous
human ailments are caused by consuming seafood contaminated with toxins gener-
ated by the HAB (Backer et al. 2005; Baden et al. 1995) by bioaccumulation
(Fleming et al. 2006). In addition, toxins of HABs can also enter human body by air.
Human exposures to water as well as aerosols comprising toxins have been associ-
ated with respiratory ailments (Fleming et al. 2005).
Some diseases associated with marine phytoplankton include the following
(Fleming et al. 2006):
224 6 Public Health
1. Amnesic shell-fish poisoning

2. Azaspiracid shellfish poisoning
3. Diarrheic shellfish poisoning
4. Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning
5. Paralytic shellfish poisoning
Ambiguous property rights and land scarcity can result in land conflict. The land
conflict at international level can be disastrous. A population of about 100 million was
reported to be in a state of humanitarian crisis in Afghanistan, occupied Palestinian
territory, Iraq, Somalia, Lebanon, and Sudan (WHO 2008). Population in conflict
affected lands would be directly affected due to injuries, disabilities, or death caused
by violence. Furthermore, the population in the areas of land conflicts is affected by
disturbance of infrastructure and daily social life (WHO 2008). Ecoterrorism, which
is a destruction of the environment by individuals or states, groups, in order to threaten
or to pressurize civilians or governments can also affect health of citizens.
The social factors affecting people in crisis settings include the following
(Fig. 6.3):
1. Absence of access to health services
2. Absence of safe water and sanitation
3. Poor nutrition
4. Poor quality housing
Survey in Kohistan district of Afghanistan during April 2001, which showed
most deaths among the children below 5 years of age were due to (Assefa et al. 2001):
Fig. 6.3 In the absence of

separate space for washing
a lady in poor community
is washing her cloths and
utensils in front of her
house adjacent to road
1. Diarrhea (25%)
2. Respiratory tract infections (19.4%)
3. Measles (15.7%)
4. Scurvy (6.5%)
The respiratory sickness Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) caused by a
coronavirus (Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus or MERS-CoV) was
first recognized in Saudi Arabia in 2012.
Coronaviruses (CoVs) belong to the order Nidovirales, possess the most com-
plex and the largest RNA genomes ever described to date that allow them to speed-
ily adapt to new hosts. The first human CoV was recognized in the mid-1960s.
About 35% of the patients reported with MERS-CoV infection have passed away.
CoV spreads from person-to-person through aerosolized droplets originated from
coughs and sneezes of infected people through air and contaminated material.
Even though most of the human cases of MERS-CoV have been recognized to
human-to-human infections scientific facts propose that dromedary camels are a
key reservoir host for MERS-CoV (Hemida et al. 2017). As per Philippe (2020)
evidence suggests that MERS and SARS viruses originated from bats and they are
assumed to have undergone wide recombination with CoV from other animals
ahead of infecting humans.
Health care-related outbreaks have occurred in a number of nations, with major
outbreaks seen in United Arab Emirates, the Republic of Korea, and Saudi Arabia.
The most overwhelming examples of CoV epidemics were the SARS and the MERS
outbreaks in 2002 and 2012, respectively, followed by a novel corona virus outbreak
in 2019.
Since 2012, 27 nations reported cases of MERS with 2494 laboratory-confirmed
cases of MERS were reported globally at the end of November 2019 that include
858 associate deaths, majority of which were reported from Saudi Arabia
(WHO 2019b).
In the late December, 2019, the outbreak of respiratory syndrome, started in
Wuhan, China (Nanshan et al. 2020) have spread to 28 other countries and territo-
ries by first week of February 2020 (CDC 2020).
The transmission of disease occurred in four stages across the globe after it origi-
nated in China. Stage 1 is the stage of being the disease imported, stage 2 being
local transmission, stage 3 being community transmission, and stage 4 being the
disease turning into an epidemic.
Many patients in Wuhan were epidemiologically associated with the Huanan
seafood market in Wuhan, where numerous non-aquatic animals were also sold
before the outbreak (Roujian et al. 2020). On January 23, Wuhan authority shut
down all public transport in the city. Quarantine orders were extended to other 15
cities in China locking down 50 million people in China. The corona virus killed
more than 630 and affected about 31,000 in Wuhan, China by the second week of
February 2020 (Business insider 2020).
The lockdown of Wuhan that was extended to other places of Hubei province
prevented business-related travel and transportation of goods. Restaurants, transport
226 6 Public Health
providers, cinemas, shops, and hotels were severely affected. Many companies con-
tinued expenditure including employees’ pay without revenue. The manufacturing
units selling goods from China were affected as buyers became unwilling to buy
from China.
The international retailers stopped operations in China beside many overseas
airlines stopping flights to China (Andrew 2020).
As on February 15, 2020, globally 50,580 cases were laboratory-confirmed to be
infected by 2019-nCOV in 25 countries with 50,054 reported from China alone
resulting in 1524 deaths in China and 2 death outside China (WHO 2020a).
A dozen towns in Italy were quarantined on February 22, 2020 after two people
died due to infection with the coronavirus from China. Furthermore, all schools,
businesses, and restaurants in Lombardy and Veneto towns were closed apart from
cancelling sporting events as well as religious services (The guardian 2020).
The WHO announced a name for the new coronavirus disease on February 11,
2020, as COVID-19 (WHO 2020b) and the virus responsible for this disease was
named as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)
(WHO 2020c).
Numerous studies projected global economic impact of SARS at US$30–100
billion, or about US$3–10 million per case (Chou et al. 2004; Fan 2003; Hanna and
Huang 2004; Lee and McKibbin 2004; Smith and Sommers 2003; Wen et al. 2004)
distributed across a range of sectors. Considering 8098 SARS infections resulting in
$40 billion in economic losses, economic loss due to coronavirus was projected for
$2.7 trillion (Messamore 2020).
On 9 March 2020, Italy placed its 60 million residents under lockdown. In less
than a month, the country went from having only three cases of the coronavirus to
the highest number of cases as well as deaths outside of China (Mélissa 2020).
As on 12 March 2020, globally 125,048 cases (80,981 from China) confirmed
with 4613 deaths (3173 from China) (WHO 2020d).
Pandemics can be fast or slow. In the fast scenario many people get sick at same
time and with rapid progress of infection spread, health-care system becomes unable
to handle it and there will not be sufficient medical resources—medical staff, equip-
ment, medicine, and people will die unattended. As more health-care personnel get
sick themselves the capacity of the health-care system falls even further that leads
to scenarios where decision has to be taken on who get to live and who do not.
Hence, all the people need to change the scenario into slow pandemic in the early
phase. So, everyone who is sick can get treatment and there is no crunch point.
Since there is no vaccine for COVID-19 virus yet as of March 2020—we have
socially engineered our behavior to act like a social vaccine. This means two
things—not getting infected and not infecting others. Next thing is the social dis-
tancing that is not a nice experience but extremely important to do. Quarantines are
not nice to experience too and certainly not popular. At larger level there are quar-
antine facilities which include travel restrictions and order to stay at home. But they
buy us and researchers working on researches to invent specific vaccines and medi-
cine. The question of how pandemics end depends on how they start.
6.3 Impact of Pollution on Health 227
Forty-four confirmed cases were reported from India spread across 10 states as
on 9th March 2020. Of the 44 confirmed cases 16 are foreign nationals. As on 9
March, 941,717 international travelers from 8827 flights were screened at airports
(WHO 2020e). Out of the screened passengers 1921 passengers were recognized as
symptomatic and 177 of them were admitted to hospital. From 10th March 2020,
passengers traveling from the Republic of Korea or Italy and wishing to enter India
required certificate of having tested negative for COVID-19 (WHO 2020e).
On 6 March 2020, a National Training of Trainers (ToT) was arranged by
Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW) Government of India (GoI) with
WHO to provide support on COVID-19 with a focus on strengthening Surveillance
and Risk Communication, Infection Prevention Control, and Community
Engagement. On the request of MoHFW, WHO Country Office for India (WCO)
has deployed four teams to support response in four states (WHO 2020e). With
India in the second stage of transmission several states announced closure of
schools, colleges, malls, swimming pools, theatres, cancellation of public meetings.
Even though 594 cases reported as on March 13, 2020 in the United Kingdom
(WHO 2020f) the government has avoided closing schools and banning large events
to encourage “herd immunity” (Tony 2020). Subsequently schools across the United
Kingdom were closed on 20 March 2020 except for children whose parents are key
workers. This was followed by an announcement for the closure of all restaurants,
pubs, and gyms (BBC 2020a, b). To curb the virus transmission the Prime Minister
of India requested to observe countrywide social distancing on 22 March 2020
through “Janata curfew” where in all the citizens of the country was urged to stay at
home (Sushmi 2020).
Considering the above discussions, it is evident that the burden of disease due to
environmental attributes is related to the number and extent of environmental
conflicts.
6.3 Impact of Pollution on Health
Pollution caused since industrial revolution has been contributed to toxic chemicals
in the environment and increased sharply (Fig. 6.4).
Pollution of water, air, soil can affect human health as they enter the human body
through biogeochemical cycles (Fig. 6.5). Water conflicts can affect quality and
quantity of water that can have direct impact on human health.
Briggs (2003) attributed pollution to about 8–9% of the total burden of disease
worldwide. Landrigan et al. (2018) estimated that 16% of global deaths were due to
pollution resulting in 9 million premature demises in 2015 with about 92% of
pollution-related deaths happening in middle-income and low-income countries.
The greatest number of pollution related deaths in 2015 happened in Southeast Asia
(3.2 million) followed by the Western Pacific (2.2 million) (GBD 2015 Risk Factors
Collaborators 2016).
228 6 Public Health
Fig. 6.4 Demolition in

progress with partial
coverage to combat air
pollution and objects
falling on ground—another
example for theory and
practice
Impact of Pollution on Human Health
Indirect
Direct Exposure
Exposure
Toxicity Infection Injury Psycological Food Conflict Reduced food

stress contamination production
Fig. 6.5 Impact of pollution on human health
Even though air pollution is a slow killer, history has seen many episodes that
have resulted in an acute effect on the human health, some of which are listed in
Table 6.1.
Table 6.1 Major air pollution episodes

Sl.
No. Year Location Source
1. 1930 Meuse Valley, Nemery et al. (2001)
Belgium
2. 1948 Donora, USA Schrenk et al. (1949)
3. 1952 London, Britain Hunt et al. (2003)
4. 1984 Bhopal, India BGTRRD (2019)
5. 1846, 1914,1972, Southeast Asia Mahmud and Abdullah (eds),
1987, 1990, 1994, 1997, 2004, (2008)
2005
On 2nd/3rd December, 1984, leakage of methyl isocyanate gas from Union

Carbide (India) Limited spread over 36 wards out of 56 wards affecting about 0.6
million (67%) out of about 0.9 million inhabitants in the city. The episode resulted
in deaths of about 3000 people immediately. In response, the was started and it
continues to exist till date (2020). A huge medical rehabilitation program by the
government was taken to construct, equip, staff and treat the victims through 24
medical establishments having 634 beds. 1,029,517 cases were registered for claims
and compensations up to October 2014 out of which 574,366 cases were awarded
compensation (BGTRRD 2019).
Smog episodes in Donora resulted in 20 deaths (Schrenk et al. 1949) and around
12,000 deaths have been linked to 1952 smog that occurred in London (Hunt et al.
2003). A fog covered a huge area of Belgium from December 1 to December 5,
1930, resulting in deaths of more than 60 people in the next 3 days in Meuse Valley.
The growing demands for land in the Association of South East Asian Nations
(ASEAN) region has led to the clearance of forests “slash-and-burn” method, which
involves cutting vegetation followed by setting fire. Further rampant drainage and
unsustainable management have made peatland in Southeast Asia vulnerable to fire.
As a result, the region has witnessed series of haze episodes resulting in respiratory
ailments, premature deaths, exacerbation of existing heart as well as lung conditions
(WHO 2016b). About 100,000 deaths are linked to haze episodes in 2015 (Koplitz
et al. 2016).
More than 70% of the ailments by pollution are non-communicable in nature and
accountable for up to 7% of annual health expenditure in middle-income nations
and for 1.7% of annual health expenditure in high-income nations (Landrigan et al.
2018). Pollution can affect health directly by toxicity, infection, and injury. It may
indirectly affect health by contaminating food, reducing food production and result-
ing conflicts among people, and overall, the food security of a nation.
Toxicity due to water, air contamination could result in numerous diseases linked
to the characteristics of contaminant. The effect of infection due to microorganism
230 6 Public Health
depends on type of microorganism. The injury due to air pollutants can affect eye
and high noise level can bring injury to eardrum.
Chemical contamination from the environment is posing a threat to human health
and a global food safety issue (Lesa and Wagesh 2019).
Impact of chemical pollution on health of humans and burden of disease world-
wide is underestimated. 5000 chemicals out of more than 1.4 million new chemicals
being synthesized since 1950 have become wide spread in the environment. Less
than half of these chemicals are tested for toxicity or safety. Pre-market assessments
Table 6.2 Some of the published food contamination studies

Contaminant Food Country Literature
Anthracene/fluoranthene Yogurt Italy Battisti et al.
(2015)
19 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons Grains, flour, Poland Ciecierska and
(PAHs) and bran Obiedzinski (2013)
Total PAHs Oyster Japan Nakata (2014)
Chlorpyrifos Catfish Australia Huynh and
Nugegoda (2012)
Chlorpyrifos Vegetables China Lu (2014)
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) Chicken South Africa Thompson (2017)
and other organochlorine pesticides products
(OCPs)
DDT and other OCPs Milk Ethiopia Deti (2014)
DDT and other OCPs Fish Mozambique Thompson (2017)
PCBs and OCPs Baby foods Korea Jeong (2014)
OCPs and pyrethroids Honey Egypt Malhat et al.
(2015)
PCBs and OCPs Cereals Poland Roszko (2014)
PCBs and OCPs Milk, yak Tibet Plateau Pan (2014)
muscle and
liver
Pb, Hg Grains and China Xiao et al. (2017),
vegetables Li (2016), Cheng
et al. (2015)
Pb, Cd Livestock Morocco Nouri and
organs Haddioui (2016)
Pb Sheep livers Spain Pareja-Carrera
et al. (2014)
Pb, Cd, Cu, Zn Agricultural Romania Nedelescu et al.
crops (2016)
Cd Locally Belgium Vromman et al.
produced (2008)
foods
Tl Lettuce and Germany Liu et al.(2017)
chard
Pb, Cd Soybeans Argentina Salazar (2012)
of new chemicals are mandatory only in few high-income countries (Landrigan

et al. 2018).
There is hardly any treatment of wastewater from informal and illegal livestock
markets as well as slaughterhouses in developing countries resulting in discharge to
drains that leads to local water bodies often affecting the poor at downstream who
may use the water for washing clothes, bathing, drinking, and cooking.
The food contamination can occur due to exposure of crops to pollutants or
through biomagnifications (Table 6.2). Concentrations of mercury and lead in gold
mining area of Tongguan, Shaanxi, China posed risk to health of people from con-
sumption of locally produced vegetables and grains (Xiao et al. 2017).
More than two billion people rely on seafood globally the consumption is
increasing (FAO 1999). Marine pollution due to contaminated freshwater runoff,
entry of air pollutants, industrial and solid waste dumping contaminate sea food by
toxic heavy metal, synthetic, organic chemicals and microorganisms.
Reduction in food production can occur due to decrease in metabolism in plants
and animals or death of food producing plants/animals due to exposure to pollut-
ants. Death of pollinators (Fig. 6.6) due to pollution can also reduce food production.
Pollution conflicts can lead to violent demonstration resulting in injury and death
(Box 6.1).
Box 6.1 Thoothukudi Massacre

The Thoothukudi massacre in Thoothukudi district, Tamil Nadu, India, took
place on 22 May 2018 due to firing against about 20,000 unarmed protestors
(Financial Express 2018). The crowd was demonstrating against pollution of
copper smelter. Thirteen people were dead and 102 were injured in the event
(India TV News 2018).
Fig. 6.6 Death of pollinators due to pollution may reduce food production
232 6 Public Health
The major ailment linked to water pollution are gastrointestinal diseases most
prominently, diarrheal sickness (70% of deaths due to water pollution), paratyphoid
fever (20% of deaths due to water pollution), typhoid fever (8% of deaths due to
water pollution), and lower respiratory tract infection (2% of deaths due to water
pollution) (GBD 2015 Risk Factors Collaborators 2016). But other sources such as
leakage of underground storage tank (UST) used to store petroleum, oil, and hazard-
ous substances can contaminate aquifer with chemicals that persist for long period
for many reasons that include the following:
1. Steel product lines and fittings
2. Tank overfills
3. Leaks from dispensers
4. Steel tanks
5. Submersible transfer pump sumps
6. Fuel delivery errors
7. Leaking overfill and dispenser protection devices
8. Leaking fiberglass product lines and tanks
The health implication depends on the chemical and recipients.
Noise pollution can affect human health by the following:
• Cardiovascular diseases
• Cognitive impairment in children
• Sleep disturbance
• Tinnitus
• Annoyance
Box 6.2 Disability Adjusted Life Years explained

DALYs are common measure of overall burden of health is mathematically
calculated using following formula
DALY = YLL + YLD
Where
DALY = Disability Adjusted Life Years
YLL = Years of Life Lost = N × Ls
YLD = Years Lost due to Disability = I × DW × La
Where
N = Number of deaths due to condition
Ls = Standard life expectancy at age of death
La = Average duration of the case until reduction or death (years)
I = Number of incident cases in the population
DW = Disability weight of specific condition
6.4 Impact of Climate Change on Health 233
The summation of Years of Life Lost (YLL) due to early mortality as well as
Years Lost due to Disability (YLD) is known as the Disability Adjusted Life Year
(DALYs), which is a common measure for overall burden of health (Box 6.2).
In the western European countries, the estimated DALYs lost due to environmen-
tal noise are as follows:
• Annoyance—587,000 years
• Cognitive impairment of children—45,000 years
• Ischemic heart disease—61,000 years
• Sleep disturbance—903,000 years
• Tinnitus—22,000 years
Ecosystems of the earth are under escalating pressure due to human activities
rising levels of GHGs, extinction of habitat and species, global climate change, pol-
lution, besides fish as well as water scarcity. Corruption can aggravate these condi-
tions (Alexandra 2016).
Considering the essence of the discussion in this section, it is inferred that pre-
ventable diseases burden from environmental risks is directly proportional to the
extent of pollution besides corruption wherein corruption includes bribery, graft,
patronage, backdoor deals, embezzlement, nepotism, and statistical falsification.
The pollution in the above statement includes those that are monitored and unmoni-
tored (Fig. 6.7).
Fig. 6.7 Overflow of

manholes and drains due to
poor maintenance that
leads to overflow of
sewage with pathogens and
toxins can become
breeding ground for
vectors or remission of
pathogen by contact
234 6 Public Health
Individual Community Geographical
•Disease status •Water and sanitation •Exposure to extreme

•Socioeconomic factors •Local food supplies events
•Demographic factors •Health Infrastructure •Proximity to
•Access to information environmental conflict
sites
•Exposure to pollution
•Waste managment
Fig. 6.8 Major factors affecting vulnerability
Impact of Climate Change on Human

Health
Direct effects Indirect effects
Extreme Food Vector-borne Water-borne Social and

Water/Air
Aeroallergens production infectious infectious economic
events pollution
and supply diseases diseases disruptions
Fig. 6.9 Impact of climate change on health
All people in the world are vulnerable for environmental health impact, but the
severity depends on many factors. The major factors affecting the vulnerability are
given in Fig. 6.8.
6.4 Impact of Climate Change on Health
Climate change can affect health directly or/and indirectly (Fig. 6.9). The climate
change and associated disasters like cold wave, heat wave, flood, draught, hurri-
cane, cyclone, tsunami, thunder-storm, hailstorm could result in injuries, death, dis-
abilities, and epidemics. Disasters with similar characteristics and magnitude will
impact different groups differently due to variations in vulnerability, ability of the
society to respond and other factors.
Between 1998 and 2017, geophysical and climate-related disasters resulted in
the deaths of 1.3 million people. While the majority of deaths were liked to geo-
6.4 Impact of Climate Change on Health 235
Stagnation of River stream Damage to Damage to

Drowning
water overtops bank property trees/structure
•Increase in •Pollution of •Loss of habitat •Death •Injury
mosquito surface water •Mental stress
abundance due
to stagnation
of water
•Loss of crop
resulting in
Reduction in
food supply
Fig. 6.10 Impact of health due to flood
Stagnation of water Heat wave Water shortage
• Increase in mosquito • Heat edema, rashes, • Loss of crop resulting

abundance in dried cramps, exhaustion, in reduction in food
rivers resulting from syncope, stroke supply
stagnation of water • Disease associated
with hygiene due to
lack of water
Fig. 6.11 Impacts due to draught
physical events, mainly tsunamis and earthquakes, 91% of all disasters were due to
heat waves, storms, floods, droughts, and other events related to weather (CRED
and UNISDR 2018).
Average number of climate-related events per year nearly doubled to 329 in the
year from 1998 to 2017 compared to 165 events per annum between 1978 and 1997.
In 1998–2017, storms, accounted 233,000 deaths that is second only to earthquakes
which accounted 747,234 deaths (CRED and UNISDR 2018). Climate-related
disasters accounted for 91% of all 7255 recorded disasters from 1998 to 2017 out of
which floods accounted 43% of all recorded events (CRED and UNISDR 2018).
Flood that is a major disaster due to climate change can affect life and health of
people as depicted in Fig. 6.10. Drowning is a serious health threat resulting in
death of 372,000 people per annum globally with more than 90% of loss of life due
to drowning occurring in low- as well as middle-income nations (WHO 2014a).
Draught that is another major disaster due to climate change can affect life and
health of people as depicted in Fig. 6.11.
In 2003, severe heat wave from June to mid-August increased summer tempera-
ture by 20–30% in a large portion of Europe. The maximum temperatures varied
from 35 to 40 °C in many of the southern and central European countries resulting
in more than 30,000 deaths. The extreme heat also resulted in more than 25,000 fires
destroying 64,7069 ha of forest land 44,123 ha of agricultural land, 8973 ha of
unoccupied places, besides 1700 ha of inhabited areas (UNEP 2003).
236 6 Public Health
At least 21 persons lost their lives due to cold wave that hit the US Midwest and
hospitals treated patients affected by frostbites (BBC 2019).
Cold and snow in Eastern Europe from end of January to first half of February
2012 led to the demise of at least 824 citizens as well as hospitalization of more than
7000. A storm in the central and eastern United States at the end of February 2012
killed at least 13 people besides injuring more than 200 people (Benfield 2012).
Weather conditions due to change in climate can affect the transportation of air
pollutants besides pollen production; rise in the ground level ozone concentration;
combustion of fossil fuel due to energy demands; increase in wildfires. Water pollu-
tion due to increased urban/rural runoff can further compound the health problem.
Population displacement due to environmental degradation or the natural disasters,
sea level rise, is likely to result in substantial physical as well as mental health prob-
lems (Githeko and Woodward 2003).
The key health concerns due to climate change in Asia and Africa are malaria and
cholera apart from air pollution-related illnesses and thermal stress. Resistance to
chloroquine by parasites’ and resistance of vector to insecticides further complicate
the problem to control malaria (Githeko and Woodward 2003).
An average of 130 people living in disaster-affected areas died per million due to
various disasters from 2000 to 2017 as compared to 18 people in high income coun-
tries (CRED and UNISDR 2018) confirming poverty increases the vulnerability of
people to disasters. 138,000 casualties from Cyclone Nargis occurred in Myanmar
in the year 2008. In 2010, around 56,000 people died in Russia due to a heat wave
and 20,000 people died in Somalia due to drought (CRED and UNISDR 2018). In
1998 floods affected 239 million people and, in 2002, sandstorm affected 100 mil-
lion people in China (CRED and UNISDR 2018).
Droughts are usually slow-onset events, which have impacts on food security and
rural livelihoods in nations dependent on agriculture (FAO 2018). Drought in 2002
affected 300 million Indians and the draught in 2015 affected 365 people in
D.P.R. Korea, India, Malawi, and Ethiopia (CRED and UNISDR 2018).
Vectors breading in water depend on surface water availability spread of malaria,
dengue, and yellow fever (WHO 2003). Increase in CO2 levels from around 300 to
600 ppm leads to four times enhancement in the generation of ragweed pollen
(Ziska and Caulfield 2000a, b) linked to allergies. The main pathogens that cause
acute gastroenteritis reproduce more rapidly in warmer conditions inferring linkage
of greater risk of illness at higher temperatures with, other variables being equal
(WHO 2003).
As the world struggled to cope with a COVID-19 crisis in late 2019 that extended
to mid of 2020 some argue climate crisis is not most pressing concern (Manzanedo
and Manning 2020).
COVID-19 crisis has caused 9+ million confirmed cases and 400,000+ deaths at
the mid of 2020 offered ability to understand, prevent, and manage global emergen-
cies better than before. The COVID-19 crisis has heavily affected the global econ-
omy. As per Manzanedo and Manning (2020) the lessons we can learn COVID-19
and climate change are as follows:
6.5 Impact of Solid Waste on Health 237
(i) Elevated momentum trends

(ii) Irreversible changes
(iii) Social as well as spatial inequality
(iv) Deteriorating of international harmony
(v) Less costly to prevent than to cure
With unexpected crisis like COVID-19 the climate change projections and health
impact related to climate change may not emerge as predicted. But nevertheless
theory proposed by scientist should not be seen in isolation with practice as in the
past where global carbon emission did not slow down until COVID-19 crisis.
Despite impact of climate change has become more evident the response from
health policy as well as health policy has been minimal (Ossebaard and Lachman
2020) that was reflected during COVID-19 crisis with shortage beds, doctors, and
paramedical staff.
At the mid of 2020 COVID-19 locked down of more than 6 billion people of the
planet with the pandemic outbreak affecting almost 208 countries and territories
across the globe. The data of COVID-19 cases from January 2020 to 5th June 2020
revealed that most of the nations located in the relatively lower temperature region
showed a rapid raise in the COVID-19 compared to countries in the warmer climatic
regions (Iqbal et al. 2020).
Fig. 6.12 Abandoned construction material and waste at a construction site

238 6 Public Health
6.5 Impact of Solid Waste on Health
Solid waste is a reservoir of disease causative agent. The effect of solid waste on
health depends on the following:
1. Type of waste—biomedical, electronic, hazardous, municipal, radioactive,
slaughter, cremation, construction, demolition, etc.
2. Management of waste—dumping, open burning, segregation, etc.
3. Transportation of waste—manual, animal driven, motor vehicle driven, closed
vehicle, open vehicle, etc.
4. Treatment of waste—shredding, baling, stabilization, etc.
5. Disposal—landfill, open dump, incineration, ocean dump, etc.
6. Mode of transportation of toxins/infection—direct contact, air, water, vector, etc.
7. Portal of entry, portal of exit and transmission of causative agent
8. Resistance of recipient to disease
The waste constituents include physical, chemical, and biological substance that
can lead to injury, non-communicable disease, and communicable disease. The
transmission of disease causative agent can happen by direct contact, radiation,
water, air, vector, rodent, and other animals (Fig. 6.12).
Work published by Goldberg et al. (1995) suggested that men inhibiting close to
municipal solid waste landfill site at Montreal had greater risk of cancer of pan-
creas, kidney, liver, and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Comba (2003) reported that
dwelling within a 2-km from waste incinerator located in Mantua, Italy was linked
to upsurge in risk of soft-tissue sarcomas.
The chemicals within the waste can react with each other and pathogenic
microbes can multiply enhance the complexity of improper solid waste manage-
Fig. 6.13 A cow let to feed on waste

ment. Biological vectors are important to the disease—solid waste relationship to

the extent vectors can either “host” pathogens or serve as transportation agent. Solid
wastes may contain flammables, explosive, poisonous, or reactive chemicals in
solid, liquid, and gaseous form. The gases can travel and can create hazards
to humans.
Airborne solids from intentional and accidental solid waste combustion can
cause impact on health depending on nature of pollutants in the air. Pathogenic soil
fungi in solid waste can generate spores that enter the air. Constituents of solid
waste may enter surface waters, or leach and percolate into ground water. Toxic
chemicals and biological pathogens may also contaminate food directly or through
flies and rodents.
Improper management and disposal can increase population of vector, stray ani-
mals (dog, cat, rodents, cattle) (Fig. 6.13). Such unmanaged waste can lead to ani-
mal bites and vector borne diseases. Stray animals can also spread the solid waste
when they carry waste with them.
Contamination of food by chemicals present in the environment is an important
food safety concern posing a serious health threat.
These chemicals include the following:
• Metalloids
• Metals
• Nanoparticles
• Non-metals
• PAHs
• PFCs
• Pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs)
• Plastics
• POPs
• Radioactive elements
These chemicals from man-made sources may contaminate livestock, crops,
drinking water, and seafood, affecting human health.
Entry of radioactive to municipal waste can lead to severe health impact. Selling
of old Gamma unit by Delhi University to scrap dealer resulted in death of one per-
son in April 2010 after scrap dealer and his employees were subjected to the radio-
active Cobalt-60 (Dey et al. 2012; Chandrappa and Das 2012).
Dumpsites serve nearly 3–4 billion people receiving about 40% of the waste
generated globally from several sources with varying compositions. The waste is
susceptible to open burning without leachate management and landfill gas collec-
tion. ISWA (2016) recorded above 750 deaths and several health impact incidents
between December 2015 and June 2016, due to poor waste management in
dumpsites.
Open dumpsites often waste pickers without any protection for waste picking
posing health threats to waste pickers and the general public in the neighborhood.
Burning waste emits toxic POPs that may be carried to long distances (ISWA 2016).
240 6 Public Health
Health of populations was driving forces behind waste management in the devel-
oped world since as the link between health and waste became clear.
Solid waste disposal by open burning and dumping was the practice in most
developing nations until beginning of twenty-first century and it is still being prac-
ticed dominantly in low-income besides upper middle-income nations where 40%
of the waste produced is disposed of (ISWA 2012).
Apart from rural livestock and poultry production in rural area, large-scale live-
stock rearing is increasing around urban areas, close to urban areas, peri-urban
households as well as urban slums linking to potential source of disease (World
Bank 2004).
Many of the human infectious sicknesses and emerging human ailments like
avian flu, swine flu, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), encephalopathy
from mad cow disease, avian influenza, west Nile, Ebola, and Lyme disease start
from animal sources.
Many slaughterhouses and livestock markets in developing countries are situated
in thickly populated urban areas, resulting in nuisance due to odors, traffic
congestion, and pollution. Utility services are not inadequate beside poor water sup-
ply and lighting. Hot water is seldom provided furthermore slaughter utensils are
improperly cleaned and sterilized (World Bank 2004).
Studies in Alighar, India, revealed the existence of illegal slaughterhouses inside
individual households apart from other slaughterhouses resulting in body ache,
headache, breathiness, coughing, nausea/vomiting, other air borne and waterborne
diseases (Singh et al. 2014).
Home slaughter is regular practice in some nations for certain holidays, festivals,
as well as special occasions. Antemortem and postmortem by trained meat inspec-
tors or veterinary staff are usually non-existent. Where inspection is done, it will not
be adequate and hindered by poor lighting conditions resulting in food safety risk
(World Bank 2004).
Fig. 6.14 Haphazard

disposal of poultry litter
Slaughtering in public places for religious sacrifices is common in many places

of the world. The informal and illegal slaughtering in developing nations will result
in the disposal of slaughterhouse wastes with municipal wastes leading to public
health risks besides rise in population of scavenging animals.
In some cases, slaughterhouse wastes are used for feeding fish farms or dumped
in the street or to attract aquatic animals like fish/crab in natural water bodies for
catching them. Animal waste and poultry litter (Fig. 6.14) are also used as manure
without composting process, resulting in spread of disease through crops.
As per Green Cross and Blacksmith Institute (2012) the most universal and dan-
gerous pollutants in municipal dumpsite are lead and chromium that are responsible
for neurological diseases, problems in lung cancer, and cardiovascular disease
affecting almost 1.2 million people. Other pollutants in the report include multiple
types of pesticides, arsenic, cadmium, and VOCs.
Studies in 373 toxic waste dump sites in the Philippines, Indonesia, and India
revealed exposure to asbestos, hexavalent chromium, lead, besides other hazardous
substances by about 8.6 million people (Chatham et al. 2013).
Physical injuries due to discarded sharps are major risk linked with health-care
workers may directly transmit microbial infection in addition to risks due to release
of toxic emission in accidental fires or open burning in dump sites (WHO 2004).
Fig. 6.15 A vegetable

vendor next to waste in a
vegetable market—a
situation that can lead to
food contamination
242 6 Public Health
Fig. 6.16 Waste dumped adjacent to mango and coconut trees from which toxins may enter fruits
Fig. 6.17 A drinking water bore well next to usual waste throwing area—a situation that can lead
to water contamination
Health-care waste can also create source of infectious aerosols with high concen-
trations form cultures and stocks from the medical laboratory (Weber et al. 1999).
Improper safety precautions and mismanagement of waste can contaminate food
(Figs. 6.15 and 6.16) and water (Fig. 6.17).
Pharmaceuticals and chemicals used in health-care establishments are also haz-

ardous (WHO 2014b) present in health-care waste and may cause intoxication and
injuries.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons generated due to combustion of E-waste and
heavy metals are of health concern. The combustion of insulated wire typically done
in open iron barrels, generate 100 times greater dioxins compared to combustion of
domestic waste (Gullett et al. 2007).
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) that have endocrine disrupting proper-
ties (Tseng et al. 2008) are used as flame-retardants by mixing with plastics and
other electrical/electronic components. Since there are no chemical bonds between
the plastics and PBDEs they may leach from E-waste into the environment (Deng
et al. 2007). As PBDEs are lipophilic, they may bioaccumulate in organisms
resulting in biomagnification and impose health issues. E-waste is linked inflamma-
tion besides oxidative stress—precursors to DNA damage and cardiovascular dis-
ease, possibly cancer (Fangxing et al. 2011).
Open burning is nonpoint but localized area sources with heterogeneous fuels
and release emissions near ground instead of tall stacks. Burning chlorinated mate-
rials, hydrocarbons, and pesticide compounds between 250 and 700 °C in oxygen-
starved conditions generate toxic gases like carbon monoxide, dioxins/furans,
hydrogen chloride, oxides of sulfur, oxides of nitrogen, particulate matter, volatile
organic compounds, and metals such as antimony, barium, arsenic, beryllium, chro-
mium, cadmium, lead, mercury, manganese, titanium, and phosphorus (Nammari
et al. 2004). Black carbon from open burning practices pose risks of respiratory
disease, cardiovascular disease, and premature death (PNAS 2014). Burning tires
emit dioxins as well as benzene derivatives linked with cancer and reproductive
impairment in humans (Adeolu and Adebayo 2012).
Table 6.3 Categories of health-care waste

Sl.
No. Waste category Description Example
1. Chemical waste Waste materials containing chemicals used Laboratory reagents
in health-care establishments
2. Cytotoxic waste Waste materials containing genotoxic Waste comprising
properties cytostatic drugs
3. Infectious waste Waste suspected to be contaminated with Waste contaminated
pathogen with blood
4. Non-hazardous Waste material that does not pose any Uncontaminated
health-care waste particular chemical, biological, physical, or waste stationary
radioactive hazard
5. Pathological waste Organs, tissues, body fluids as well as Amputated organs
contaminated animal carcasses
6. Pharmaceutical Expired, discarded pharmaceuticals Expired tablets
waste
7. Radioactive waste Waste material with radioactive material Unused liquids from
radiotherapy
8. Sharps waste Waste sharps Used needle, blade
244 6 Public Health
75% and 90% waste from health care (Table 6.3) is usually “non-hazardous”
whereas the rest 10–25% is “hazardous” and likely to pose health and environmen-
tal risks.
The impact on health due to health-care waste depends on the following:
• Cytotoxic or genotoxic chemical composition
• Infectious agents
• Radioactivity
• Sharps
• Toxic or hazardous chemicals
The major groups of people at danger due to health-care waste are as follows:
• Medical and paramedical personnel
• Patients
• Visitors to health-care establishments
• Personnel in health-care support services (housekeeping, caterers, personnel at
laundries, etc.)
• Workers transporting waste
• Workers in waste-management facilities
Many cytotoxic drugs have harmful local effects subsequent to direct contact
apart from causing dizziness, headache, nausea, or dermatitis. Injuries due to sharps
in the year 2000 were estimated to have resulted in nearly 16,000 hepatitis C, 66000
hepatitis B, and 200 to 5000 HIV infections for health-care workers (Prüss-Ustun
et al. 2005).
Since the quantity of waste generated worldwide is increasing speedier than the
creation of infrastructure required to deal with it, at least half of the world’s popula-
tion is likely to be affected due to poor management of health-care waste (Harhay
et al. 2009).
A radiotherapy institute at Goiânia, Brazil, while moving to a new location left a
sealed radioactive substance in equipment at its old location. Two people who
gained entree to old premises broke open the casing sealed radioactive substance
after taking it to home to reveal the radioactive material. The incidence resulted in
external contamination in 249 people out of some 112,000 people monitored in
Goiânia several of whom suffered severe health problems or died (IAEA 1988).
Out of 191 American workers had been reported of acquiring HIV infection
while performing duty as of 30 June 1999, 136 workers were reported as exposed to
body fluids, blood, or laboratory specimens with HIV (Beltrami et al. 2000).
An outbreak of hepatitis in 2009 B in Gujarat, India, linked to lives of 60 people
was liked to repackaging and reselling of used needles/syringe (Harhay et al. 2009;
Solberg 2009).
Annual injury rates in health-care facility workers in the United States at 10–20
per 1000 workers with the highest rates reported by waste handlers and cleaning
personnel at 180 per 1000 workers (WHO 2014b).
The term E-waste is associated with waste from electronic equipment while
Waste from Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) includes waste from elec-
trical as well as electronic goods.
The composition of E-waste depends on the type and age of the redundant elec-
tronic item. Most of the E-wastes contain metals, plastics, and ceramics.
Study of 23 published epidemiological studies in southeast China (Tseng et al.
2008) recorded reasonable outcomes linked with exposure to e-waste such as
adverse neonatal outcomes, cellular expression as well as function, decreased lung
function, change in thyroid function, and changes in temperament and behavior.
Researchers have associated e-waste with inflammation and oxidative stress,
cancer besides DNA damage (Fangxing et al. 2011).
The solid waste is disposed on land by: (a) dumping; (b) landfill; (c) surface
deposition; (d) superficial subsurface deposition; and (e) deep well injection.
The waste is disposed into water that includes ponds, lakes, rivers, and oceans
from where contaminants reach the subsurface waters apart from septic tanks, leaky
lagoons, and storage tanks by accident.
Waste disposal in air by burning of waste such as crop residues, municipal
wastes, and sludge from wastewater treatment can cause air pollution and associated
health risk.
Use of waste as a “fertilizer” or soil conditioner can contaminate soil with patho-
gens and toxic substance. The pathogens and toxins in food crops can reach humans
and impose health issues. The indiscriminate disposal can also result in fly born
disease such as enteric diseases, loiasis, myiasis, Ozzard’s filariasis, onchocerciasis,
leishmaniasis, yaws, African sleeping sickness (trypanosorniasis), catarrhal con-
junctivitis, tularemia, bartonellosis, and sandfly fever.
The sickness associated with waste can also be liked with possible fly-borne
diseases such as anthrax, protozoal infestations, salmonellosis, trachoma, tubercu-
losis, poliomyelitis, and hepatitis.
Flies carry parasites pathogenic to humans and transmit them to cause human
infection. The potential for human infections will increase when personal practices
or community permit accumulations of fly-breeding media that are in solid wastes
of animal and human origins. Number of fly species breed in huge numbers in ani-
mal/human excreta, food wastes, dead animals, and sewage sludge. Disposals of
avian manures as well as feathers spread of pathogenic soil fungi that may continue
as a fungal infection for numerous years (Hanks 1967).
Infant mortality or Birth defects may be linked to direct contact with solid waste,
drinking of contaminated water, or inhaling of air contaminants (Carcellar 1996;
Cointreau 2006; Croen 1998; Nath 1991; Schantz and McAuley 1991). Animals can
become reservoirs of human pathogens when they feed or come in contact with
human feces, sanitary napkins, disposable diapers, and others. Wastes from slaugh-
terhouses can result in mad cow disease.
Major influenza pandemics occurred in following years in 1918 (Spanish flu),
1957 (Asian flu), 1968 (Hong Kong flu), and swine flu in 2009 (Meghna et al. 2009).
These outbreaks have different with respect to the responsible pathogen extent of
246 6 Public Health
spread, as well as severity of the illness (Kilbourne 2006). The 1918 pandemic
caused by the H1N1 strain affected about 40 million deaths (Taubenberger 2006).
Avian influenza that is an infectious disease of birds responsible for outbreak in
poultry population may infect humans exposed to the infected birds (Ioanna et al.
2018; FAO 2007). The serious outbreaks in recent years have been reported in
1997–1998 (Hong Kong), 2003 (Hong Kong), 2002 (Chile), 2003 (the Netherlands),
and 2004–2006 (South East Asia) (FAO 2019).
The impact of outbreaks in poultry since 2003 is linked to fatality of over 200
people, more than 230 million poultry beside many of wild birds. 1997 outbreak in
Hong Kong, resulted in infection of 18 people (with six death), culling of more than
1.5 million chickens to contain as well as eradicate the disease (FAO 2007).
A review of global avian influenza outbreaks in the period 2010 and 2016
revealed that most started from commercial poultry farms (364 out breaks, 56.1%),
wild bird species (103 outbreaks, 15.9%), and domestic poultry at backyard (87
outbreaks, 13.4%) with rest of the outbreaks at mixed (commercial and wild), live
poultry market, live bird market, village, natural park, wet market, zoo, wild habitat,
slaughterhouse, and game birds.
Swine flu (H1N1) pandemic in 2009 is linked to hog farms nearby La Gloria,
Veracruz, Mexico due to problems related to industrializing hog sector in Mexico
with respect to environmental pollution, waste management, and disease control
(Alexandra et al. 2010; Philpott 2009; Burkat 2009).
After determining that cases of a virulent influenza detected in Mexico and
United States were related, WHO issued a health advisory. The epidemic swine flu
virus is a type of swine influenza, originating from a strain lived in pigs. H1N1
influenza pandemic was declared in June, the 2009 (WHO 2012).
A case of transmission from human to swine was reported on June 25, 2009 in
Buenos Aires province, Argentina (Merco Press 2009). 3000 pigs infected with new
swine flu virus in Alberta, Canada were culled in June 2009 (The Star 2009). Swine
to Humans transmission from the same hog herd was revealed on 20 July, 2009 even
though transmission happened on 7 May 2009 (CBC 2009). Following epidemic
Egypt began slaughtering pigs in the country numbering 300,000–350,000 killing
several hundred thousand hogs in May, 2009 (Maamoun 2009; Sameh and
Anders 2013).
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) initially appeared in rural Guangdong
province in China, which later reported in Fushan City on 16 October 2002.
Admission of a patient from Zhongshan city to hospital in Guangzhou with sup-
posed viral pneumonia to Sun Yet-San Medical University led to the spread of
SARS to 28 medical and nursing staff besides the ambulance driver. SARS virus
then transmitted to five hospitals (Zhao et al. 2003). When a doctor from Guangzhou
went to Hong Kong on 21 February 2003 presumed to have infected a business
person who went to Hanoi, Vietnam, a couple from Toronto, Canada, three people
References 247
who went to Singapore besides a number of Hong Kong residents while residing at
a hotel in Hong Kong who traveled on to initiate large outbreaks (Poutanen et al.
2003; Lee et al. 2003) affecting 26 countries resulting in more than 8000 cases in
2003 (WHO 2019a).
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Chapter 7
Occupational Health
Abstract People work at homes, schools, forests, markets, industries, construction

sites, mines, stadiums, places of worships, harbors, bus stands, railway stations,
airports, fashion shows, and movie theater to name just a few. Every work location
has risks associated with its own. In some places high degree of precautions are
taken depending on the ownership of workplace, attitude of the corporate, law of
land, work culture, awareness of rights, initiation to project global image and self-
reputation, management systems, and certifications. An occupation which is needed
for one’s living can also become the cause for death. There is no occupation which
is 100% safe. Understanding occupational health is therefore important to safeguard
the health of public. In acknowledging this complex interplay of factors, this chap-
ter discusses the fundamentals of occupational health risks and their possible
impacts on environmental health.
7.1 Introduction
People work everywhere at home, school, forest, market, industry, construction

sites, mines, stadiums, places of worships, harbors, bus stand, railway station, air-
ports, fashion shows, and movie theater to name a few. Every work location has risk
associated with its own. In some places high precautions are taken depending on the
ownership of workplace, attitude of the corporate, law of land, work culture, aware-
ness of rights, initiation to project global image and self-reputation, management
systems, and certifications.
An occupation which is needed for one’s living can also become the cause for
death. There is no occupation which is 100% safe. For example, 311 election offi-
cials died out of about 6,000,000 and another 2232 people fell sick who were
involved in election duty in Indonesia in 2019.
Although work provides livelihood and other benefits, it also exposes to a wide
array of workplace hazards and presents risks to the health that include physical and
psychosocial risk factors.
Disease may be transmitted from patients to physicians by contact, vehicle (food,
blood, water, drugs, etc.), air, and vector.
Furthermore, waste management which is meant to safeguard public health may
be detrimental to the waste management professionals.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64480-2_7
258 7 Occupational Health
Health risks from waste include the following:

• Component and composition of waste
• Chemicals released by waste
• Mode of handling of waste
• Mode of transportation
• The processing of wastes
• The disposal of wastes
Some of the common occupational health as well as injury issues pertaining to
waste management are as follows:
• Animal bites
• Anoxic conditions
• Back as well as joint injuries due to lifting waste
• Infections due to direct contact of contaminated material
• Puncture wounds
• Respiratory illness due to bio-aerosols, particulates, and volatile organics
• Surface subsidence
• Underground fires
• Waste dumping slides
Proper management of workplace can reduce the risks to great extents. In theory,
a workforce needs medical screening, surveillance, procedures, legal compliance,
personal protective equipment, and first-aid facility. In practice, it may not happen
(Figs. 7.1 and 7.2). Poverty often pushes people to unsafe practices (Fig. 7.3).
Occupational health as well as safety in informal sector is major challenge as
most of the work is unregulated. Typically, staff members of informal sector do not
work at employer’s premise. They account for 62.6% of the Thai workforce which
is 10 times more than formal workers (Pornpimol et al. 2015).
All ill effects of chemicals and substances on the earth are not known. Soluble
fumes and dusts of cadmium, lead, zinc, magnesium and manganese are systemic
poisons and cause metal fume fever.
Insoluble dusts lead to various types of pneumoconiosis. Coal dust causes anthra-
cosis, quartz dust causes silicosis, asbestos causes asbestosis and cotton dust causes
byssinosis. Gases such as methane, nitrous oxide, as well as carbon dioxide are
simple asphyxiants that replace oxygen in the lungs.
Some gases are chemical asphyxiants (hydrogen cyanide, carbon monoxide, and
hydrogen sulfide). They prevent the delivery of oxygen from the bloodstream to
cells. They disable the biochemistry of cellular respiration even in the presence of
sufficient oxygen levels in the blood.
Some chemicals such as chlorine, ammonia, sulfur dioxide, ozone and nitrogen
dioxide are irritants. Gases such as carbon disulfide, arsine, and phosphine are sys-
temic poisons. Asbestos, chromates, mineral oil, beryllium, as well as coal tar
cause cancer.
Prevalence silicosis can persist in gold mines, mica mine, ceramic and pottery,
stone crushers.
7.1 Introduction 259
Fig. 7.1 Photograph of people working in an informal setup
About 2.78 million occupation-related deaths occurred in 2015 globally com-

pared to 2.33 million work-related deaths in 2014. As per GBD 2015 Mortality and
Causes of Death Collaborators (2016), work-related death accounted for 5% of the
global total deaths with work-related diseases accounting for 86.3% and fatal acci-
dents for the rest 13.7%. Respiratory diseases (17%) were amongst the top three
sickness followed by circulatory diseases (31%) besides malignant neoplasms (26%).
As per Päivi et al. (2017), Asia was the largest contributor with nearly two-thirds
of the world occupation-related deaths, followed by Africa (11.8%) and Europe
(11.7%).
Occupational health can become public health issue if not addressed at work-
places. The world relies upon the public health workforce to tackle emerging com-
municable diseases, prevent environmental hazards and chronic disease, and assist
Fig. 7.2 Photograph of people working in a formal setup but with weak enforcement
communities in preparing for disasters (Rosenstock et al. 2008). COVID-19 that

appeared at the end of December 2019 in a wet market at Wuhan, China rapidly
spread to a number of countries and was declared a Public Health Emergency of
International Concern by WHO on 30 January 2020 (Mackenzie and Smith 2020).
The virus SARS-CoV-2 that causes COVID-19 infected more than 3300 healthcare
workers in early 2020 in China (Wang et al. 2020a). Poor safety protocols and
breakdown of the emergency response procedures were linked to leak of the styrene
vapour in LG Polymers unit at Visakhapatnam, India on 7 May, resulting in death of
12 people and sickness to 585 others that included general public outside premises
of industry (The Wire 2020). As discussed in Chap. 6, the leakage of poisonous gas
Fig. 7.3 Poverty often pushes people to unsafe practices

7.2 Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment 261
from an industry in Bhopal in December 1984 affected health of about 67% of

the city.
7.2 Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment
Risk varies from country to country. Within the country, the risk varies from busi-
ness to business. Within a business, risk varies from organisation to organisation.
Within an organization, risk varies from section to section. Within a section, risk
varies from position to position.
The food processing industry itself provides huge risk for environment and safety
of workers. Studies show that beef slaughtering and production has significant
impact on occupational health and the environment. Salmonella and Clostridium
perfringens contribute 51% and 28%, respectively, to the beef foodborne disability
adjusted life year (DALY). Global warming and fine particulate matter formation
are drivers for environmental DALY, accounting 62% and 28%, respectively (Li
et al. 2019).
Common possible risks in some of the workplaces are given in Table 7.1
(Fig. 7.4). Examples of Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment are given in
Table 7.2. Risks at a workplace alone are responsible for 1.7% of DALYs globally.
There is evidence from the developed nations to link depression as well as coronary
heart disease due to work-related stress (Commission on Social Determinants of
Health 2008; Tennant 2001).
Unsafe healthcare injections are responsible for more deaths than colon and rec-
tum cancer in middle- and low-income nations. Workplace noise exposure accounts
nearly 16% of onset of hearing loss in adult (WHO 2009a). People encounter many
hazards at work resulting in injuries, hearing loss, cancer, musculoskeletal disor-
ders, cardiovascular disorders, respiratory disorders, reproductive disorders, neuro-
logical disorders, skin disorders besides mental disorders.
Over 350,000 workers die each year because of unintentional workplace injuries.
Over 90% of occupational injury burden happens to men. Over half of the world-
wide burden occurs in Western Pacific and South-East Asia regions (WHO 2009a).
Workplace exposure to particles can lead to chronic obstructive pulmonary dis-
ease, lung cancer, asbestosis, silicosis, besides pneumoconiosis. Many of the car-
cinogens are found in the workplace, leading to about 8% of lung cancer cases in the
world. Occupational exposure to particulates will cause about 12% of losses of life
because of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease besides about 29,000 mortality
due to asbestosis, silicosis, and pneumoconiosis (WHO 2009a).
Occupation health is also linked to low back pain due to carrying heavy loads and
lifting, frequent bending, demanding physical work, awkward postures as well as
twisting. Nearly 37% of back pain is linked to occupational health (WHO 2009a).
Healthcare activity is not spared by occupational risk. About one in 10 patients is
harmed in developing country while receiving hospital care. The danger of
healthcare-linked infection in some of the developing nations is up to 20 times
Table 7.1 Common possible risks in some of the workplaces
262
Common occupational risk

Neuro-
Communicable Malignant Circulatory psychiatric Respiratory Digestive Genitourinary
Occupation Example Injury diseases neoplasms diseases conditions diseases diseases diseases
Primary sector Agriculture ✓ ✓
(extraction of raw Animal husbandry ✓ ✓
material) Fishing ✓
Mining ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Collection of ✓ ✓
forest produce
Secondary sector Chemical ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
(manufacturing) Assembling ✓
Slaughtering and ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
meat packing
Thermal power ✓ ✓
generation
Textile ✓
7
Occupational Health
Neuro-
Tertiary sector Road transport ✓
(service) Entertainment ✓
Software ✓
Education ✓
Healthcare ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Hospitality ✓
Construction ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Consultancy ✓
(legal, tax,
marketing, etc.)
Banking/finance ✓
Waste ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
management
Retail/wholesale ✓ ✓
shop
Defense Air force ✓ ✓
Navy ✓ ✓
Land army ✓ ✓
(continued)
263
264

Neuro-
Enforcement/ Police ✓
governance Fire service ✓
Revenue ✓
Pollution control ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Wildlife ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
protection
Religious Animal sacrifice ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Organizing ✓
spiritual events
Political Organizing ✓ ✓
political events
7
Occupational Health
Table 7.2 Hazard identification and risk assessment for water sample collection and field monitoring
Risk Present controls
Impact score = Engin
Sl. Legal of Severity Likelihood Need for F×G× e OCP/
no. Activity Health hazard Y/N hazard of harm of harm controls H Risk level ering Administrative PPE MP
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N
1 Collection Suffocation 1 2 1 2 Tolerable ✓ ✓
of samples Slip and fall 1 3 3 9 Intolerable ✓ ✓
Skin allergies 2 3 1 6 Tolerable ✓ ✓
Odor 1 2 1 2 Tolerable ✓ ✓
Drowning 3 3 3 27 Intolerable ✓ ✓
Attack by wildlife 3 2 3 18 Intolerable ✓ ✓
Natural/ 3 2 3 18 Intolerable ✓ ✓
anthropogenic
disaster
Vehicular accident 3 2 3 18 Intolerable ✓ ✓
Attack by stray 3 2 3 18 Intolerable ✓ ✓
animals
Exposure to cold 3 2 3 18 Intolerable ✓ ✓
wave/heat wave/
rain
Exposure to 3 2 3 18 Intolerable ✓ ✓
infection/toxicity
Attack by public 1 1 1 1 Tolerable ✓ ✓
2 Short circuit Injury 2 3 2 12 In-tolerable ✓ ✓
3 Material Injury 2 3 2 12 In-tolerable ✓ ✓
handling
(continued)
265
266
Risk Present controls

Impact score = Engin
Sl. Legal of Severity Likelihood Need for F×G× e OCP/
no. Activity Health hazard Y/N hazard of harm of harm controls H Risk level ering Administrative PPE MP
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N
4 House Toxicity/injury/ 2 3 2 12 In-tolerable ✓ ✓
keeping infection
5 Waste Toxicity/injury/ 2 3 2 12 In-tolerable ✓ ✓ ✓
disposal infection
Note: If the total score exceeds 8 it is considered as intolerable and shall have Operation Control Procedure (OCP)/Management Programme (OM). Less than
or equal to 8 is trivial.
7
Occupational Health
greater than that in developed nations. Death rates linked to major surgeries are also
more in numerous developing nations (WHO 2008a). Unsafe injections are respon-
sible for death of about 417,000 people in 2004 (WHO 2009a).
Occupational health risk includes many other ailments such as malaria and tuber-
culosis, mental disorders, injuries, and dietary risks.
More than 90% death due to road accidents occurs in middle- and low-income
nations, which is almost double that of high-income nations, and many losses of life
occur to young adults (WHO 2009b). Road accidents can be avoided using engi-
neering measures such as traffic management, personal protective equipment, vehi-
cle design, seat belts, and speed limits (WHO 2004).
Intentional injuries resulted in 1.6 million losses of life while violence, including
war, resulted in about 184,000 deaths in 2004 (WHO 2008b).
The ten most risky jobs for men in the USA Bureau of Labor Statistics (2018) are
as follows:
• Fishers as well as related fishing personnel
• Logging personnel
• Aircraft pilots as well as flight engineers
• Roofers
• Refuse as well as recyclable material collectors
• Structural iron as well as steel personnel
• Drivers/sales workers as well as truck drivers
• Farmers, ranchers, as well as other agricultural managers
• First-line supervisors of landscaping, lawn service, as well as ground-keeping
workers
• Electrical power-line installers as well as repairers
The occupation itself cannot be blamed to be detrimental. Unintentional over-
doses of alcohol and nonmedical use of drugs at work rose 25% in 2016–2017
(Bureau of Labor Statistics 2018).
The most workplace lethal injuries in Great Britain in 2018 (HSE 2018) occurred
in the following occupations:
• Agriculture
• Communication, business services, and finance
• Construction
• Manufacturing
• Transportation and storage
• Waste and recycling
But accurate data are not available readily for all the countries. Workplace deaths
in India are 20 times greater than in the UK (British Safety Council 2019).
In many nations the lethal accident rate in agriculture is twice the average for all
other industries. As per International Labor Organization (ILO) (2000), agriculture
is one of the hazardous occupations in the world. According to ILO (2000), workers
suffer about 250 million accidents per year. Out of 335,000 lethal workplace acci-
dents globally, about 170,000 people die amongst the agricultural workers (ILO
2000). As per studies published by Calvert et al. (2013) the highest occurrence rates
of hazardous workplace exposures were usually in agriculture, mining, and
construction.
About 1.3 billion workers work in agriculture that represents half of the total
global labor force out of which about 60% of them are in developing nations and 9%
of agricultural workers are in developed nations. A great majority of agricultural
work force live in Asia, with more than 20% are in India and 40% in China.
Work hazard in agriculture sector is related to the following:
• Machinery (tractor, tiller, etc.)
• Vehicles (trucks, jeep, etc.)
• Tools (shovel, machete, etc.)
• Hazardous chemicals (fertilizers, pesticides, antibiotics as well as other veteri-
narian products)
• Toxic/allergenic agents (plants, dusts, flowers, animal waste, oils)
• Parasites
• Zoonosis
• Confined spaces (silos, cellars, pits, and tanks)
• Noise and vibration
• Ergonomic hazards
• Extreme weather conditions
• Wild and poisonous animals (spiders, scorpions, insects, snakes, wild
mammals)
Between December 2015 and June 2016, more than 750 people lost their lives
due to improper waste management at dumpsites besides many incidents of health
impacts (ISWA 2016) (Fig. 7.4).
Occupational health risks at solid waste dumpsites affect workers as well as
informal recyclers.
Risk of respiratory infection can be to a great extent reduced if composting/recy-
cling process systems, transfer stations, are enclosed/ventilated and if workers put
on respiratory masks (Boardi and Kuitunen 2005), but informal recyclers and work-
ers are exposed to the following safety and health risks (UNEP and Republic of
South Sudan 2013):
• Severely injured or death by moving equipment
• Respiratory disorders
• Injured by heavy waste materials and sharp object
• Exposure to fecal matter or contaminated/toxic waste
• Hepatitis C or HIV especially from hazardous healthcare waste
Small amount of biological material in wastes give rise to a significant exposure
to bioaerosols (Mugo et al. 2015).
Developed countries have low risk compared to developing countries due to
knowledge, law enforcement, strict judiciary, and low corruption. Within a country,
some industry such as chemical industry will have high risk compared to music
recording. Within the same type of business, some organization might have poor
Noise
Long
Biological
wavelength
agents
es
radio waves
Moving
Infrared
part of
radiation
machine
Working
Fall of
object
Environment Light
radiation
Ultraviolet
Toxic fumes
radiation
Ionizing
Fire
radiation
Fig. 7.4 Some of the risks in the work environment
wiring with high chances for short circuits. Within the same workplace, a laboratory
will be riskier as compared to an administrative section. Within the same section, a
person next to cupboard may have high risk of fall of object.
Risk Assessment and Hazard Identification (HIRA) is an exercise often carried
out in safety management system to identify possible hazards with respect to all the
activities in a workplace.
Hazard identification and risk assessment involves the following:
1. Recognizing hazards as well as those at risk
2. Assessing as well as prioritizing risks
3. Deciding on precautionary action
4. Taking action
5. Monitoring as well as reviewing
Toxic industrial chemicals can cause harm to biological system (e.g., reproduc-
tive hazards, corrosives, carcinogens). They are flammable, explosive, combustible
or reactive (Fig. 7.5).
Noise is an unwanted and unpleasant sound, loud or disruptive to hearing which
leads to physical and psychological health consequences. Elevated workplace or
environmental noise can result in hearing impairment, ischemic heart disease,
ULTRAVIOLET • May case skin disorder

RADIATION
• They raise the temperature of tissues.
Microwaves • Cataract may develop on excessive exposure.
LONG WAVELENGTH • These are not absorbed and do not harm to the body as
RADIO WAVES per the knowledge as on date.
INFRARED RADIATION • Exposure to infrared rays leads to cataract.
• Produces glare
LIGHT RADIATION • May cause fatigue, eye strain, as well as headache.
• Poor lighting may lead to accidents.
• Damage to the cells
IONIZING RADIATION • May induce cancer
• Massive doses may lead to death within hours or days.
Fig. 7.5 Radiation and safety
Reduction of noise Reduction of noise Protection of persons

green belts
production transmission exposed
•Fitting noise mufflers •Enclosing noise •Plantations of dense • Use of ear plugs and
as well as silencers generating machines trees and shrubs trees ear muffs
•Using less noise in thick sound proofed around noisy •Rotation of workers in
generating machines chambers industry/road/activity noisy environment to
avoid prolonged
exposure
•Periodic hearing
checkup
Fig. 7.6 Methods to reduce effects of noise
annoyance, hypertension, as well as sleep disturbance (Das et al. 1999). The control
of noise at workplace can be achieved by using the measures explained in Fig. 7.6.
Apart from physical hazard, psychosocial factors can become a significant hazard.
Long working hours are closely linked with health disorders (Kivimäki et al.
2015; Watanabe et al. 2016). Some work schedules dramatically affect our mental
and physical functioning (Takahashi 2014) being bullied at work (Reknes et al. 2016).
The preventive approaches mentioned to safeguard physical health can hardly be
applied to psychosocial work factors. Unfavorable outcomes, such as death and
suicide due to being overworked and other burnout-related health disorders, are still
prevalent in Japan and neighboring countries (Eguchi et al. 2016). Information and
communication technology (ICT) is likely to intensify jobs through an increased
number of tasks, communication, and working after office hours or during off days
(Barber and Jenkins 2014).
Given the nature of psychosocial hazards, experts highlight risk reduction at the
organizational level (Eguchi et al. 2016; Hall et al. 2017; Theorell et al. 2015) .
Occupational skin diseases arrive depending on the occupation, work condition

and the victim. The victim can be worker, client, or simply a passer-by.
The occupational skin diseases include but not restricted to the following
(Fig. 7.7):
1. Nosocomial infections or hospital-acquired infections caused by bacterial,
viral, as well as fungal pathogens
2. Eczema, dermatitis, and urticaria usually caused by inorganic insecticides, res-
ins and plastics, as well as other irritants in industries
3. Irritation due to spice or hot oil in kitchens
4. Ulcers usually caused by acids, alkalies, and chromates
5. Infection and injury in slaughterhouses
6. Drowning while fishing
7. Cancer usually caused by creosote, asphalt, anthracene, crude paraffin, arsenic
and soot
8. Damage of skin due to radiations from machineries or ultraviolet rays from the
sun (Fig. 7.5)
9. Allergic reaction at farm fields or forest
10. Skin damage due to contact with hot surface
11. Thorn pricking during gardening
12. Contact with sharp object during solid waste management
13. Infection due to contact with pollutants in wastewater treatment plant or leather
processing industry
Tanning,
Veterinary
Rice fields, personnel,
Freshwater manured fields soil Mines zoo/circus, Hospitals
bodies animal
husbandry,
butchers
anthrax
histoplasmosis serum hepatitis
brucellosis fever
bilharziasis hookworm coccidiomycosis leptospirosis psittacosis AIDS
mycotic
infections
Other infectious
blastomycosis
parasitic diseases
infections
Fig. 7.7 Some of occupational hazards due to biological agents

Bumps, itching, redness as well as other skin conditions are extremely common.
Rashes can be caused by several things, which include plants, allergic reactions to a
medication or a food, or communicable disease (measles or chickenpox, for exam-
ple). Hives and eczema are two common skin rashes.
Chemicals produce systemic effects if they are absorbed by skin.
COVID-19 disease that was first detected in Wuhan City, China, at the end of
2019 (Wang et al. 2020b) became pandemic resulting in lockdown of many coun-
tries to curb spreading. The disease posed an occupational health risk to thousands
of healthcare workers (Hoe Gan et al. 2020).
While healthcare workers had a high risk of contracting COVID-19, other work-
ers exposed to the disease included staff in the tourism, transport, security workers,
retail, hospitality industries and construction site workers (Belingheri et al. 2020).
Epidemiological studies by the Shenzhen Center for Disease Control and Prevention
between 14 Jan and 12 Feb 2020, on 391 identified cases revealed that isolation and
contact tracing reduce reproductive number (Bi et al. 2020).
Safety of workplace took a new dimension since WHO declared COVID-19 as
pandemic. The risks from virus that causes COVID-19 at workplace depend on the
following:
• Pre-existing medical conditions
• Medical or other measures available at workplace
• Work culture
• Distance between workers
Lower exposure risk of COVID−19 occurs for jobs that do not require contact
with people like:
• Those working from home
• Workers who do not have regular close contact with others
Examples of jobs that involve medium exposure risk of COVID-19 include the
following:
• People working in places who have to contact with travelers
• People working in high population density work environments
Examples of high exposure risk to COVID-19 include the following:
• Hospital staff
• Ambulance vehicle operators
• Mortuary workers
7.3 Hazard Prevention and Control 273
7.3 Hazard Prevention and Control
Controlling exposures to workplace hazards is the basis to protect personnel.

Conventionally, a hierarchy of hazard prevention and controls are used as a mean of
identifying how to implement effective as well as feasible control solutions.
One of the hierarchies is pictorially depicted in Fig. 7.8.
Elimination
Elimination is the most effective in reducing hazards, but it is also difficult to imple-
ment in an existing process. Figure 7.9 shows where in large old tree is cut to safe-
guard road users and construction workers which would otherwise may fall during
rain. The tree which is capable of carbon sequestration has been eliminated for
safety purpose.
Other examples include elimination of the following:
• Manufacturing hazardous chemicals/product in an industry
• Unsafe site for a project
• Unsafe mode of journey
• Unsafe procedure for an operation
• Unsafe food for diet, etc.
Substitution
If elimination is not possible, substitution is the next alternative. Figure 7.10 shows
the substitution of jet bridge in airports for boarding passengers as a substation to
transferring passengers by bus.
Other examples include the following:
• Substitution of hazardous chemicals with a safer chemical in a process
• Identifying a safer place for a project instead of unsafe site
• Travelling in a safe route instead of unsafe route for journey
Elimination
Substituion
Engineering control
Administrative
control
Personal
protective
equipment
Fig. 7.8 Hierarchy of hazard prevention and control

Fig. 7.9 Elimination of tree for safety of workers and road users
Fig. 7.10 Substation of jet bridge to bus in airports for boarding passengers engineering control
• Practicing a safe procedure instead of unsafe procedure for an operation

• Eating/serving safe food instead of unsafe food
If elimination and substation are not a solution, engineering control needs to be
used wherein an array of engineering (applied science) solution designed to safe-
guard people against injury needs to be ensured in place (Fig. 7.11).
Examples of engineering control measures include the following:
• Enclosures to hazardous operation such as moving parts of machinery
• Isolation of hazardous operation
• Ventilation of hazardous operation
Fig. 7.11 Engineering control and administrative control in airport wherein strict safety producers
are followed along with proper infrastructure and machineries
• Automatic guards
• Remote control, placement feeding or ejecting guards
• Interlocking guards that prevent operation of hazardous activity if guard is not in
place
• Engineering barricade on either side of roads to safeguard vehicles in case of
accident
• Use of speed breakers in vehicle to ensure the vehicle moves within safe speed
limit
• Automatic fire sprinkles/alarm which operate automatically during fire
• Use of miniature circuit breakers (electronic switch which breaks circuit when
excess amount of current flows)
• Safety valves in boilers that open automatically to release excessive pressure.
Administrative Control
Administrative controls (Figs. 7.11, 7.12, 7.13, and 7.14) are changed in work pro-
cedures policies, supervision, schedules, rules, and training or shift designs that
reduce hazard.
Examples of administrative control measures include the following:
• Enforcing legislation
• Providing training
• Adopting written procedure
• Using signage
• Safety announcement (as followed in passenger flights)
• Social distancing
• Encourage online meeting and discourage physical meeting
Fig. 7.12 Systematic arrangement of boarding stairs
Fig. 7.13 Safe parking of aircraft by administrative control such as training, legislation and
policy
• Maintain workplace hygiene

• Prohibiting mouth pipetting in laboratory
• Prohibiting recapping of needles in healthcare establishments
• Written procedures
• Incentives/fines liked to safety performance
• Rotating worker shifts
• Linking salary and payment to safety
Administrative measures such as social distancing, lockdown and mental health

support can play major role in ensuring occupational and workplace health. Social
distancing that may be recommended during influenza pandemics is one of the com-
munity mitigation measures. The epidemiological studies revealed that social dis-
tancing was associated with a decrease in influenza-like illness. Social distancing
can decrease virus transmission by increasing physical distance or decreasing
frequency of crowding in socially dense community settings, such as schools or
workplaces (Ahmed et al. 2018).
Several countries declared lockdown to stop the spread of COVID-19 that
included nonessential services such as manufacturing, retail, education, entertain-
ment, transportation, etc. Stringent social/physical distancing has effectively flat-
tened the COVID-19 epidemic curve in Australia, China, Iceland, New Zealand and
South Korea (Marais and Sorrell 2020) (Fig. 7.14).
Onset of a sudden and immediate life-threatening illness could lead to pressure
on healthcare workers (HCWs) (Liu et al. 2012; Pappa et al. 2020). Enhanced work-
load, inadequate personal equipment, physical exhaustion and nosocomial trans-
mission may have effects on their psychological and physical well-being resulting
in mental health problems (Lung et al. 2009; Wu et al. 2009). Immediate interven-
tions are essential in order to augment psychological spirit and strengthen the
healthcare systems’ capacity (Bao et al. 2020). Providing timely and suitably tai-
lored mental health support is also vital (Chen et al. 2020) as administrative
intervention.
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
PPE is equipment that is used as last line of defense to protect the people.
Examples of PPE include the following:
Fig. 7.14 Floor signage

• Ear plugs
• Earmuffs
• Eye protection
• Gloves
• Goggles
• Gumboots
• High-visibility clothing
• Laboratory aprons
• Respirators
• Safety footwear
• Safety harnesses
• Safety helmets
• Shoes
• Welding shield
Figure 7.15 shows use of personnel protective equipment in an airport. In spite
of established theory, many formal establishments such as the construction industry
do not practice the use of PPE unless stringent enforcement is observed. Figure 7.16
shows a construction site wherein construction material has been haphazardly
dumped. Figure 7.17 shows railway track maintenance workers without PPEs.
The informal sector which is often livelihood option for poor is practiced without
engineering, administrative control besides absence of PPEs (Figs.7.18 and 7.19).
Organizations that are serious about safety would follow well-documented pro-
cedures. Tables 7.3 and 7.4 show examples of Operational Control Procedure (OCP).
Fig. 7.15 Use of personnel protective equipment in an airport

Fig. 7.16 Unsafe workplace
Medical screening of workers is often used to attempt to reduce workers’ ill

health as well as assess their suitability for work. Illnesses due to exposure to work-
place agents are potentially preventable.
Fig. 7.17 Maintenance of

a railway track
Fig. 7.18 Vegetable

vendors on roads
The prevention of occupational illness is based on three levels. Primary measures

are aimed at preventing the occurrence of disease by eliminating or reducing expo-
sure to occupational hazards which include the following:
• The testing of chemicals prior to their use and substitution of chemicals by less
hazardous chemicals
• Control of hazardous exposure by engineering measures
• Assessments of the hygiene of the workplace
• Worker placement and training
• Use of appropriate protective equipment
At a secondary level, efforts are made to detect sickness at an early stage prior to
the onset of clinical signs as well as symptoms. At this stage, the progress of the
sickness may be slowed/halted/reversed.
The tertiary level of avoidance involves the suitable treatment of any diagnosed
medical condition to minimize the effects of ailment or disability to enable a return
to productive employment.
First Aid
First aid is the first help provided to any person suffering injury/illness to prevent
the condition from deterioration, or to promote recovery from situations that include:
• Injury
• Poisoning
• Burns and scalds
Fig. 7.19 Trash pickers
• Drowning
• Animal/insect bite
• Insect sting
• Choking
• Anaphylaxis (allergic reaction)
• Blister
• Bruise
• Chemical burns
• Chemical splash in the eye
• Chest pain
• Stroke
• Sunburn
• Electric shock
• Motions sickness
• Bleeding
• Heat stroke
• Heat exhaustion
• Heat cramp
Table 7.3 Sample OCP for general safety measures

Sl.
no. Activity Responsibility
1. Obligation under Indian Penal Code (section 336, 337, 338): All staff
336. Act endangering life or personal safety of others.—Whoever does
any act so rashly or negligently as to endanger human life or the personal
safety of others shall be punished with imprisonment of either description
for a term which may extend to 3 months, or with fine which may extend
to 250 rupees, or with both.
337. Causing hurt by act endangering life or personal safety of others.—
Whoever causes hurt to any person by doing any act so rashly or
negligently as to endanger human life, or the personal safety of others,
shall be punished with imprisonment of either description for a term
which may extend to 6 months, or with fine which may extend to 500
rupees, or with both.
338. Causing grievous hurt by act endangering life or personal safety of
others.—Whoever causes grievous hurt to any person by doing any act so
rashly or negligently as to endanger human life, or the personal safety of
others, shall be punished with imprisonment of either description for a
term which may extend to 2 years, or with fine which may extend to 1000
rupees, or with both.
2. Make certain use of PPEs as per job requirement. Concerned
individual/head
of section
3. Openings in the floors must be covered. Estate officer
4. Provide handrails on stairs and platforms. Estate officer
Temporary handrails should be installed on temporary platforms.
5. Make sure scaffolding materials are of established quality and inspected Section head
by experienced supervisor.
6. Make sure that sufficient headroom is available and there are no Section head
hindrances on walkways.
7. Display warning signs at unsafe places. Section head
8. Safe means and ensure adequate of access and exit from all workplaces. Section head
9. Never block exit and access routes to workplaces. Section head
10. Provide due importance to housekeeping Section head
11. Make certain adequate illumination of all the access/exit routes and Section head
workplaces.
12. Never block access and exit routes to workplaces. Section head
13. Arrange of emergency lighting to ensure safety during power failure. Section head
14. Hazardous activity area should be guarded off using tapes with red and Section head
white bands.
15. Provide at least one first-aid box in each laboratory Section head
16. All vehicles should have first-aid box. Section head/
driver
17. Make sure adequate communication facilities between all workplaces and Section head
emergency control room as well as fire station.
18. Train all employees at work site in firefighting and first-aid workplaces. Section head
(continued)
Sl.
19. Make it a habit that supervisors explain to the workers all hazard Section head
potentials and safety measures needed in the work, planned for the day.
20. Display appropriate posters in local languages regarding safety at site. Section head
21. Maintain list of emergency contact number of all employees, hospital, Section head
fire, police.
22. Post list of all documents on racks. Section head
23. Do not store any combustible material near uninterrupted power supply All staff
(UPS)/battery and other electrical installations.
24. Parapets shall be provided for all open space in terrace. Estate officer
Table 7.4 Sample OCP for safe handling of chemicals

Sl.
1. Obligation under Indian Penal Code (section 336, 337, 338): All staff
336. Act endangering life or personal safety of others.—Whoever does
any act so rashly or negligently as to endanger human life or the
personal safety of others shall be punished with imprisonment of either
description for a term which may extend to 3 months, or with fine
which may extend to 250 rupees, or with both.
337. Causing hurt by act endangering life or personal safety of
others.—Whoever causes hurt to any person by doing any act so rashly
or negligently as to endanger human life, or the personal safety of
others, shall be punished with imprisonment of either description for a
term which may extend to 6 months, or with fine which may extend to
500 rupees, or with both.
338. Causing grievous hurt by act endangering life or personal safety of
others. —Whoever causes grievous hurt to any person by doing any act
so rashly or negligently as to endanger human life, or the personal
safety of others, shall be punished with imprisonment of either
description for a term which may extend to 2 years, or with fine which
may extend to one thousand rupees, or with both.
2. Identification & Labelling: Section head
Label the containers legibly with contents, name & address of
manufacture/ importer, health/physical hazards and recommended
PPEs
Know how to use the information provided on the labels
Avoid handling un-labelled container. Check with the supervisor
(continued)

Sl.
3. Storage: Section head
Store chemicals in a cool, dry as well as well-ventilated place away
from heat as well as ignition sources. Avoid storage in open sun. Also
refer to MSDS.
Store reactive chemicals separately.
Avoid refilling empty containers with any chemical other than the
one originally contained. Use containers in first in first out basis.
Keep flammable chemicals in closed containers.
Store toxic chemicals such as cyanides in locked cabinets away from
acids.
4. Handling: Section head
Make sure electrical grounding while transferring flammable
chemicals from one container to another.
Follow strictly the approved procedures unloading/unloading.
Use PPEs as necessary.
Handle containers with care, using suitable trolleys.
Keep cylinders in upright position with caps. Chain the cylinders.
Watch for the posted signs indicating areas requiring particular
precautions and strictly adhere to them.
5. Disposal: Section head
Do not pour acids/alkalis in the drainage without proper
neutralization.
Do not drain out toxic/flammable chemicals with water. Collect it
with absorbent materials for its safe disposal.
Decontaminate the used containers not intended for reuse and make
up usable by puncturing before disposal and follow them strictly.
6. Handling emergencies: Section head
Know and understand precautions and procedures in case of spillage/
leakage/fire if any.
Keep safety and emergency kits in working order and accessible.
Keep antidote ready and handy while handling toxic chemicals.
Provide training in first aid to the all personnel.
Drivers of vehicles transporting hazardous chemicals should be
acquainted with the emergency procedure.
7. General: Section head
Use no sparking tools and flame-proof electrical equipment in the
area where flammable chemicals are stored/used.
Follow established work permit systems.
Periodically vent all drums containing volatile liquids.
Do not keep any food stuff or take meals in the area where hazardous
chemicals are stored/handled. Wash hands before eating.
Do not use any solvent for cleaning hands. Use soap.
Maintain good housekeeping standards and avoid spillage.
Clean the floor immediately in case of chemical spillage.
Change contaminated clothes immediately.
Never take the chemicals away from the job for personal use.
Identify hazardous chemicals at your workplace as well as know
their properties.
References 285
• Heart attack
• Headache
• Head trauma
• Gastroenteritis
• Frost bite
• Foreign objectives swallowed
• Fracture
• Fever
• Fainting dislocation
While proper first aid can save life, improper first aid can affect person who is
receiving/administering first aid especially in a crisis like COVID-19 pandemic.
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Glossary
Abandoned Material that is disposed of or incinerated or burnt

Absorbant Material that is able to absorb a gas/liquid
Absorbate Material that has ability to get absorbed
Absorption Incorporation of molecules of a matter into the physical arrangement
of a solid with no chemical reaction
Absorption capacity Extent to which material can be absorbed by other material
Absorption spectrum Part of electromagnetic wavelength that is absorbed by a
substance
Acceleration Rate of change of velocity is called acceleration
Acclimatization Physiological adaptation of living beings to changing environ-
ment and climate
Accountability Liable or responsible for wrongdoing
Acid Substance that releases hydrogen ions in water
Acid deposition Atmospheric precipitation of acidic compounds
Acid rain Atmospheric precipitation with low pH
Acquired disease Disease that begins at some point during lifetime
Actinide Element with an atomic number from 89 to 103 inclusive
Action plan Comprehensive program of completion of an activity with a time
frame
Activated carbon Processed carbon with minute, pores that increases surface area
which can adsorb molecules coming in contact
Activated sludge Microorganism-laden sludge produced activated sludge process
Activated sludge process A type aerobic wastewater treatment
Activation (in the context of radio activity) Process of inducing radioactivity
Activation energy Preliminary energy needed to start the chemical reaction
Activation product (in the context of radio activity) Radionuclide generated by
activation
Active landfills Landfills that are receiving solid waste
Acute Happening over a short time
Acute disease Disease that lasts a short time

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64480-2
290 Glossary
Acute effect It is a physiological reaction in a body of living organism resulting

in serious symptoms that develop quickly during short-term exposure to toxic
substances
Acute exposure Short-term exposures to toxic substances normally lasting less
than 24 hours
Acute health effect Health effect that happens over relatively short period of time
Acute myocardial infarction (AMI) Heart attack
Acute toxicity A level of toxicity that can lead to rapid detrimental effects on bio-
logical systems within days/hours that is not greater than 2 weeks following
multiple/single brief acute exposures
Adaptation Getting adjusted to varying circumstances
Adhesion The force of attraction among molecules of a liquid and a solid or
between the molecules of different liquids
Adiabatic lapse rate Change in temperature with altitude of an air parcel due to
the change in volume associated with elevation change, with an assumption that
no heat exchange will happen between the air parcel and its surroundings.
Adiabatic process A process in which no heat exchange takes place between initial
and final states
Adoption Acceptance of changing circumstances
Adsorbate Substance adsorbing to a substance
Adsorbent Substance used to adsorb substance
Adsorber Equipments that adsorb substance
Adsorption Attachment of molecules of a substance to the surface of a solid
material
Advection Transport mechanism of a preserved property (like cold/heat) or sub-
stance by a fluid due to its bulk motion
Aerobic Absence of oxygen
Aerobic process A process carried out in aerobic condition
Aerodynamics Dynamics with respect to movement of air
Aerosol Particles with size from 0.01 to 10 mm, in the atmosphere
Afforestation Anthropogenic forest plantation
Agricultural burning Intentional combustion of agricultural residue
Agricultural waste Waste generated during agriculture
Air basin Land area with similar geographic/meteorological conditions
Air pollutant Substance that may lead to undesirable effects on biotic and biotic
components of ecosystem when present in air
Air pollution Presence of pollutants in air
Air quality A measure of atmospheric air pollution
Air quality index (AQI) Number derived from series of calculation based on pres-
ence of air pollutants that indicates the air quality in a specific area at a specific
time
Air shed Part of air basin that shares the air with similar meteorological, topo-
graphical, and climatological parameter
Air toxins Harmful chemicals in the air
Albedo Portion of solar radiation reflected by an object or surface
Glossary 291
Algae A variety of plant without distinguishable tissues

Algal bloom Sudden rise in algal growth
Alkali rain Atmospheric precipitation with elevated pH
Allergen Material that causes an allergic reaction
Alpha particle A particle charged positively released by atoms undergoing radio-
active decay
Alternating electric current (Normally termed as alternating current) Electric
current that reverses its direction numerous times a time period
Ambient air Any unconfined part of the atmosphere
Ambient air quality Outdoor air quality in the environment
Amensalism Interaction in which the one organism has a negative effect on another,
while other organism species is unaffected
Ampere Unit of electric current
Amplitude of wave The maximum displacement of a vibrating particle
Anaerobic A processes carried out in anaerobic condition
Anaerobic Absence of oxygen
Anesthesiology Science as well as practice of giving anesthetics (substances to
stop patients feeling pain
Anatomy Specialty of medical science that deals with the bodily structure of living
beings
Animalia (Animals) Eukaryotic multicellular organisms that obtain nutrition from
organic sources
Anion Negatively charged ions
Anthropogenic Anything consequential from human activity
Anthropogenic emissions Emissions due to human activity
Aquifer A geological formation, which has ability that can transmit/store water
Archaebacteria/Archaea Group of prokaryotic organisms that have different
molecular characteristics making them different from bacteria and eukaryotes
Archipelago Cluster of islands formed tectonically
Arid region Area with low rainfall (usually less than 250 mm per year)
Arithmetic mean An average of values in a dataset
Ash Noncombustible residue generated in combustion process
Asthma A lung disease that causes the bronchial tubes of lungs narrow, making it
difficult to breathe
Atmosphere The layer of gas surrounding the Earth
Atom Smallest component unit of matter that has the same properties of a chemical
element
Atomic mass number Sum of the numbers of protons as well as neutrons
Atomic number Atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom of the element
Avalanche Snow ice that slides down a mountainside due
Avogadro’s number (Avogadro’s constant) Each mole will have approximately
the same number of elementary entities that is called Avogadro’s number
Background level Concentration of a chemical in the environment
Bacteria A type of unicellular microscopic living organisms
292 Glossary
Bag filter A type of air pollution control equipment that uses bags of fabric
Bauxite Aluminum ore
Beach litter The trash washed aground on beach
Benthic community The community of organisms living on or near the bottom of
a surface water body
Bio-accumulation Accumulation of chemicals in tissues of living organisms
Biodegradable Able to be degraded by microorganisms
Biodiversity Overall diversity of living being and ecosystems
Bioenergy Energy produced using biomass
Biofilter Filter made up of filter-media with biomass attached with it
Biofluid dynamics Discipline of science concerned with motion of biological
fluids
Biofuel Fuel made from organic matter
Biogeochemical cycles The movement chemicals through the biotic and abiotic
components of an ecosystem
Biological disasters Disaster due to exposure of living beings to germs
Biological treatment (in the context of waste) A treatment method to treat waste
with microorganism
Biomass The total mass of living organisms in the area/volume of interest
Biome Distinct and major regional element of the biosphere
Biomedical waste The waste produced involving biological and medical activity
like research and health care
Bioreactors Device with biologically active environment
Bio-reclamation Treating contaminated sites with microorganism
Bio-remediation Process in which waste in contaminated place is seeded with
microorganisms to destroy/alter the waste
Biosphere Global ecological system combining all living beings as well as their
relationships
Biota All living organisms of an area
Blizzard Snowstorm accompanied by strong winds
BOD (biochemical oxygen demand) Difference in oxygen concentration prior to
and after a period
Body burden The total quantity of a chemical in the body
Boiling point Temperature at which liquid is transformed into its vapor without
raising the temperature
Borehole A hole drilled in the ground
Bottom ash The ash that falls to the base of combustion chamber
Bottom-up approach Study done starting from subordinate units to higher units
Breakwater Human made structure for the purpose of breaking waves built in the
sea
BTEX An acronym for benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene
Budget Estimate of expenditure as well as revenue of an organization
Buoyancy Force applied on a body that is wholly or partly immersed in a fluid
Burners An equipment that burns a fuel in a controlled manner
Bushmeat Meat from wild animals for consumption of human consumption
Glossary 293
By-laws Subordinate legislation enforced and applicable within the legal

borders
Calcareous organisms Organisms that use calcite or aragonite to form skeletons
or shells
Calcite A mineral characterized by calcium carbonate.
Calorie The energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of water by one
degree Celsius
Cancer Growth of abnormal cells in a body
Canister A sealed/closed container for radioactive material
Capacitor Electronic devices that store electrons
Capillary action Ability of a liquid to flow against gravity in a narrow channel
Capital cost Cost incurred towards investment
Capsule Cell organelle in some species of bacteria that keep the bacterium from
drying besides protecting from engulfing by bigger microorganisms
Carbon cycle Circulation of carbon atoms between abiotic and biotic components
of the Earth
Carbon dioxide (CO2) Gaseous chemical compound with one carbon and two
oxygen atoms
Carbon dioxide equivalent Concentration of GHG with same CO2 global warm-
ing potential
Carbon footprint The amount of GHG emissions generated by an event, product,
individual, or organization
Carbon intensity Amount of carbon emitted per unit of energy produced
Carbon monoxide (CO) A odorless, colorless gas made up of one carbon and one
oxygen atom
Carcinogen An agent capable of causing cancer
Carcinogenesis The production of cancer
Cardiovascular disease Group of diseases affecting the heart and blood vessels
Catalyst Chemical that influences the rate of chemical reaction by declining its
activation energy
Catchment Area that collects and drains rainwater through a given point
Cation Positively charged ions
Cell wall Rigid cell organelle in plant/fungi cell composed of polysaccharide that
surrounds the cytoplasmic membrane
Centrifugal force The force away from axis of rotation of a body is moving in
circular motion
Centripetal force The force towards axis of rotation of a body is moving in circu-
lar motion
CFCs Chlorofluorocarbon compounds
Chemical bond Force that holds atoms together in a chemical compound
Chemical formula A mathematical relationship between elements that builds a
compound
Chemical spill Accidental release of chemicals
Chemical symbol Symbol is a code for a chemical element usually derived from
the name of the element
294 Glossary
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Chemical compounds with chlorine, fluorine, as

well as carbon
Cholera Water-borne intestinal infection that results in caused by a bacterium—
Vibrio cholerae
Chronic Occurring over a lengthy period of time
Chronic condition or chronic disease Disease that persists over long period of
time (lasting 3 months or more)
Chronic effect An adverse effect on a living being in which symptoms recur fre-
quently or develop slowly over a long period of time spanning several weeks,
months, or years
Chronic toxicity Toxicity wherein adverse effects occur after a lengthy period of
exposure
Cirrus clouds Cirrus colds are atmospheric clouds that are characterized by thin
strands.
Climate Average weather. Usually for a period of time is 30 years
Climate change Variation in climate over time
Climate system Dynamics and interactions of atmosphere, cryosphere, hydro-
sphere, land surface, as well as biosphere
Climatological disasters Events caused due to climate variation
Clinical disease Disease that has identifiable clinical signs/symptoms
CO2 equivalent concentration Concentration of a GHG that would cause the
same quantity of radiative forcing as that of GHG
Coastal erosion Landward progress of the coast
Coastline Place where ocean or sea meets land
Co-disposal (in the context of solid waste) Disposal of wastes in one disposal
facility
Cogeneration Generation heat and electricity from same fuel source
Cohesion Inter-molecular attraction between molecules of the same liquid
Collection vehicle (in the context of solid waste) Vehicle used to collect waste
Collinear force Forces with a common line of action
Commensalism Interaction wherein one organism is benefited, while other organ-
ism is neither benefited nor harmed
Community medicine Branch of medicine concerning health care issues affecting
entire community
Compaction Operation used to increase the density of waste materials
Compactor Machine used for compaction
Competition Interaction between organisms for same resource
Compost Humus material generated from composting process
Composting Process of generating compost
Compound An entity comprising of two or more different atoms connected with
chemical bonds with a fixed ratio among constituent elements
Compressible flow Flow in which the fluid density changes during the flow
Compressible fluid Fluid flow capable of changing density
Concave lens Lenses that are thicker at edges and thinner at the middle
Concave mirror Mirror with reflective surfaces that curve inward
Glossary 295
Concentration The quantity of one substance contained in another substance or

medium
Concurrent force Forces whose lines of action of forces pass through a common
point
Condensation The change of the water vapor in the air into liquid water on cool
surfaces
Congenital disorder or congenital disease Disease that is present at birth
Construction and demolition waste Waste produced from construction and
demolition activities
Contaminant Material that has an adverse effect on environment
Contamination The degradation of environment by contaminant
Convex lens Lenses that are thinner at edges and thicker at the middle
Convex mirror Mirror with reflective surfaces that curve outward
Coplanar forces Forces acting in the same plane are called coplanar forces
Co-processing (in the context of solid waste) Units where waste is used as a
source of energy, or as raw material, or both
Coral bleaching The paling of color of coral organisms that have hard external
limestone skeletons
Coral reefs Structures built by corals
Coulomb SI quantity of electricity transported in one second by a constant current
of one ampere
Criteria air pollutant Air pollutants for which ambient air quality standard has
been fixed
Crop failure Abnormal reduction in crop yield
Crusher Equipment to break solid substance
Curb-side collection Method of accumulating waste on curb side
Cyclone Large-scale circulation of air in the atmosphere on top of the South Pacific
and Indian Oceans
Cyclone separator Air pollution control equipment used to separate particles by
centrifugal force
Cytoplasmic membrane Membrane that regulates transport of food into and waste
products out of cell
Cytoplasm Gel-like matrix present inside cell membrane containing nutrients,
water, wastes, enzymes, gases, and cell structures
Decomposition The breakdown of complex organic substance by microorganisms
Deforestation Removing forest
Dengue fever An infectious viral disease spread by mosquitoes
Density Mass of fluid per unit volume
Dermal Referring to the skin
Dermatology Branch of study that deals with all the disorders of the inner mucous
membranes as well as outer skin
Desert A region of very low rainfall (<100 mm/year).
Dewpoint Temperature at which condensables begin to alter to a liquid state
Digestion The biochemical degradation of organic matter
296 Glossary
Diode Electronic device that permits electric current to move through it in single
direction
Direct electric current (Normally termed as direct current) Electric current
flowing only in one direction
Disaster An extreme hazard event that causes noteworthy disruption, damage, and
casualties
Disaster management Systematic management to reduce impacts of disasters
Disaster preparedness Preplanned actions to reduce the impact of disasters
Disaster recovery Actions taken after a disaster to restore the disaster affected
community
Disaster rehabilitation Set of measures taken after a disaster to bring back to
disaster affected community to normal life
Disaster relief/response Coordinated activities intended to meet the needs of peo-
ple affected by a disaster
Disaster risk reduction Measures to curb disaster losses
Disaster waste Waste generated due to a disaster
Disease Abnormal condition that negatively affects the normal functioning of the
body
Displacement Change in position of an object is called displacement
Disposal (in the context of solid waste) The process of final disposal of solid
waste
Disseminated disease (metastatic disease) Ailment that affects several parts of
the body
Diverging wave Wave in which the energy is spread over a larger and larger area
DNA methylation Adding methyl group on DNA
Domestic waste Waste generated from domestic activities
Domestic waste Waste produced due to domestic activities
Donor agency An agency that donates funds for developmental activity
Dose The amount of substance to which a person is exposed
Drought Phenomenon that arise when precipitation is noticeably below normal
levels
Dynamics Specialization of mechanics that deals with the motion of bodies under
the action of forces
Dysbiosis (dysbacteriosis) Microbial imbalance or maladaptation
Early warning Providing effective and timely information regarding a forthcom-
ing hazard
Earthquake Shaking of ground due to seismic waves
Ecological community Community of living beings characterized by a unique
assemblage of species as well as their population
Economies in transition (EIT) Nations undergoing the process of transition to
market economy
Ecosystem Interactive system of living things as well as their abiotic environment
Ecosystem services Ecological processes having monetary or non-monetary value
Eco-terrorism An act of violence committed in support of environmental or eco-
logical causes
Glossary 297
Ecotone Changeover area between adjacent ecological communities

Elastic limit The maximum stress to which the body can recover its original size
and shape on the elimination of the deforming force
Elasticity Property of a body due to which it regains its original configuration after
removing deforming forces
Electric charge Property of matter responsible for electrical phenomena
Electric circuit Route in which electrons from source of electric current move
Electric field Region around an electrically charged object or particle wherein an
electric charge feels the force
Electric load Part of the circuit that performs work (e.g., a television, motor)
Electric potential Potential energy of a unit charge
Electric power Work done by an electrical current
Electrical conductance The ease of flow of electric current
Electrical current Rate of flow of electrons, through a conductor
Electrical resistance Opposition to the movement of electric current
Electro static precipitator Air pollution control equipment that uses electrostatic
force to remove particulate matter
Electromagnetic fields (EMF) Property of space produced by motion of an elec-
tric charge
Electronics Specialization of science that is concerned with control of the motion
of electrons
Electrons Negatively charged particle of an atom. They revolve around nucleus of
an atom in different orbits (or shells)
Element A chemical element is a chemical substance containing of atoms having
the same atomic number
Emergency Event that requires immediate action to minimize its adverse
consequences
Emission Pollutants released in the air
Emission factors Extent of pollutant emitted per input unit, or per unit of produc-
tion, or per fuel unit, or per kilometer driven
Emission standards Legal necessities with respect to air pollutants released into
the atmosphere
Enactment Duly adopted law
End of life vehicle Vehicle that has completed its useful period
Endangered species Species threatened with extinction
Endemic Restricted to a region
Endocrinology Specialty of medical science dealing with hormones and their
effect throughout the body
Energy Capacity for doing work is called energy
Enforcement Compelling obedience or executing or making effective
Environmental monitoring A regular or continuous periodic sampling followed
by analysis or direct measurement of environmental attributes
Environmental pharmacology Branch of pharmacology that concerns with the
entry of drugs into the environment after they are excreted by humans and ani-
mals in post-therapy
298 Glossary
Environmental public health tracking (EPHT) Ongoing collection, analysis,

integration, interpretation, as well as dissemination of data from monitoring of
environmental hazard and human exposure or health effects surveillance
Epidemics Rapid spread of infectious illness to a large number of people in a given
population within a short period
Epidemiology The study of the occurrence and causes of health effects in human
populations
Erosion The removal of weathered land surfaces
Etiology (in the context of pathology) Pertaining to the period immediately
before and after birth
Eukarya Organisms with cells that contain membrane-bound organelles and a
nucleus
Eustatic sea-level rise Change in global average sea level due to rise in the volume
of the world ocean
Eutrophication Transformation of nutrient deficient state to nutrient rich state in
a water body
Evapotranspiration Loss of water due to evaporation from the surface of earth
and transpiration from vegetation
E-Waste Waste electronic goods
Exocytosis Expelling vesicle containing particles (or chemicals)
Exosphere Outermost region of the atmosphere located after 500 km altitude
Expiration (in the context of species) Loss of population of species in a given
location
Exposed group A group whose members have been in contact with a supposed
cause of a disease/health state of interest
Exposure Contact of an organism with a physical/chemical/biological agent
Exposure assessment A measurement or estimation of the duration, magnitude,
frequency, and route of exposure to a substance for a population of interest
Facilitated diffusion Movement of molecules across the membrane from a region
of higher concentration to one of lower concentration through channels or by
carrier molecules
Famine Food shortage affecting large numbers of people
Feasibility study (FS) of the practicability of a proposal
Fermentation Anaerobic chemical breakdown of substance microbes
Filtration (in the context of intra cellular movement in living organ-
ism) Movement of smaller molecules across membrane by virtue of pressure
Flagella Sting like structures present in some bacteria that provide a means of
locomotion
Flash flood Sudden flooding with short duration
Flash point Lowest temperature at which a material can vaporize to form an ignit-
able mixture in air
Flood Significant rise of water level in a surface water body
Fluid dynamics Branch of fluid mechanics that is concerned with the flow of fluids
Fluid statics Subdiscipline of fluid mechanics that is concerned with fluids at rest
as well as the pressure in a fluid or exerted by a fluid on an immersed object
Glossary 299
Fly ash Ash generated during combustion expelled along with flue gas
Focal length lens Distance between the focal point of lens and its optical center
Focal length mirror Distance between the center of a mirror and its focal point
Focal point lens Point in space where parallel light rays meet after passing through
the lens
Force Force is any action that alters or maintains the motion of a body or dis-
torts it
Forensic medicine (forensic pathology) Specialty of medical science that deals
with the application of knowledge of medical scenic to establish facts in legal
cases
Forest fire Burning of forest
Fuel cell Container in which fuel is directly converted in to energy
Fungi Living organisms with cell walls containing chitin and capable of digesting
organic matter before absorbing
Gas migration Movement of gas from one area to another
Gastroenterology Specialization of medical science that is concerned with diges-
tive system and its disorders
Gene The basic biological unit of heredity
Genetic disease Genetic disease caused by abnormalities formed in the genome.
Genetic disorders may be hereditary or due to mutation (changes to the DNA)
Geo fence (in the context of GIS) Virtual perimeter for a geographic area
Geo tag (in the context of GIS) Process of adding geographical identification
mechanism
GHG (greenhouse gas) Gases that have capability to absorb and emit heat
Gibbs energy The energy associated with a chemical reaction that can be used to
do work
Global warming Rise in the average global temperature
GLOF (Glacier lake outburst flood) Flooding due to the outburst of a glacier lake
Gravitational force The gravitational force is the force of attraction between two
objects with mass
Green building Structures that are resource-efficient and environment-friendly
throughout a building’s life-cycle
Green fuel Also called as biofuel. It is the fuel whose energy is obtained by a pro-
cess of biological carbon fixation
Greenhouse effect It is the rise in temperature similar polyhouse/glass house
used to grow plants where in the heat is retained. The phenomenon in which the
absorption of infrared radiation by the GHGs in atmosphere rises temperature of
the earth
Green technology Applied science to preserve the natural resources and
environment
Green waste All types of organic yard and landscaping waste
Greenhouse gas (GHG) Gases capable of absorbing solar heat
Groundwater Water present in the spaces between soil particles and between rock
surfaces
Groundwater recharge Process of adding external water to ground
300 Glossary
GWP (global warming potential) Ratio of warming of atmosphere of the gases to

that caused by same mass of CO2
Gynecology (gynecology) Field of study concerned with the health of the female
reproductive systems as well as the breasts
Gyres Circular ocean current
Habitat Locality where an organism or population naturally occurs
Hemodynamics Dynamics of blood flow
Hail storm Type of storm characterized by hail as the prevailing part of its
precipitation
Halocarbons Group of halogenated organic compounds
Hazard Threatening event within a given time period/area
Health outcome Health condition observed in a population or an individual
Heat Flow of thermal energy
Heat capacity Ratio of heat absorbed by a substance to the change in temperature
Heat island An urban area with ambient temperatures more than that of the sur-
rounding non-urban area
Heat of fusion Amount of heat necessary to melt a substance at its normal melting
temperature
Heat of vaporization Heat necessary to evaporate the substance at its normal boil-
ing point
Heat wave Prolonged period of extremely hot weather relative to normal climate
patterns in a given region
Heavy metals Metallic elements having high atomic weights
Hematology (or hematology) It is a medical specialization concerned with the
study of diseases related to blood that includes problems with the blood cells,
platelets, spleen, bone marrow, blood vessels, lymph nodes, as well as the pro-
teins involved in bleeding/clotting
Hereditary or inherited disease Disease inherited genetically
Hibernation State of inactivity due to lower metabolic rate
Homeostasis The state of steady internal conditions conserved by living things
Human anatomy Specialty of medical science that deals with body structure of
humans
Hybrid vehicles Vehicles that use two sources for energy
Hydrocarbon Chemical compound consisting only hydrogen and carbon
Hydrographic events Events that alter the condition or current of waters in surface
water bodies
Hydrologic cycle Continuous circulation of water throughout the atmosphere and
earth
Hydrological disasters Events caused by variation in the normal water cycle and/
or overflow of surface water bodies
Hydrophilic Attracted to water
Hypoxic events Events that lead to a deficiency of oxygen
Iatrogenic disease Disease caused by medical intervention
ICD-10 International Classification of Disease, 10th revision
Idiopathic disease Disease with no identifiable cause
Glossary 301
Ignitable Capable of burning

Ignition point Lowest temperature at which a volatile material will be vaporized
into a gas that ignites without external ignition source is called ignition point
Immobilization (in the context of solid waste) Converting of waste into a waste
form by means of solidification embedding or encapsulation
Immunology It is a medical specialization that deals with the immune system
In situ conservation Conservation of natural habitats and ecosystems in their natu-
ral surroundings
Incidence rate Frequency with which an incidence (like new cases of illness)
occurs in a population over a particular period of time
Incinerator A furnace used for incineration
Incompressible flow Flow in which the fluid density is constant throughout the
flow
Incompressible fluid Fluid whose density is constant everywhere
Incurable disease Disease that cannot be cured
Indicator Factor that identifies and communicates a system’s status
Indoor air pollution Air pollution that occur within enclosed spaces or buildings
Inertia Opposition to any change in velocity of an object
Infant mortality Death of a child younger than 1 year of age
Infant mortality rate Number infant mortality divided by the number of live births
in that population during the same time period
Infectious disease Any disease caused by microbial agents
Ingestion Swallowing
Inhalation Breathing
Interim remedial measure (IRM) An action taken at a contaminated site to
decrease the chances of environmental/human exposure to contaminants
Intermolecular force Force exerted by molecules on each other in an object
Inviscid fluid Fluid that is not viscous
Ionic bond Bond between atoms wherein positively as well as negatively charged
ions are connected together by electrostatic forces
Ionosphere Region of the atmosphere between stratosphere and thermosphere
where ions are generated by photo ionization
Ions Any atom that gains or lose electrons will become electrically charged. Any
charged atom or group of atoms is called ions
Irrotational fluid flow Flow in which streamlines do not loop on themselves
Isohyet A line on a map joining locations that receive the same quantity of rainfall
Isotopes Variants of chemical elements that have the same atomic number but dif-
ferent mass number
Kinetics Relates the action of forces on objects to their resulting motions
Laminar flow Flow in which fluid moves in parallel layers
Land pollution Presence of substances in land at concentrations greater than
their usual levels that affects biotic and abiotic component of environment
significantly
Landfill Engineered solid waste disposal place where waste is deposited in pits/
trenches taking all safety measure to control leachate as well as gases emitted
302 Glossary
Landfill gases Gases generated from the degradation of the waste in landfill
Landslide Rapid movement of a mass of soil, rock, or debris down a slope
Land-use Various types of uses for which land is utilized
Latency period The period between exposure to disease causative agent and the
onset of the health effect
Latent heat Energy released or absorbed by a substance during a transformation in
its physical state that occurs without change in temperature
Latent heat of fusion Quantity of heat required to convert unit mass of solid into
its liquid state without change in its temperature
Latent heat of vaporization The amount of heat required to convert unit mass of
liquid into its vapor state without change in its temperature
Leachate Wastewater generated in land fill or waste dumps
Leachate collection system An engineered system for collecting leachate
Leachate treatment Treatment of leachate
Leaching Process in which chemicals in the waste dissolve the water generating
contaminated fluid
Leapfrogging Ability of developing countries to bypass intermediate technologies
to adopt advanced clean technologies
Leukemia Cancer of the blood or bone marrow
Levee Bund or wall to regulate water levels
Liability Forms of obligation imposed by law
Light pollution (photo pollution) Excessive and inappropriate artificial light
Lightening Atmospheric discharge of electricity
Litter Windblown solid wastes
Littoral zone Zone between high and low watermarks in a coastal region
Local windstorm Strong winds caused due to regional atmospheric phenomena
that are typical for a certain area
Localized disease Ailment that affects one part of the body
Longitudinal strain Ratio of alteration in length to initial length
Long-lived GHGs GHGs that have long residence time in the atmosphere
Low birth weight Baby born with low birth weight less than 2500 g
Lytic cycle Destruction of the infected cell and its membrane by virus for
reproduction
Macro-routing (in the context of solid waste) Creating collection routes by divid-
ing a collection area into small
Macroscopic anatomy (gross anatomy) Anatomy where in organs of a living
organism with are examined with unaided eyesight
Magnetic field A vector field around electric current, a magnet, or changing elec-
tric field, in which magnetic forces are noticeable
Magnetic field The area around and object where magnetic force is felt
Magnetic force Force between electrically charged particles due to their motion
Mandate Command, order, or direction, indicating action to be taken
Manometer Devise used to measure differential pressure
Marine debris (Marine litter) Anthropogenic waste that is released accidentally/
deliberately into the sea
Glossary 303
Material recovery (in the context of solid waste) Recovery of useful components
from waste
Materials recovery facility (MRF) Facility for material recovery
Mechanical separation (in the context of solid waste) Separating waste into vari-
ous components mechanically
Mechanics Specialization of science that deals with the motion of bodies under the
action of forces, including the bodies at rest
Medical disorder Functional abnormality or disturbance that is further catego-
rized into mental disorder; genetic disorder; physical disorder; functional; and
emotional and behavioral disorder
Medical waste Waste generated during health care activities
Medicine Branch of science dealing with diagnosis, prediction, treatment, and pre-
vention of disease
Mediterranean region Nations adjacent to Mediterranean Sea
Melting point Temperature at which a solid will melt is called melting point of
that solid
Metabolism Chemical reactions that enable the body to work
Metadata Data about data
Meteorological disasters Events caused by shortlived/small to mesoscale atmo-
spheric processes
Metropolitan area An urban area thar may contain many municipalities or cities
Microbiologicals (microorganisms) Microscopic organisms
Microscopic anatomy (histology) Anatomy that involves the use of optical
instruments
Mixing depth (mixing height) Vertical distance from ground to the altitude in
lower atmosphere up to which pollutants are mixed by turbulence
Mobile source Moving source of air pollution such as automobiles
Modulus of elasticity Ratio of stress to the corresponding strain within elastic
limits
Molecular weight The molecular weight is the mass of one mole of a substance
usually expressed as are grams per mole
Molecule Smallest particles of an element or compound that possesses all the prop-
erties of that substance are made up one or many atoms
Moment of a force Tendency of a force to rotate the body to which is applied about
axis or point
Momentum Product(multiplication) of mass of moving body and its velocity
Monera Group of prokaryotic organisms that typically reproduce by asexual
reproduction
Morbidity The condition of being diseased
Mortality Death
Mortality rate Rate of occurrence of death within a population
Multimedia exposure (in the context of health) Exposure to a toxic substance
from multiple pathways such as food, air
Municipal wastewater The spent or used water from in urban settlement
Mutualism Interaction between two or more species, for mutual benefit
304 Glossary
Myocardial infarction (MI) Heart attack

National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) Air quality standards
adopted by a country
Nephrology Branch of medical science that focuses on the treatment of kidney
conditions as well as abnormalities
Neurodegeneration Progressive loss of function or structure of neurons
Neurology Branch of medical science dealing with disorders of the nervous system
Neutrons Neutral particle of an atom
Night soil Human excreta
Nitrates Compounds of nitrogen and oxygen with three oxygen atom and one
nitrogen atom
Nitric oxide (NO) Gas with one atom of oxygen and one atom of nitrogen
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) Gas with one two of oxygen and one atom of nitrogen
Non-collinear force Forces that do not have a common line of action
Non-concurrent force Forces whose lines of action of forces do not pass through
a common point
Non-coplanar force Forces acting in different planes are called non-coplanar
forces
Nonparallel force Forces whose lines of action of forces are not parallel to each
other
Non-point source (in the context of pollution) Pollution sources that cannot be
traced back to single point like agriculture, urban area, forestry, and mining
Normal stress Stress generated when a force is applied perpendicular to surface
of a body
Nosocomial infection Transfer of infection from health care establishments to
people individuals
Nucleoid Region in the bacteria cell where DNA is localized
Nucleotide Subunit of DNA or RNA
Nucleus of an atom Dense region at the center of atom comprising of protons and
neutrons
Nutrient loads (in the context of water pollution) Total quantity of nitrogen and
phosphorous entering a water body in a given time
Obstetrics Medical specialization concerned with pregnancy, child birth, as well
as the postpartum period
Ocean acidification Increase in acidity in sea water
Ocean heat uptake efficiency Measure of the global ocean heat storage as global
surface temperature increases
Oleophilic Attracted by oil
Oncology Medical specialization that deals with on the prevention, diagnosis, as
well as treatment of cancer
Open burning (in the context of solid waste) Burning of solid waste without
control on air pollution
Operating cost It is day to day expenditure of an operation of any facility
Ophthalmology Specialization of medicine that deals with the functions, struc-
ture, as well as diseases of the eye
Glossary 305
Optical axis of lens/principal axis Straight line passing through the geometrical
center of a lens and two centers of curvature
Optical center of lens Central point of the lens through which a ray of light passes
without suffering any deviation
Organic Compound containing carbon and hydrogen
Orphan site (in the context of solid waste) Site contaminated by hazardous waste
with no responsible party can be identified
Orthopedics Specialization of medical science concerned with the correction of
deformities of bones/muscles
Osmosis Movement of water molecule from less concentration to higher concen-
tration region
Otorhinolaryngology Specialization of medicine which is concerned with of dis-
eases of the ear, nose, and throat
Ozone (O3) Gas with three oxygen atom
Pediatrics Branch of medical science dealing with children and their diseases
Parallel force Forces whose lines of action of forces are parallel to each other
Parasitism Interaction between organisms in which one organism benefits and
other is harmed
Particulate matter Solid/liquid substance with size greater than a molecule but
less than microscopic/submicroscopic size (about 500 μm)
Particulates Particles with size more than molecule and less than 500 mm
Pathogenesis Manner of development of a disease
Pathogenic Capable of causing disease
Pathogens Microorganism that have ability to causing sickness
Pathology Specialization of medical science that deals with cause, origin as well
as nature of disease
Penal law Legislation that prohibits acts and imposes penalties for the violations
of those acts
Penalty Punishment imposed as the consequence for violation of law
Percolate To trickle through a permeable material
Percutaneous Through the skin
Perfect fluid Fluid with zero viscosity
Perinatal Pertaining to the period immediately before and after birth
Period of wave Time taken for the oscillation to repeat itself
Pest An organism that is harmful to environment or health
Phagocytosis Membrane engulfs solid particles from surroundings
Pharmacology Specialization of medical science that is concerned with the uses,
effects, as well as modes of action of medicines
Physiology Specialty of medical science that deals with the functions of living
beings and their parts
Phytoplankton The plant forms of plankton
Pili Small hairlike outgrowths present in many species of bacteria that assist in
attaching to other cells/surfaces
Pilot program A trial run of project/equipment/structure on a small scale
Pinocytosis Engulfment of liquid droplets by membrane from surroundings
306 Glossary
Plasmids Extrachromosomal genetic structures present in many strains of

bacteria
Plane mirror Mirror with a flat (planar) reflective surface
Plane wave A wave whose wave fronts are infinite parallel planes
Plankton Microscopic aquatic organisms that drift or swim weakly
Plantae (Plants) Multicellular eukaryotic organisms characterized by photo-
synthetic nutrition, cells with cellulose in their walls, absence of nervous
system
Plasticity Property of a body that is unable to regains its original shape size even
after removal of deforming force
Plume Long band or column of chemicals moving away from its source
Point source Single identifiable stationary source of pollution
Pollution monitoring Sampling as well as measuring of pollutants
Polymorphism Quality or character of occurring in many different forms
Porous Containing holes or voids
Post neonatal mortality Death occurring from 1 month to 1 year after birth
Potential difference The variance in electrical potential amid two points
Power Rate of doing work is called power
Predation Relationship between organisms in which the one organism kills another
organism for food
Preterm birth Birth with the gestation period is less than 37 weeks
Prevalence Proportion of a defined population affected by a sickness at a specified
point in time
Primary disease Disease arising spontaneously that is not associated with or ear-
lier disease
Progressive disease Disease that is progressing or worsening
Progressive wave Wave generated during transfer of energy in the direction of
transmission of the sound
Protected area Area that is regulated and managed to achieve conservation
objectives
Protista Eukaryotic organisms that do not qualify as plant, animal, or fungus
Protocol (in the context of international law) Agreement less formal than those
titled “treaty” or “convention”
Protocol (in the context of scientific procedure) The detailed plan for conducting
a scientific procedure
Protons Positively charged particle of an atom
Pulmonology Branch of medical science that is concerned with ailments involving
the respiratory tract
Putrefaction Biodegradation in which foul smelling compounds are formed
Putrescible Decomposable
Pyrolysis Thermochemical decomposition of organic substance in the absence of
oxygen to convert solid wastes to liquid as well as gaseous fuel
Quality assurance System of procedures, audits, checks, and corrective actions to
ensure quality
Quota Quantitative restrictions
Glossary 307
Radiation pollution (radioactive pollution or nuclear pollution) Pollution

caused by radioactive materials
Radical A group of atoms with a charge that goes through a reaction without
change is called a radical
Radon A radioactive gas emitted from soils and rock
Rangeland Unmanaged grasslands, savannas, shrub lands, and tundra
Reactivity The rate at which a chemical material tends to undergo a chemical
reaction
Real image Image formed in the plane of convergence rays of light that originate
from an object
Receptor-mediated endocytosis Engulfment of selected molecule combined with
receptor proteins by membranes
Reforestation Converting deforested area in to forest
Refractory disease Disease that resists treatment
Refuse Municipal solid waste
Regenerative braking Mechanism in which kinetic energy generated during
breaking in the vehicle is stored for future use
Rejects Residual waste
Remediation Correction or improvement of a problem
Residential waste Waste produce from residents
Residual waste Materials in the waste that are not compostable/recyclable
Residue Residual waste
Resolution of force Splitting a force into its components
Respirable particulate matter Particles that can enter lungs, usually particles less
than 10 μm diameter
Resultant of force A single force that has the same effect on the body as all the
forces acting together are having
Ribosome An organelle where biological protein synthesis is made
Risk Expected losses or possibility of injury, disease or death
Risk assessment A process that estimates the probability of exposed people can
have risk
RNA (ribonucleic acid) Nucleic acid molecule containing ribose
Rotational fluid flow Flow whose streamlines loop on themselves
Sandstorm/dust storm Wind with high speed with fine particles like sand
Scalar Physical quantity that has only magnitude but no direction
Sharps Sharp objects such as needles, syringes, and broken glassware
Shear strain Ratio of the length of deformation to perpendicular length in the
plane of the application of force
Simple diffusion Movement of molecules, atoms, or ions moves from higher con-
centration to lower concentration
Singleton Child born from a pregnancy with a single fetus
Sintering Process of forming a solid mass of material by heat/pressure without
melting it
Siting Process of selecting a location for a facility
Snowstorm A storm with large amounts of snow fall
308 Glossary
Soil carbon stocks Carbon stored in soil

Soil pollution Presence of substances in soil at concentrations greater than
their usual levels that affect biotic and abiotic component of environment
significantly
Solubility Ability of a substance that can be dissolved in a given amount of a liquid
Sound energy Form of energy generated when object vibrate
Sound power Rate at which sound energy is transmitted, emitted, received, or
reflected per unit time
Source reduction (in the context of solid waste) Reducing the quantity of waste
at source
Source separation (in the context of solid waste) Segregating wastes into various
components at the point of generation
Speed Rate of change of position without considering direction. It is scalar abso-
lute value of velocity
Spherical wave Wave created by a sound source that radiates the energy equally
in all directions
Standard heat of combustion Amount of heat evolved at one atmosphere pressure
and at 25 °C when one mole of a substance is burned in excess oxygen
Statics Specialization of mechanics that deals with bodies at rest as well as forces
in equilibrium
Stationary source (in the context of air pollution) Non-mobile source (e.g.,
power plant, refinery, manufacturing facility)
Step-down transformer Transformer in which output electric potential difference
is less than that of the input
Step-up transformer Transformer in which the output electric potential difference
is greater than its input
Stoichiometry Collective term for the quantitative relationship between the num-
bers of atoms/molecules/ions, the masses, and the numbers of moles
Storage Temporary holding of material
Storage containers Vessels used to contain material for storage
Storm surge Coastal flood on coasts and lake shores caused by wind
Strain It is the ratio of the alteration in size/shape to the original size/shape. Strain
is a dimensionless number
Stress The ratio of internal force generated when a body is deformed to area on
which this force acts
Structural formula Graphical representation of arrangement of atoms in a
chemical
Subclinical disease Stage in some diseases before appearance of symptoms
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) Gas comprising one sulfur atom and two oxygen atoms
Surface runoff Water that flows over the land surface to the nearest surface stream
Surface tension Elastic tendency of a fluid surface
Surgery Treatment of injuries or disorders of the body is treated by incision or
manipulation with help of instruments
Syndrome Group of symptoms that consistently occurs together, and characterizes
a particular abnormality/condition
Glossary 309
Systemic disease Ailment that affects entire body

Tailings Residues from ore processing
Tangential stress Stress generated when a force is applied parallel to surface of a
body
Target organ An organ that is specifically affected by a toxic chemical
Temperature Relative hotness or coldness of an object
Temperature gradient Rate of change of temperature in a particular location
Terminal disease Disease that cannot be satisfactorily treated and is likely to result
in the death
Thermal energy Thermal energy is internal energy in a system in a state of ther-
modynamic equilibrium due to its temperature
Thermal pollution The discharge of liquid with higher temperature into natural
waters that would cause harm to environment
Thermal treatment Use of elevated temperatures to treat waste
Thermocline Transition layer between warmer mixed water and cooler water in
surface water body
Thermohaline circulation (THC) Large-scale, density-driven water movement in
the ocean, due to differences in temperature and salinity
Thermometer Instrument for measuring temperature
Thermosphere The region of the atmosphere where temperature rises continu-
ously with altitude
Tidewrack Beach litter
Time Time taken for the oscillation to repeat itself
Toxicity Extent to which a matter can damage an organism
Toxicology Specialty of science that deals with study of undesirable effects that
occur in living being owing to chemicals
Transcytosis Transcellular transport of macromolecule across cell
Transistor Device used to regulate electric current or potential difference, which
acts as a gate for electronic signals
Urbanization Process of the transformation of land to cities
Valence (or valance number) Number of electrons present in outermost orbit (or
shell) of an atom
Valency Measure of its combining power with other atoms when it forms
molecules
Vector (in the context of epidemiology) Living organisms that can transmit infec-
tion among humans, or from animals to humans
Vector (in the context of physics) Physical quantity that has magnitude and direc-
tion but not position
Velocity The rate of change of displacement with respect to frame of reference
Venereology Branch of medicine that deals with disorders transmitted through
sexual contact
Vermi-compost Composting process that uses earthworms
Very preterm birth A newborn with the gestation period is less than 32 weeks
Virtual image Image appears to be formed when light rays originate from object
diverge but cannot be projected onto a screen
310 Glossary
Virus Small intracellular parasites that contain RNA or DNA genome bounded by
a protein coat
Viscosity Fluid property that relates the resistant to gradual deformation
Void ratio Ratio between the voids and solids
Volatile Substance that evaporates readily
Volcanic eruption Outbreak of volcano
Volt Units of electric potential
Volume reduction (in the context of solid waste) Processing waste to decrease
the volume
Volumetric strain The change in volume divided by the original volume
Wastewater Water let out after use from community, home, farm, institution, or
industry
Water contaminant A potentially harmful substance that is present in water
Water pollution Presence of substances in water bodies at concentrations greater
than their usual levels that affect biotic and abiotic component of environment
significantly
Zoonosis Ailment that occurs usually in animals that is transmitted to people
Index
A C
Abandoned, 180, 237, 289 Cancers, 44, 68, 83, 113, 123, 138, 149, 151,
Absorption, 38, 72, 289, 299 155, 180, 192, 193, 202, 203, 219,
Acceleration, 53–55, 58, 289 220, 238, 241, 243, 245, 258, 261,
Acid rain, 38, 153, 289 271, 293, 302, 304
Acids, 7, 11–13, 23, 27–31, 33, 34, 37, 100, Chemicals, 3–13, 18–25, 29–31, 33–36, 38,
102, 105, 149, 180, 207, 271, 284, 40, 42, 44, 49, 54, 55, 67, 87, 89,
289, 307 96–98, 100, 102, 103, 105, 112,
Acquired disease, 182, 289 132, 139, 142, 150, 151, 155, 158,
Activated carbon, 24, 289 160, 162, 168, 176, 178–180, 185,
Adsorbate, 24, 290 189, 193, 194, 196–198, 200, 202,
Adsorbents, 24, 290 204, 205, 207, 221, 227, 230–232,
Adsorption, 7, 24, 34, 59, 89, 290 238, 239, 243, 244, 258, 262, 268,
Ailments, 95, 120, 123–125, 151, 175–177, 269, 272, 273, 280, 281, 283–284,
181, 191, 195, 197, 199, 204, 205, 289–294, 297–303, 306–309
219, 223, 229, 232, 240, 267, 280, Cholera, 156, 236, 294
296, 302, 306, 309, 310 Communicable diseases, 96, 104, 123, 192,
Airborne, 239 222, 238, 259, 262, 272
Air pollutants, 27, 140, 151, 152, 196, 202, Corona virus, 225
230, 231, 236, 290, 295, 297 COVID-19, 55, 76, 107, 196, 199, 200, 203,
Air pollution, 24, 32, 66, 109, 124, 132, 139, 226, 227, 236, 237, 260, 272,
141, 142, 146, 147, 150–154, 160, 277, 285
192–194, 196, 198–203, 206, 208,
219, 228, 229, 245, 290, 292, 295,
297, 301, 303, 304, 308 D
Air quality, 91, 290, 291, 295, 304 Dead, 29, 36, 39, 41, 133, 139–141, 154, 192,
231, 245
Deaths, 31, 35, 38, 83, 86, 91, 105, 108, 112,
B 120, 122, 150, 151, 156, 157, 161,
Biological, 7, 10, 31, 36, 38, 58, 59, 96, 101, 182, 193, 199–202, 219–221,
105, 149, 150, 176, 178, 179, 186, 223–227, 229, 231, 232, 234–236,
193, 202, 238, 239, 243, 268, 269, 239, 243, 246, 257, 259–261, 267,
271, 290, 292, 298, 299, 307 268, 270, 301, 303, 306, 307, 309

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64480-2
312 Index
Disaster managements, 66, 187, 296 220, 222, 225–227, 229, 232, 238,
Disasters, 38, 50, 84, 87, 96, 97, 124, 138, 241, 244–246, 258, 261, 265, 266,
153, 160, 162, 208, 220, 234–236, 268, 271, 294, 304, 309
265, 292, 294, 296, 300, 303 Infectious diseases, 101, 104, 113, 120, 176,
Diseases, 21, 27, 31, 32, 34, 68, 77, 95–97, 181, 195, 246, 301
101–124, 131, 132, 134, 138, 151,
152, 154–157, 160–162, 175, 176,
179–182, 185–188, 191–194, L
196–203, 205, 207, 219–221, 223, Landfills, 162, 163, 238, 239, 245, 289,
225–227, 229, 230, 232, 233, 301, 302
238–241, 243, 245, 246, 257, 259, Law, 10, 13–18, 50, 52–54, 56, 70, 71, 75, 82,
261, 262, 269, 271, 272, 280, 289, 87, 89, 90, 257, 268, 297, 302,
291, 293–296, 298–309 305, 306
Leachates, 8, 9, 163, 167, 239, 301, 302
Legislation, 125, 275, 276, 293, 305
E
Emerging infectious disease (EID), 113
Energies, 8, 10, 18–21, 33, 34, 44, 45, 49–51, M
55, 56, 58, 61, 67, 68, 76–79, Microorganism, 38, 41, 101–105, 108–110,
81–91, 102, 103, 105, 132–136, 112, 125, 132–134, 150, 178, 199,
138, 145, 199, 208, 236, 289, 292, 229, 231
293, 295–297, 299, 300, Monitoring, 66, 76, 265–266, 269, 298, 306
302, 306–309 Mortality, 32, 86, 91, 133, 151, 154, 193, 194,
Environmental monitoring, 66, 76 199–201, 203, 233, 245, 259, 261,
Epidemics, 91, 96, 120, 153, 161, 187, 200, 301, 303
203, 225, 234, 246, 277, 298
N
G Noise, 67, 76, 96, 139, 161, 178, 195, 202,
Greenhouse gases (GHGs), 136, 147, 153, 230, 233, 261, 268–270
233, 302 Noise pollution, 139, 192, 196, 197, 232
H P
Hazards, 49, 123, 125, 146, 152–156, Pandemics, 55, 76, 120, 196, 199, 226, 237,
158–162, 164, 239, 243, 257, 259, 245, 246, 272, 277, 285
261–285, 296, 298, 300 Pathogens, 34, 96, 107, 109, 113, 119, 120,
Health, 3, 4, 11–14, 18–20, 22, 24–27, 33, 122, 125, 132, 151, 158, 176, 191,
37–39, 42, 44, 49, 50, 54, 75–76, 193, 202, 205, 207, 233, 236, 239,
83, 85, 86, 89, 90, 96, 97, 101, 105, 243, 245, 271, 305
112–124, 131, 132, 136–138, 146, Plague, 117, 118, 121, 156
147, 149, 150, 152–160, 162, 164, Pollution, 3, 8, 14, 24, 39, 42, 57, 66, 67, 76,
165, 168, 175, 176, 178–180, 85, 86, 96, 122, 125, 136, 138–152,
183–197, 199, 200, 202, 205, 206, 156, 180, 184, 187, 188, 191, 192,
208, 209, 219–247, 257–285, 290, 198, 201, 206, 221, 222, 227–234,
292, 294, 298, 300, 302–305 236, 240, 246, 264, 301, 302,
304, 306–309
I
Infections, 14, 34, 96, 103, 104, 107–111, R
113–118, 120, 122, 123, 133, 149, Radioactive, 43–45, 50, 139, 149, 158, 162,
151, 154, 158, 160, 161, 175, 183, 164, 165, 168, 192, 237, 239,
191–193, 195, 196, 199, 202, 204, 243, 244
Index 313
Radioactive wastes, 45, 158, 164, 165, Treatment plant, 66, 159, 185, 202, 271
168, 243 Tuberculosis, 114, 118, 245, 267
Recovery, 31, 280, 303
Recycle, 268
Reduce, 31, 38, 108–111, 133, 231, 258, 270, U
272, 275, 279, 296 Urbanization, 176, 205, 309
Responses, 91, 108, 138, 176, 227, 229, 237,
260, 296
Reuse, 284 V
Vectors, 51, 107, 109–111, 113, 120–122, 125,
138, 154, 155, 158–160, 178, 184,
S 185, 192, 233, 236, 238, 239, 257,
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), 302, 309
107, 199, 225, 226, 240, 246
Solid waste management (SWM), 111, 121,
153, 154, 157, 160–162, 193, 199, W
238–239, 271 Water pollution, 22, 110, 139, 154, 155, 162,
Solid wastes, 8, 9, 18, 136, 140–142, 144, 147, 184, 192, 193, 206, 232, 236,
153–169, 188, 192, 193, 222, 231, 304, 310
237–247, 268, 289, 294–296, World Health Organization (WHO), 41, 77,
301–308, 310 111, 112, 120–122, 150, 151, 155,
Surveillance, 227, 258, 298 160–162, 168, 194, 200, 201, 207,
208, 219, 220, 224–227, 229, 235,
236, 241, 243, 244, 246, 247, 260,
T 261, 267, 272
Treatment, 18, 24, 29, 31, 54, 57, 66, 102,
123, 161, 175, 182, 185–187,
198–200, 202, 226, 231, Z
238, 245, 280, 289, 292, Zoonosis, 113–120, 161, 221, 268, 310
302–304, 307–309 Zoonotic diseases, 113, 119

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Ramesha Chandrappa

Diganta Bhusan Das

ISBN 978-3-030-64479-6 ISBN 978-3-030-64480-2 (eBook)

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

Bangalore, India Ramesha Chandrappa

Part I Introduction to Basic Sciences

2.4.2 Pressure of Fluid at Rest ������������������������������������������������������ 60

Part II Introduction to Environmental and Medical Sciences

Part III Health and Environment

6.5 Impact of Solid Waste on Health������������������������������������������������������ 238

3R Reduce, Recycle, and Reuse

CFL Compact Fluorescent Lamp

FDI Foreign Direct Investment

IMDG International Marine Dangerous Goods

MRI Magnetic Resonance Imaging

SBA Sustainable Business Associate

Fig. 2.1 Schematic diagram explaining Newton’s universal law

Fig. 3.1 Health and environment������������������������������������������������������������������������ 96

Fig. 4.1 Different types of interaction among the organisms��������������������������� 133

Fig. 5.1 Usual forms of exposure–response relationships�������������������������������� 176

Fig. 7.1 Photograph of people working in an informal setup��������������������������� 259

Table 1.1 Common terms used in general chemistry������������������������������������������� 5

Table 2.1 Frequently used terms in physics������������������������������������������������������� 51

Table 3.8 Some of the common zoonosis, main reservoir of causative

Table 4.1 Types of environmental pollution����������������������������������������������������� 139

Table 5.1 Major toxic causative agent�������������������������������������������������������������� 180

Table 6.1 Major air pollution episodes������������������������������������������������������������� 228

Table 7.1 Common possible risks in some of the workplaces������������������������� 262

Box 1.1 Radiation and Importance to Health�������������������������������������������������� 44

Box 3.1 Microorganism and Infection����������������������������������������������������������� 104

Box 4.1 Plastic Pollution of Ocean���������������������������������������������������������������� 141

Box 5.1 Toxic Exposures at Workplace��������������������������������������������������������� 180

Box 6.1 Thoothukudi Massacre��������������������������������������������������������������������� 231

Abstract Accurate understanding of the human health and environment needs

Chemistry is a specialization of science that deals with the composition, structure,

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 3

environment is an oxidant-driven system compared to indoor environments where

1.2 General Chemistry

Table 1.1 Common terms used in general chemistry

Table 1.1 (continued)

Table 1.2 Examples of solutions

Table 1.3 Comparison of organic compound and inorganic compound

16 g of Sulfur + 16 g of Oxygen → 32 g of Sulfur Dioxide

In other words, 1 g of S reacts with 1 g of O2 to produce 2 g of SO2.

Fig. 1.2 A typical reactor in an industry

Fig. 1.3 Waste dump and

Fig. 1.5 Oxidation occurs

Oxidation is of great interest to environmental professionals as the phenomenon

Fig. 1.6 Aeration of wastewater

Fig. 1.7 pH values of 1 M NaOH

1.2.1 The Gas Laws

1.2.1.1 Boyle’s Law

Fig. 1.8 Schematic depiction of Boyle’s law

1.2.1.2 Charles’ Law

1.2.1.3 Pressure Law

Fig. 1.9 Schematic depiction of Charles’ law

Fig. 1.10 Pictorial 1 kg

depiction of pressure law 1 kg

Mathematically it implies that:

Bangalore, India Ramesha Chandrappa

Part I Introduction to Basic Sciences

2.4.2 Pressure of Fluid at Rest �� 60

Part II Introduction to Environmental and Medical Sciences

Part III Health and Environment

6.5 Impact of Solid Waste on Health�� 238

Fig. 3.1 Health and environment�� 96

Fig. 4.1 Different types of interaction among the organisms�� 133

Fig. 5.1 Usual forms of exposure–response relationships�� 176

Fig. 7.1 Photograph of people working in an informal setup�� 259

Table 1.1 Common terms used in general chemistry�� 5

Table 2.1 Frequently used terms in physics�� 51

Table 4.1 Types of environmental pollution�� 139

Table 5.1 Major toxic causative agent�� 180

Table 6.1 Major air pollution episodes�� 228

Table 7.1 Common possible risks in some of the workplaces�� 262

Box 1.1 Radiation and Importance to Health�� 44

Box 3.1 Microorganism and Infection�� 104

Box 4.1 Plastic Pollution of Ocean�� 141

Box 5.1 Toxic Exposures at Workplace�� 180

Box 6.1 Thoothukudi Massacre�� 231

1.2 General Chemistry

1.2.1 The Gas Laws

1.2.1.1 Boyle’s Law

1.2.1.2 Charles’ Law

1.2.1.3 Pressure Law

1.2.1.4 Generalized Gas Law

1.2.1.5 Gay-Lussac’s Law of Combining Volumes

1.2.1.6 Henry’s Law

1.2.1.7 Graham’s Law

1.2.1.8 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure

1.2.1.9 Avogadro’s Law

1.2.1.10 Combined Gas Laws

1.2.1.11 Ideal Gas Law

1.3 Physical Chemistry

1.3.1 Thermochemical Reactions

1.4 Catalytic Chemistry

1.4.1 Chemical Kinetics

1.5 Inorganic Chemistry

1.6 Organic Chemistry

1.7 Equilibrium Chemistry

1.8 Colloid Chemistry

1.9.1 Biogeochemical Pathways

1.9.1.1 Water Cycle

1.9.1.2 Carbon Cycle

1.9.1.3 Nitrogen Cycle