ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS IN THE AMERICAS

- Successful adaptation of the early communities to the unique geography of the Americas allowed these civilizations to
develop unique features and patterns of progress
- NORTH AMERICA: civilizations pattern of complexity reminiscent of the Pacific and Sub-Saharan Africa
o Economy: Trading
- SOUTH AMERICA: followed a pattern of development similar to the great ancient civilizations of the Near East and Africa
- Advanced civilizations in major areas:
a. Mesoamerica
 Advanced lowland culture by the Maya
 Aztec represented the height of highland civilization
b. Andes Region
 Zenith (peak) of civilization: emergence of Inca empire
- Growth of ancient societies: influenced by connections between the highlands and lowland communities
- Cultures represented the height of native American progress prior to the arrival of the Europeans in the 16 th century CE

NORTH AMERICAN ANCIENT SOCIETIES

> When: Late Ice Age Period – 12,000 years ago
> Earliest people: Clovis People
o Associated with distinct spear points found in several prehistoric sites in North and Central America
o Initially practiced hunting-gathering lifestyle
o Organized into small bands that follow big game (bison and mammoth)
o As climate changed at end of Ice Age = adapted to warmer climate  organized themselves into communities in
several areas throughout North America
o Culture: emerged in the SW and eastern regions of USA

THE AMERICAN SOUTHWEST

¶ Earliest human settlement: 9000 BCE
¶ Region: Semi-arid environment = hunting-gathering lifestyle
¶ 1500 BCE – shift climatic conditions = higher rainfall + cultivation of new plant specie maize & beans
¶ Agriculture: challenging – took several centuries for the earliest North American societies to successful farming lifestyle
¶ 300 BCE – improvements in farming  development of advanced societies

HOHOKAM PEOPLE (Arizona) 1 CE to 1450 CE

Û Desert farmers (maize, beans, cotton)

ANCESTRAL PUEBLO PEOPLE 12th Century

Û Aka Anasazi
Û Where: Four Corners Region of US
Û Known for: distinct crafts – woven baskets and pottery – had black and white decoration
Û Dwellings: apartment-like structures made of stones, adobe and local materials
Dwelling in carved into side of canyon walls or cliff faces

Û Populations of North American people – centered in villages or pueblos

Settlements:
(1) Pueblo people in Chaco Canyon in New Mexico and
o Great Houses – dwellings with vast complexes – 700 rooms
o Culture: Kivas – underground ceremonial structures – built for exclusive use of men and boy to conduct religious
rituals
o Religion: Kachina – spirit beings believed to reside in all things – spirits represented by wooden dolls given to
children + adults dressed up as kachina during religious ceremonies

(2) Pueblo people in Mesa Verde in Colorado

o When: 600 and 1300 CE
o Cliff dwellings – most notable of Early American architecture
o Cliff Palace – 1190 to 1260 CE – largest cliff dwellings in North America
 Built out of sandstone
 Contained 150 rooms and 23 kivas
 Abandoned in 1300 CE
  Decline: 1300 CE – period of decline
o Reasons:
1. Prolonged droughts
2. Conflict between the pueblo communities and newly arrived migrant groups

Eastern North America settlements

Û Where: near lakes and rivers
Û Economy: Sedentary farming – pressure of increasing population led to food shortages
Û Known for:
(1) Distinct burial traditions
(2) Ceremonial moundbuilders

MOUND BUILDERS
æ Societies of eastern North America
æ Most prominent cultures:
(1) Hopewell culture
(2) Mississippian culture

ADENA CULTURE
æ Where: Ohio Valley
æ Known for: extensive earthworks – ceremonial enclosures
o Ceremonial enclosures:
 resembled flat topped hills or mounds = underneath the mounds: person of authority with grave goods
 a communal effort – families and kin of the dead undertook the burial of their dead
 successive burials were done atop an already existing mound  covered again  increase mound size

HOPEWELL CULTURE
æ where: Ohio
æ considered as a development of the early Adena culture
æ composed of various communities throughout the NEastern and Midwest regions of the US
æ economy: trading network of Hopewell communities + ancient communities in the southern US
o traded goods: copper, obsidian, mica
æ known for elaborate burial mounds - several meters tall – 24 burial mounds over an area of 5 hectares
o pipes bowls, ceremonial axes, copper ornaments, beads
æ downfall of Hopewell culture: emergence of Mississippian culture

MISSISSIPPIAN CULTURE
> location: along Mississippi River
> most complex prehistoric culture in North America – ranged from small dispersed settlements to extensive villages
> sustained by: hunting – fishing – cultivation of maize and beans
> known for: pottery – technique: combine clay + ground mussel shells + incised and engraved decoration
> economy: trading with each other ::: pottery and ceremonial goods like sonte statures
> government: Chiefdom
> belief system: Southern Cult – characterized by symbols and icons of FALCON and GREAT SERPENT
> writing system: NONE – reason why it is difficult to get additional information about cultural traditions of Mississipian
people
> represented a highly developed, indigenous North American cultural tradition  developed independent of the other great
civilizations in the Americas
> climate and geography of North America – limited the growth of advanced societies (native maize and beans were not
productive enough to support large populations)  however – gave rise to complex cultural landscapes in US and Canada
 gave rise to Native American populations that were encountered by European settlers in the 1700
Mississippian culture (continued)
i. CAHOKIA
> most prominent centers of the Mississippian culture
> location: Illinois – where northern and southern trade routes within North America meet
> built: vast complex of mounds and wide plazas
o (a) Monk’s Mound – 31 meter tall earthwork – had a thatched temple on its top – with 4 terraces –
LARGEST EARTHWORK in the US
> Rulers of Cahokia – exercised economic and political authority throughout the Mississippi Flood Plain

ii. MOUNDVILLE
 > Location: Alabama in the southern regions of Mississippi Plain
> A compact, fortified town (1,000 inhabitants in urban center + 10,000 in surrounding countryside)
> Town is surrounded with WOODEN PALISADE WALLS
> With mounds: mounds for residential, religious and mortuary purposes
> Economy:
o (1) agriculture – maize cultivation
o (2) pottery
o (3) stone vessels
o (4) copper
o (5) marine shells
o (6) GALENA and MICA – minerals
> Downfall: 1300 CE – town showed declined  abandoned
o Downfall same with Mississippian culture decline:
o Reasons of downfall:
 (a) conflict between communities ;
 (b) migration of people away from the old centers of growth like Cahokia and Moundville
o Arrival of European people marked the new period of North American history  change in cultural
landscape  due to the increased influx of foreigners

MESOAMERICAN CIVILAZATIONS
Mesoamerica
> A cultural and geographic region that includes central and southern regions of Mexico & Central America
> Home to various communities with diverse environments
> Categorized to:
A. Lowland civilizations
o Maya civilization – in Yucatan peninsula + along Gulf of Mexico
o Olmec civilization

B. Highland civilizations
o Aztec civilization – in valley of Mexico

> Economy: agriculture – earliest farming – cultivated maize, beans, squashm sweet potatoes
 Required hard labor – why? Don’t have large animals to benefit from (oxen and horses)
> Important factor in the development:
(1) successful adaptation of communities to diverse and challenging environments
(2) varied resources: resulted to products being produced exclusively by a number of communities 
ENCOURAGED INDEPENDENCE AMONG ANCIENT COMMUNITIES THRU TRADE  paved the way for powerful
Mesoamerican empires

LOWLAND Mesoamerican civilizations

 K where: lowland regions of Gulf Coast of Mexico + Yucatan Peninsula
OLMEC CIVILIZATION MAYA CILIZATION
K first to emerge in a tropical environment K Represented a successful FUSION of cultural elements from
K first advanced society in the tropical lowlands along the Gulf interdependent and interacting ancient societies in
of Mexico Mesoamerica
K provided the foundation for the development of later K Notable for:
advanced civilizations in the region 1. fully developed written language
2. achievements in arts, architecture, science and
civilization technology
K a unique civilization – no urban centers like the
Mesopotamians or Egyptians PERIODS OF MAYA CIVILIZATION:
K Olmec state – a collection of small communities – tied by
kinship, religion and trade I. Preclassic Period
II. Classic Period
structures: III. Post Classic Period
K artificial mountains – resembles the pyramids with platforms
at the top for public rituals
K vast courtyards or plazas and ball courts
K COLOSSAL HEADS – enormous heads carved from basalt
rocks 2-3meters tall
--reflected a realistic style that portrayed Olmec rulers
--stones were ritually scarred and mutilated upon the death of
their rulers

Government:
- Kingship by Olmec nobility – important aspect of the Olmec
culture
- Kingship – symbol associated with the king – evident on
carvings, paintings and sculptures
- JAGUAR – closely connected with a king – associated with
power (physical and spiritual sense)

Culture and tradition:

K Olmec artists – grafted animals to create mythical gods
K QUETZALCOATL – feathered serpent

Downfall:
K Prominent Olmec towns – tribal warfares (destroyed then
abandoned communities)

Legacy:
K Persisted in later Mesoamerica

MAYA CIVILIZATION
Pre-Classic period Classic period Postclassic period
¶ When: middle of 2nd millennium ¶ Period of INTENSE development > Location: Yucatan Peninsula
BCE 1. Urban development
¶ Where: jungles of Belize and 2. Rise of powerful Maya city-states Prominent City:
3. Significant cultural and technological
Guatemala CHICHEN ITZA
advancements
¶ Government: powerful ruling class > Notable for Temple of Kukulcan
with authority closely tied to MAYA WRITING SYSTEM
religion c Hieroglyphic script system for several Temple of Kukulcan
¶ Structures: purposes > A monumental structure
(1) Wide plazas c Confined to rulers, priests and scribes > Aka Quetzalcoatl
(2) Pyramids with small temples > Aka El Castillo temple
on top MAYA SCRIPT is used for: > A 23m high square, stepped pyramid
Pyramids of Maya i. calculate time
with stairways leading to the top
∆ Representations of sacred mountains ii. regulate religious observances
created by gods at the beginning of the iii. record the genealogies of rulers
iv. document conquests and dynastic Downfall:
world
histories > Battle of Utatlan
** Quiche Maya were defeated by
¶ Important centers of public rituals MAYA CALENDAR Spanish conquistadors
and ceremonies c why was it developed?
(1) Pyramids Passage of time had religious significance for
(2) Temples ancient Maya
(3) Plazas
(4) Ritual structures It was a duty for Maya priest to determine the
days of important events for rituals, trade,
marriage, and war
¶ Artwork: Celestial Bird deity –
 symbol of natural world
Ancient priest – use of stars to mark time
¶ Belief: supernatural power passage – important events were marked
carefully in Maya records
accumulated over generations 
reason WHY SUCCESSIVE c for MAYA: TIME – was a cycle reflected
RULERS BUILT NEW TEMPLES on events (like planting and harvesting)
on the SAME LOCATION over the c Maya rulers – make their mark I time –
centuries connected: ruler’s actions and events in
their reign -connected with events in the
¶ Period of intense development  past
followed by disuse of temples and
c Belief:
centers after a few generation
1. ritual and sacrifice – ensued the
continuity of the universe and way
¶ Downfall: rapid rise and fall of of life of Mayas
Maya communities result of ** Ruler as SHAMAN – intermediary to
endemic warfare among the gods
communities in the region ** BALL COURT (next page)

2. Maya rulers and gods had divine

covenant – reinforced thru rituals

c Unifying forces among Maya city-states:

religious beliefs and writing system
** war fares – common element in Maya
cities due to rival political factions

c Mayan communities (4) – had a

consistent pattern of emergence,
development and decline
c Downfall THEORIES:
01. Economic pressure (from uncontrolled
public works)  neglect of agricultural
production  famine and disesase

02. Endemic war fare among Maya cities 

disrupted trade and agriculture

03. Rapid increase of population 

exhausted land resources (deforestation,
erosion and loss of soil fertility)
OTHER CENTERS OF GROWTH IN CLASSIC PERIOD:
(1) Maya city of COPAN
o Location: Honduras
o Alongside of temples to the gods were public structures commemorating the milestones of a king’s reign
o BALL COURT: ancient hybrid game: basketball + handball
 Players: captured warriors
 Use of player’s thighs, shoulders and torso to bounce a rubber ball off the sloping sides of the court in an
attempt to make it thru a ring
 Game was of great religious significance – reenactment of cosmic battle between the Maya gods vs lords of
the Underworld
 An important ritual that ensured the continuity of the universe
 Maya rulers sponsored and witness the ball court games
 Also considered to be a DEADLY POLITICAL EXERCISE – losing players – sacrificed to the gods

(2) Maya city of TIKAL

o Greatest Maya city
o An extensive complex of monumental structures, pyramids, and royal burial vaults
o Population: 40,000 ====== at the height of its progress: 300,000 – city itself: housed over 200,000
o Rulers of Tikal – oversaw progress and growth:
(a) First Scaffold Shark
(b) Great Jaguar Paw
(c) Fire-born
o Expansion thru: conquest and diplomacy  establish itself as a political and economic power in that region

(3) Maya city of CALAKMUL

o Rival city of Tikal
o Became a powerful political center
o Noted for: Road system in Calakmul – center of important trade routes
 o Economy: trading – salt, fish, maize, honey, cocoa, pottery, textiles, metals (Copper and bronze)
 Elite: buy luxury goods: tropical bird feathers, fine ceramics, jade, obsidian
o Calakmul often engage in warfare because it wanted political control

(4) Maya city of Palenque

o Rivel of Calakmul
o Obsessed with ancestry – went on great lengths to preserve their lineage and legacy
o Structures: fine building with inscription details of their long line of kings
o Famous king: PAKAL – built the Temple of Inscriptions – with his detailed royal lineage
 Pakal’s burial chamber – deep within the temple (wall is rich with inscriptions and carvings)
 Body of Pakal – decorated with jade ornaments – face covered with exquisite jade mosaic mask

HIGHLAND CIVILIZATIONS: TOLTECS and AZTECS

∆ Location: rugged and mountainous terrains of the southwestern region of Mexico
∆ Earliest communities that gave rise to Aztec civilization can be found in two areas:
1. Valley of Mexico
2. Oaxaca Valley
∆ Livelihood: Sedentary farming – why farming:? Due to warm and semi-arid conditions in these areas
o Initially: people planted close to shallow wells or lakes
o Later on: expanded to mountain slopes and more arid lands + improved irrigation methods
o Result: cultivation of maize and beans  improved agriculture  supported large populations
∆ Economy: long-distance trade with low land communities
o Oaxaca and Olmecs: trading with each other: Obsidian; ceramic pottery
∆ Infrastructure: temples, pyramids, palaces
∆ Ancient CITIES:
1. Monte Alban Exemplified earliest developments in highland civilizations of Mesoamerica
2. Teotihuacan

MONTE ALBAN TEOTIHUACAN

Û City of complex palaces, temples, plazas > A chiefdom
Û Population: 20,000 people > Teotihuacan city’s prestige – a symbol of the center of
Û With 2000 houses, road networks, defensive walls, the universe and the origin o ftime and a center of cult
water control system and sacrifice
Û Peak: trading with Teotihuacan > Location: valley of Mexico (around Lake Texcoco)
Û Abandoned city and buildings fell into disrepair > Population: 150,000
> A well planned urban landscape – developed over the
centuries
> Peak: with 600 pyramids, 500 workshops,
TEOTIHUACAN (continued) marketplace, 2000 living quarters, plazas
> Major trade and religious center > Structures: arranged in GRID LIKE PATTERN –
> Economy: trading of OBSIDIAN with lowland radiates from the AVENUE OF THE DEAD (city’s
communities central road)
 > Food supply: came from te farms in the nearby
valleys and lakes AVENUE OF THE DEAD
> Community: with elaborate housing complexes – - A 5K street that cuts across the city along a N-S
housed the artisans, craftsmen, soldiers ::::::: ELITES – orientation
housed in palaces with courtyards and walls decorated - NS orientation – determined thru ASTRONOMICAL
by religious murals OBSERVATION
> Armies: regularly embarked on military campaigns
> Downfall: economic difficulty + intense military PYRAMID OF THE SUN
campaign + city was attacked and burned - Location: Eastern side of the Avenue of the Dead
> Ancient ruins due to burning  still held religious - 61 meters tall
significance among the Mesoamerican communities in
the succeeding centuries PYRAMID OF THE MOON
- Location: Northern end of Avenue of the Dead
Attack and burning of city  survivors  moved ot central
Mexico  Mexico at that time is a thriving region with a lot of TEMPLE OF QUETZALCOATL
developing city-states - A 6 level pyramid surrounded by burial pits with the
remains of human sacrifices

CITY STATES IN MEXICO

TOLTECS
æ A regional power in the 7th CE
æ Origin: a mystery – just passed down thru legendary accounts from the Aztec people (Aztec – ancestors of Toltecs)
æ Had a great influence over central Mexico during the mid-10th century CE

CITY OF TULA
X Imperial capital of the Toltecs
X Structures:
1. With vast complex of plazas, pyramids and ball courts
2. With colossal statues of warrior on top of the great pyramids
3. With carvings of mythical beasts and serpents in the temple walls
X Downfall: series of droughts and prolonged warfare with the rival states

TOPILTZIN QUETZALCOATL
K A semi-divine leader
K Driven out from Tula by his rivals
K Established several communities in Mesoamerica  sailed to the east to the Gulf of Mexico  vowed to return one day to
his people
o Legend of Topiltzin – may have influenced the views of Aztecs with their initial encounter with the Spaniards

AZTEC PEOPLE
c Traced their roots from the civilization of ancient Toltecs
c Believed that they are descendants of the great king Topiltzin
c Aka Azteca ////// Mexica people
o Settled in Lake Texcoco
o Founder of cities of TENOCHTITLAN and TLATELOLCO
o Fierce warriors that embarked on military campaigns for expansion and conquest  established a great empire in
the 15th century CE

TENOCHTITLAN and TLATELOLCO cities

 X Illustrated the ingenuity of ancient Aztecs ====== community is challenged with its environment
X Lake Texcoco – part of interconnected system of inland lakes in Valley of Mexico
o Parts with fresh water
o Most were brackish and surrounded by swamps
X Downfall: destroyed by Spanish conquest
X Present-day: Mexico city (Plaza de las Tres Culturas – prominent Aztec ruin in the main square in Mexico City)

CHINAMPAS
- small artificial islands == reclaimed portions of shallow lake bed to be used for small-scale agriculture
- Constructed in the Valley of Mexico
- Technology used to enable the challenging environment to support a large population = a marvel of ancient engineering
A. To control flooding and bring in fresh water – built dams and channels
B. Additional aqueducts for fresh water suuply from mountain springs
C. Connected cities to the mainland
D. Bridges in causeways to allow canoes to pass thru
E. Series of canals for people to travel within the city either by foot or canoes

AZTEC CONTRIBUTIONS
(1) 365 day calendar
o divided into a ritual cycle – number of days were dedicated to spefic gods
o a great importance for agriculture and religious rituals

(2) writing system ::: pictographic and symbolic writing system

o recorded historical events in pictographic form

(3) Education
o Highly valued by Aztecs
o Children first taught in their homes – then move to more advance studies in writing, astronomy and religious or
military training

(4) Literature: a number of poetry and songs of the Aztec survived in the present times
(5) Religion
o TENOCHTITLAN :::: At its peak: renowned in Central Mexico – the center of religious and political power
 Tenochtitlan central district: had a 460 sqm plaza + Great Temple – dedicated to their gods (sun+moon)
o Gods: Sun god == Huitzilopochtli Rain god == Tlaloc
o Temples: where lavish ceremonies were held
o Belief: human sacrifice of brightly dressed war captives
A. Human sacrifice – significant for Aztecs == offering of human hearts to the sun ensured the continuity
of life --- IF DELAYED – inevitable extinction of the world
B. Prior to the existence of current world – there were four previous worlds and four previous suns
o As 4th world ended – gods gathered the sacred city of Teotihuacan  2 gods were chosen
to sacrifice themselves  2 gods transformed to sun and moon
C. Only warriors were worthy of “flowery death” = ritual sacrifice to the sun god. = bravest represent the
major gods and were greatly honored

(6) Government
o Aztec Empire – maintained by efficient administration and strong military force = authority was asserted
o Conquered cities – paid tributes  sustained lifestyle ceremonies of Aztec nobility

(7) Economy
o Trading
o Tlatelolco – empire’s commercial center
o Products: precious metals, obsidian, pottery, tropical bird feathers, chocolate
 o Empire controlled every resource and trade rout  profited greatly from regional trade in Mesoamerica
o Aztec Empire – 1519 – greatest extent – from Atlantic to Pacific oceans

DOWNFALL OF AZTEC EMPIRE

> Arrival of white, bearded foreigners from the East (1517)
o Considered by the Aztecs as fulfillment of promised return of Topiltzin
> 1519 – arrival of Hernan Cortes
o Hernan Cortes – a Spanish conquistador – arrived in Yucatan Peninsula
o Arrival of Spaniards – start of Aztec Empire downfall
 Spaniards brought war and disease to the natives
> 1521 – Tenochtitlan and Tlaterlolco fell into the Spaniards hands
o Destruction of Aztec structures  within a few years – Mesoamerica were completely controlled by Western
conquerors

ANDES MOUNTAIN
> A 7,000 Km mountain range - longest continental highlands in the world
> From western coast of South America
> Place where INCA civilization prospered – in the narrow coastal plains to the west of the mountains and tropical lowlands of
the Amazon in the East
> Major areas of development:
A> Southern regions
a. regions surrounding Lake Titicaca
b. portions of Bolivia
c. Argentina
d. Chile
B> Northern regions
a. Coastal areas and highlands of Peru
> Varied environments of Andes – with great diversity of people
o With development of advanced societies because of CONSTANT INTERACTION between coastal communities ad
people in the highlands ===== GREAT INCA EMPIRE – united the peoples into a vast and powerful state

EARLY ANDEAN STATES

(1)
PRECERAMIC PERIOD (3000 to 1800 BCE)
z Earliest period of development of early South American societies
z Location of initial progress: in coastal regions – development of sedentary communities that depended on FISHING
z Establishment of permanent communities along the coast = Andean societies
z Diet: rich maritime diet: large fish, mollusk, small fish like anchovy  supported large populations  settled near river
valleys
z Advancement: development of irrigations that transformed river valleys into productive lands

(2) INITIAL PERIOD (1800 to 900 BCE)

z With significant changes in settlement patterns === coastal communities moved inland
 Cultivation of maize and cotton
> Initial inland communities – faced great challenges and progress was gradual
> Large coastal communities – with highly organized social institutions
(1) Ceremonial sites with pyramids
(2) Open courts
> Period of emergence of urban centers

(3) EARLY HORIZON (900 – 200 BCE)

> Period of small kingdoms along the north and central coasts
> Livelihood: agriculture (further intensified) + river valleys became centers of growth
 > Irrigations – maintained, improved and expanded  resulted to greater cooperation within communities  paved the way
for improved social relations and emergence of a central authority
> Period – marked by:
a. Increased population
b. Emergence of an elite class
c. Emergence of a new religious beliefs and ideologies
> Livelihood: highlands: early settlements around Lake Titicaca - thrived on fishing
> Structures: constructed shrines on raised platfroms
> Art: figures of jaguars, snakes, caymans, animal-human hybrids
> Products: ceramic, woven textiles, agriculture

PARACAS Culture
- Created embroidered textiles and pottery that featured distinctive styles
- Tradition: placing their dead in a flexed or seated position – binding them in cord and covering with textiles
 Dead – placed in a shallow basket and buried in upright position
 Recovered remains: skull have TREPHINATION – surgical procedure: removal of skull portion or
dirlled holes into the cranium – belief that this can cure chronic headaches/epileptic seizures

(4) EARLY INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (200 – 600 BCE)

> Paved the way for establishment of small states and kingdoms in the Andes region

(A) MOCHE (north)

 Moche capital of Cerro Blanco features two monumental shrines or HUACAS
a.1. Huaca del Sol
a.2. Huaca del la Luna
 MIT’A – communal labor – for constructions of monumental shrines (same with polo y servicio system of Spaniards
in the Philippines)
 Moche city of Sipan – northern Peruvian coast – site of several royal burial mounds
** burial mounds – constructed for warrior-priests – with burial goods (gold, copper, silver ornaments, vessels,
remains of human sacrifies
 Moche – controlled vast areas along northern coast + several offshore islands
 Moche artifacts – revealed – ancient people have great technological and artistic skill
** technique: gold copper alloy that mimicked the properties of pure gold
 Moche artisans – created pottery molded into the likenesses of elite priests and warriors
 Downfall: series of natural calamites – earthquakes, droughts, heavy floods

(B) NAZCA (south) 200 BCE

 Known for NAZCA LINES
 series of markings or geoglyphs on the flat desert grasslands
 figures of birds, monkeys, spiders and mythical figures)
 1300 km of interconnected lines – connects important landmarks and geographic features
 lines were made by making depressions or shallow incisions on the ground
 believed to have religious significance – served as pathways for religious rituals
 location of Nazca lines – originally – limited rainfall === due to climate change – flood,
erosion of lines + intrusive nature of tourism = significant threats to cultural sites in the
Americas

(5) MIDDLE HORIZON PERIOD 600 – 1000 BCE

 Saw the formation of the first highland states in the Andes
i TIWANAKU
x Location: shores of Lake Titicaca in Southern Andes
x Major population center (200CE)
x Engaged in extensive trade with communities in the southern coastal regions (600BCE)
x Replaced Moche as prominent state of the north

ii WARI
x Location: central Andes region
x 800CE – occupied a key position across the mountains and along the coast
x Downfall: internal conflicts
  COMMUNAL LABOR – backbone of the growth of these early Andean states
- used for vital public works (construction and maintenance of irrigation and canals)

 Economy: trading and shared cultural traits – foundation of close relations between N and S regions of Andes

iii.CHIMOR
x
Arose out of Moche civilization
x
Gained prominence within the northern regions at around 1100 CE
x
Campaign of expansion and conquest  resulted to northern regions being under the control of Chimu people
x
Chimor state capital of Chan Chan – occupied a territory of 20 sq miles at the mouth of Moche River
x
Infrastructures: thru Mit’a
(1) Road system – connect the capital to outlying territories
**** roads – provided ease of communication and quick movement of armies
**** all trade – carried by llamas or on people’s backs == Chimu never developed the wheeled cart
(2) Royal enclosures
x Downfall: several conflicts with the neighboring Inca kingdom + disruption of agriculture because of droughts
 Chimu – later assimilated into the growing Inca Empire
EMPIRE OF THE INCA
INCA PEOPLE
Û Gained prominence in the southern Andes region after a period of prolonged struggle among rival kingdoms
Û INCA – regional force in southern Andes

LATE HORIZON PERIOD 1476 – 1534 CE

 Inca state: transformed under the rule of PACHAKUTI (he who remakes the world)
- Ancestor cult – was redefined to center on the veneration of the ruler wo was considered the child of the sun god.

 Inca rulers told their subjects: welfare of society depended upon the prosperity of their rulers and constant military conquest
 Mit’a service – became compulsory for all adults – made to choose: construction and repair of public works
VS cultivation of land, or service in the military
 Prowess in battle: recognized and rewarded in Inca society
 Outstanding warriors – able to acquire noble status
 Program of military expansion = expansion of Incan influence throughout Andes region
 Territories: Peru, Ecuador, northern Argentina, regions of Bolivia and Chile

TAWANTINSUYU  Inca knowledge of heavenly

¥ Aka INCA EMPIRE bodies – enabled them to invent a
¥ Meaning: Union of four regions = INCA EMPIRE calendar based on sun and moon
¥ Divided into 4 regions/suyu  divided into provinces ruled by
local leaders Writng system: KHIPU
¥ Improved road system – for trading goods, messengers, armies in Record – keeping system
the empire Use of lengths of cord and knots to indicative data which were
decoded by scribes
¥ Imperial capital of CUZCO – religious and administrative center
of the Inca Empire Writing instrument: YUPANA
¥ Infrastructures: city was a major urban complex – with plazas, Resembled an abacus – for calculating values and performing
palaces, ceremonial bldgs, irrigation workds, storehouses mathematical operations
¥ City: divided into 4 sectors = sectors correspond to 4 regions of
Used by scribes and officials
empire – roads led from each of sectors toward their respective
regions
Advancements:
(1) Medical: improved TREPHINATION surgical practice – high
Walls of Cuzco
survival rate
¥ Unique stoneworks – used of huge blocks of perfectly shaped and
Coca plant – as stimulant and pain killer – chewing its leaves –
fitted stones (super fit – knife cannot be inserted in between the
relieved hunger + painkilling properties of the coca plant = anesthetic
stone blocks)
during surgical procedures
MACHU PICCHU
(2) no use of iron technology in its metal works – use of copper,
- Another well-known Inca ruin
bronze,, precious metals  led to creation of precious ornaments
- Located in mountain ridge 80km from Cuzco
(3) use of stone and bronze weaponry (axes and clubs, bone or bronze
- Structures – were adapted to the contours of the mountainside –
tipped spears, swords, slingshots and BOLAS)
with stoneworks designed to withstand earthquakes
 BOLAS – stones fastened to lengths of cords
INHUATANA
(4) No use of wheel – because lack of strong animals + steep and
 A ritual stone structure in Machu Picchu rugged terrain
 Believed that this anchored the sun as it traveled across the sky
 Archeologist: “ritual stone served as astronomical clock or
calendar” Belief system:
  Inti – sun deity – where Inca belief system is centered  Among rulers: riches and properties of the deceased ruler –
(worship of Inti) not inherited by his successor – BUT given to the former’s
 Viracocha – considered as the creator of all things relatives who saw to the continued welfare of the dead ruler’s
 Practiced human sacrifice + veneration of ancestors (esp state
deceased rulers)  New sapa inka – has to embark on campaigns to accumulate
 Also practiced mummification – nobility and their rulers wealth – to ensure prosperity in present and after life

Government Downfall:
 SAPA INKA – an Incan ruler (meaning: Great Inka) 1. Continual demand for expansion  depleted resources of empire
 Considered the paramount religious and political authority of 2. Infighting of royal house do the Inca nobility  weakened central
the empire authority
 During his administration – aided by court officials and 3. Spaniards came – found Inca empire ravaged with disease and civil
members of his family war  Inca became under control of the Spanish conquerors
(1534 CE)
Tradition

DISCUSSION
Yukatan Peninsula
æ Near the Gulf of Mexico
o TEOTIHUACAN, MEXICO: Temple of the sun and moon = Olmecs
o Tikal Plaza in Guatemala
o Chichen Itza – Mayan ruins in Mexico
o Machu Picchu – Famous city of the Incans
Mesoamerica
æ Southern Mexico: Central America + Guatemala + Peru + Mexico + Costa Rica
æ Meso – means central
æ Geography: with fertile land – agriculture, farming and fishing
o With rainforest – covers most of the region (tropical country – like the Philippines)
o Main crop: Maize (corN)
o Southern Mexico – where people first appeared (12,000 BCE) – 1500 or 16th Century
 City of Tulum – famous vacation place in Mexico
o Central America – between north and south
 Christopher Columbus – discovered America
 Spaniards – discovered the civilization
æ A fertile region – economy: Agriculture
æ Produce: Maize (corn) – grown around 3500 BCE
æ Geography: Rainforest covers the region
o Some Spanish, some Portuguese  both conquered

i. OLMEC CIVILIZATION
o 1200 to 1300 BCE ::::: downfall: 400 BCE
o First to emerge in a tropical environment
o First civilization of Mesoamerica – first to establish their own culture and society = Mayans and Aztecs based their
civilization with the Olmecs
o Where: Lowlands along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico
o Writing system of Olmecs – writing system in Americas
o Created first pyramids in Mesoamerica
o Economy: extensive trading: jade, agriculture, seashells – the first one to become powerful due to trading
o Structures: colossal heads – made for kings
o Downfall: wars – tribal wars
OLMEC :::: Video: The Little Known “mother culture” that inspired the Maya (BBC reel)
Olmec civilaztion: Legacy of Olmec – eclipsed by later pre-Columbian civilizations –
Precursor of later cultures like Maya and Zapotec empries yet civilizations are one and the same
Earliest rules in Mesoamerica
Olmec – meaning: inhabitants of the rubber country TEOTIHUACANS
Extracting rubber latex, pyramid building, astronomy, carved stone Olmec-like civilization – created Teotihuacan city in Mexico
head, creation of new ball sports and trading in central America First major city in Mesoamerica
“mother culture” of Mesoamerica o Structures: pyramid of the sun and moon = used for
Tak’alik Ab’aj -one of the Olmec site in Western Guatemala the solstice and equinox + sacrifices on top (public
o Maya inherited the Tak’alik Ab’aj human sacrifice that was inherited by the Aztecs)
o Site provided clue for the transition between Olmec to  Pyramids with stairs on its side and
Maya civilizations flatforms – for human sacrifice –
 conspiracy: landing for their gods --- no o Human sacrifice – founder is unknown
historical evidence – Spaniards burn
writings
Review: OLMEC known for first civilization / modern civilization of Mesoamerica – ended in 1900AD – how? Tribal wars – what is left =
colossal heads
TENOCHTITLAN – with 2 pyramids: Pyramids of sun and moon (olmec inspired city)
ii. MAYA CIVILIZATON
o 1000 BCE to 900 CE
o Began 900 AD – unknown downfall (600 years before Spanish came)
 Tribal wars
 Natural disasters
 Sickness
 Unfertile soil  famine / drought (EL NINO – cannot grow any crops)
o Information about Maya were mostly from SPANIARDS
 When spaniards came – Mayan civilization is gone already (taken by their gods? A lot of theories)
o One of the most advanced civilizations in Mesoamerica
 When Spaniards came in 1500s – abandon the civilization already
o Where: a lowland civilization in Yucatan Peninsula (today: TULUM) + part of Guatemala (at the downfall of the
Mayan civilization – they lost the Guatemalan part – they were just found in Mexico)
o Capital: Chichen Itza , Tikal
o Government: group of city-states ruled by kings / hierarchy
o Economy: Agriculture and trading
o People lived in thick area of the forests
o Religion: Polytheistic :::::: Quetzalcoatl (half serpent and bird) OR Kukulkan ; Shaman
 Most important god was the CREATOR
 Other gods – sun god, moon goddess, maize god
 Important gods: HURACAN (god of wind?) + KULKULKAN/QUETZALCOATL = serpent
with feathers that helped their civilization
o Legacy:
 Calendar – based on astrology: sun and moon – predicted until year 2012 – end of their calendar Dec 21, 2012 –
alignment of star, planets, sun and moon = some people say = end of the world
 According to Mayan calendar: world started in 3114 and current world will end on Dec 23, 2012 – all
planets align with sun
 Solar and lunar calendar – checks the position of the sun and moon

o Culture: human sacrifices – adapted from Olmecs

 Offering human blood + bloodletting for special occasions
 Bloodletting – hurt themselves until blood comes out
 Human sacrifice: prisoner of war
o Structure: Temple of insurgence and El Castillo
o Political & Social Structure: cities were built around a central pyramid – each city ruled by hereditary ruling class
 Pyramids – topped with shrine for the gods
o Religions: polytheistic
 Gods are shape shifters – can be eagle, cow, jaguar
 Conduct human sacrifices
 Built with central pyramid with temple on top with stairways to go up
o Achievements: pictographs / hieroglyphics – can translate due to the Mayan ancestry in the world today

Mayan Kings
claimed to be divine
assisted by nobles and scribes
perform public human sacrifices – prisoners and slaves – same as Aztecs
o important for Mayans: because: it pleases the gods + maintain power in their civilization ==== other reason: to
discipline their people

Social Heirarchy: kings – priest – warriors – merchants – lower ranks: rest of mayans and slaves
o farmers – men – give crops to ruler and serve army women: made cornmeals + responsible for home making + raising
children
o warriors: Mayans + Aztecs = jaguar warriors and eagle warriors
o slaves: lowest position in the society: orphans + people who owed money
Mesoamerican ballgame: 6lb ball – hot with their bodies – lose: death!
CENTRAL AMERICA – shrouded with mystery
Lost city of El Dorado – City of gold
Spanish: looking for the fountain of life – source of immortality
iii. AZTEC CIVILIZATION
1200 – 1521 (1200s – 13th century)
Aztecs – brown colored skin (not the same with Mayans – but same culture, belief, practices)
Location: arid valley of Central Mexico
Capital: Tenochtitlan
Government: ruled by emperor – united city-states = Aztec empire ==== region is known as MEXICA
Economy: Agriculture & trading and conquered people – conquered people pay tribute /taxes
Religion: Polytheistic religion – with pyramids for rituals to please gods
o Some human sacrifices – were voluntary
o GOD: Huitzilopochtli – chief god and god of sun
o GOD: Quetzalcoatl – feathered serpent – left the valley of Mexico ad promised to return in triumph
People:
o Kings – ruled the empire and lived in luxury
o Nobles – served as important officials (tax collector and judges)
o Priests – performed many important duties (keeping calendars)
o Warriors – fought to conquer other people and capture victims for sacrifice
o Merchants – traded goods (food, clothing, tools)
o Artisans – made a wide variety of goods people neede
o Farmers – most Aztecs – farmers – lived in simple huts
o Slaves – prisoners of wars 0 forced to work or were sacrificed
MEN – farmers and warriors Women – to be at home
o Women – allowed to own and inherit property and entry contract
o Women – wove textiles and raised children = ca be priestess
Belief: perform human sacrifice to postpone the end of the world
HERNAN CORTES – Spanish explorer from Mexico – 1519 arrived – Aztec emperor Montezuma II – thought Cortes was a
god
o Took the emperor as prisoner – Azteds were angry and droe Spanish out – 1521 cortez came back – aztecs conquered
Achievements:
(1) Chinampas – floating gardens
(2) Studied astronomy and created a calendar
(3) Build bridges and canals
(4) Had a complex writing system

AZTEC SACRIFICE VIDEO: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TaWDXwmjf_Q

AZTEC
14th to 16th century
Why human sacrifice is important to Aztec society
o Aztec – modern- day invention to describe the various tribes = Mexica kingdom
 Rose to prominence during the 9th century
 Empire peaked in power - 14th century to 16th century
 Destroyed by Spaniards when conquered
o Ritual sacrifice and bloodletting – central to the lives of Aztecs
 Blood sacrifice – core of their beliefs – felt that they owed a debt to the gods = people should continually pay everyday – otherwise
the sun will not rise
 Belief: sacrifice of the deities  led to the creation of the universe ++++ other gods sacrificed themselves in fire to breathe life into
the sun
o Religion: believed in many gods and deities
 Huitzilopochtli – god of sun and war = demanded blood to appeased  bloodletting became a ritual for Aztecs regardless of age
gender or social standing
 Animals – regularly sacrificed both in private and public Quayle – popular choice
 Use eagles, dogs, jaguars, deer also
 Quetzalcoatl – required the sacrifice of butterflies and humming birds
Human sacrifice
o Sacrifice people in public (prisoners of war) + ritual by high priest
 About 25,000 a year – Aztec warriors in battle wouldn’t kill opponent to bring him back for human sacrifice
WARS – motivated by Aztecs = so that they can gather more victims for sacrifice
o Use of sacred sacrificial dagger – believed that their blood will give life to the sun and each drop will slow revive it = sun will have strength each
day to rise
 Everyday – freshly cut out heart will be placed by the priest in a stone vase = either incinerated or offered to the son OR eaten by the
high priest
Victims of human sacrifice – will impersonate a deity – their sacrifice would mimic the one that the God had once given in the past
o Dressed up and acted like the chosen deity + treated by others very highly (like celebrities) = the title of sacrificial humans was seen as a true
honor  executed – body parts will be used by ruling class to please the gods
o Prisoners of war dressed up to look like a god – sacrificed – heart cut out – skin flayed from their dead bodies – skin will be worn by priests as
costume to represent the deity
Festival being held will determine how the sacrificial ceremony will be carried out
 o Aztecs are complicated people with an advanced social culture
o Common: heart of victim will be cut out – still pulsating heart will be held up high for all to see (done in the Great Temple)

The Great Temple

Center of Aztec religious world
An impressive pyramid with twin shrines on top – one for a clock for the god of rain + 1 for Huitzilopochtli the god of war
Location: Tenochtitlan (New Mexico City)
o Countless human sacrifices were done here – by high priest – heart taken out + corpse beheaded + dismembered + body
thrown down the steps (180feet high)
o Heads of the sacrifice will be put on skull racks at the base of the temple
o Sacrifice – mythical reenactment of the story of sun and war God Huitzilopochtli
 Huitzilopochtli – took his sister Koyo Shaoqi (moon goddess) – dismembered her body and threw her
down in the sacred serpent mountain
 Steps of temple = serpent Mountain
Most sacrifices at the great temple were prisoners of war BUT there are also CHILDREN – tears of kids are linked to clock God of
rain

HERNAN CORTES
A Spaniard
March 1519
Headed a small expedition – invaded Aztec empire  2 years – downfall of Aztec Empire
o Aztec civilization were decimated by SMALL POX
o  arrival of Christian missionaries  Aztecs ways and rituals were written down
Despite the eradication of the practice and monuments – some artifacts have survived including the ceremonial skull towers and
skull racks

iv. INCA CIVILIZATION

1300 - 1531 o Government was centralized and controlled
DOES NOT BELONG TO THE central America - many aspects of life
MESOAMERICA CIVILIZATION – LOCATED IN People:
PERU, SOUTH AMERICA (Mexico: Mayan, Aztec, o Most incans – farmers
Olmec) o No merchants or markets in the empire
Location: Andes mountains of South America o Incans were required to marry from within
Capital: Machu Picchu their ow social group
Government: ruled by emperor o Women – expected to live at home – ONLY
Geography: high-altitude agriculture ALTERNATIVE = to be a priestess
Religion: polytheistic Downfall: ANCIENT AMERICAN CIVILIATIONS
Achievements: (1) Even they have a common culture –
(1) Road systems people are still divided among
(2) Made the first earthquake proof themselves
structures (2) Conquests of the Europeans
(3) Excelled I engineering without
(3) Adapted Western culture  replaced
mechanical devices
their old and rich traditions, beliefs and
(4) Quipu – date recording by means of
customs
tying a knot in a multicolored string
(4) Converted to Christianity from pagan
One of the seven wonders of the ancient world
beliefs
Political structure:
o Each region has an appointed governor who
answers to the emperor

SUMMARY:
Mesoamerica
z Location: Southern Mexico, Central America
z People first appeared in this area around 12,000 BCE
z Geography:
o Rainforest – covers the entire region
o With fertile soil
o Crops: Maize – grown around 3500 BCE

OLMEC TEOTIHUACAN MAYAN AZTEC INCA

Time: 1200 – 1300 BCE 250BCE – 800 CE 1000BCE – 900CE
 Where

Structures

Contributions
Legacies

Economy

Downfall time

capital

Cities

Lived in an area of

Religion

Government

Rulers:

Social class

Men

Women

Slaves

HIRAM BINGHAM
z Beautifully constructed terrace – with 200 yards long and 10 feet high
z There was a forest of large trees that had been chopped down and burned over for agriculture (slash and burn technique)
z In the untouched portion of the forest
o maze of beautiful granite houses (covered with moss and growth – unattended)
o one portion of forest: with white granite ashlars (worked blocks of stone) – carefully cut and fitted together
o windows in buildings were frequent

z with a royal mausoleum – a cave beautifully lined with finest cut stone
o top of the boulder – semicircular building – wall followed the natural curvature of rock – finest example of masonry
– wall was line with carefully matched ashlars of pure white granite with fine grain
o interior surface of wall – was broken by niches and squre stone-pegs
o exterior surface of wall – simple and unadorned
o lower course – with large ashlars – more pleasing than the marble temples of the Old World
 no mortar to use – still no ugly spaces between rocks, as if the stones were grown together
 z The plain undecorated surface – Bingham’s theory: master mason – might not know the plumb rule or the square – no
instruments of precision were used – depended only on. His eye – YET: the master mason had a good artistic eye – resulted
to symmetry and beauty of form – the rectangular blocks are not really rectangular + the straight lies of the course weren’t
really straight
z Semicircular temple over the cave – has the finest stonework than the Temple of the Sun in Cuzco
o With marvelous great stairway made up of large granite blocks
o With a pampa or plain – had a small vegetable gardens
z Ruins of two structures – made of selected grained white granite blocks
o With walls containing ashlars of Cyclopean size – 10 feet length and higher than man
z Buildings – had only 3 walls – entirely open on the side toward the clearing and no roof – top course lined with smooth
ashlars and not intended to be covered
z Principal temple – lined with niches (5ft high at each end and 7ft on the back wall)
o With 7 courses of ashlars in end walls
 Under the niches – with rectangular block 14ft long = sacrificial altar
z EAST TEMPLE – at the other side of the pampa = He termed it the TEMPLE OF THE THREE WINDOWS
 Unique among the Inca ruins
 Eastern wall – overlooking the citadel
 Wall – massive stone framework of 3 large windows – he concluded that the temple is a sacrificial edifice
z Forest – with 10-12 inches in diameter – supported by the walls of the temple
z Citadel – 3 day journey from Cuzco

HERNAN CORTEZ meeting with MOCTEZUMA

¥ When: November 8, 1519
¥ Where: Temixtitlan, Mexico
¥ City of Tenochtitlan – roads with 8 paces in breadth – but this was considered narrow if you take into account the people who
were arriving to see Hernan Cortez arrived in the city.
o The population of that area was big – even the top of the temples and towers were crowded
o Lakes were filled with canoes with lots of people on them
o People in that city were curious as who Cortez is (like they haven’t seen horses or men like Cortez company)
¥ Large towns that stretched along the lake banks
¥ Narrow causeway that led towards Cojohuacan – met with lacal nobles or tribal leaders (COZIQUES) – tribal leader:
Motecuzuma
¥ Major cities: Tuezucuco, Iztapalapan, Tlacupa, Cojocuacan – surrounding the Lake Texcoco
¥ Moctezuma
o On meeting Cortez – sat on a sedan (open chair with carrying poles carried by men on their shoulders)
o As he went down the sedan – chief caziques supported him under the arms – caziques placed his head canopy – with
green feathers, gold, silver, stones and pearls – Cortez thought that the canopy is of great value
o Attire: had species of half boot with jewels + soles made out of gold
 Four grandees who supported Moctezuma – richly attired === for them to wait upon MOTECUSUMA –
not sumptuously dressed when they meed with Cortez
o People aroung Motecusuma – did not look at the emperor – everyone looked down only (eyes downcast) – only four
nephew and cousin who supported him who looked up
¥ Motecusuma welcomed Cortes - MARINA – interpreter – told Motecusuma what Cortes said – hope he was in good health
o Cortes offered to Motecusuma – necklace with stones + perfumed with mush – Cortes wanted to put on the necklace
to Motecusuma – Marina didn’t want but later agreed – Cortes was about to hug Motecusuma – was held back by
people saying it was improper
¥ Cortes was ushered to a large building with large room – was occupied by Motecusuma’s father – AXACAYATL
o Father went to secret room with full treasures
¥ building: beside temples and Mexican idols – Cortes was placed there because tribe thought he was a god/demigod that will
dwell with them – walls were newly plastered and decorated
¥ Mexican grandees were surprised: why? Because the monarch gave him necklace of gold with figures representing crabs
DOCUMENT PLACE DESCRIPTION OF PLACE AND EVENTS REACTION
DEL Temixtitlan – Cortes arrived and there were a lot of people The Aztec tribe were never discovered
CASTILLO’S Mexico gathered around him. until Hernan Cortes did.
ACCOUT
Aztec Empire Roads were wide but not wide enough to fit People there hasn’t seen anyone like
people who were curious as to who Cortes and Cortes who had white skin (Spaniard)
his companions are that’s why they all thought that Cortes is
a god who will dwell with them.
Moctezuma was respected by the people that
they did not dare to look at his face.

Motecusuma was dressed lavishly – gold and

precious stones were used for his attire and his
headpiece, even the sole of his shoes were
made of gold

Motecusuma thought that Cortes is a

god/demigod
BINGHAM’S Machu Picchu Beautiful granite houses (covered with moss) The engineering and architecture of the
ACCOUNT In Peru can be seen it the untouched portion of the Inca civilization was marvelous. Even
forest. though they did not have the machineries
and measuring tools, the temples and
Inca Empire A cave, lined with finest cut stone; a structures were amazing.
semicircular temple over the cave was also
seen and it had the finest stoneworks than the The sacrificial altars showed that they
Teple of the sun in Cuzco. value their religion ad they respected
o With marvelous great their gods.
stairway made up of large
granite blocks They also applied the technique of slash
and burn for agriculture that sustained
The East Temple or the Temple of the Three their population. Without the knowledge
Windows was unquie among the ruins because in Science, they were able to maintain the
it was overlooking the citadel. It was a place richness of the soil in that area.
for sacrifice according to Bingham.
Machu Picchu, as described by Bingham,
was beautiful, extraordinary and
powerful.