Motherboard-

The motherboard is the largest printed circuit board on the system, which has lots of chips,
connectors and other electronics mounted on it.
The motherboard is the hub of all data exchanges
Components of Motherboard
The important components of a
Motherboard are given below
1. Mouse &keyboard :
There are two types of keyboard and
mouse connectors.First type is called PS/2
and second one is called USB.
2. USB (Universal serial bus) :
USB is Universal serial bus. It is used for
connection for PC. There are different
devices which is used to connect with USB
port such as mouse, keyboards, scanners,
cameras, and even printers.USB connector
is used to connect computer motherboard
and a peripheral device. You can insert or remove peripheral device connect by USB connector
without restarting your system.
3. Parallel port :
Most of old printers are used to connect by parallel port. Parallel port used more than one wire for
sending or receiving multiple bits of data at once, while serial port uses only one wire. Parallel ports
use a 25-pin female DB connector.
4. CPU Chip :
CPU refers to a processor, the central processing unit, also called the microprocessor performs all
the task that take place inside a computer system.It is also know as brain of computer.
5. RAM slots :
RAM slots is for attaching RAM on it in general desktop we can see two slot of RAM but in server
motherboard we can see 4+ slot of RAM.RAM comes in different size(memory).
6. Floppy controller :
In old motherboard the floppy drive connects to the computer via a 34-pin ribbon cable, one end of
ribbon cable is connect to floppy drive and other is connected to the motherboard.
7. IDE controller :
IDE that is Integrated Drive Electronics,also called as ATA or Parallel ATA (PATA).IDE controller
is responsible for controlling the hard drive. Today’s computers no longer come with a IDE
controller.
8. PCI slot :
PCI stands for Peripheral Component Interface, PCI slot allows you to insert expansion cards into
your computer. PCI used to connect additional PCI device like network cards, sound
cards,modems,video cards.Some of today’s computers no longer come with a PCI expansion
slot.Its connect audio, video and graphics.
9. ISA slot :
ISA stands for Industry Standard Architecture, It is the standard architecture of the Expansion
bus.Its connect modem and input devices.
10. CMOS Battery :
CMOS is complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor is used to store BIOS setting in computer
motherboard. CMOS Battery also store date and time.
11. AGP slot :
The Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) is a high-speed point-to-point channel for attaching a video
card to a computer system, If you have a modern motherboard, you will almost certainly notice a
single connector that looks like a PCI slot.A fast port for a graphics card
12. CPU slot :
The processor socket (also called a CPU socket) is the connector on the motherboard that connect
a CPU.
13. Power supply plug in :
The Power supply provides the necessary electrical power to make the computer system operate.
The power supply takes standard 110-V AC power and converts into +/-12-Volt, +/-5-Volt, and 3.3-
Volt DC power.
The power supply connector has 20-pins, and the connector can go in only one direction.
Chip Set
Chip sets are referred to as “Application Specific Integration Circuit” (ASICs). Chipsets are
grouped by a number of distinguish characteristic, such as the socket type of the processer, the
generation of the processer, the controllers required, and number of types of chips in the sets. The
most common grouping is chip sets with two chips. The two chip- chipsets contain what is called
‘North Bridge’ and ‘South Bridge”. However, manufacture such as SIS and VIA produces mostly
single chipset today.
The north bridge chip contains the major bus circuits that provides supports and control for
main memory, cache memory and the AGP. North Bridge handles more load than South Bridge, so
a North Bridge chip has a Heat Sink to cool the chip.
The south bridge includes controllers for peripheral devices and those controllers that are not
very part of the PC’s basic function such as EIDE (Enhanced Integrator Device Electronics)
controller and the serial part controller. South Bridge is communicated with CPU through the North
Bridge.

MEMORY
Memory is used for storing data and information. Memory is the place where everything is kept
when it is being worked on. Memory is that portion of the computer system that is used for the
storage, and subsequent retrieval of data and programs. Data and programs are stored in binary
format.
Characteristics of Primary Memory and Secondary Memory Capacity
Capacity is a term used to specify how much bits or bytes can be stored in memory for primary
memory the storage capacity is usually expressed in the range of megabytes or gigabytes. For
Secondary Memory the storage capacity is in the order of Gigabytes and Terabytes.
Nature of Storage
Primary Memory or main memory is volatile in nature. That means data will be lost when there is no
power. But secondary memory is a non-volatile memory. Even if there is no power, secondary
memory can retain information.
Data transfer rate
It is the number of bits that is read out or written into memory at a time. Data transfer rate of
secondary memory is usually more than the data transfer rate of primary memory.
CLASSIFICATION OF PRIMARY MEMORY
Primary Memory is basically classified into two ie RAM and ROM. RAM is Random Access
Memory,and ROM is read only Memory. ROM is a non-volatile Memory and RAM is volatile
Memory.
Random Access Memory (RAM)
RAM is a volatile memory. It is the main memory of a computer system. The different types of
RAM are SRAM, DRAM, SDRAM, RDRAM etc
SRAM (Static RAM)
SRAM is a type of RAM which retains information as long as there is power. Flip- Flops are used
for storing information in SRAM. It is easy to control. It is not used for high capacity storage. Power
alone is needed in order to retain information in static RAM.
DRAM (Dynamic RAM)
In DRAM capacitors are used. After some time charge will leak off. So periodic re-charging on
refreshing is needed. DRAM is having high packaging density. That means DRAM is suitable for
high capacity storage. DRAM is less costly than SRAM. DRAM is having lower speed than SRAM.
SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM)
It is a type of DRAM that is synchronized with the processor and with the system bus. SDRAM
waits for a clock signal before responding to its control inputs. Thus SDRAM can be controlled with
clock.
RDRAM (Rambus DRAM)
It is a type of SDRAM. It is designed by Rambus corporation.
ROM
ROM is a non-volatile memory. There are different varieties of ROM. They are Mask ROM,
PROM, EPROM and EEPROM.
Mask ROM
In Mask ROM information is “burnt” into the ROM chip at manufacturing time. It cannot be
changed or fresh information cannot be written. The information which is stored in Mask ROM can
only be read. When the power is switched off the contents of Mast ROM will not be lost. They are
used for applications in which the information never needs to be changed.
PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
PROM is a type of ROM in which writing operation can be performed only once. Writing is done
using a device called PROM-Programmer. However, once the chip has been recorded information
cannot be changed. That means PROM becomes ROM and the stored programmed the information
can only be “read”
EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
In EPROM information that is stored in the chip can be erased and new information can be
written in that chip. Erasing is done by exposing the chip into ultraviolet light. The entire content of
the chip will be erased. It is not possible to erase only selected contents. When an EPROM is in use
information can only be “read” and the information remaining on the chip until it is erased.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
In EEPROM erasing of information is done using electrical signals. In EEPROM Erasing can be
done location by location. That means only the selected contents can be erased. After erasing new
information can be written into the chip using EEPROM Programmer.

CACHE MEMORY
Cache Memory is a high speed
memory, that is placed in between the
main memory and the processor. It is a
random access memory. The advantage
of cache memory is that microprocessor
can access it quickly. Microprocessor
first looks at the cache memory for data, and if the data is not there in the cache memory, then the
processor looks in the main memory.
Cache memory is not addressable by the user. Cache memory is much more expensive than main
memory. The transfer rate of data is high and so the speed is also high. When the required data is
available
able in die cache it is called a “hit” and if the required data is not in the cache, then it is called a
“miss”.
Using a proper size cache and a good logic to guess the next data that is needed by the CPU, the
cache can contain the needed data 90 % of the time. The logic that is used to guess the next
required data by the processor, plays a big role in the efficiency of the cache system.
L1 Cache
L1 cache is the cache memory
that is kept inside the processor in
cache is a part of the same chip
as the processor.
ssor. This is known
as the “ Primary” cache or LI
cache.
Due to direct connection, access time is less for L1 cache. The main limitation is the size, as this
cache is made as part of the processor.
L2 Cache
L2 Cache is an external cache that is in between the processor and the main memory. It is
called secondary cache or second level cache or L2 cache. It is external to the processor.
 The advantage of L2 cache is that the size of L2 cache can be changed as required. Access
time is more than that of LI Cache.
L3- Cache
L3 Cache is an extra cache built into motherboards between the processor and the main
memory. Earlier L2 Caches is now L3 caches when used within microprocessors that contains built
in L2 caches.

FILE MANAGEMENT
A file is a collection of related information. Every file has a name, its data, and attributes. Name of a
file uniquely identifies it in a system. We access files by their names. A file's data is its contents,
which is a sequence of bits, bytes, lines, or records. A file's creator and users define the meaning of
its contents. Attributes of a file contain other information about the file, such as date and time of its
creation, date and time of last access, date and time of last update, its current size, its protection
features (who can access the file and in what way), etc. Different operating systems maintain main
different attributes for a file.
File management module of an operating system takes care of file file-related
related activities, such as
structuring, accessing, naming, sharing, and protection of files. In this section, we will learn about
important concepts used ed for file management in operating systems.
File Structure
Different operating systems structure files in different ways. Most modern operating systems use
one of the following two types of files structures:
1. Files as unstructured sequence of bytes. Inn this case the operating system treats a file as byte
sequences. That is, all file access operations at operating system level deal with the number of
bytes to be read, written, or skipped. The operating system makes no interpretation of the bytes.
This type of file structuring scheme provides maximum flexibility, but minimal support. That is, each
application program must include its own code to interpret an input file into the appropriate
structure. Two of the most popular operating systems, UNIX and MS MS-DOS,
DOS, use this file structure.
2. Files as sequence of fixed--length records. Inn this case the operating system treats a file as a
sequence of fixed-length
length records. Each record has some internal structure. The creator of the file
defines the internal structureture and its meaning. In this case, all file access operations at operating
system level deal with the number of records to be read, written, or skipped. Older days operating
systems used this type of file structure.
File Access Methods
To use information stored in a file, a system needs to access it and read its contents in main
memory. Normally, computer systems support the following two file access methods at operating
system level:
1. Sequential access files. Normally, operating systems use sequential access files for storage of
files on sequential access storage media, such as magnetic tape. Applications can access the
contents of a sequential access file only sequentially.
2. Random access files. Normally, operating systems use random access files for storage of files
on random access storage media, such as magnetic or optical disks. Applications can access the
contents of a random access file randomly, irrespective of the order in which the bytes or records
are stored. For example, an application can access a specific byte/record of the file directly without
reading all bytes/records before it.
Random access files are essential for many applications. For example, a railway reservation system
may be storing information about all tickets booked for a particular train in a single file. If a customer
wants to cancel an already booked seat, reservation program must be able to access the specific
record for that seat without having to read records for hundreds of other booked seats first, so that
booking service can be fast enough. Not all operating systems support both sequential and random
access files. Some support only sequential access files, some support only random access files,
while there are some, which support both. Those, which support files of both types, normally require
the creator of a file to declare it as sequential or random when he/she/it creates the file. Users can
access the file only in a manner consistent with its declaration. Most modern operating systems
support random access files only.
File Operations
An operating system provides a set of operations to deal with files and their contents. A typical set
of file operations (actual set varies from one operating system to another).

Directories
Operating systems use directories to map file names to their corresponding file attributes and file
data, and to provide greater flexibility to users in file naming. We explain here how directories help
in achieving these objectives.
Directory Contents
A directory has a number of entries, one per file. Each entry contains a file name, the attributes of
the file or pointer to the data structure containing the attributes, and pointer to the file data (disk
address where the file data is stored). When a user creates a new file, the operating system creates
an entry for it in the directory. When the user deletes the file, the operating system deletes its
corresponding entry from the directory. When a user opens an existing file for use, the operating
system searches its corresponding entry in the directory and then extracts its attributes and disk
addresses, and loads them in a table in main memory. All subsequent references to the file use this
information in main memory.

DEVICE MANAGEMENT
For processing data, a computer must first input data and programs for which it needs input
devices. Similarly, to produce the results of processing, it needs output devices. Device
management module of an operating system takes care of controlling the I/O devices of a computer
system and provides a simple and easy to use interface to these devices. We describe here how an
operating system takes care of these requirements.
Controlling I/O Devices
A computer uses device controllers to connect I/O devices to it. Each device controller is in charge
of and controls a set of devices of a specific type. For example, a disk controller controls disk
drives, a tape controller controls tape drives, and a printer controller controls printers. A device
controller maintains some local buffer storage and is responsible for moving data between an I/O
device that it controls and its local buffer storage. Each device controller also has a few registers
that it uses for communicating with the CPU. In some computers, these registers are part of the
regular memory address space. This scheme is called memory-mapped I/O. In other computers, the
operating system uses a special address space for I/O, and allocates a portion of it to each device
controller.
To perform an I/O operation, the operating system writes the relevant commands and their
associated parameters into the appropriate controller's registers. After loading the commands into
the controller's registers, the CPU resumes with its normal operations. The device controller then
examines the contents of these registers and performs necessary actions for the I/O operation. For
example, the action for a read request will be to transfer data from the specified input device to its
local buffer.
Once transfer of data from input device to the controller's local buffer is complete, the operating
system uses one of the following two methods to transfer the data from the controller's local buffer
to the appropriate memory area of the computer:
1. Non-DMA transfer. In this method, as soon as transfer of data from input device to the
controller's local buffer is complete, the controller sends an interrupt signal to the CPU. The CPU
then stops what it is doing currently, and transfers control of execution to the starting address of the
service routine, which handles the interrupt. On execution, the interrupt service routine transfers the
data from local buffer of the device controller to main memory. As soon as this data transfer is over,
the CPU resumes the job that it was doing before interruption.
2. DMA transfer. In non-DMA transfer method, CPU is involved in transfer of data from device
controller's buffer to main memory. That is, the operating system executes the interrupt service
routine, which reads one byte or word at a time from the device controller's buffer and stores it in
memory. It is wastage of precious CPU time, if CPU is involved in reading and storing one byte or
word at a time. To free the CPU from data transfer operation, many device controllers support direct
memory access (DMA) mechanism. In this method, when the operating system prepares for data
transfer operation, it writes the relevant commands and their associated parameters into the
controller's registers. The command parameters include the starting memory address (from/to
where data transfer is to take place) and the number of bytes in the data. Now after the controller
has read the data from the device into its buffer, it copies it from the buffer into main memory (at
specified memory address) one byte or word at a time. It does not involve the CPU in this data
transfer operation. The device controller sends an interrupt to the CPU only after it completes
copying the entire data. Note that in this method, when the operating system starts after the
interrupt, it starts performing the subsequent operations directly because there is no need for it to
copy the data from the device controller's buffer to memory (since the data is already there).
Spooling
Spooling stands for Simultaneous Peripheral Operation On-Line. It is a mechanism to deal with
the following issues:
1. To reduce speed mismatch between slow I/O devices and CPU for better utilization of CPU.
2. To convert mutually exclusive (non-sharable) I/O devices into non-mutually exclusive (sharable)
I/O devices so that multiple processes of a multiprogramming system can use such a device
simultaneously.
COMMAND INTERPRETATION
Command interpretation module (known as command interpreter) of an operating system provides
a set of commands, which users use to give instructions to a computer for execution of their jobs.
Commands supported by command interpretation module are known as system calls. When a user
gives instructions to a computer by using these system calls, command interpreter interprets these
commands and directs the computer's resources to handle the user's request. Hence, command
interpreter provides a user interface to hide hardware details of a system from its users. In this
manner, it contributes greatly to the ‘ease of use’ objective of an operating system.
Modern operating systems support the following two categories of user interfaces:
1. Command-line interface. Users give instructions to computers by typing commands in this
textual user interface. For example, in UNIX, a user has to type “rm report.txt” to delete (remove) a
file named report.txt. If a user types a command incorrectly, command interpreter responds with a
message indicating that it did not understand the command. When this happens, the user has to
retype the command correctly.
2. Graphical user interface. User interface plays an important role in ease of use of a computer
system. An intuitive user interface allows a user to use the system effectively even if he/she has
never used it before. Such a user interface is called user friendly. Graphical user interface or GUI
(pronounced “gooey”) is easier to learn and use than command-line interface. Unlike command-line
interface in which commands are textual, GUI commands are graphical (pictorial). GUI provides a
screen full of graphic icons (small images on the screen) or menus, and allows a user to make rapid
selection from these icons or menu items to give instructions to computers. A user uses a point-
and-draw device to point to and select a graphic icon or menu item from multiple options on the
screen. For example, in case of command-line interface, to delete a file report.txt, a user needs to
type a command like “ rm report.txt”. However, with GUI, the user can perform the same operation
by using a mouse to drag the icon, which represents the file to superimpose it on an icon having
shape like a trashcan. Then releasing the mouse button causes the file to disappear into the bulging
trashcan.
Shell
The command interpreter of an operating system serves as its user interface. We often refer to it as
shell, because it forms the outer layer of the operating system covering its other modules. The shell
can be a command-line interface or GUI. An operating system may support multiple shells. For
example, an operating system can have a command-line shell and a GUI shell, allowing its users to
switch from one shell to another. Beginners often find it convenient to work with GUI shell, whereas
advanced users find it more convenient to work with command-line shell.
Some OSs also support multiple command-line shells. For example, many Unix operating systems
support three command-line shells known as C shell, Bourne shell (bash), and Korn shell.
Kernel
The kernel of an operating system is its central controlling part, which implements the most primitive
of the system's functions. It is the only part of an operating system, which a user cannot replace or
modify. The precise interpretation of the system's functions that are part of the kernel varies from
one operating system to another. However, typical operating system kernels contain basic
functions, which an operating system requires for process management, memory management,
device management, and low-level security features like access control. In some systems, the
kernel is larger and provides for more than these functions, whereas in others, it is smaller.
Two models for kernel design:
1. Monolithic kernel. In the monolithic kernel model, the kernel provides most operating system
services such as process management, memory management, device management, file
management, and security. Hence, the kernel has a large, monolithic structure.
2. Microkernel. The main goal of this model is to keep the kernel as small as possible. Therefore,
in this model, the kernel is a small nucleus of software, which provides only minimal facilities
necessary for implementing additional operating system services. The minimal facilities include
services such as low-level device management, a limited amount of low-level process management,
and some memory management. Implementers implement all other operating system services,
such as file management, additional process and memory management activities, and security as
userlevel server processes. Each server process has its own address space. Different
implementation teams can implement different user-level services of the operating system
independently.
MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS

Postulates of Boolean Algebra

Postulate 1:
a. A = 0, if and only if, A is not equal to 1
b. A = 1, if and only if, A is not equal to 0
Postulate 2:
a. x + 0 = x
b. x × 1 = x
Postulate 3: Commutative Law
a. x + y = y + x
b. x × y = y × x
Postulate 4: Associative Law
a. x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z
b. x × (y × z) = (x × y) × z
Postulate 5: Distributive Law
a. x × (y + z) = x × y + x × z
b. x + (y × z) = (x + y) × (x + z)
Postulate 6: a. x + x = 1
b. x × x = 0

These postulates are the basic axioms of the algebraic structure that need no proof. They
are used to prove the theorems of Boolean algebra.

SSD
SSD solid-state drive is a storage medium that uses non-volatile memory to hold and access data.
Unlike a hard drive, an SSD has no moving parts, which gives it advantages such as faster access time,
noiseless operation, higher reliability, and lower power consumption. The picture shows an example of
an SSD.
As the costs have come down, SSDs have become suitable replacements for a standard hard drive in
both desktop and laptop computers.
different types of SSDs
There are several types of SSDs with varying speed and connection types, including 2.5", mSATA, M.2,
and PCIe.
 2.5": This is the most common type of SSD on the market. They offer the best value per GB and,
while being the slowest, are still plenty fast.
 mSATA: Short for Mini-SATA, these SSDs have a small form factor, a different connection type,
and are a bare circuit board, unlike their enclosed 2.5" counterparts. They're a bit faster than a
2.5" SSD
 M.2: Like mSATA, these drives are a bare circuit board. The significant differences are that they
come in both SATA and PCIe versions. M.2 SSDs can support NVMe (Non-Volatile Memory
Express), which mSATA and 2.5" do not.
 PCIe: These are the fastest and most expensive SSDs. They use a PCI express slot. They offer
roughly four times faster speeds than a standard SATA drive.
What is Security

The security systems cover the safety of their system resources (saved data, memory, disks, etc)
across malignant alteration, illegal access, and disparity or inconsistency. The security gives a
mechanism (authentication and encryption) to analyze the user to permit for using the system. For
example, in a corporation the info is obtained by completely different workers however, it can’t be
obtained by a user that doesn’t exist in this explicit organization or a user operating in different
business enterprises. Security is a vital task for a corporation to provide some safety mechanism in
order that no outside user will access the knowledge of the organization.

What is Protection

The protection deals with access to the system resources. It determines what files can be accessed
or permeated by a special user. The protection of the system should confirm the approval of the
process and users. Due to this, these licensed users and processes will care for the central
processing unit, memory, and alternative sources. The protection mechanism ought to provide a
path for specifying the controls to be obligatory, besides how of implementing them.