The Urinary System

Functions of the Urinary System

- Elimination of waste products
o Nitrogenous wastes
o Toxins
o Drugs
- Regulate aspects of homeostasis
o Water balance
o Electrolytes
o Acid-base balance in the blood
o Blood pressure
o Red blood cell production
o Activation of vitamin D
Kidney Structures
Organs of the Urinary system - Medullary pyramids – triangular regions of
- Kidneys tissue in the medulla
- Ureters - Renal columns – extensions of cortex-like
- Urinary bladder material inward
- Urethra - Calyces – cup-shaped structures that
funnel urine towards the renal pelvis

Blood Flow in the Kidneys

Nephrons
- The structural and functional units of the
kidneys
- Responsible for forming urine
- Main structures of the nephrons
Location of the Kidneys o Glomerulus
- Against the dorsal body wall o Renal tubule
- At the level of T12 to L3
- The right kidney is slightly lower than the Glomerulus
left - A specialized
- Attached to ureters, renal blood vessels, capillary bed
and nerves at renal hilus - Attached to
- Atop each kidney is an adrenal gland arterioles on both sides (maintains
high pressure)
Coverings of the Kidneys o Large afferent
- Renal capsule arteriole
o Surrounds each kidney o Narrow efferent
- Adipose capsule arteriole
o Surrounds the kidney
o Provides protection to the kidney
o Helps keep the kidney in its correct
location

Regions of the Kidney

- Renal cortex – outer region
- Renal medulla – inside the cortex
- Renal pelvis – inner collecting tube

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 - Capillaries are covered with podocytes
from the renal tubule
- The glomerulus sits within a glomerular
capsule (the first part of the renal tubule)

Renal Tubule
- Glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule
- Proximal convoluted tubule
- Loop of Henle
- Distal convoluted tubule

Filtration
- Nonselective passive process
- Water and solutes smaller than proteins
are forced through capillary walls
- Blood cells cannot pass out to the
capillaries
- Filtrate is collected in the glomerular
capsule and leaves via the renal tubule

Reabsorption
- The peritubular capillaries reabsorb
several materials
Types of Nephrons o Some water
- Cortical nephrons o Glucose
o Located entirely in the cortex o Amino acids
o Includes most nephrons o Ions
- Juxtamedullary nephrons - Some reabsorption is passive, most is
o Found at the boundary of the active
cortex and medulla - Most reabsorption occurs in the proximal
convoluted tubule

Materials Not Reabsorbed

- Nitrogenous waste products
o Urea
o Uric acid
o Creatinine
- Excess water

Peritubular Capillaries Secretion – Reabsorption in Reverse

▪ Arise from efferent arteriole of the - Some materials move from the peritubular
glomerulus capillaries into the renal tubules
▪ Normal, low pressure capillaries o Hydrogen and potassium ions
▪ Attached to a venule o Creatinine
▪ Cling close to the renal tubule - Materials left in the renal tubule move
▪ Reabsorb (reclaim) some substances from toward the ureter
collecting tubes
Formation of Urine
Urine Formation Processes
- Filtration
- Reabsorption
- Secretion

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Characteristics of Urine Used for Medical o Females – along wall of the vagina
Diagnosis o Males – through the prostate and
- Colored somewhat yellow due to the penis
pigment urochrome (from the destruction - Function
of hemoglobin) and solutes o Females – only carries urine
- Sterile o Males – carries urine and is a
- Slightly aromatic passageway for sperm cells
- Normal pH of around 6
- Specific gravity of 1.001 to 1.035 Micturition (Voiding)
- Both sphincter muscles must open to
Ureters allow voiding
- Slender tubes attaching the kidney to the o The internal urethral sphincter is
bladder relaxed after stretching of the
o Continuous with the renal pelvis bladder
o Enter the posterior aspect of the o Activation is from an impulse sent
bladder to the spinal cord and then back
- Runs behind the peritoneum via the pelvic splanchnic nerves
- Peristalsis aids gravity in urine transport o The external urethral sphincter
must be voluntarily relaxed
Urinary Bladder
- Smooth, collapsible, muscular sac Maintaining Water Balance
- Temporarily stores urine - Normal amount of water in the human
- Trigone – three openings body
o Two from the ureters o Young adult females – 50%
o One to the urethrea o Young adult males – 60%
o Babies – 75%
o Old age – 45%
- Water is necessary for many body
functions and levels must be maintained

Distribution of Body Fluid

- Intracellular fluid (inside cells)
- Extracellular fluid (outside cells)
o Interstitial fluid
o Blood plasma
Urinary Bladder Wall
- Three layers of smooth muscle (detrusor
muscle)
- Mucosa made of transitional epithelium
- Walls are thick and folded in an empty
bladder
- Bladder can expand significantly without
increasing internal pressure

Urethra
▪ Thin-walled tube that carries urine from
the bladder to the outside of the body by
peristalsis The Link Between Water and Salt
▪ Release of urine is controlled by two - Changes in electrolyte balance causes
sphincters water to move from one compartment to
▪ Internal urethral sphincter another
(involuntary) o Alters blood volume and blood
▪ External urethral sphincter pressure
(voluntary) o Can impair the activity of cells
Urethra Gender Differences Maintaining Water Balance
- Length - Water intake must equal water output
o Females – 3–4 cm (1 inch) - Sources for water intake
o Males – 20 cm (8 inches) o Ingested foods and fluids
- Location
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 o Water produced from metabolic Blood Buffers
processes - Molecules react to prevent dramatic
- Sources for water output changes in hydrogen ion (H+)
o Vaporization out of the lungs concentrations
o Lost in perspiration o Bind to H+ when pH drops
o Leaves the body in the feces o Release H+ when pH rises
o Urine production - Three major chemical buffer systems
- Dilute urine is produced if water intake is o Bicarbonate buffer system
excessive o Phosphate buffer system
- Less urine (concentrated) is produced if o Protein buffer system
large amounts of water are lost
- Proper concentrations of various The Bicarbonate Buffer System
electrolytes must be present - Mixture of carbonic acid (H2CO3) and
sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3)
Regulation of Water and Electrolyte - Bicarbonate ions (HCO3–) react with
Reabsorption strong acids to change them to weak
- Regulation is primarily by hormones acids
o Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) - Carbonic acid dissociates in the presence
prevents excessive water loss in of a strong base to form a weak base and
urine water
o Aldosterone regulates sodium ion
content of extracellular fluid Respiratory System Controls of Acid-Base
▪ Triggered by the rennin- Balance
angiotensin mechanism - Carbon dioxide in the blood is converted
- Cells in the kidneys and hypothalamus are to bicarbonate ion and transported in the
active monitors plasma
- Increases in hydrogen ion concentration
Maintaining Water and Electrolyte Balance produces more carbonic acid
- Excess hydrogen ion can be blown off
with the release of carbon dioxide from
the lungs
- Respiratory rate can rise and fall
depending on changing blood pH

Renal Mechanisms of Acid-Base Balance

- Excrete bicarbonate ions if needed
- Conserve or generate new bicarbonate
ions if needed
- Urine pH varies from 4.5 to 8.0

Developmental Aspects of the Urinary System

- Functional kidneys are developed by the
third month
- Urinary system of a newborn
o Bladder is small
o Urine cannot be concentrated
- Control of the voluntary urethral sphincter
does not start until age 18 months
Maintaining Acid-Base Balance in Blood - Urinary infections are the only common
- Blood pH must remain between 7.35 and problems before old age
7.45 to maintain homeostasis
o Alkalosis – pH above 7.45 Aging and the Urinary System
o Acidosis – pH below 7.35 - There is a progressive decline in urinary
- Most ions originate as byproducts of function
cellular metabolism - The bladder shrinks with aging
- Most acid-base balance is maintained by - Urinary retention is common in males
the kidneys
- Other acid-base controlling systems
o Blood buffers
o Respiration

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 Upper Respiratory Tract
The Respiratory System
Organs of the Respiratory system
o Nose
o Pharynx
o Larynx
o Trachea
o Bronchi
o Lungs – alveoli

Paranasal Sinuses
- Cavities within bones surrounding the nasal
cavity
o Frontal bone
o Sphenoid bone
o Ethmoid bone
o Maxillary bone
- Function of the sinuses
o Lighten the skull
o Act as resonance chambers for speech
o Produce mucus that drains into the nasal
cavity
Functions of the Respiratory System
Pharynx (Throat)
- Oversees gas exchanges between the
o Muscular passage from nasal cavity to
blood and external environment
larynx
- Exchange of gasses takes place within the
o Three regions of the pharynx
lungs in the alveoli
▪ Nasopharynx – superior region
- Passageways to the lungs purify, warm,
behind nasal cavity
and humidify the incoming air
▪ Oropharynx – middle region
behind mouth
The Nose
▪ Laryngopharynx – inferior region
- The only externally visible part of the
attached to larynx
respiratory system
▪ The oropharynx and
- Air enters the nose through the external
laryngopharynx are
nares (nostrils)
common passageways for
- The interior of the nose consists of a nasal
air and food
cavity divided by a nasal septum
Structures of the Pharynx
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
- Auditory tubes enter the nasopharynx
- Olfactory receptors are located in the mucosa
- Tonsils of the pharynx
on the superior surface
o Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoids) in the
- The rest of the cavity is lined with respiratory
nasopharynx
mucosa
o Palatine tonsils in the oropharynx
o Moistens air
o Lingual tonsils at the base of the tongue
o Traps incoming foreign particles
- Lateral walls have projections called conchae
Larynx (Voice Box)
o Increases surface area
o Routes air and food into proper channels
o Increases air turbulence within the nasal
o Plays a role in speech
cavity
o Made of eight rigid hyaline cartilages and
- The nasal cavity is separated from the oral
a spoon-shaped flap of elastic cartilage
cavity by the palate
(epiglottis)
o Anterior hard palate (bone)
o Posterior soft palate (muscle)
Structures of the Larynx
- Thyroid cartilage
o Largest hyaline cartilage
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 o Protrudes anteriorly (Adam’s apple) - Tertiary bronchi
- Epiglottis - Bronchioli (or bronchioles)
o Superior opening of the larynx - Terminal bronchiole
o Routes food to the larynx and air toward
the trachea Bronchioles
- Vocal cords (vocal folds) ▪ Smallest branches of the bronchi
o Vibrate with expelled air to create sound ▪ All but the smallest branches have
(speech) reinforcing cartilage
- Glottis ▪ Terminal bronchioles end in alveoli
o opening between vocal cords

Trachea (Windpipe)
- Connects larynx with bronchi
- Lined with ciliated mucosa
o Beat continuously in the opposite
direction of incoming air
o Expel mucus loaded with dust and
other debris away from lungs
- Walls are reinforced with C-shaped
hyaline cartilage

Primary Bronchi
- Formed by division of the trachea
- Enters the lung at the hilus Respiratory Zones
(medial depression) - Structures
- Right bronchus is wider, shorter, o Respiratory bronchiole
and straighter than left o Alveolar duct
- Bronchi subdivide into smaller o Alveoli
and smaller branches - Site of gas exchange

Lungs Alveoli
- Occupy most of the thoracic cavity - Structure of alveoli
o Apex is near the clavicle (superior o Alveolar duct
portion) o Alveolar sac
o Base rests on the diaphragm o Alveolus
(inferior portion) - Gas exchange takes place within the
- Each lung is divided into lobes by fissures alveoli in the respiratory membrane
o Left lung – two lobes
o Right lung – three lobes Gas Exchange
- Gas crosses the respiratory membrane by
diffusion
o Oxygen enters the blood
o Carbon dioxide enters the alveoli
- Macrophages add protection
- Surfactant coats gas-exposed alveolar
surfaces

Respiratory Membrane (Air-Blood Barrier)

- Thin squamous epithelial layer lining
alveolar walls
Coverings of the Lungs - Pulmonary capillaries cover external
- Pulmonary (visceral) pleura covers the surfaces of alveoli
lung surface
- Parietal pleura lines the walls of the
thoracic cavity
- Pleural fluid fills the area between layers
of pleura to allow gliding

Respiratory Tree Divisions

- Primary bronchi
- Secondary bronchi

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Events of Respiration Pressure Differences in the Thoracic Cavity
- Pulmonary ventilation – moving air in and - Normal pressure within the pleural space
out of the lungs is always negative (intrapleural pressure)
- External respiration – gas exchange - Differences in lung and pleural space
between pulmonary blood and alveoli pressures keep lungs from collapsing
- Pulmonary ventilation – moving air in and
out of the lungs Non-Respiratory Air Movements
- External respiration – gas exchange - Can be caused by reflexes or voluntary
between pulmonary blood and alveoli actions
- Examples
Mechanics of Breathing (Pulmonary ▪ Cough and sneeze – clears lungs of
Ventilation) debris
- Completely mechanical process ▪ Laughing
- Depends on volume changes in the ▪ Crying
thoracic cavity ▪ Yawn
- Volume changes lead to pressure ▪ Hiccup
changes, which lead to the flow of gases
to equalize pressure Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
- Two phases - Normal breathing moves about 500 ml of
o Inspiration – flow of air into lung air with each breath (tidal volume [TV])
o Expiration – air leaving lung - Many factors that affect respiratory
capacity
Inspiration o A person’s size
▪ Diaphragm and intercostal muscles o Sex
contract o Age
▪ The size of the thoracic cavity increases o Physical condition
▪ External air is pulled into the lungs due to - Residual volume of air – after exhalation,
an increase in intrapulmonary volume about 1200 ml of air remains in the lungs.
- Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
o Amount of air that can be taken in
forcibly over the tidal volume
o Usually between 2100 and 3200
ml
- Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
o Amount of air that can be forcibly
exhaled
o Approximately 1200 ml
- Residual volume
o Air remaining in lung after
expiration
o About 1200 ml
Expiration - Vital capacity
▪ Largely a passive process which depends o The total amount of exchangeable
on natural lung elasticity air
▪ As muscles relax, air is pushed out of the o Vital capacity = TV + IRV + ERV
lungs o Dead space volume
▪ Forced expiration can occur mostly by ▪ Air that remains in
contracting internal intercostal muscles to conducting zone and never
depress the rib cage reaches alveoli
▪ About 150 ml
- Functional volume
o Air that actually reaches the
respiratory zone
o Usually about 350 ml
- Respiratory capacities are measured with
a spirometer

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 Respiratory Capacities

External Respiration, Gas Transport, and

Respiratory Sounds Internal Respiration Summary
- Sounds are monitored with a stethoscope
- Bronchial sounds – produced by air
rushing through trachea and bronchi
- Vesicular breathing sounds – soft
sounds of air filling alveoli

External Respiration
- Oxygen movement into the blood
o The alveoli always has more
oxygen than the blood
o Oxygen moves by diffusion
towards the area of lower
concentration
o Pulmonary capillary blood gains
oxygen
- Carbon dioxide movement out of the blood
o Blood returning from tissues has
higher concentrations of carbon
dioxide than air in the alveoli
o Pulmonary capillary blood gives up
carbon dioxide Neural Respiration of Respiration
- Blood leaving the lungs is oxygen-rich and - Activity of respiratory muscles is
carbon dioxide-poor transmitted to the brain by the phrenic and
intercostal nerves
Gas Transport In The Blood - Neural centers that control rate and depth
- Oxygen transport in the blood are located in the medulla
o Inside red blood cells attached to - The pons appears to smooth out
hemoglobin (oxyhemoglobin respiratory rate
[HbO2]) - Normal respiratory rate (eupnea) is 12–15
o A small amount is carried respirations per minute
dissolved in the plasma - Hypernia is increased respiratory rate
- Carbon dioxide transport in the blood often due to extra oxygen needs
o Most is transported in the plasma
as bicarbonate ion (HCO3–)
o A small amount is carried inside
red blood cells on hemoglobin, but
at different binding sites than those
of oxygen

Internal Respiration
- Exchange of gases between blood and
body cells
- An opposite reaction to what occurs in the
lungs
o Carbon dioxide diffuses out of
tissue to blood
o Oxygen diffuses from blood into
tissue
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Factors Influencing Respiratory Rate and - Cyanosis appears late in the disease
Depth
- Physical factors Chronic Bronchitis
o Increased body temperature - Mucosa of the lower respiratory passages
o Exercise becomes severely inflamed
o Talking - Mucus production increases
o Coughing - Pooled mucus impairs ventilation and gas
- Volition (conscious control) exchange
- Emotional factors - Risk of lung infection increases
- Chemical factors - Pneumonia is common
o Carbon dioxide levels - Hypoxia and cyanosis occur early
▪ Level of carbon dioxide in
the blood is the main Lung Cancer
regulatory chemical for - Accounts for 1/3 of all cancer deaths in
respiration the United States
▪ Increased carbon dioxide - Increased incidence associated with
increases respiration smoking
▪ Changes in carbon dioxide - Three common types
act directly on the medulla o Squamous cell carcinoma
oblongata o Adenocarcinoma
o Oxygen levels o Small cell carcinoma
▪ Changes in oxygen
concentration in the blood Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
are detected by (COPD)
chemoreceptors in the
aorta and carotid artery
▪ Information is sent to the
medulla oblongata

Respiratory Disorders: Chronic Obstructive

Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
- Exemplified by chronic bronchitis and
emphysema
- Major causes of death and disability in the
United States
- Features of these diseases
o Patients almost always have a
history of smoking
o Labored breathing (dyspnea)
becomes progressively more
severe Sudden Infant Death syndrome (SIDS)
o Coughing and frequent pulmonary - Apparently healthy infant stops breathing
infections are common and dies during sleep
- Features of these diseases (continued) - Some cases are thought to be a problem
o Most victimes retain carbon of the neural respiratory control center
dioxide, are hypoxic and have - One third of cases appear to be due to
respiratory acidosis heart rhythm abnormalities
o Those infected will ultimately
develop respiratory failure Asthma
- Chronic inflamed hypersensitive
Emphysema bronchiole passages
- Alveoli enlarge as adjacent chambers - Response to irritants with dyspnea,
break through coughing, and wheezing
- Chronic inflammation promotes lung
fibrosis Developmental Aspects of the Respiratory
- Airways collapse during expiration System
- Patients use a large amount of energy to - Lungs are filled with fluid in the fetus
exhale - Lungs are not fully inflated with air until
- Overinflation of the lungs leads to a two weeks after birth
permanently expanded barrel chest

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 - Surfactant that lowers alveolar surface Organs of the Alimentary Canal
tension is not present until late in fetal ▪ Mouth
development and may not be present in ▪ Pharynx
premature babies ▪ Esophagus
- Important birth defects ▪ Stomach
o Cystic fibrosis – oversecretion of ▪ Small intestine
thick mucus clogs the respiratory ▪ Large intestine
system ▪ Anus
o Cleft palate

Aging Effects
- Elasticity of lungs decreases
- Vital capacity decreases
- Blood oxygen levels decrease
- Stimulating effects of carbon dioxide
decreases
- More risks of respiratory tract infection

Respiratory Rate Changes Throughout Life

- Newborns – 40 to 80 respirations per
minute
- Infants – 30 respirations per minute Mouth (Oral Cavity) Anatomy
- Age 5 – 25 respirations per minute ▪ Lips (labia) – protect
- Adults – 12 to 18 respirations per minute the anterior opening
- Rate often increases somewhat with old ▪ Cheeks – form the
age lateral walls
▪ Hard palate – forms
The Digestive System the anterior roof
▪ Soft palate – forms
and Body Metabolism the posterior roof
▪ Digestion ▪ Uvula – fleshy
▪ Breakdown of ingested food projection of the
▪ Absorption of nutrients into the soft palate
blood ▪ Vestibule – space between lips externally
▪ Metabolism and teeth and gums internally
▪ Production of cellular energy (ATP) ▪ Oral cavity – area contained by the teeth
▪ Constructive and degradative ▪ Tongue – attached at hyoid and styloid
cellular activities processes of the skull, and by the lingual
frenulum
Organs of the Digestive System
▪ Two main groups
▪ Alimentary canal – continuous
coiled hollow tube
▪ Accessory digestive organs

Fenulum:

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 ▪ Tonsils ▪ Conducts food by peristalsis
▪ Palatine tonsils (slow rhythmic squeezing)
▪ Lingual tonsil ▪ Passageway for food only (respiratory
system branches off after the pharynx)

Layers of Alimentary Canal Organs

▪ Mucosa
▪ Innermost layer
▪ Moist membrane
▪ Surface epithelium
▪ Small amount of connective
tissue
(lamina propria)
▪ Small smooth muscle layer
▪ Submucosa
▪ Just beneath the mucosa
▪ Soft connective tissue with blood
vessels, nerve endings, and
lymphatics
▪ Muscularis externa – smooth muscle
▪ Inner circular layer
Processes of the Mouth ▪ Outer longitudinal layer
▪ Mastication (chewing) of food ▪ Serosa
▪ Mixing masticated food with saliva ▪ Outermost layer – visceral
▪ Initiation of swallowing by the tongue peritoneum
▪ Allowing for the sense of taste ▪ Layer of serous fluid-producing
cells
Pharynx Anatomy
▪ Nasopharynx –
not part of the digestive system
▪ Oropharynx – posterior to oral cavity
▪ Laryngopharynx – below the oropharynx
and connected to
the esophagus

Pharynx Function
▪ Serves as a passageway for air and food
▪ Food is propelled to the esophagus by two
muscle layers
▪ Longitudinal inner layer
▪ Circular outer layer
▪ Food movement is by alternating
contractions of the muscle layers Alimentary Canal Nerve Plexuses
(peristalsis) ▪ All are part of the autonomic nervous
system
Epiglottis ▪ Three separate networks of nerve fibers
▪ Submucosal nerve plexus
(Meissner’s Plexus)
▪ regulates the configuration
of the luminal surface,
controls glandular
secretions, alters
electrolyte and water
transport, and regulates
local blood flow
▪ Sparse in stomach, small
Esophagus and large intestines
▪ Runs from pharynx to stomach through ▪ Myenteric nerve plexus
the diaphragm (Auerbach's Plexus)

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 ▪ is the major nerve supply to
the gastrointestinal tract
and controls GI tract
motility
▪ esophagus, stomach and
small and large intestine
▪ Subserosa nerve plexus

Stomach Anatomy
▪ Located on the left side of the abdominal
cavity
▪ Food enters at the cardioesophageal Stomach Functions
sphincter ▪ Acts as a storage tank for food
▪ Regions of the stomach ▪ Site of food breakdown
▪ Cardiac region ▪ Chemical breakdown of protein begins
▪ Fundus ▪ Delivers chyme (processed food) to the
▪ Body small intestine
▪ Pylorus ▪ Absorption of alcohol and aspirin
▪ funnel-shaped terminal end
▪ Food Specialized Mucosa of the Stomach
empties into ▪ Simple columnar epithelium
the small ▪ Mucous neck cells – produce a
intestine at sticky alkaline mucus
the pyloric ▪ Gastric glands – secrete gastric
sphincter juice
▪ Rugae – ▪ Chief cells – produce protein-
internal digesting enzymes (pepsinogens)
folds of the ▪ Parietal cells – produce
mucosa hydrochloric acid
▪ External regions ▪ Endocrine cells – produce gastrin
▪ Lesser curvature
▪ Greater curvature Structure of the Stomach Mucosa
▪ Layers of peritoneum attached to the ▪ Gastric pits formed by folded mucosa
stomach ▪ Glands and specialized cells are in the
▪ Lesser omentum attaches the liver gastric gland region
to the lesser curvature
▪ Greater omentum attaches the
greater curvature to the posterior
body wall
▪ Contains fat to insulate, cushion,
and protect abdominal organs

Homeostatic Imbalance: Peptic Ulcer

- Gastric Ulcer - Esophageal Ulcer

- Duodenal Ulcer

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Small Intestine Microvilli of the Small
▪ The body’s major digestive organ Intestine
▪ Site of nutrient absorption into the blood ▪ Small projections of
▪ proteins within the cell membrane the plasma
act as “pumps,” using cellular membrane
energy (ATP) to move the ▪ Found on absorptive
substance cells
▪ water-soluble nutrients, lipid-
soluble nutrients can diffuse
(facilitated diffusion/co-transport)
▪ absorption of most nutrients Structures Involved in Absorption of Nutrients
through the mucosa of the ▪ Absorptive
intestinal villi requires active cells
transport fueled by ATP ▪ Blood
▪ Muscular tube extending form the pyloric capillaries
sphincter to the ileocecal valve ▪ Lacteals
▪ Suspended from the posterior abdominal (specialized
wall by the mesentery lymphatic
capillaries)
Subdivisions of the Small Intestine
▪ Duodenum
▪ Attached to the stomach
▪ Curves around the head of the
pancreas
▪ Jejunum
▪ Attaches anteriorly to the Folds of the Small Intestine
duodenum ▪ Called circular folds or plicae circulares
▪ Ileum ▪ Deep folds of the mucosa and submucosa
▪ Extends from jejunum to large ▪ Do not disappear when filled with food
intestine ▪ The submucosa has Peyer’s patches
(collections of lymphatic tissue)
Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine ▪ Fxn: monitoring intestinal bacteria
▪ Source of enzymes that are mixed with populations and preventing the
chyme growth of pathogenic bacteria in
▪ Intestinal cells the intestines
▪ Pancreas
▪ Bile enters from the gall bladder Large Intestine
▪ What is the function of bile? ▪ Larger in diameter, but shorter than the
small intestine
▪ Frames the internal abdomen

Villi of the Small

Intestine
▪ Fingerlike
structures
▪ formed by the Functions of the Large Intestine
mucosa ▪ Absorption of water
▪ Give the small ▪ Eliminates indigestible food from the body
intestine more as feces
surface area ▪ Does not participate in digestion of food

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 ▪ Goblet cells produce mucus to act as a Teeth
lubricant ▪ The role is to masticate (chew) food
▪ Humans have two sets of teeth
Structures of the Large Intestine ▪ Deciduous (baby or milk) teeth
▪ Cecum – saclike first part of the large ▪ 20 teeth are fully formed by age
intestine two
▪ Appendix ▪ Permanent teeth
▪ Accumulation of lymphatic tissue ▪ Replace deciduous teeth
that sometimes becomes inflamed beginning between the ages of 6 to
(appendicitis) 12
▪ Do you give analgesics for ▪ A full set is 32 teeth, but some
pain? people do not have wisdom teeth
▪ Hangs from the cecum ▪ Classification of Teeth
▪ Colon ▪ Incisors
▪ Ascending ▪ Canines
▪ Transverse ▪ Premolars
▪ Descending ▪ Molars
▪ S-shaped sigmoidal
▪ Rectum
▪ Anus – external body opening

Modifications to the Muscularis Externa in the

Large Intestine
▪ Smooth muscle is reduced to three bands
(teniae coli)
▪ Muscle bands have some degree of tone
▪ Walls are formed into pocketlike sacs
called haustra

Accessory Digestive Organs

▪ Salivary glands
▪ Teeth
▪ Pancreas
▪ Liver
▪ Gall bladder

Salivary Glands
▪ Saliva-producing glands
▪ Parotid glands – located anterior to
ears
▪ Submandibular glands
▪ Sublingual glands
▪ Regions of Tooth
▪ Crown – exposed part
▪ Outer enamel
▪ Dentin
▪ Pulp cavity
▪ Neck
▪ Region in contact with the
gum
▪ Connects crown to root
▪ Root
Saliva ▪ Periodontal membrane
▪ Mixture of mucus and serous fluids attached to the bone
▪ Helps to form a food bolus ▪ Root canal carrying blood
▪ Contains salivary amylase to begin starch vessels and nerves
digestion
▪ Dissolves chemicals so they can be tasted

ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY | M.A., PANSOY_BSN1I

Pancreas
▪ Produces a wide spectrum of
digestive enzymes that break
down all categories of food Homeostatic Imbalance
▪ Enzymes are secreted into the duodenum ▪ Pancreatitis
▪ Alkaline fluid introduced with enzymes ▪ Pancreatitis is inflammation of the
neutralizes acidic chyme pancreas that occurs when pancreatic
enzyme secretions build up and begin to
digest the organ itself. It can occur as
acute painful attacks lasting a matter of
days, or it may be a chronic condition that
progresses over a period of years.
▪ Diabetes Type I (IDDM)
▪ Diabetes Type II (NIDDM)
▪ Gestational Diabetes Mellitus
▪ Diabetes Insipidus
▪
Liver
▪ Largest gland in the body
▪ Located on the right side of the body
under the diaphragm
Pancreas: Exocrine Function ▪ Consists of four lobes suspended from the
▪ Enzymes: diaphragm and abdominal wall by the
▪ trypsin and chymotrypsin → digest falciform ligament
proteins ▪ Connected to the gall bladder via the
▪ amylase → digestion of common hepatic duct
carbohydrates ▪ Main organ of metabolism
▪ lipase → break down fats
▪ released → pancreatic duct Anatomy of the Liver
▪ joins the common bile duct to
form the ampulla of Vater which is
located at the first portion of the
small intestine, called
the duodenum
▪ pancreatic juices and bile → digest
fats, carbohydrates, and proteins.

Pancreas: Endocrine Function (ductless)

▪ islet cells (islets of Langerhans)
▪ create and release
important hormones directly into
the bloodstream
▪ glucagon, which acts to raise
blood sugar
▪ insulin, which acts to lower blood
sugar
ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY | M.A., PANSOY_BSN1I
Cells of the Liver
▪ Hepatocytes
▪ The liver parenchyma is primarily
comprised of hepatocytes
▪ contain many mitochondria,
extensive smooth and rough
endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi
apparatus
▪ Ito cells
▪ fat storing cells, or lipocytes
▪ storage and maintenance of
vitamin A (retinol)
▪ production of extracellular matrix
(collagen types I and III)
▪ regulation of sinusoidal blood flow
▪ hepatic tissue repair following
injury
▪ Kupffer cells
▪ Kupffer cells are phagocytes
▪ Removes aged red blood cells
from circulation
▪ removing blood-borne microbes or Homeostatic Imbalance: Jaundice
endotoxins absorbed from the ▪ Jaundice
gastrointestinal tract ▪ Physiologic Jaundice
▪ Oval cells ▪ Pathologic Jaundice
▪ differentiate into several different
cell Bile
▪ role in the repopulation of ▪ Produced by cells in the liver
hepatocytes and other hepatic ▪ Composition
cells (e.g. biliary epithelium) ▪ Bile salts
following hepatic injury ▪ Bile pigment (mostly bilirubin from
▪ Pit cells the breakdown of hemoglobin)
▪ short-lived granular lymphocytes ▪ Cholesterol
that reside within hepatic sinusoids ▪ Phospholipids
and contribute to immunity. ▪ Electrolytes

Gall Bladder
Regulation of Bilirubin ▪ Sac found in hollow fossa of liver
▪ Stores bile from the liver by way of the
cystic duct
▪ Bile is introduced into the duodenum in
the presence of fatty food
▪ Gallstones can cause blockages

ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY | M.A., PANSOY_BSN1I

Processes of the Digestive System
▪ Ingestion – getting food into the mouth
▪ Propulsion – moving foods from one
region of the digestive system to another
▪ Peristalsis –
alternating
waves of
contraction
▪ Segmentation
– moving
materials Control of Digestive Activity
back and ▪ Mostly controlled by reflexes via the
forth to aid in parasympathetic division
mixing ▪ Chemical and mechanical receptors are
located in organ walls that trigger reflexes
▪ Stimuli include:
▪ Mechanical digestion ▪ Stretch of the organ
▪ Mixing of food in the mouth by the ▪ pH of the contents
tongue ▪ Presence of breakdown products
▪ Churning of food in the stomach ▪ Reflexes include:
▪ Segmentation in the small intestine ▪ Activation or inhibition of glandular
▪ Chemical Digestion secretions
▪ Enzymes break down food ▪ Smooth muscle activity
molecules into their building blocks
▪ Each major food group uses Digestive Activities of the Mouth
different enzymes ▪ Mechanical breakdown
▪ Carbohydrates are broken ▪ Food is physically broken down by
to simple sugars chewing
▪ Proteins are broken to ▪ Chemical digestion
amino acids ▪ Food is mixed with saliva
▪ Fats are broken to fatty ▪ Breaking of starch into maltose by
acids and alcohols salivary amylase
▪ Absorption
▪ End products of digestion are Activities of the Pharynx and Esophagus
absorbed in the blood or lymph ▪ These organs have no digestive function
▪ Food must enter mucosal cells and ▪ Serve as passageways to the stomach
then into blood or lymph capillaries
▪ Defecation Deglutition (Swallowing)
▪ Elimination of indigestible ▪ Buccal phase
substances as feces ▪ Voluntary
▪ Occurs in the mouth
▪ Food is formed into a bolus
▪ The bolus is forced into the
pharynx by the tongue
▪ Pharyngeal-esophageal phase
▪ Involuntary transport of the bolus

ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY | M.A., PANSOY_BSN1I

 ▪ All passageways except to the Digestion in the Small Intestine
stomach are blocked ▪ Enzymes from the brush border
▪ Tongue blocks off the ▪ Break double sugars into simple
mouth sugars
▪ Soft palate (uvula) blocks ▪ Complete some protein digestion
the nasopharynx ▪ Pancreatic enzymes play the major
▪ Epiglottis blocks the larynx digestive function
▪ Peristalsis moves the bolus ▪ Help complete digestion of starch
toward the stomach (pancreatic amylase)
▪ The cardioesophageal ▪ Carry out about half of all protein
sphincter is opened when digestion (trypsin, etc.)
food presses against it ▪ Pancreatic enzymes play the major
digestive function (continued)
▪ Responsible for fat digestion
(lipase)
▪ Digest nucleic acids (nucleases)
▪ Alkaline content neutralizes acidic
chyme

Stimulation of the Release of Pancreatic Juice

Food Breakdown in the Stomach ▪ Vagus nerve
▪ Gastric juice is regulated by neural and ▪ Local hormones
hormonal factors ▪ Secretin
▪ Presence of food or falling pH causes the ▪ Cholecystokinin
release of gastrin
▪ Gastrin causes stomach glands to
produce protein-digesting enzymes
▪ Hydrocholoric acid makes the stomach
contents very acidic

Necessity of an Extremely Acid Environment

in the Stomach
▪ Activates pepsinogen to pepsin for protein
digestion
▪ Provides a hostile environment for
microorganisms

Digestion and Absorption in the Stomach

▪ Protein digestion enzymes
▪ Pepsin – an active protein
digesting enzyme
▪ Rennin – works on digesting milk
protein Absorption in the Small Intestine
▪ The only absorption that occurs in the ▪ Water is absorbed along the length of the
stomach is of alcohol and aspirin small intestine
▪ End products of digestion
Propulsion in the Stomach ▪ Most substances are absorbed by
▪ Food must first be well mixed active transport through cell
▪ Rippling peristalsis occurs in the lower membranes
stomach ▪ Lipids are absorbed by diffusion
▪ Substances are transported to the liver by
the hepatic portal vein or lymph

Propulsion in the Small Intestine

▪ Peristalsis is the major means of moving
food
▪ Segmental movements
▪ The pylorus meters out chyme into the ▪ Mix chyme with digestive juices
small intestine (30 ml at a time) ▪ Aid in propelling food
▪ The stomach empties in four to six hours

ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY | M.A., PANSOY_BSN1I

Food Breakdown and Absorption in the Large Dietary Sources of Major Nutrients
Intestine ▪ Carbohydrates
▪ No digestive enzymes are produced ▪ Most are derived from plants
▪ Resident bacteria digest remaining ▪ Exceptions: lactose from milk and
nutrients small amounts of glycogens from
▪ Produce some vitamin K and B meats
▪ Release gases ▪ Lipids
▪ Water and vitamins K and B are absorbed ▪ Saturated fats from animal
▪ Remaining materials are eliminated via products
feces ▪ Unsaturated fats from nuts, seeds,
and vegetable oils
Propulsion in the Large Intestine ▪ Cholesterol from egg yolk, meats,
▪ Sluggish peristalsis and milk products
▪ Mass movements ▪ Proteins
▪ Slow, powerful movements ▪ Complete proteins – contain all
▪ Occur three to four times per day essential amino acids
▪ Presence of feces in the rectum causes a ▪ Most are from animal
defecation reflex products
▪ Internal anal sphincter is relaxed ▪ Legumes and beans also have
▪ Defecation occurs with relaxation proteins, but are incomplete
of the voluntary (external) anal ▪ Vitamins
sphincter ▪ Most vitamins are used as
cofactors and act with enzymes
Homeostasis: Upper and Lower GI Bleeding ▪ Found in all major food groups
▪ Endoscopy ▪ Minerals
▪ Esophagogastroduodenoscopy ▪ Play many roles in the body
(EGD) ▪ Most mineral-rich foods are
▪ Colonoscopy and Sigmoidoscopy vegetables, legumes, milk, and
some meats
Boundary of Upper and Lower GI Bleeding Metabolism
▪ Chemical reactions necessary to maintain
life
▪ Catabolism – substances are
broken down to simpler
substances
▪ Anabolism – larger molecules are
built from smaller ones
▪ Energy is released during
catabolism

Carbohydrate Metabolism
▪ The body’s preferred source to produce
cellular energy (ATP)
Upper and Lower GI Bleeding ▪ Glucose (blood sugar) is the major
▪ Melena breakdown product and fuel to make ATP
▪ dark sticky feces containing partly
digested blood.
▪ Hematochezia
▪ fresh, red blood in your stool
Cellular Respiration
Nutrition ▪ Oxygen-using events take place within the
▪ Nutrient – substance used by the body for cell to create ATP from ADP
growth, maintenance, and repair ▪ Carbon leaves cells as carbon dioxide
▪ Categories of nutrients (CO2)
▪ Carbohydrates ▪ Hydrogen atoms are combined with
▪ Lipids oxygen to form water
▪ Proteins ▪ Energy produced by these reactions adds
▪ Vitamins a phosphorus to ADP to produce ATP
▪ Mineral ▪ ATP can be broken down to release
▪ Water energy for cellular use

ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY | M.A., PANSOY_BSN1I

The Reproductive
System
▪ Gonads – primary sex organs
▪ Testes in males
▪ Ovaries in females
▪ Gonads produce gametes (sex cells) and
secrete hormones
▪ Sperm – male gametes
▪ Ova (eggs) – female gametes
Male Reproductive System
▪ Testes
▪ Duct system
▪ Epididymis
▪ Ductus deferens ▪ Each lobule contains one to four
▪ Urethra seminiferous tubules
▪ Tightly coiled structures
▪ Function as sperm-forming
factories
▪ Empty sperm into the rete testis
▪ Sperm travels through the rete testis to
the epididymis
▪ Interstitial cells produce androgens such
as testosterone

Epididymis
▪ Comma-shaped, tightly coiled tube
▪ Found on the superior part of the testis
and along the posterior lateral side
▪ Functions to mature and store sperm cells
(at least 20 days)
▪ Expels sperm with the contraction of
▪ Accessory organs muscles in the epididymis walls to the vas
▪ Seminal vesicle deferens
▪ Prostate gland
▪ Bulbourethral gland Ductus Deferens (Vas Deferens
▪ External genitalia ▪ Carries sperm from the epididymis to the
▪ Penis ejaculatory duct
▪ Scrotum ▪ Passes through the inguinal canal and
over the bladder
▪ Moves sperm by peristalsis
▪ Spermatic cord – ductus deferens, blood
vessels, and nerves in a connective tissue
sheath
▪ Ends in the ejaculatory duct which unites
with the urethra
▪ Vasectomy – cutting of the ductus
deferens at the level of the testes to
prevent transportation of sperm

Urethra
Testes ▪ Extends from the base of the urinary
▪ Coverings of the testes bladder to the tip of the penis
▪ Tunica albuginea – capsule that ▪ Carries both urine and sperm
surrounds each testis ▪ Sperm enters from the ejaculatory duct
▪ Septa – extensions of the capsule ▪ Regions of the urethra
that extend into the testis and ▪ Prostatic urethra –surrounded by
divide it into lobules. prostate
▪ Membranous urethra – from
prostatic urethra to penis
ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY | M.A., PANSOY_BSN1I
 ▪ Spongy (penile) urethra – runs the ▪ Often removed by
length of the penis circumcision
▪ Internally there are three areas of spongy
Seminal Vesicles erectile tissue around the urethra
▪ Located at the base of the bladder
▪ Produces a thick, yellowish secretion Spermatogenesis
(60% of semen) ▪ Production of sperm cells
▪ Fructose (sugar) ▪ Begins at puberty and continues
▪ Vitamin C throughout life
▪ Prostaglandins ▪ Occurs in the seminiferous tubules
▪ Other substances that nourish and
activate sperm Processes of Spermatogenesis
▪ Spermatogonia (stem cells) undergo rapid
Prostate Gland mitosis to produce more stem cells before
▪ Encircles the upper part of the urethra puberty
▪ Secretes a milky fluid ▪ Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
▪ Helps to activate sperm modifies spermatogonia division
▪ Enters the urethra through several ▪ One cell produced is a stem cell
small ducts ▪ The other cell produced becomes
a primary spermatocyte
Bulbourethral Glands ▪ Primary spermatocytes undergo meiosis
▪ Pea-sized gland inferior to the prostate ▪ Haploid spermatids are produced
▪ Produces a thick, clear mucus ▪ Spermiogenesis
▪ Cleanses the urethra of acidic ▪ Late spermatids are produced with
urine distinct regions
▪ Serves as a lubricant during sexual ▪ Head – contains DNA
intercourse covered by the acrosome
▪ Secreted into the penile urethra ▪ Midpiece
▪ Tail
Semen ▪ Sperm cells result after maturing of
▪ Mixture of sperm and accessory gland spermatids
secretions ▪ Spermatogenesis takes 64 to 72 days
▪ Advantages of accessory gland secretions
▪ Fructose provides energy for
sperm cells
▪ Alkalinity of semen helps
neutralize the acidic environment
of vagina
▪ Semen inhibits bacterial
multiplication
▪ Elements of semen enhance
sperm motility

External Genitalia
▪ Scrotum
▪ Divided sac of skin outside the
abdomen
▪ Maintains testes at 3°C lower than
normal body temperature to
protect sperm viability
▪ Penis
▪ Delivers sperm into the female
reproductive tract
▪ Regions of the penis
▪ Shaft
▪ Glans penis (enlarged tip)
▪ Prepuce (foreskin)
▪ Folded cuff of skin
around proximal
end

ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY | M.A., PANSOY_BSN1I

Anatomy of a Mature Sperm Cell
▪ The only human flagellated cell
▪ DNA is found in the head

Testosterone Production
▪ The most important hormone of the testes
▪ Produced in interstitial cells
▪ Functions of testosterone
▪ Stimulates reproductive organ
development
▪ Underlies sex drive
▪ Causes secondary sex
characteristics
▪ Deepening of voice
▪ Increased hair growth
▪ Enlargement of skeletal
muscles
▪ Thickening of bones

Regulation of Male Androgens (Sex

Hormones)

ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY | M.A., PANSOY_BSN1I