Geographic thought GeES 2011

Unit one

1. Definition of geography
Geography is the study of places and the relationships between people and their environments.
Geographers explore both the physical properties of Earth’s surface and the human societies
spread across it. They also examine how human culture interacts with the natural environment
and the way those locations and places can have an impact on people. Geography seeks to
understand where things are found, why they are there, and how they develop and change
over time.

Geography is the study of places, people, and the natural and built environments they occupy.
Although it is true that Geographers may be well trained in the location of many things and may
be able to show you those things on a map, the true value of the geographic perspective is
found in the Geographer’s ability to explain why things are distributed across space and
through time and to use that knowledge to help guide future decisions about how best to
explore, manage, and protect our world. Geographers are employed everywhere. We are in
schools, government offices, private companies, and non-profit organizations. We are
inventors, entrepreneurs, explorers, teachers, and leaders in our communities. Geographers
learn to change the world and that begins in your classrooms.

Why is Geographic Education Important?

Geography helps students understand complex interactions between Earth’s physical and
human systems, whether they are at the local or the global level. Well rounded geographic
education enables student to acquire the skills necessary to pose and investigate spatial as well
as environmental questions. Geography helps students focus on the patterns and processes
that connect them to the world by teaching them to pose and answer geographic questions.
“Where is it located?” “Why is it there?” “What is significant about its location?” “How is its
location related to the location of other people, places, and environments?” Geography skills
teach students to inquire. They equip them to address and solve problems.
Physical geography is the study of Earth’s seasons, climate, atmosphere, soil, streams,
landforms, and oceans.

Human geography is the study of the distribution of networks of people and cultures on Earth’s
surface.

Geography may be defined as the scientific study of the earth, which describes and analyses the
spatial variations of phenomena that occur on the surface of the earth and treats their
interrelationships and significant regional patterns (areal arrangements). As a synthesizing and
integrating field, it is unified not by its subject matter but rather by its point of view and
method. The subject matter of geography is diversified and broad in scope as it covers variety
of contents integrated under the auspices of spatial aspect.

Geography focuses its attention on the surface of the earth, which is the very thin zone and is the
interface of the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere, which provides the
habitable zone in which humans are able to live.

Geography can be approached by considering two continuums a human – physical continuum

and a topical – regional continuum. The topical (systematic) fields of geography view particular
categories of physical or human phenomena as distributed over the earth while regional
geography is concerned with the associations within regions of all or some of the elements and
their interrelationships.

Geography can make us better-informed citizens more able to understand the important issues
facing our communities and better prepared to contribute solutions. To be geographically
illiterate is to deny oneself not only the ability to comprehend world problems but also the
opportunity to contribute meaningfully to the development of policies for dealing with them.

Geography enables individuals to know the basic futures of the world in which they live, the
great varieties of lands and peoples and complex interrelations of humans with resources;
provides explanations of the distribution of physical, biological and human features on the
earth and their complex chains of interconnection; is useful in resource management,
understanding problems of the environment (Pollution, flood, drought…) and in analyzing
natural hazards and is crucial for land use planning and housing.
 Some Attempts made by scholars:
Ptolemy in 150 AD said that the purpose of geography is to provide a view of the whole earth
by mapping the location of places.

Immanuel Kant in 1780 defined geography as synthesizing discipline of findings of other

sciences through the concept of area or place.

Similar to Kant, Alexander Von Humboldt in 1845 identified geography as synthesizing

discipline to connect the general with the special through measurement, mapping and regional
emphasis.

Ellen Churchill Semple defined geography as the study of how the

environment apparently controls human behavior.

Harland Barrows in 1923 defined it as the study of ecology; adjustment of man to natural
surroundings.

 Ackerman(1963):
“The role and meaning of geography is nothing less than an understanding of the vast,
interacting system comprising all humanity and its natural environment on the surface of the
earth”.

Martin Kenzer in 1989 expressed that geography is concerned with the locational or spatial
variation in both physical and human phenomena at the earth’s surface.

Encyclopedia Britannica defines geography as the description and analysis of the spatial
variations in physical and human phenomena that occur on the surface of the earth and treats
their interrelationships and their significant regional patterns.

 Bird (1989):
“Geography is the scientific study of changing spatial relationships of terrestrial phenomenon
viewed as the world of man”.

 White (2002):
“Geography is a discipline concerned with understanding the spatial dimension of
environmental and social processes”.

 Abler et al (1992):
“ The core of geography is an abiding concern of the human and physical attributes of places
and regions and with the spatial interactions that alter them”.
  Huggett and Robinson ( 1996):
“The distinctiveness of the geographical discipline has always lain in the extent to which it
accommodates a concern for the physical as well as for the human environment and it early
visions of an integrated and holistic world.

 Herbert and Matthews (2001):

“ Geography s the study of the surface of the earth that involves the phenomena of the earth’s
natural and human environments and landscapes at local to global scales”.

 Department of Education and Science, Welsh office (1990):

“ Geography explores the relationship between the earth and its peoples through the study of
places, space and environment”.

 Charles F. Gritzner (2002) gave an integrated nature of the definitions with the
approach of the study in time perspective.
 Maria Sala (2004) defined geography as an environmental science that studies the
interaction between the Geosphere and its components with the Biosphere and the
Anthroposphere.
 The discipline studies about the integration and interdependence between these
spheres.
 According to Gritzner (2002) Geography is the study of:
- “What is where” (Phenomenological and concerned with spatial

distribution)

- “Where”(Spatial) – Location(site and accessibilities, patterns and

scale of distribution whether at Local, Regional and Global levels).

- “Why there”( Analytical)….Agents, processes and interrelationships.

- “Why Care”(Implicational)---Importance, relevance, actions and

reaction.

 The Gritzner’s definition of geography works well for several reasons.

 First, it emphasizes that geography is a methodology stressing on the geographic
way of organizing and analysing information pertaining to the location, distribution,
pattern, and interactions of the varied physical and human features of Earth's
surface.
 All geographic inquiry should begin with the question, "Where?“.
 Geographers and all other scientists ask "Why?“.
  And, of course, most major Earth-bound events, features, and conditions can and
often do have some impact on our lives, thereby begging the question, "Why care?“
 Second, the definition incorporates all traditional geographic subjects, themes, and
traditions.
Many scholars have attempted to define the term geography, but never have come into
complete agreement.

This is mainly because, geography being one of the oldest subjects, it concept has changed
throughout the ages with changes of its role in society.

Even at present geographers could not agree on a common definition of their subject because
they belong to different countries whose level of development is different and to which each
group wants geography to be used is different.

As we can see from the definitions given above many geographers, but not all of them, agree
that geography is the study of the spatial and/or temporal variations of things or phenomena
(both physical and man related activities) on the surface of the Earth.

However, geography is more dynamic than it has ever been with the fact that the discipline is
commonly perceived as lacking unity.

Nature of geography

The proposed course aims at explaining the nature of the subject. It throws light on the
importance of geography and describes the nature of geography as a subject. It attempts to
enrich knowledge and illustrate basic concepts as well as technical terms which are building
blocks of geographic knowledge. Effort, however, has been made to develop the concepts in a
graded and sequencial manner and deepen the interest in the subject.
Geography is one of the oldest earth science and its roots date back in the works of the early
Greek scholars. The word ‘geography’ was first used by the Greek scholar Eratosthenes in the
third century B.C.
Geo “ Earth” and Graphy “ to describe” literal meaning of geography is to describe about the
earth’s surfaces. In other words “Geography is largely the study of the interaction of all physical
and human phenomena and landscapes created by such interactions.” It is about how,why,and
where human and natural activities occur and how these activities are interconnected.
Geography has undergone changes in its approach. The earlier geographers were descriptive
geographers. Later, geography came to be developed as an analytical science. Today the
discipline is not only concerned with descriptions but also with analysis as well as prediction.
Geography is dynamic in nature. Geography is a study of the earth and phenomena related to
it. The earth is dynamic with variations in its physical and cultural environments.
These geographical phenomena, whether physical or human, are not static but highly
dynamic.RAPHY IN DAILY LIFE

Geography, simply put, examines the relationship between man and the natural environment.
Physical and Human Geography serve as the basis for understanding this complex relationship,
which is expressed in the dimensions of time (temporal) and space (spatial). These dimensions
make Geography unique from other disciplines.

Geography is constantly evolving- changing with recent developments in technology. Today, the
study of Geography is gradually taking a different dimension, emanating from the
complex relationships currently existing between humans and the natural environment. The
use of technology has affected the way we relate to and understand our environment.

A geographer explains the phenomena in a frame of cause and effect relationship, as it

does not only help in interpretation but also foresees the phenomena in future.
The geographical phenomena, both the physical and human, are not static but highly
dynamic. They change over time as a result of the interactive processes between
ever changing earth and untiring and ever-active human beings.
Primitive human societies were direc t ly dependent on their im mediat e
environment. Geography, thus, is concerned w i t h t he study of Natur e and
H u m a n interactions as an integrated whole. ‘Human’ is an integral part of ‘nature’
and ‘nature’ has the imprints of ‘human’. ‘Nature’ has influenced different aspects of
human life. Its imprints can be noticed on food, clothing, shelter and occupation.
Human beings have come to terms w i t h nature through adaptation and
modification. As you already know, the present society has passed the stage of
primitive societies, which were directly dependent on their immediate physical
environment forsustenance.
Present societies have modified their natural environment by inventing and using
technology and thus, have expanded the horizon of their operation by appropriating
and utilising the resources provided by nature.
With the gradual development of technology, human beings were able to loosen the
shackles of their physical environment. Technology helped in reducing the harshness
of labour, increased labour efficiency and provided leisure to human beings to
attend to the higher needs of life. It also increased the scale of production and the
mobility of labour.
The interaction between the physical environment and human beings has been very
succinctly described by a poet in the following dialogue between ‘human’ and ‘nature’
(God).You created the soil, I created the cup, you created night, I created the lamp.
You created wilder ness, hilly terrains and deserts; I created flower beds and
gardens. Human beings have claimed their contribution using natural resources. With
the help of technology, human beings moved from the stage of necessity to a stage
of freedom.
They have put their imprints everywhere and created new possibilities in
collaboration with nature. Thus, we now find huma nised nature and
naturalised human beings and geography studies this interactive relationship. The
space got organised with the help of the means of transportation and
communication network.
The links (routes) and nodes (settlements of all types and hierarchies) integrated the
space and gradually, it got organised. As a social science discipline, geography studies
the ‘spatial organisation’ and ‘spatial integration’.
Geography as a discipline is concerned with three sets of questions:
I.Some questions are related to the identification of the patterns of natural and
cultural features as found over the surface of the earth. These are the questions
about what
(II). Some questions are related to thendistribution of the natural and
human/cultural features over the surface of thenearth. These are the questions about
where?
III.The third question is related to the explanation or the causal relationships between
features and the processes andnphenomena. This aspect of geography is related to the
question, why
 Geography as an Integrating Discipline
Geography is a discipline of synthesis. It attempts spatial synthesis, and
history attempts temporal synthesis. Its approach is holistic in nature.
The present world is being perceived as a global village. The distances have been reduced
by better means of transportation increasing accessibility.
The geographical factors have modified the course of history in different partsof the
world.

Every geographical phenomenon undergoes change through time and can be explained
temporally. The changes in landforms, climate, vegetation, economic activities
occupations and cultural developments have followed a definite historical course.

Many geographical features result from the decision making process by different
institutions at a particular point of time. It is possible to convert time in terms of
space and space in terms of time

For example, it can be said that place A is 1,500 km from place B or alternately, it can
also be said that place A is two hours away (if one travels by plane) or seventeen
hours away (if one travels by a fast moving train). It is for this reason, time is an
integral part of geographical studies as the fourth dimension.
GEOGRAPHY IN DAILY LIFE
You must have noticed that the earth’s surface is ever changing; In general, the natural
phenomena like mountains, rivers, lakes etc. change slowly while the cultural elements like
buildings, roads, crops, change fast. Travelling from one place to another you notice that the
trees number and types of trees change from area to area. All this is because of the continuous
interaction between the enviroment in which we live in and the way we use it. The study of
Geography is about observing such patterns. Another aspect of geography is to understand the
factors or reason
behind areal differentiation, how do social, cultural, economic and demographicfactors change
our physical landscape and create new or altered landscapes by human interventions. For
example, human settlements are transformation of forest or barren lands for living purpose by
human being.
Geography is often thought of as the art of making and studying maps. Maps giveus a much
more correct and graphic view of the way the Earth’s surface looks compared to a picture of
drawing. As earlier, even today geographical information about an area is available through
reports, travel diaries and gazeteers. At present maps can be drawn by using satellite images
using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) tools.
Computers easily convert the information from satelite images into maps to show what
changes development can bring about. Such information is of benefit to the society. Such
mapmakers are in great demand today. Nowadays
geographers, engineers, environmental scientists, city planners, social scientists,and many
others learn to use GIS to understand the Earth better.
Geography, not only investigtes what is where on the Earth, but also why it isthere.
Geographers study the location of the activities, carefully identify patterns using maps and find
out the reasons for these patterns. The areas are then described based on the distribution of
land forms, population, house type and agriculture.
They discover the linkages and movements between places and are able to infer the spatial
processes that are working in an area. Today, all over the world there are problems related to
providing food security, health, effective energy use and environmental conservation. Equally
important are equality issues and sustainable development. All these can be achieved by using
our resources in sustainable ways. Study of geography is, therefore, necessary to learn more
about environmental processes and to understand how land use planning can help us to
overcome problems.
Nature of Geography as a disciplin
In brief:
1. Geography is a science of space.
2. Maps are an essential tool of geographers.
3. Digital Geographical Information system is a new tool for making maps.
4. Spatial Planning can be done using both maps and the study of geography
 Geography as a study of the earth’s surface.

 Geography as the study of man-environment relationships.

SCOPE OF GEOGRAPHY
Geography has now acquired the status of science that explains the arrangementsof various
natural and cultural features on the earth surface.Geography is a holistic and interdisciplinary
field of study engaged in understanding the changing spatial structure from past to the future.
Thus, the scope of geography is in various disciplines, like armed services, environment
management, water resources, disaster management, meteriology and planining and various
social sciences. Apart from that, a geographer can help in day to day life like tourism,
commuting, housing and health related activities.e
(i) Physical geography,

(ii) Biogeography, including environmental geography,

(iii) Human geography,

(iv) Geographical methods and techniques

(i) It deals earth systems like atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the lithosphere
(earth solid rock) and biosphere, which encompasser all of earth’s living organisms.
(ii) It focusses on various kinds of forests, grasslands, distribution of flora and fauna, human
nature relationships and the quality of the living environment and its implications for human
welfare.
(iii) It describes culture, populations, dynamics of social, economic, and political aspects of
space.
(iv) It deals with methods and techniques for field studies, qualitative quantitative and
cartographic analysis and Geographic Information System and Global positioning system (GIS
and GPS) and remote sensing.
 Geography has developed in four periods i.e. ancient period, pre-modern period, modern
period and recent.
 Geography is a holistic and interdisciplinary field of study engaged in understanding the
chaning speatial structure at different territorial level.of Geography as a dis

1.2 Themes of Geography

Geography is more than memorizing names and places. Geographers organize space in much
the same way that historians organize time. To help organize space, geographers are concerned
with asking three important questions about things in the world:

• Where is it?

• Why is it there?

• What are the consequences of its being there?

The five themes of geography help answer these questions:

• Location: Where is it located?

• Place: What's it like there?

• Human/Environment Interaction: What is the relationship between humans and their

environment?

• Movement: How and why are places connected with one another?

• Regions: How and why is one area similar to another?

No one theme can be understood without the others. The themes are connected with one
another, as are all components of our world. No part of our world can be understood in
isolation.

The five themes of geography are location, place, human-environment interaction, movement,
and region

Location

I. Location: Position on Earth's Surface

Absolute and relative location is two ways of describing the positions and distribution of people
and places on the earth's surface.

Absolute location answers the questions: Where is it?

Absolute location is nothing more than a simple dot--often identified as a grid coordinate on
the surface of the earth. Latitude and longitude can be used to pinpoint a location. For
example, the absolute location of New Orleans, Louisiana, is 30 degrees north, 90 degrees west.
Finding absolute location is the starting point for geographic research.

Relative location is the relationship of a place to other places.

For example, New Orleans is located at the place where the Mississippi River empties into the
Gulf of Mexico, which gives it easy access to ocean and river shipping. Your home has a relative
location. Where is it located in relation to schools, stores, and convenient transportation?

Location is only one piece of the framework of geography, yet it is an important theme because
it helps us know and express where things are.

Discuss answers to these questions about your location:

• What is the latitude and longitude coordinates of your absolute location.

• What is your relative location and the relationship of your location to other locations?

• How does the importance of your location change over time?

Most geographic studies begin by learning the location of places. Location can be absolute or
relative.

Absolute location: Provides a definite reference for locating a place. The reference can
be latitude and longitude, a street address, or even the Township and Range system. For
example, you might be located at 183 Main Street in Anytown, USA or you might be positioned
at 42.2542° N, 77.7906° W.

Relative location: Describes a place with respect to its environment and its connection to other
places. As an example, a home might be located 1.3 miles from the Atlantic Ocean, .4 miles
from the town's elementary school, and 32 miles from the nearest international airport.

Place
The theme of place addresses this question: What's it like there? This theme considers the
characteristics that make one place different from all other places on earth.

The theme of place helps flesh out information about location. Taken together, the themes of
location and place provide a basis for observation in geography. These themes can be used to
help answer the first two questions of geography: Where is it? And why is it there? With a
sense of physical and human place, we can read the landscape around us and make
observations about what we see. We’ll explore more about physical and human places when
we look at the theme of region.

Discuss answers to these questions about your place:

• How would you describe where you live physically? Is your place flat or hilly, hot or cold, wet
or dry? What natural resources are found there?

• What are some of the human characteristics that describe your place? For example, what
types of houses are there? Are patterns of land use different from those in other parts of the
country? What types of industry are found, and how might they be different from industries in
other parts of the country?

Place describes the human and physical characteristics of a location.

 Physical characteristics: Includes a description of such things as mountains,

rivers, beaches, topography, climate, and animal and plant life of a place. If a
place is described as hot, sandy, fertile, or forested, these terms all paint a
picture of the location's physical characteristics. A topographical map is one tool
used to illustrate the physical characteristics of a location.
 Human characteristics: Includes the human-designed cultural features of a place.
These features include land use, architectural styles, forms of livelihood, religious
practices, political systems, common foods, local folklore, means of
transportation, and methods of communication. For example, a location could be
 described as a technologically advanced French-speaking democracy with a
Catholic majority.

III. Human/Environment Interaction: Shaping the Landscape

The physical and human characteristics of a place provide keys to understanding the
interrelationships between people and their environments. This geographic theme addresses
this question: What is the relationship between humans and the environment?

Three key concepts underlie human/environment relationships:

a. Humans depend on the environment: The natural environment is made up of

living things and non-living things. Humans depend on the natural environment
for their basic needs; food, shelter, and clothing.

b. Humans modify the environment: People modify the natural environment to

meet their needs. For example, they build dams, plow and irrigate fields, and dig
mines. They build houses, schools, and shopping centers on land.

c. Humans adapt to the environment: Humans have settled in virtually every corner
of the world by successfully adapting to various natural settings. For example,
people who live in the northeastern United States use heating units to keep their
homes warm in winter People in the southern part of the country use air
conditioning much of the year to stay cool in the heat. The ways people choose
to adapt to their settings reflect their economic and political circumstances and
their technological abilities. Studying geography furthers appreciation of our
natural environment and of our cultural differences.

Discuss answers to these questions about the human/environment interaction where you live:

• What examples of human/environment interaction do you see in your area?

• Do you see evidence of exploited resources?

• Do you see changes in the landscape in animal habitats? Are there changes in the air, water,
and soil?

Movement

The theme movement addresses this question: How and why are places connected with one
another? Relationships between people in different places are shaped by the constant
movement of people, ideas, materials, and physical systems such as wind. Our world is in
constant motion, constantly changing. Like blood flowing through our bodies, movement brings
life to a place.

Discuss answers to these questions about movement where you live:

• What examples of movement of people, goods, or ideas do you see in your area?

• Has immigration had an impact on your area? If so, what has happened?

• What are the transportation routes in your area?

Humans move—a lot! In addition, ideas, fads, goods, resources, and communication all travel
distances. This theme studies movement and migration across the planet. The emigration of
Syrians during war, the flow of water in the Gulf Stream, and the expansion of cell phone
reception around the planet are all examples of movement.

V. Regions: How they Form and Change

A region is a basic unit of geographic study. It is defined as an area that has unifying
characteristics. The study of regions helps us answer these questions: How and why is one area
similar to another? How do the areas differ? Most regions differ significantly from adjoining
areas.

Some regions are distinguished by physical characteristics.

Physical characteristics include land forms, climate, soil, and natural vegetation. For example,
the peaks and valleys of the Rocky Mountains form a physical region.
Some regions are distinguished by human characteristics. These may include economic, social,
political, and cultural characteristics. The highly urbanized Northeast Corridor between Boston
and Washington, D.C. can be considered a human region. Other regions are combinations of
physical and human characteristics, for example, the South, Scandinavia, and the Midwest.

Boundaries between regions can be vague. Regions are generally thought of as large areas, such
as the Corn Belt in the Midwestern United States or sub-Saharan Africa. Overhead
transparencies will help the teacher demonstrate that a region can be as small as a classroom
learning center, a neighborhood, an industrial park, or a recreational area.

Discuss answers to these questions about regions where you live:

• How many different regions can you identify within your area?

• How many larger regions does your area belong to?

Regions divide the world into manageable units for geographic study. Regions have some sort
of characteristic that unifies the area and can be formal, functional, or vernacular.

 Formal regions: These are designated by official boundaries, such as cities, states,
counties, and countries. For the most part, they are clearly indicated and publicly
known.
 Functional regions: These are defined by their connections. For example, the circulation
area for a major city area is the functional region of that paper.
 Vernacular regions: These include perceived regions, such as "The South," "The
Midwest," or the "Middle East"; they have no formal boundaries but are understood
in mental maps of the world.ESOFGEOGRAPHYB

1.3 Branches of Geography

Variable phenomena on the earth’s surface can be treated seperatehy or in association. They
are classified and categorised into physical phenomena and human phenomena. Thus
geography has three main branches : Physical Geography, Human Geography and Regional
Geography.
 Geography

Huma
n
Regional

Macro Meso Micro

Region Region Region
Geomorpholog Oceanography Bio-
y geograph
y

Plant or
Flor
Zoo or Human
Fauna Ecology

Population Political Social

Cultural Economi Historica Settleme

Geographyc l nt

Urba
Rura n
l
 Urban Agricultural

Industrial

Fig 1.1: Branches of Geography

A. Physical Geography

Physical geography is concerned with the study and explanation of physical phenamena,
encompassing the other such fields like geology, meteriology, zoology and chemistry. It became
a very popular subject during the later part of the nineteen century. It has a number of sub-
branches which treat different kind of physical phenomena.

(i) Astronomical Geography : It studies the celestial phenomena which cancern the Earth’s
surface particularly Sun, Moon and Planets of the Solar System.

(ii) Geomorphology : It is concerned with the study of the landforms on the Earth’s surface. It
includes origin and development of landforms through erosional, transportational and
depositional processes of water, wind and glaciers.

(iii) Climatology : Climatology is the study of the atmospheric conditions and related climatic
and weather phenomena. It includes the study of atmospheric composition, climatic regions
seasons, etc.

(iv) Oceanography : It is concerned with the study of various types of Oceanic formate
component and processes related to ocean floor depths, currents, coralsreefs, and continental
drifts etc.

(v) Soil Geography : It studies various soil forming processes, their physicol,chemical and
biological constituents, their colour and types, texture, and distribution and carrying capacity
etc.

(vi) Bio-geography : It is concerned with the biological phenomena in space, especially in terms
of the distribution of various kinds of floral and faunal species. Biogeography may be subdivided
into plant or floral geography, animals or faunal geography, and human ecology.
B. Human Geography

Human Geography is the synthetic study of the relationship between human societies and the
earth’s surface. It is made up of three closely linked components : the spatial analysis of the
human population ; the ecological analysis of the relation between human population and its
environment and the regional synthesis which combines the first two themes in an areal
differentiation of the earth’s surface.e of Geography as a discipline

Human geography has a number of sub-branches.

(i) Anthropogeography : It largely deals with racial phenomena in their spatialcontext.

(ii) Cultural geography : It focusses on the origin, components and impact ofhuman culturs,
both material and non-material.

(iii) Economic geeography : It refers to the study of the location and distributionof economic
activities at the local, regional, national and world scale. Economicgeography can be studied
under the following heads : Resource geography.Agricultural geography, Industrial and
transport geography.

(iv) Political geography : It is the study of political phenomena in their spatialcontext. Main
focus remains for creation and transformation of political and administrative region.

(v) Historical geography : Spatial and temporal trends of geographical phenomena are
studied in Historical geography.

(vi) Social geography : It is the analysis of social phenomena in space.Poverty, health,

education, livelihood are some important fields of study in social geography.

(vi) Population geography : It is the study of various dimensions of populationlike its population
distribution density, composition, ferrility, mortality, migrationetc.

(viii) Settlement geography : It is the study of Rural/Urban settlements, theirsize, distribution,

functions, heirach, and off various other parameters of settlement system.

(C) Regional geography :

Aspects such as delineation of regions, their geographical characteristics and processes of

change constitute regional geography.re of Geography as a disciplias ature of Geography as re
of Geograp

As it studies both enviroment and the people. It connects the physical and culturalworld.
Physical geography studies the earth systems that create natural environment.Human
geography is concerned with the political, economic, social, cultural anddemographic processes.
It is concerned with the different ways in which resourcesare used.

Earlier geography merely described places. Even though, this is still a part ofgeography, the
pattern of description has changed a lot in recent years.Geographical phenomena and
processes are generally described by two

approaches viz. (i) regional and (ii) systematic. Regional approaches are charactrerized by
understanding the formation and characterstic of regions. They try to focus on how and why
areas are different from each other. Regions can be physical, social, economic, political,
demographic etc.

Systematic approach is organized in terms of particular phenomena of generalgeographic

significance. Each phenomena is studied in terms of the relations of itsareal differentiations with
the others.

Now we understand the cause and impact of natural and human phenomena in creating
physical and human landscapes.

Geography has three main branches : Physical human and regional. Physicalgeography is
further subdivided into several other branches namely. geomorphology,climatology,
oceanography, soil and biogeography. Human Geography is also subdivided into other branches
like, cultural, population, social, economic and political. Regional geography is subdivided in
other branches like Macro, Meso and Micro.All these subjects are interrelated to each other.
 Unit two
2. Origin and Evolution of Geography

The moment that early humans first looked around their world with inquiring minds was the moment
that geography was born.
The history of geography is the history of human effort to understand the nature of the world.
The history of geography is closely connected with the history of human society and its development.
It is part of human interests, and indicators/examples can be found in all ancient cultures.
But as a science, geography is relatively young and many of its fundamentals appear during the
nineteenth century.
Through the centuries, people have asked of Geography three basic questions:
• What is the earth like?
• Where are things located?
• How can one explain these observations?
Thus, the roots of Geography, as a field of study, goes back to the pre-classical Antiquity before 1750.
In the Western world, the Greeks and the Romans were among the first to write about and study
geography. The ancient Greeks had contact with many older civilizations and began to gather
together information about the known world.

 History of Geography can be learnt by grouping under 4 headings together with future
geography:
1) Early/Ancient Geographic ideas;

1.1. Pre-historic ideas (ca.2.5million years to ca.3000BC/1500BC)

1.2. Historic Period Geographic ideas (ca.3000BC/1500BC to Middle age)

2. Pre-modern Geographies

2.1. Medieval Geographies,

2.2. Enlightenment/Renaissance Period,

3) Modern Geography,

4) Post-modern Geography,
2.1. Early Geographical ideas (Up to ca.3000/1500BC)

 Geographical history/perceptions can be traced from very ancient cultures;

 It is closely connected with the history of human society and its development.
 It is part of human interests,
 precedents can be found in all ancient cultures,
 But as a science, geography is relatively young, and
th
 Many of its fundamentals appear during the 19 c Enlightenment.
th
 In the early 19 c, it was firmly established based, in many aspects, on the Darwinian evolution;

Chinese geographical writings are considered the first predecessors, followed by and developed during
the Greek & Roman times. They are the first on the line of physical geography and the second on the
human aspects.
 Pilgrimages, i.e. travels for trade and the discovery of new lands contributed significantly to
geographical knowledge, as it did the astronomical discoveries.
 The Germans, namely Humboldt and Ritter, are considered the fathers of modern geography,
 After them and up to the present: New directions have developed within geography, mainly due
to the introduction of quantitative and technical tools and to the recent globalization;
  In short, hundreds of individuals have contributed to the development of geographic ideas since
ancient times, and even recently;
??? How geography has become a separate scientific field of study?

 This took thousands of years.

 The earliest records show that Geographical ideas started during ancient times as a result of:

 man’s interest in the physical world/natural environment’s surrounding him,

 This interest was accompanied by observations and speculations of a geographical type.

 Thus, the history of geography can be traced back to the history of thinking about the
nature of the environment space and place.

NB. Speculation- means opinion/reasoning based on incomplete information,

 We can therefore say that the modern academic discipline, geography, is traced back in the
ancient practices such as:
 Observation of places,
 Gathering of facts about those places,
 Characterization of those places, and
 Speculation of geographic type.
 In later times, geography grew up as a result of:
 Explorations (traveling for discovery) & observation through a pretext to trade, colonization, etc
 Mapping of areas observed and known, and
 Speculations about the materials collected.
2.2. Prehistoric Geographic Ideas (ca.2.5million years ago to ca.1500 BC)

 Written records are also believed to have occurred at about ca.3000 bc.

 This is a period before written records appeared,

 It is Characterized by the absence of recorded history or literature,

 Although pre-historic people explored different parts of the world around them, they
did not record it;
  Regarding the Origin, development’s and diffusion of Geographic ideas during the
prehistory period:

 It is difficult to trace where and when it was exactly originated, diffused and spread,
because

 There was no writing system/recorded history,

 Prehistory period includes: Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age.

 The Stone Age:

o refers to the earliest period of human history,

o Tools and weapons were made of stones rather than metals;

o It is divided into the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic periods.

o Extends from around 2.5 million years ago to 3000/2400/1500BC.

 The Bronze Age:

o refers to historical period of bronze tools (alloy of copper & tin),

o is a period of cultural history, approximately between 3500 and 1500 bc,

o it succeeded the Stone Age and was characterized by the use of tools made of bronze,

 The Iron Age:

o An era regarded as the third and last step of prehistory,
o Iron was used for making tools and weapons,
o It began around 1500 BC especially in Southwest Asia,

??So, how did prehistory people preserved & transmitted geographic ideas?

There are two possible ways by which such societies without written records preserved &
transferred their history (knowledge) to the later generations:
 through Oral Traditions: stories/legend,
  This narration of stories may disappear as the society dies,

It was a time when Societies without written records preserved their history & work through
story telling or orally (through legend) from one generation to another.
 In this case, Archaeological evidences are used to reconstruct the events of the prehistory
period,
 Accordingly, archaeological evidences obtained from different centers of civilization revealed
that at the initial stage:
 Geography Marched at only a snail’s pace,
 There is consensus that all civilizations contributed to the advancement of geographic concepts
and k/dge.
 Consequently it is believed that:
 Astronomy flourished in the ff. centers of civilization:
 Chaldaea-ancient region of Mesopotamia, between the Euphrates and the Persian Gulf, in
modern-day Iraq,
o Euphrates: is river in Southwest Asia, rising in Turkey and flowing through Syria and Iraq before
joining the Tigris River near the Persian Gulf.
o Persian Gulf:- gulf of the Arabian Sea, with Iran to its northeast and the Arabian peninsula to its
southwest.
Tigris is: a river in Southwestern Asia, rising in Turkey and flowing through Iraq before joining the
Euphrates to form the Shatt al Arab (river at the boundary of Iraq & Iran, which empties into the
Persian,

NB: These areas are characterized by clear skies which were suitable for astronomy,
 Geometry:-developed in the fertile arable lands of:
 the Nile valley,
 the Sumer- the ancient non-semitic people of the Babylonia
 the Babylonia itself.

??why geometry flourished mainly in the Nile valley?

 It is believed that the monks & priests of Egypt were frequently engaged in measuring the area,
length, width of the area flooded by the Nile river, and the angles of deviation of the direction of
the flood.
  Physical geography:- flourished in Greece, a country characterized by diverse relief features and
indented coastlines.
In general, before Hellenic culture (Greeks’ civilization):

 Geography was regarded as the knowledge of:

 topographical features, mountains, rivers, and

 places of ones own nation and its boundaries,

 Emphasis was on “Where” is “what” question,

 This time was dominated by location and description of places.

 In other words, systematic thinking of geography goes back to the period of Greeks,

 Now, we shall see the contribution of Individual philosophers to the development of

geography as a systematic and scientific discipline.

A) Ancient Egyptians and Jews:

 Were the influential contributors to advancement of geographic knowledge,

 along the coast of Mediterranean Sea, Asia Minor

E.g. the Old-Testament-the religious book of the Jews, contain numerous geographical details
concerning Palestine and its neighbors.

B) The Phoenicians:

 Occupy ancient region of the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea (Asia Minor) in modern-day
Lebanon, Syria, Coastal Turkey and Israel.
 were the greatest traders and sailors of the ancient,
 After Jews & Egyptians, they contributed to the advancement of geographical knowledge,
 Tyre & Sidon were their major Ports & towns,
 Established Carthage (near the present Tunis) in about 813 BC as their colony.
  Thus, Phoenicians were the first repositories (warehouse) of geographical knowledge,
 But, they were narrow and selfish and secretive in their policies,
 Thus, this character prevented them from communicating the information with the rest of the
World,
 In short, Phoenicians’ interest in Trade and colonization contributed a sort of geographical
knowledge.
C.Greeks:

 They were pioneers in many branches of knowledge,

 Their period is known as “Golden age of Greece” for the following reasons:
rd
 They were well civilized, w/c thrived around the Mediterranean Sea from the 3 millennium to

st
1 c BC,

 They reached highest level of prosperity even during classical age (ca. 480 to 323 BC),
 produced amazing cultural accomplishments,
 they were the origin of democracy we enjoy today,
 Advanced in architecture—building technology, etc,
 Had well organized government systems,
 Above all, they possessed philosophical & scientific aptitudes.
Similarly, systematic geographic thought goes back to the period of Greeks,

NB:- The Jews and Egyptians:

 collected large number of observations on the position and movement of celestial bodies
(Astronomy),
 They attempted to describe the observed objects; w/c is different from systematic thinking.
 Greeks, however, went much beyond descriptions.

??Why geographic knowledge advanced much more in their times?

 B/c, unlike Phoenicians, they were open minded, and had non-secretive policy,
 This enabled them communicate information with the rest of the World,
As a result, borrowed many concepts of astronomy from Egyptians, Chaldacans, and
Assyrians;
 Its Physical condition was suitable for geographic studies due to:
 Its location on both sides of Aesian Sea,
  Great diversity of its topography & physical features,
 Greece is undulating country,
 Many of its peak are snow covered in winter,
 Their interest in expedition and colonization enabled them explore the area around the
Mediterranean Sea.
 some individual contributors among the many Greek scholars & philosophers include:
 Its Physical condition was suitable for geographic studies due to:

 Its location on both sides of Aesian Sea,

 Great diversity of its topography & physical features,

 Greece is undulating country,

 Many of its peak are snow covered in winter,

 Their interest in expedition and colonization enabled them explore the area around the
Mediterranean Sea.

 Some individual contributors among the many Greek scholars & philosophers include:

I. Homer:
 Was probably the greatest Greek poet,

 He composed Iliad & Odyssey probably between the 8th c - 6thc BC,

 In these epic poems (long narrative poems),

 Describe the episodes of Trojan War waged b/n 1280 and 1180 BC. (Trojan---the people
of Troy).

NB:- Trojan War-in Greek legend, it is the greatest war waged by Greeks against Troy (city of
ancient Greece in Aesian seacoast, in present-day Turkey).

 The cause of the war was the abduction of Helen, the beautiful wife of the king of
Sparta, by the Trojan prince, Paris.

??But how did Homer Contributed to the dev’t of geographical knowledge:

 His epic poems contain valuable information about historical geography of the known
world,

 Homer himself was interested in:

 Location and characterization of places,

 Believed the Earth:

 to be circular form,

 surrounded by the ocean river in all sides,

 Conceived the sky as:

 a solid concave surface,

 equals in the extent to the Earth,

 Resting on tall pillars.

 His belief in the sun that:

 It rose in the Ocean Streams, and sank again into the same at its setting,

 How it sank in the same place was not questioned in his time,

 The stars follow the same course and bathing themselves every day in waters of the
Ocean.

 He also described the four winds coming from four different directions.

 These include:

A. Bores: - are North winds characterized by strong & cool winds with clear skies.
B. Eurus: - are the East winds, char. By warm and gentle force.

C. Notus:- was the South winds on the front of the advancing storm

-characterized by wet & sometimes violent nature.

D. Zephyrus:- was the West wind characterized by an extremely strong force.
 Homer was not familiar with the term Europe and Asia.
 But, in later times the term Europe was associated with Aesean Sea towards sun set, while Asia
was applied to the shore towards sun rise.
 Due to these contributions, ancient Greeks saw Homer as the “founding father of geography”

II. Thales of Miletus (ca.625?-546?BC) :-

 Was Greek philosopher born in Miletus, Asia Minor.
 The first Greek philosopher to organized several basic theorems of geometry;
 The first to initiate measurements of the earth & to try to locate things on the surface of the
earth;
 Visualized the earth as disk floating in water
 Famed for his k/dge of astronomy after predicting the eclipse of the sun that occurred on
May 28, 585 BC.
 believed to have introduced geometry in Greece,

 Before Thales, explanations of the universe were mainly mythological,

 His concentration on the basic physical substance of the world marks the birth of
scientific thought.

 The first to initiate the measurement of the Earth and try to locate things on the face
of the Earth,

 He was practical business man who used to travel to Egypt,

On his trip to Egypt:

 He observed Egyptian priests measuring angles, baselines and computing areas,

 This inspired Thales to deal with geometry,

 He solved many problems of:

- geometry (mathematics of shapes) and,

- trigonometry (mathematics of triangle, e.g. as used in survey),

  Thus, Thales, like Anaximander, is referred to as founder of Mathematical Geography.

 Pioneered in making World map to scale;

 Greece was the center of his map;
 However, Sumerians before him had drawn pictorial map of their cities as early as 2700BC,

NB: Sumerians- lived in ancient country of Southern Mesopotamia, the present-day Iraq.

Anaximander’s map is characterized by:

 Greece shown in the center of the World,
 His map was circular and was bounded by the Ocean river in all sides;
 In general, Thales and Anaximander are recognized as founders of Mathematical Geography.

Hecataeus : –
 Was another Greek great statesman and pioneer geographer.
 Traveled extensively the then known World,
 Gave a general survey of the World,
 Wrote the first systematic description of the world in his book entitled “Ges-Periodos”
(description of the Earth),
 Periodos is the first systematic description of the Earth,
 In this book, he described Europe & Libia (Africa plus Asia);
 B/c of this work, Hecataeus is known as the founding ‘father of geography’.
 As such, he is considered as the chief ethnographer.

 Aware of some of physical processes that transform the surface of the Earth,

 had enormous information about Africa,

 visited Cyrene (Aswan) (the then center of Greek life and culture ),

 New the Nile valley very well,

 In the Nile, he visited Maroes- the capital of Aethiopian (Ethiopia),

 Maroes city was located to the North of Khartoum ,

 Herodotus regarded Ethiopians as remote dwellers, which occupied the Southern most
parts of Africa,
  New very well the Nile valley;

 The first to note the process by w/c large rivers such as the Nile built up deltas through
silt & mud that were brought down by the rivers of Ethiopia,

 The first to record that winds blow from colder to warmer areas;

 The first to draw meridians on the world map;

 the first scholar to divide the World landmass into 3 continents:

 Europe, Asia and Libya (Africa).

 Thus, his contribution to geography could be said enormous.

 As a result, Herodotus is considered as one of the founding fathers of geography;

III.Alexander the Great (356-323 bc):

 Was king of Macedonia at age of 20 and was commander-in-chief of military power.

 Aristotle was Alexander's tutor,

 This tutorial inspired Alexander for testing theory by keen observation,

 Taught his pupil to go and observe themselves to prove whether theory should be
accepted or rejected.

 His knowledge of the World came out due to great expeditions he made.

 During his expedition to south, conquered Egypt and founded the city of Alexandria in
332 BC.

 It is believed that he contributed much to advancement of historical & regional

geography

IV.Eratosthenes (ca.276-196bc):

 Was Greek mathematician, astronomer, geographer, and poet,

  Was born in Greek colony, Cyrene (Libya) in 276BC.

 Was the first trained scientific geographer who ascertained the length of equator based
on sound principles?

 Attempted to give the subject of geography a systemic form,

 Constructed World map based on more scientific principles,

 Tried to measure the circumference of the Earth ,

 He made one theoretical error only while measuring the circumference of the Earth-i.e.
considering the Earth as a perfect circle rather than being spheroid.

 Tried to determine different latitudes and longitudes,

 In general, Eratosthenes :

 devised crude locative grid systems,

 Before him it was impossible to locate places nearly accurately,

 His work lied a foundation for present day sophisticated grid system & location,

 He is better known in Geometry, who first calculated the size of the Earth almost
accurately.

 Attempted to calculate the distance of the Earth from the sun and the moon,

V. The Roman Contribution to Geography

 After Greeks, political power passed into the hands of the Romans.
 The Roman armies made expeditions to d/t directions such as to Central Europe, Britain and Asia
Minor.
 As a result, they contributed to mainly physical & regional geography;
 Strabo (63BC- AD24):
 was Greek geographer and historian, born in Amasya, Pontus (now in Turkey).
 Was the first scholar who conceived the idea of complete geographical treatise,
  i.e. his work was the first attempt to bring together all of the then known geographical
knowledge in the form of general treatise.
 In fact, his treatise is criticized b/c it is believed to be an improvement over the works of
Eratosthenes.
VI.Ptolemy (ad100-170):

 Came after Strabo (63BC – 24AD),

 Improved the locative grid system devised by Eratosthenes,

 Devised and used Latitudes and longitudes on maps to accurately locate places on maps.

 Was one of those whole developed sound principles of mathematical geography;

 His writing inspired the geographers & explorers of the “Age of discovery” (the 14 th &
15th centuries AD);

 His concept of the ‘universe’ coincides with Aristotlians that:

 This is known as ‘ptolemaic system theory’.

 The was seen as remained as a stationary object in the center of the universe;

 The celestial bodies revolved around the earth in a circular orbits;

 This was known as ‘geo-centric approach to the universe,

 This has served as a governing principle until the time of Copernicus (17th c AD).

 It was during Copernicus that a helio-centric approach to the universe appeared & applied;

 This is known as Copernican system Theory.

 NB:- the ptolemy’s period marked the highest point to w/c geographical science ever
reached

2.3. Medieval Geographic Ideas (ca.AD200-1400

 th th
 Roughly occurred approximately b/n 5 c and 15 c in Europe,

 Believed to have occurred at d/t in d/t parts of he world;

 It is generally known to have been divided into two:
a) Medieval European geography, and
b) Medieval Muslim (Arab) Geography.

a) Medieval European Geography (AD 200 – 1400s)

 After Ptolemy, geography deteriorated (declined) in Europe b/c:
 The Roman empire was decayed & disintegrated;
 Literature, science & exploration in Europe & S-W Asia declined while flourishing in China, India
& S-E Asia.
 No single work in any field of the sciences & humanities was written;
 There was a continuous deterioration in both the theory & practical geography;
The reason for such deterioration of scientific geography was not well-known. However,

a good speculation is that:

i) Domination of Christianity in Europe; as a result:

 The habits of geographical thinking deteriorated,

 The practice of travelling w/c aimed at promoting geography deteriorated,

 Curiosity about unknown diminished owing to decreased interest in travelling,

 The ‘where’ & ‘why’ questions were entirely answered by the church,

 No experience tested geography since no travelling,

 Thus, scientific geography was replaced by religious cosmology,

ii) Parts of the Roman empire were passed into the hands of barbarians (uncivilized &
cruel people) & vandals (invaders from other countries such as Germany);

- As a result, travel was hazardous in the region.

- Accordingly, the period was termed as dark-age (period of turmoil-upset, confusion) for
Europeans;

- Only Scandinavians were active in geographic travelling in Europe;

b) Medieval Muslim Geography (AD 800 – 1200)

 This period was relatively advantageous for the development of scientific geography in
Arab world b/c:

 Of Islamic civilization since the 7th c AD,

 Muslims were curious in travel & k/dge of places,

 There was huge Muslim empire,

 Travel to other areas (Mecca & Medina)-pilgrimage-were encouraged,

 Common language (Arabic) & religion (Islam) encourage travel;

 However, in later times, Muslim geography declined due to:

 Unavailability of Ptolemy’s work to the later Muslim period,

 Breakout of Muslim empire-as a result, lack of communication,

 Geography, however, was flourishing in China, India, and S-E Asia.

C) The Age of Exploration (Post-1200 European Geography):

 This is also known as the period of renaissance & Enlightenment, i.e.:

 Revival of geographic k/dge, generally b/n AD 14th & 17th c in Europe;

 Transition from Middle Age to modern age,

 With the motto of universal education & information,

 Known as “Golden Age of geography”

  Also known as the “Age of European Exploration & Discovery”.

 Also known as “pre-modern” age in Europe;

 During this period:

 New routes to different parts of the world were opened;

 Explorers & navigators provided vital information used by the cartographers to make
maps;

 The Post-1200 was, thus the time of fundamental progress in geographic

knowledge as a result of:
 Increased interest in travel,
 Important advances in maritime technology,
 Accurate knowledge of absolute location,
 The rediscovery of the Greek & Roman geographic works,
 As a result of this important developments, it is argued that, geography &
cartography have never been as successful & useful as it was b/n 1500 & 1800.

???Why such successfulness during this period?

 Map & Atlas making was flourished;

 New places were rapidly discovered,
 Reports of these discoveries increased the existing knowledge,
 Accurate k/dge of locations & routes to d/t places were opened,
Shortest routes & accurate navigations were know

 These development’ts made geography the most important tool to the society,
 In other words:
 Geography’s utility was peaked from about AD 1500 to 1800,
 Geography was highly profitable during this period,
 Geographers of the period had offered geographical k/dge to the society very much;
 i.e., the societal contribution of geography was the highest (maximum)

2.4. Modern Geography (ca.1800 – 1950)

 th
 In Europe, it extends from the end of the Middle Ages (early 19 C, i.e. 1800)

th
NB: the period between the middle of 15 c to 1800 is called Pre-modern era.
o It is also called the age of exploration or enlightenment or renaissance.
o the pre-1800s geography emphasized on location & limited interest in description.
 This is called the “era of locative geography”.
The year 1800s forms an important watershed b/n pre-modern & modern geography.
o Since 1800, geography entered into new phase of development-
o Carl Ritter (1799-1857)and
o Von Alexander Hamboldt (1769-1859) are frequently referred to as the founders of modern
geography;
In contrast, the post-1800 (modern period) is considered as the “era of
descriptive/verbal geography”
o In fact, the roots of descriptive geography however go back to the times of Greeks.
 Emphasis was placed on qualitative description of places;
 Early attempt to generalization of spatial k/dge,
 Thinking of areal differentiation (variation) began to take deep-rooted;
 Regional approach reached its peak. i.e.,
 Homogeneous regions were created,
 Their location & boundaries were accurately demarcated
 Massive accumulation of regional studies made,
However, such a study was not challenging & did not satisfy geographers (scholars) of the day
like Schaefer.

???What did happen?

 New way of thinking geography was proposed by the then students (scholars), mainly Fred
Schaefer.
Schaefer criticized “regional geographic” approach in his publication “Exceptionalism in
Geography” in 1953.
 Schaefer & his friends want challenging questions that would replace mere memorization of
facts in regional geography.
 As a result of such curiosity of geography students:
  The trend of geographic thinking began to change,
 Greater emphasis was begun to be placed on formulation of hypothesis, law, theories & models,
 It is the period of change from description to explanation in geography;
 As such, this was the introduction (beginning) of theoretical geography.
 Thus, the year 1950s became the watershed b/n Regional geography & theoretical geography.
 In other words, it is watershed b/n the Old school of thought and new school of thought in
geography.

2.5. Post-1950 Geography: Theoretical Geography

 This can be seen as a new school of thought in geography;

 Concerned with quantitative techniques: mathematics/statistics,

 Focuses on search for k/dge regardless of its practical values;
 As a result, the period since 1960s is considered as the period of “quantitative
revolution”;
 Based on empiricism/positivism- a philosophical approach;

 focused on verification principle,

 uses models & statistics to test hypothesis,
The aim was to establish universal laws & prediction

 In 1970s, Behavioral Geography evolved following critiques on the application of

quantitative methods in theoretical geography.
 Quantitative techniques during the period of theoretical geography placed
much emphasis on physical geography while underestimating human
geography.
 In Behavioral geography, geographers place emphasis on the perception of the
physical environment subjectively rather than objective measurements &
quantification of the env’t.
 Decision-making depends on the mental map of the environment.
 Human behavior is subject to the way individuals perceive their environment.
 Chapter three

School of thought in geography

 Throughout the history of geography, geographers have been confronted with
conceptual, methodological limitations and problems of dualism and dichotomy.
 In the delineation of the sphere of geography and the methodologies to be adopted for
its study, there have existed and still exist significant dichotomies.
 Dualism, on the other hand, is not peculiar to geography; it is shared by all sister
disciplines.
 Dualistic thinking in geography became more conspicuous during the post-renaissance
period in Europe. Since that period, geography has been visible into a number of
mutually exclusive branches
 However, during the period of pre-history, there had been an obscure and vague
dualism.
Human-Environment
Human-environment relationship is the interplay between people and their environment,
including the elements and arrangements by which people use the environment and the
limitations the environment puts on human behavior

 Human beings depend on the environment

 Human beings adapt to the environment
 Human beings modify the environment
 determinism and possibilism are the dominant theories.

Till date, they are considered as an irreconcilable paradox among them

 It has been a debate for years that flourished from ancient to modern period

 Among geographers, a great number of them have strongly emphasized the effect of
environmental determinist on man’s activity. And also a great number are supporting the
notion of possibilism

 Relph (1987) said, “the landscapes and places we live are important. Whether we shape
them or they shape us, they are the expressions of what we are. Our lives are impoverished
precisely to the extent that we ignore them.”

Theoretical Perspectives in Human Environment Interaction

 The Dichotomy between Determinism Vs Possibilism

 Man-environment/ nature interaction has variously been treated at different times

in history.

 The first approach adopted by geographers to generalize the pattern of human

occupations of the earth’s surface was deterministic.

 The major initial source of explanation was the physical environment, and that
theoretical position was established around the belief that the nature of human
activity was controlled by the parameters of the physical world within which it was
set.
  The origin of the environmental determinism lies in the work of Charles
Darwin(deductive approach and an acceptance of the Newtonian cause-effect
relationship), and determinism persisted up to WW II

 At the beginning of the 20th C ‘Environmental Determinism’ became particularly

widespread in the USA.

 Later, it was indicated that man and the environment are basically interdependent
and it is difficult to say which one becomes more influential.

 Environmental determinism is the belief that variations in human behavior around

the world can be explained by differences in the natural environment = nature
/environment governs man’s life style.

 However, after the Second World War, the philosophy of environmental

determinism was attacked.

 Spate, for example, criticized the fanatic approach of environmental determinists.

 He stated that “environment taken by itself is a meaningless phrase; as without man

environment has no meaning”.

 Environmental determinism was regarded by many people as overly simplistic

because it neglects the cultural factors that affect human behavior.

 Example: two societies that inhabit areas having similar climate and landform may
be very dissimilar. This shows that geographic environment is only one of the factors
of territorial differentiation and it acts through society……cultural tradition has
certain autonomous influence.

 Environmental determinism (humans as clay to be molded by a dominant nature)

 Environmental possibilism that it is not the physical environment that influences man but also
human effort has to be considered

This view is highly supported by most geographers and non-geographers from Ancient to
modern periods

 In ancient to medieval periods, the concept of geography by itself and determinism was
promoted by non-geographer and unscientific scholars with simple interest and observation

 Even the prominent scholars were non-geographers like Hippocrates, Eratosthenes, Strabo,
Aristotle, Herodotus, Ptolemy and others
 The belief that the environment causes all cultural development.

 Natural environment is the dominant force in shaping cultures

 Natural environment influences social, political and religious life of Mankind.

This "environmentalist or determinist concept" of geography was given by Barrows, who

reversed the usual form of "human ecology," as the study of man's adjustments to natural
environment (Hartshorne, 1939)

 Doyle (2011) says determinism is a theory or doctrine based on the occurrences in nature, or
social or psychological phenomena causally determined by preceding events or natural laws

 From a metaphysical and philosophical position, for everything that happens there are
conditions, such that without those conditions, nothing else could happen

 It is also the view that every event has a cause and that everything in the universe is
absolutely dependent on and governed by causal laws

 Since determinists believe that all events, including human actions, are predetermined,
determinism is typically thought to be incompatible with free will

Andrew et al. (2003) forward the fundamental argument of the environmental determinists
that aspects of physical geography, particularly climate, influence the psychological mind-set of
individuals

Environment Determinism Ideas:

 Aristotle (350BC): People of relatively cold climates have more energy than those of mild
climate

 Flavius Vegetius (Roman Writer): People of hot climate are relatively weak and lacking in
courage vitality and resistance while people of cold climate have vigor and vitality

 Friedrich Ratzel:

Natural environment was the prime mover that generated human activities, social paradigms,
as well as human adaptations and responses.

Ellen Churchill (1919)

Man is a product of the earth’s surface. This means not merely that he is a child of the earth,
dust of her dust, but that the earth has mothered him, fed him, set him tasks, directed his
thoughts confronted him with difficulties that have strengthened his body and sharpened his
wits, given him his problems of navigation or irrigation, and at the same time whispered hints
for their solution. She has entered into his bone and tissue, into his mind and soul

Core Themes of Environmental Determinism

 Environment control human action and activities

 Human are badly dependent on the natural environment

 Human live at the mercy of environmental forces

 Human attitude, decision making are influenced by environment

EVIDENCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINISM

Climatic Influence

Human population and settlements: No large cities in the Antarctica because is too cold, since
most of the sunlight is reflected off there due to the tilt of the earth axis and the angle of
incoming solar radiation.

Hence most human settlements are between the Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn

Access to water

Human settlements have mostly been around 1% of the worlds fresh water. Most cities are
built around major rivers.Most Early civilization where all around major water bodies
Mesopotamia (Tigris and Euphrates River), Egypt (Nile River),

Agriculture

Environment tends to heavily influence what kind of agriculture a culture practices.

Vegetation

Human culture shaped by environment. Example: Buildings, clothing, jewelry People of similar
environment tend to have similar cultures.Example: People who live near coasts focus on
fishing and navigating waterways.

Example: Mountainous people are simple, backward, and conservative because they live
secluded from others.
  The influence of environment on various aspects

 the livelihood of human being (economic activity like trade, employment and agriculture),
culture, civilization, resource, anatomy, behaviour, political and knowledge or intellect, health
and religion

 In short, it is basically how far man is affected by his physical environment

Human livelihood

 The livelihood of the society is an inclusive word that basically infers to the mechanism of
people’s engagement on various aspects such as trade, job, dressing, and agriculture

 Determinists perceive that the most dominant effect of environment is on the livelihood of
human being

 It can also influence the economic activity and livelihood strategy associated with the real life
style and mode of their life as well

 Semple and Ratzel argue that environmental manifestations like climatic influences are
persistent, often impossible to control. And also agriculture and sedentary life in the arid region
is possible only with the help of irrigation. For example, “Egypt is the gift of Nile”

 Hartshorne (1939) clearly stated that the environment affects the day to day activity of man.
For instance, the valleys, high mountain and grazing lands offer more to pastoral peoples for
summer Trans-human around the margins

 Since the lowland breeds of Bos Taurus (European cattle) and Bos indices (Zebu cattle)
cannot survive outdoor during winter, on scanty natural grazing, the nomadic grazers who live
throughout the year around the central areas are restricted to flocks of sheep and goats, which
they use together with salt as partly exchange for grains. Also during winter, they move from
areas like Zanskar where there is heavy snow

Health and talent or knowledge

 Selected scholars believe that physical environment also influences the health and talent of
people

 Emmanuel Kant said that physical environment affects health. For instance, the people of
New Holland (East Indies) have closed eyes and cannot see any distance without bending their
heads backward to touch their back. This implies that they are short sighted

 Karl Ritter strongly emphasized that Turkmen people have narrow eye lids because of desert
environment. He also said that the environment can affect the mind
Aristotle also believed that we dominate in all aspects like elitist because of our temperate
environment, but people in the tropics are absent minded. In this thesis, he argued that
Europeans are civilized and developed because of the best temperature (temperate climate)

 Again, he also explained the difference in region in terms of climatic difference. He said the
people of middle latitude are endowed with intelligence. In the cold areas, the people are
brave, courageous but unintelligent (Singh, 2007)

Andrew (2003), a fundamental environmental determinist, argued that the physical geography,
particularly climate influences the psychological mind-set of individuals

 According to Emmanuel Kant, the inhabitants of hot lands are lazy and timid; people of
temperate regions are more talented and energetic than those of the north and more energetic
than those of the south.

Politics and civilization

 The environment has effect on resource and civilization (modernism and development)

 Aristotle considered the people of the middle latitude to be endowed with the finest attitude
and thus destined to rule over others,

 but those in warm climate, especially tropics lack political organization and capacity to rule
their neighbours

 He also emphasized that the environment inactivates the political strength of the inhabitants
of the area

Culture and religion

 Climate is a principal determinant of culture. Culture is an inclusive terms which hosts

language, religion, and others. The cultures in the tropics where living is ‘easy’ and where heat
is thought to induce lethargy are inertia to underdevelopment (Frenkel, 1992; Gallagher, 1993)

 Environment has notable effect on the culture and custom of the dwellers in general, and
with slight effect on their dressing and eating cultures. For instance, the dressing and eating
culture of cold and hot areas differs. With regard to eating, the people of the cold region eat
more food to get calorie to be able to cope with the environment; but the warm area is not so

OBJECTIONS TO DETERMINISM
 In contrast, the other wing of geographers and other scientists have had an objection on
determinist and try to show their position by forwarding their ideas of environmental
possibilism in spite of their profound interest

 The idea of possibilist has been accepted by geographers in the 20th century, in France, in
the school of human geography. It stresses the freedom of man to choose the pattern of
human activity on earth

 Neeraj (2006) argued that man has reduced the extent to which he is able to use innovation,
adaptation or sheer hard work to escape from these bonds. It is not by compulsion but a choice
based on the balancing of probabilities.

 Man is not a robot without will of his own

 Man have been able to create his landscape out of the natural environment: roads, bridges,
Settlements etc.

 Transformation of desert land to productive agricultue land in Isreal, Eygpt

 Development of mining complexes in Australian deserts

 Production of hydro-power

 Black skin people have lived in the U.S.A for about four generations without any change in
their skin pigmentation. Similarly White skinned people have lived in hot areas of the world for
more centuries without necessary becoming black.

 humans are not controlled by their environment, technologies and infrastructures; they are
agents of free will

 If humans are always agents of free does that mean it is not possible to predict any types of
behaviour or societal outcomes of a given infrastructure?

They argue that man is not a total slave of his environment. As the determinist says it is fully a
puppet to his environment

 The other rationale to falsify the idea of determinist is the agricultural crop dominating most
of the land used in Europe, Asia and North America, which is productive due to human effort

POSSIBILISM

possibilism: was a movement of the post WW II.

  This view in geography was developed as a reaction to extreme generalizations to
environmental determinism.

 It was a counter thesis which presented the Man as active rather than passive agent.

 It is a belief which asserts that Natural environment provides options, the number of
which increases as the knowledge and technology of a cultural group increases.

 Advocates of environmental possibilism:

 Many of French geographers and followers of historian Lucian Fabvre presented a model
of people perceiving the range of alternative uses to select which best fits their cultural
dispositions…….Fabvre was considered as founder of Possibilism….
 Nature doesn’t drive man along particular road; the work of man, not the earth/nature
and its influence ,are the starting point.
 Vidal de Lablache also refuted the concept of physical determinism and advocated
possibilism. He said nature sets limits and offers possibilities for human.
 Lablache stated that the life styles are the products and reflections of a civilization…..it is
an integrated result of physical, historical and social influences surrounding man’s
relation to a particular place.
 According to possibilists, nature’s role is never more than an adviser.
 Possibilists, however, admit that the opportunities offered by any environment are not
all equal. Inspite of the fact that man has numerous possibilities in a given physical
setting, he cannot go against the directions laid by the physical environment.
 Physical environment offers numerous ways for a culture to develop.
 People make culture trait choices from the possibilities offered by their environment to
satisfy their needs.
 High technology societies are less influenced by physical environment.

CORE THEMES OF ENVIRONMENTAL POSSIBILISM

 Human are free to choose and decide their activities

 Nature do not control human beings

 Nature provides opportunity and possibilities to human

However, the idea of environmentalist is dominant and widely accepted than that
of possibilist.
Environmental perception

Perception is subjective, active and creative process in which people interpret what they sense
by assigning meaning to sensory information
 Each person’s or cultural group’s mental images of the physical environment are shaped by
knowledge, ignorance, experience, values, and emotions

 Environmental perceptionists declare-choices people make will depend more on how they
perceive the land’s character than its actual character

 People make decisions based on distortion of reality with regard to their surrounding
physical environment

Environmental perception
 Environment perception is passive: culture can bias and distort understanding of
environment
 Environment perception as active: culture as a guide by helping seek information about
the environment based on what we need to know for a current study or project

Reasons for different perception of environment

Individualism: Freedom for individuals to compete for wealth and status.

 No artificial restraints

 Market place reward best and deserving people

 Environment as resilient and roboust

 Nature will take care so people can exploit the environment to get ahead

Reasons for different perception of environment

(Grid-Group Theory)

Fatalism: Luck and chance determine the fortunes of man

 Environmental forces are unpredictable

 Environmental forces are uncontrollable

 Need luck to survive

 Attempts to change environment is waste of time

Hierarchy: Perception/culture based on promotion of order

 Everyone know their place in society

 People on lower rank have to obey those upper rank make laws and look
after the interest of people

 Environment resource use should be limited to a specific limit

 Limits determined by upper rank

Reasons for different perception of environment

Egalitarianism: Perception/culture based on equality and solidarity

 Sharing and brotherhood/Sisterhood

 No one have absolute power over the other

 Shared responsibility and commitment

 Environment is fragile look out for the good of the environment and individual
advancement

Environmental perception

 Geomancy—a traditional system of land-use planning dictating that certain

environmental settings should be chosen as the sites for houses, villages, temples,
and graves
Cultural Determinism

 This perspective emphasizes human culture as ultimately more important than the physical
environment in shaping/molding human actions

 Some cultural determinists have seen humans as in opposition to the environment, and if
nature is not controlled, humans will die.

3. Probabilism:

 Some geographers including other social scientists took a mid-way in asserting the
relationship between man and the environment.
  The concept of probabilism was put forward by K.Spate (1957).

 he view is that although the physical environment doesn’t uniquely determine human
actions, it does nevertheless make some responses more than others. There are some
probability relationships between man and the environment.

 The term was proposed as a mid-way between a stark environmental determinism of

scholars like Ratzel and a radical possibilism of Fabvre, Lablache and sauer.

 Probability theory came to be regarded as an essential component of geographical

analysis…..Geographers started to use the probability theory to determine and explain
the man-environment relationship & also to make a scientific study of the landscape.

 However, the probability theory was criticized on several grounds., for example, a
complete knowledge of about the environment (resources) may not be available.
 The perception about environment/resources also differs from man to man and
community to community.
 Because these and other constraints the application of probability model was found
difficult.

 Neo-determinism :
 The concept of neo-determinism was put forward by Griffith Taylor who believed that
the best economic program for a country to follow has in large part been determined by
nature, and it is geographer’s duty to interpret this program.
 Man is able to accelerate, slow or stop progress of a country’s development…..Man
follows nature’s program only if he is wise…..
 Griffth Taylor’s “ Stop – and- go determinism”
“People might attempt whatever they wished with regard to the environment, but in the long
term, nature’s plan would ensure that the environment won the battle”.

 Cultural or social Determinism;

 This view emphasized the Human element;
“Our thoughts determine our acts, and our acts determine our previous nature of the world”

 Since human interest, desire and prejudice and group values vary across space, there is
a consequent variation in the cultural landscape and level of socio-economic
development.
 The modification of the environment largely depends on our perceptions, ideas and
decision making process.

 However, social or cultural determinism did not adequately assess the environmental
factors (the influence of the natural environment upon cultural geographical
differences…Rigidity
  In conclusion, the debate among geographers about whether people are free agents in
their use of the earth (environment) or whether there is a “nature’s plan” slowly
dissolved as the antagonists realized the merits in each case.

 Geographers throughout the history of the discipline have been confronted with the
methodological problem of dualism and dichotomy.

 The problems prevailed with regard to the delineation of the sphere of geography, the
methodology to be adopted for its study and the approaches it followed.

 Dualistic thinking in geography became more evident during the post-renaissance

period in Europe.

 Since that period geography seems to have been divisible into a number of mutually
exclusive branches.

 The branching of the subject look quite logical as the sphere of the discipline is multi-
dimensional.

Chapter four

Approaches to the Study of Geography

Geography may be studied by way of several interrelated approaches, i.e., systematically, regionally,
descriptively, and analytically. Geography is a study of nature and human elements in a detailed
manner. There are two main approaches to study geography. These are:-

1)Regional Geography 2)Systematic Ģeography

We can differentiate both regional and systematic approaches as under :- 1)Regional approach
is the study of a particular region while systematic approaćh studies a particular toopic in detail.
2)Regional approach will study many factors. of one place while systematić approach will
resea4ch on one. topic in whole world 3)In regional studies we will study about For example lifa
in kerela.The we study about population,area,wildlife,climate etc. in detail about Kerela.On the
other. hañd in systematić approach we study about one subject in detail.For example if we
study about wildlife we will study about wildlife in the whole world.
Geography has undergone several changes in its approach. The earlier geographers were
descriptive geographers. Later, geography came to be developed as an analytical science. Today
the discipline is not only concerned with descriptions but also with analysis as well as
prediction. There are two distinct approaches or methods to study geography. They are:
Systematic approach and 2. Regional approach

Systematic Approach:

Systematic or nomothetic approach was introduced by Alexander Von Humbolt, a German

geographer (1769-1859). In this approach a particular phenomenon is considered for detailed
understanding. The study of specific natural or human phenomenon that gives rise to certain
spatial patterns and structures on the earth surface is called systematic study. Generally,
systematic geography is divided into four main branches.

1. Physical Geography: Study of various elements of earth systems like atmosphere (air),
hydrosphere (water), lithosphere (rock) and biosphere (life) and their distributions.

2. Biogeography, including environmental geography: It focuses on various kinds of forests,

grasslands, distribution of flora and fauna, human-nature relationships, quality of the living
environment and its implications for human welfare.

3. Human Geography: It describes the human culture, population, dynamic socio economic
and political aspects.

4. Geographical methods and techniques: It is concerned with methods and techniques for
field studies, qualitative, quantitative and cartographic analysis.

Systematic approach to geography is the study of geography, in stages. A specific geographical

topic is taken and studied thoroughly. The next related topic is studied in detail as a
continuation to the original topic. In this way, a systematic approach is adopted, whereby a
large discipline such as geography is divided into smaller manageable portions and studied.

The systemic approach refers to an analysis method; a way to handle a complex system with a
global point of view without focalizing on details. It aims for a better understanding of
complexity without simplifying reality too much. For example, it avoids dividing systems into
independent subsets or isolating a factor as it is usually done with a more analytical approach. It
is a way to identify emerging properties specific to a level of organization. More generally, it
favours the conception and the communication of the complexity more through models than with
a fully comprehensive analysis. Achieving this requires being pragmatic when defining the limits
and the spatio-temporal scales of the studied system.
This approach is commonly used to study biophysical systems (eg, nitrogen cycle). It describes
interactions between components of the system, especially synergies (eg, multi-crop – livestock)
and antagonisms (eg, auxiliaries against pests) reducing or amplifying effects of factors. It is a
way to learn how the systems work. The systemic approach is also used with sociotechnical
systems. Actors (politicians, farmers, local residents) are part of the system, their goals and
interactions are considered. Thus, the priority is given to the intelligibility of the system’s
behaviour to guide its operations. The system is represented as the articulation between a
biophysical system, the operating one (eg, interaction between soil and plants in a field), a
system of information (eg, state of catchment indicators), and a decision system (eg, decision
rules applied in the coordination of a project). Beyond prioritizing operations, the systemic
approach contributes to the actors’ understanding.
Assessing, designing and managing agricultural systems based on agroecological principles (eg,
development of a new food chain to diversify crops and foods; territorialisation of agriculture to
bind consumers and farmers) require a systemic approach.
Geographers employ systems to develop analytical models with which they seek to understand
and explain spatial patterns and interactions. Human geographers, for example, use the systems
model to examine human migration patterns, the diffusion of ideas, and the spread of
information. Moreover, research about physical geography relies on understanding the natural
systems in which physical processes operate.

Geographers are interested in identifying, explaining, and predicting flows in human and
physical systems. They also seek to identify, describe, and explain cycles and patterns.
Furthermore, they are concerned with changes in flow, cycle, and pattern because such changes
are indicators of possibly significant alterations in the larger system.

The systems approach greatly enhances the effectiveness of land-use planning and
natural resource management. The elements of general ecosystems
include quantitative, qualitative, behavioral, economic, and political subsystems. The
quantitative subsystem encompasses finite space. Finite space includes urban,
empty, rural, psychological, and multiple-use spaces.
The qualitative subsystem is characterized by concepts such as carrying capacity,
ecological value systems, compatibility, suitability, capability, and stability. The
economic subsystem involves economic theory and decision making, whereas the
political subsystem includes inputs from citizens, bureaucracies, and governments.
The behavioral subsystem is characterized by attitudes, values, beliefs, customs, and traditions.
A general systems model is a composite in which variables are linked in a human/land system.
Some of the variables may be measured quantitatively and some may not. The systems approach
involves relationships between variables, and a change in one variable will reverberate
throughout the entire system.

Regional Approach:

It is otherwise called as ideographical approach. It was developed by Carl Ritter (1779 – 1859), a
contemporary of Humbolt. The regions could be classified based on a single factor like relief,
rainfall, vegetation, percapita income or there could also be multi-factor regions formed by the
association of two or more factors. Administrative units like states, districts and taluks can also
be treated as regions. The main sub branches of regional geography are : i) Regional studies ii)
Regional analysis iii) Regional development and iv) Regional planning.

Another method to study geography is by the Regional approach. In this method, the biosphere
is divided into regions based either on topology or political borders. Each region is studied
individually and correlated with the study of neighbouring regions.

The descriptive approach

This is the idea that the world is a set of places and each place can be studied and is distinct 1.
This would generally involve describing the physical aspects of an area and their
characteristics. ... It is social processes that help to create places.

Behavioral geography

Behavioral geography is an approach to human geography that attempts to understand human

activity in space, place, and environment by studying it at the disaggregate level of analysis—at
the level of the individual person. Behavioral geographers analyze data on the behavior of
individual people, recognizing that individuals vary from each other. A key tenet of behavioral
geography holds that models of human activity and interaction can be improved by
incorporating more realistic assumptions about human behavior. For example, behavioral
geographers agree with other human geographers that distance (or related factors such as
travel time or effort) is an important determinant of human activity, but they maintain that it is
subjective rather than objective distance that is typically important. And because different
people’s beliefs about distances may vary considerably from one another and from objective
distance, spatial activities will be more variable and less optimal than nonbehavioral models
predict.

Thus, the disaggregate study of human geography naturally led behavioral researchers to
consider what the individual knows or believes about the world as playing an important role in
explaining what the individual does or will do—that is, people do what they do because of what
they think is true. People evaluate decision alternatives according to their beliefs in order to
make behavioral choices in space and place. What people think, in turn, arises from perceptual
knowledge acquired via the senses, as organized and interpreted by existing beliefs and
schematic knowledge structures and processes. These, in turn, are products of people’s genetic
and experiential histories and are often mediated by symbolic representations such as maps
and language. Behavioral geography further maintains that human-environment relations are
dynamic and bidirectional: The actions and mental states of individuals cause, and are caused
by, physical and social environments, within the context of ongoing and changing interactions.
Because of these various interests and beliefs, behavioral geography has inherent
interdisciplinary connections, particularly with various subfields of psychology, but also with
other behavioral and cognitive disciplines, such as linguistics, anthropology, economics, and
artificial intelligence, and environmental disciplines, such as planning, architecture, and urban
studies. Given this fundamental interdisciplinarity, much of the literature cited here has been
published not only within geography and cartography, but also within psychology, linguistics,
computer science, and other fields.

Behavioral geography is an approach to human geography that attempts to understand human

activity in space, place, and environment by studying it at the disaggregate level of analysis—at
the level of the individual person.

The behavioural approach in geography postulated a mutually interacting relationship between

man and his environment, whereby man shaped the environment and was subsequently
shaped by it (Gould, 1980). The behavioral approach suggests that the keys to understanding
development are observable behavior and external stimuli in the environment. ... Behaviorism
is a theory of learning, and learning theories focus on how we are conditioned to respond to
events or stimuli.

Behavioral geography is an approach to human geography that attempts to understand human

activity in space, place, and environment by studying it at the disaggregate level of analysis—at
the level of the individual person.

Behavioral geography is an approach to human geography that attempts to understand human

activity in space, place, and environment by studying it at the disaggregate level of analysis—at
the level of the individual person. Behavioral geographers analyze data on the behavior of
individual people, recognizing that individuals vary from each other.

By the mid-1960s use of statistical techniques in research for precision has been largely
accepted by geographers. The duality of systematic versus regional geography was resolved as
both were now accepted as important components of the discipline through interdependent
and equally useful.

It was increasingly realized by the geographers that the models propounded and tested with
the help of quantitative techniques, provided poor descriptions of geographic reality as well as
the man-environment relationship.

Consequently, progress towards the development of the geographical theory was glaringly slow
and its predictive powers were weak. Theories such as Central Place Theory, based on statistical
and mathematical techniques, were found inadequate to explain the spatial organization of
society.

The economic rationality of decision-making was also criticized as it does not explain the
behaviour of man. It was a psychological twist in human geography which emphasized the role
of subjective and decision-making processes that mediate the association between
environment and spatial behaviour of man.

It can be said that the dissatisfaction with the models and theories developed by the positivists,
using the statistical techniques which were based on the ‘economic rationality’ of man led to
the development of behavioural approach in geography.

The axiom of ‘economic person’ who always tries to maximize his profit was challenged by
Wolpert, in his paper entitled ‘The Decision Process in Spatial Context’, Wolpert
(1964) compared the actual and potential labour productivity of Swedish farmers and came to a
conclusion that optimal farming practices were not attainable.

He concluded that the farmers were not optimizers but, satisfies.

Thus human behaviour was seen to be a product of decision-making and it was a human
tendency to have incomplete information, to make imperfect choices, and even then be
satisfied with sub-optimal options.

Behavioral Concept in Geography – Historical Perspective

 The very emergence of behavioural concept had taken place in 1951 when Kirk had used
the term “Behavioural Environment” to explain some complicated socio-economic
problems, but this work could not receive attention in the midst of the tornado
of Quantitative Revolution
 Similar work was done by Boulding in 1956 who presented a book titled “Progress in
Geography” in which he expressed arguments in favour of behavioural explanation of
some complicated geographical problems but he also failed to get due recognition
 By the end of the 1960s, there was a realization that scientific models and theories are
unable to provide a realistic explanation of several socio-economic problems and in that
situation, behavioural explanations were sought and it was this approach that provided
satisfactory conclusions.
 Gradually, Quantitative Revolution started declining and Behavioural Geographers
started criticizing some components of the Quantitative Revolution like considering man
as economic and rational, isotropic surface, etc.
  It is rightly observed that the emergence of behavioural geography was due to
disillusionment with the axioms on which the models of geography were based as these
axioms were far removed from reality (they were idealistic)
 In other words, behavioural revolution in counter-revolution of Quantitative
Revolution –“ where Quantitative Revolution failed to give a scientific explanation,
behavioural concept solved the problem”
 Behavioural Revolution refined some loopholes of Quantitative Revolution, therefore it is
also called as refinement/extension of Quantitative Revolution.
 Behaviouralism is antithetical to Quantitative Revolution in 2 regards –In Quantitative
Revolution, the man was considered economically rational and it neglected normative
questions of a man like value system, culture, moral, his choices, sentiments whereas in
Behavioural Revolution, perceptions of man are taken into consideration
 Behaviouralism believed in per capita or per individual study whereas Quantitative
Revolution was based on gross generalization.
 In behaviouralism, model building and theorization was not neglected. It wanted to
construct a law by induction, and collection of primary data by field surveys. Thus, it is
not against positivism but it differs on the point that it is against overgeneralization and
considering man as a point on the surface
 The essence of behavioural approach in geography lies in the fact that the way people
behave is mediated by their understanding of the environment in which they live or by
the environment itself with which they are confronted
 The behavioural approach has taken the view that a deeper understanding of man
environment interaction can be achieved by looking at the various psychological
processes through which man comes to know the environment in which he lives and by
examining the way in which these processes influence the nature of resultant behaviour
(i.e. perceptions of man, Downs concept, Mental Maps, etc) at the psychological level
 The behaviouralistic approach is largely inductive aiming to build general statements out
of observations of ongoing processes i.e. generalisation achieved through specific cases.
Models of Man-Environment interaction

The followers of behavioural geography do not recognize the man as a rational person
or an ‘economic man’ who always try to optimize profits
 Man always does not take into consideration the profit aspect while performing an
economic function
 Most of his decisions are based on behavioural environment rather than on the
objective or real environment
 The decisions are influenced by Perceptions of man
Advantages of Behavioural Concept

Revolution has brought phenomenal changes in the understanding of socio-economic

problems in Geography

Olosor (Sweden) has rightly observed that the behavioural approach has the key of social
geography
Although every field of human geography is within the investigation realm of behavioural
approach, but there are two important fields which have received greater advantages from this
method –

1. Study of movement in Geography (contributors – Wolpert, BJL Berry, Hagerstrand)

2. Study of Locational Decision (contributors – Smith, Gould, Hotteling, Hagerstrand,
Felter)
1. The study of movement can be broadly divided into –

(a). Consumer Movement / Marketing Behaviour

(b). Migration, and
(c). Intra-moves (Knox)

 All these spatial activities can properly be explained with the help of behavioural
approach
 Marketing pattern is no more simply depending on space proximity and Nearest market
is not necessarily the preferred market
 Marketing depends on behavioural perceptions. Hence, there has been a need to
redirect transport system
 Migration pattern has also the impact of behavioural pattern
 All over the developing countries, there is a rural-urban migration because the urban
centres provide more job opportunities while in developed countries they have urban-
rural migration because urban areas are environmentally degraded and is preferable to
settle in nearby rural areas for healthier environment
 Knox in his work “An introduction to the study of Urban Social Geography” developed
the concept of intra-moves
 Intra-moves means residential movements within urban areas.
 All kinds of functional locations are influenced by Behavioural environment, so
behavioural explanation is needed
 Hotteling cites an example that in the USA, Miami beach has tremendous growth of ice-
cream industry
 According to Hoover, a minimum production cost centre is the most favourable centre
for industrial growth
 According to Weaver, a minimum transport cost centre is most favourable for industrial
growth, But in the case of Miami, none of these 2 views are applicable because here
both the production and transport cost is maximum as milk is brought from California
(2000 Km away) and sugar from the northern parts of USA
 It is the behavioural environment of tourists due to which the industry has emerged
here. So, it is only the behavioural approach which can explain the location of industries
 It is in opposition to Quantitative Revolution’s optimum location where cost should be
minimum and profit should be maximum
 Smith’s industrial location theory is known as maximum profit point theory
 Industry will emerge at a point where profit is maximum
 Purchasing capacity depends upon income and behaviour
  This is in contradiction to theories of Quantitative Revolution
 Gould worked in an agricultural location
 He viewed that farmers often change the crop on the basis of changes in demand and
changes in meteorological conditions
 Hagerstrand has given a model on the diffusion of innovation and their impact on
agricultural efficiency
 He has viewed that all farmers of a region would not adopt new seeds and techniques,
only a few progressive farmers would take the risk and once the high yield would be
established, there would be a sweeping use of seed on new environment
 These are some studies and some examples to substantiate the fact that behavioural
revolution has brought about a major change in the explanation of human geography in
general and complicated socio-economic problems in particular
 Quantitative Revolution cannot be applied everywhere and perceptions of man help us
better to understand human geography.
Merits of behavioural approach

Usage of continuous experimental methods of research enhances credibility of science as

scientific discipline

It gives strong arguments for nurture side of nature debate

This has given little practical applications and methods to frame behaviour i.e. rewards in
education

Demerits of behavioral approach

It ignores mental techniques that are involved in learning different from cognitive approach
who sees these processes significant. As per behaviourist approach people can only learn as
result of experiences

Use of animals in applying laws of learning to humans has been criticised as humans are much
complex as compared to animals.

Principle of operant and classical conditioning don't account for spontaneous behaviour in
humans

It rejects possible role of biological factors in human behaviour unlike biological approach which
considers nature and important factor.
2. Behaviourialism in Geography

Behavioural geography banks heavily on ‘behaviouralism’. Behaviouralism is an important

approach which is largely inductive, aiming to build general statements out of observations of
ongoing processes. The essence of behavioural approach in geography lies in the fact that the
way in which people behave is mediated by their understanding of the environment in which
they live or by the environment itself with which they are confronted.
In behavioural geography, an explanation for the man-environment problem is founded upon the
premise that environmental cognition and behaviour are intimately related.
In other words, the behavioural approach has taken the view that a deeper understanding of man-
environment interaction can be achieved by looking at the various psychological processes
through which man comes to know the environment in which he lives, and by examining the way
in which these processes influence the nature of the resultant behaviour.
One of the most interesting and applied aspects of behavioural geography was work examining
the human perception of environmental hazards. The pioneering work by Robert Kates (1962) on
floodplain management is one of the bases of this approach.
He states the manner in which human beings perceive the uncertainty and unpredictability of
their environment play a significant role in the process of decisionmaking. He developed a
scheme that had relevance to a wide range of human behaviour.
3. The objectives of behavioural approach were:

1. To develop models for a human phenomenon which would provide an alternative to the
spatial location theories developed under the influence of positivism.

2. To define the cognitive (subjective) environment that determines the decision-making

process of humans;

3. To come up with psychological and social theories of human decision-making and behaviour
in a spatial framework;

4. To change the emphasis from aggregate populations to the disaggregate scale of individuals
and small group

5. To search for methods other than those popular during the quantitative revolution that could
uncover the latent structure in data and decision-making;

6. To emphasize on procession rather than structural explanations of human activity and

physical environment;

7. To generate primary data about human behaviour and not to rely heavily on the published
data; and

8. To adopt an interdisciplinary approach for theory-building and problem-solving.

The fundamental arguments of the behavioural geography to achieve these objectives are that:

(i) People have environmental images;

(ii) Those images can be identified accurately by researchers; and

 (iii) There is a strong relationship between environmental image and actual behaviour or
the decision-making process of man.

Salient Features of Behavioral Geography

The salient features of behavioral geography are discussed in the following section:

1. The behavioral geographers argued that environmental cognition (perception) upon Which
people act May well differ markedly from the true nature of the real environment of the real
world. Space (environment) thus can be said to have a dual character:

(i) As an objective environment—the world of actuality—which may be gauged by some direct

means (senses); and

(ii) As a behavioral environment—the world of the mind— which can be Studied only by
indirect means.

No matter how partial or selective the behavioural environment may be, it is this milieu which
is the basis of decision-making and action of man. By behavioural environment, it is meant:
reality as is perceived by individuals. In other words, people make choices and the choices are
made on the basis of knowledge. Thus, the view of Environment Image Behaviour

behaviour was rooted in the world as perceived rather than in the world of actuality. Thenature
of the difference between these two environments and their implications for behaviour was
neatly made by Koffka (1935-36) in an allusion to a medieval Swiss tale about a winter travel.

2. Secondly, behavioural geographers give more weight to an individual rather than to groups,
or organizations or society. In other words, the focus of the study is the individual, not the
group or community. They assert that research must recognize the fact that the individual
shapes and response to his physical and social environment. In fact, it is necessary to recognize
that the actions of each and every person have an impact on the environment, however, slight
or inadvertent that impact may be. Man is a goal-directed animal who influences the
environment and in turn, is influenced by it. In brief, an individual rather than a group of people
or social group is more important in a man-nature relationship.

3. The behavioural approach in geography postulated a mutually interacting relationship

between man and his environment, whereby man shaped the environment and was
subsequently shaped by it (Gould, 1980).

4. The fourth important feature of behavioural geography is its multidisciplinary outlook.

behavioural geographer takes the help of ideas, paradigms, and theories produced by
psychologists, philosophers, historians, sociologists, anthropologists, ethnologists, and
planners. However, the lack of theories of its own is coming in the way of rapid development of
behavioural geography.

Therefore, one can say that the behavioural approach in geography is a fruitful one and it helps
in establishing a scientific relationship between man and his environment. The broad scope of
behavioral geography is remarkable even by the standards of human geography.

Criticisms:

There are, however, overall, biases in content towards urban topics and towards developed
countries. One of the main weaknesses of behavioral geography is that it lacks in the synthesis
of empirical findings, poor communication, inadvertent duplication, and conflicting
terminology. In behavioural geography, the terminology and concepts remain loosely defined
and poorly integrated, primarily owing to the lack of systematically-organized theoretical basis.

Another shortcoming of behavioural geography lies in the fact that most of its data are
generated in laboratory experiments on animals and the findings are applied directly to human
behaviour. Koestler (1975) pointed to the danger of this strategy, in that behaviouralism “has
replaced the anthropomorphic fallacy—ascribing to animals human faculties and sentiments—
with the opposite fallacy; denying man faculties not found in lower animals; it has substituted
for the erstwhile anthropomorphic view of rat, a rato-morphic view of man”. In short,
behaviouralist theories are elegant but unhelpful when it comes tounderstanding the real world
man-environment interaction.

Behavioural geography has too often put too much emphasis on ego-centred interpretations of
the environment. Specifically, scholars are critical of two assumptions on which a great deal of
behavioural research in geography is based. The first assumption is that there exist identifiable
environmental images that can be accurately measured. It is not clear whether an
environmental image can be extracted without distortion from the totality of mental imagery.
Moreover, not enough effort has gone into checking and validating the methods by which
images are elicited.

The second critical assumption is that there exists a strong relationship between revealed
images or references and actual or real-world behaviour. The main objection to this assumption
is that it is an unfounded assumption because extremely little research has been undertaken to
examine the congruence between image and behaviour.

Another significant deficiency in behavioural geography has been the gap between theory and
practice. This has been most noticeable over the question of public policy. In fact, behavioural
geographers remain observers rather than participants. There is a serious lack of knowledge of
planning theories and methods amongst behavioural geographers, which is an impediment to
more active involvement.

It is a barrier that can be removed only by developing the requisite understanding of the
planning processes; it cannot be camouflaged by noble sentiments and moral tone. For
instance, it will be only rarely that a small survey carried out upon a sample of students will
supply the basis for far-reaching policy recommendations, yet the final paragraphs of many
such works contain this seemingly obligatory element.

 The main objectives of the quantitative revolution in geography were as under:

1. To change the descriptive character of the subject (geo + graphy) and to make it a scientific
discipline;

2. To explain and interpret the spatial patterns of geographical phenomena in a rational, objective

and cogent manner;

3. To use mathematical language instead of the language of literature, like ‘After in the Koppen’s

classification of climate which stands for the ‘tropical rainforests’;

4. To make precise statements (generalizations) about locational order;

5. To test hypotheses and formulate models, theories and laws for estimations and predictions;

6. To identify the ideal locations for the various economic activities so that the profit may be

maximized by the resource users; and

7. To provide geography a sound philosophical and theoretical base, and to make its

methodology objective and scientific.

In order to achieve these objectives, the preachers of quantitative techniques stressed on field

surveys for the collection of data and empirical observations.

In all other physical and social sciences theory-building has a long tradition. After the Second

World War, geographers, especially those of the developed countries, realized the significance of

using mathematical language rather than the language of literature in the study of geography.

Consequently, empirical descriptive geography was discarded and greater stress was laid on the

formulation of abstract models. Mathematical and abstract models need rigorous thinking and
use of sophisticated statistical techniques. The diffusion of statistical techniques in geography to

make the subject and its theories more precise is known as the ‘quantitative revolution’ in

geography.

Traditionally, geography was considered to be a description of the earth surface, but in due

course of time its definition and nature changed. Now, it is concerned with providing accurate,

orderly, and rational descriptions and interpretations of the variable character of the earth

surface. In the words of Yeats, “geography can be regarded as a science concerned with the

rational development, and testing of theories that explain and predict the spatial distribution and

location of various characteristics on the surface of the earth”. In order to achieve this objective

and to obtain the real picture of a region, geographers began to use and apply quantitative tools

and techniques to which qualitative geography was opposed, especially till the 1960s.

Thus, the most obvious change brought about by the quantitative revolution is the change of

methods and techniques. After this revolution, quantitative techniques and general system theory

have been used quite extensively in geography. The new electronic devices have made possible

the use of complex mathematical computations never before attempted.

What is the importance of quantitative techniques in geography? The main objectives of

Quantative techniques are as: To change a descriptive character of geography and make it a
scientific discipline. To explain and interpret the spatial patterns of geographical phenomena in
a rational, objective & cogent manner.
 Chapter six
Place and space

What is place and landscape?

A landscape is the visible features of an area of land, its landforms, and how they integrate with
natural or man-made features. ... The character of a landscape helps define the self-image of
the people who inhabit it and a sense of place that differentiates one region from other
regions.

A landscape is part of the Earths surface that can be viewed at one time from one place. It consists of
the geographic features that mark, or are characteristic of, a particular area. ... A natural landscape is
made up of a collection of landforms, such as mountains, hills, plains, and plateaus.

A landscape is the visible features of an area of land, its landforms, and how they integrate with natural or
man-made features.[1] A landscape includes the physical elements of geophysically defined landforms such as
(ice-capped) mountains, hills, water bodies such as rivers, lakes, ponds and the sea, living elements of land
cover including indigenous vegetation, human elements including different forms of land use, buildings,
and structures, and transitory elements such as lighting and weather conditions. Combining both their physical
origins and the cultural overlay of human presence, often created over millennia, landscapes reflect a living
synthesis of people and place that is vital to local and national identity.
The character of a landscape helps define the self-image of the people who inhabit it and a sense of place that
differentiates one region from other regions. It is the dynamic backdrop to people's lives. Landscape can be as
varied as farmland, a landscape park or wilderness. The Earth has a vast range of landscapes, including the icy
landscapes of polar regions, mountainous landscapes, vast arid desert landscapes, islands,
and coastal landscapes, densely forested or wooded landscapes including past boreal forests and tropical
rainforests, and agricultural landscapes of temperate and tropical regions. The activity of modifying the visible
features of an area of land is referred to as landscaping.
Landscaping refers to any activity that modifies the visible features of an area of land,
including: Living elements, such as flora or fauna; or what is commonly called gardening, the art
and craft of growing plants with a goal of creating a beauty within the landscape.
1. all the visible features of an area of land, often considered in terms of their aesthetic appeal.
"

denoting a format of printed matter which is wider than it is high.

" make (a garden or other area of ground) more attractive by altering the existing design, adding ornamental
features, and planting trees and shrubs.

"the site has been tastefully landscaped"

Geomorphology: The physical evolution of landscape

Geomorphology is the scientific study of the origin and evolution
of topographic and bathymetric features created by physical or chemical processes operating at
or near Earth's surface. Geomorphologists seek to understand why landscapes look the way
they do, to understand landform history and dynamics and to predict changes through a
combination of field observations, physical experiments and numerical modeling.
Geomorphology is practiced within physical geography, geology, geodesy, engineering
geology, archaeology and geotechnical engineering. This broad base of interests contributes to
many research styles and interests within the field.[8]
The surface of Earth is modified by a combination of surface processes that sculpt landscapes,
and geologic processes that cause tectonic uplift and subsidence, and shape the coastal
geography. Surface processes comprise the action of water, wind, ice, fire, and living things on
the surface of the Earth, along with chemical reactions that form soils and alter material
properties, the stability and rate of change of topography under the force of gravity, and other factors,
such as (in the very recent past) human alteration of the landscape. Many of these factors are strongly
mediated by climate. Geologic processes include the uplift of mountain ranges, the growth
of volcanoes, isostatic changes in land surface elevation (sometimes in response to surface processes), and
the formation of deep sedimentary basins where the surface of Earth drops and is filled with
 material eroded from other parts of the landscape. The Earth surface and its topography therefore are an
intersection of climatic, hydrologic, and biologic action with geologic processes.

 There are different types of landscape:

 Mountain landscapes. We can see mountains, with narrow rivers, forests, villages and steep
roads.
 Flat landscapes. We can see flat land, wide rivers, farms, cities and motorways.
 Coastal landscapes. We can see cliffs, the sea and tourist towns.

Cultural landscape

The Batad rice terraces, The Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras, the first site to be
included in the UNESCO World Heritage List cultural landscape category in 1995.[34]

The concept of cultural landscapes can be found in the European tradition of landscape
painting.[35] From the 16th century onwards, many European artists painted landscapes in
favor of people, diminishing the people in their paintings to figures subsumed within broader,
regionally specific landscapes.[36]

The geographer Otto Schlüter is credited with having first formally used "cultural landscape" as
an academic term in the early 20th century.[37] In 1908, Schlüter argued that by defining
geography as a Landschaftskunde (landscape science) this would give geography a logical
subject matter shared by no other discipline.[37][38] He defined two forms of landscape: the
Urlandschaft (transl. original landscape) or landscape that existed before major human induced
changes and the Kulturlandschaft (transl. 'cultural landscape') a landscape created by human
culture. The major task of geography was to trace the changes in these two landscapes.

It was Carl O. Sauer, a human geographer, who was probably the most influential in promoting
and developing the idea of cultural landscapes.[39] Sauer was determined to stress the agency
of culture as a force in shaping the visible features of the Earth's surface in delimited areas.
Within his definition, the physical environment retains a central significance, as the medium
with and through which human cultures act.[40] His classic definition of a 'cultural landscape'
reads as follows:

The cultural landscape is fashioned from a natural landscape by a cultural group. Culture is the
agent, the natural area is the medium, the cultural landscape is the result.

A cultural landscape, as defined by the World Heritage Committee, is the "cultural properties
[that] represent the combined works of nature and of man."[41]

The World Heritage Committee identifies three categories of cultural landscape, ranging from
(i) those landscapes most deliberately 'shaped' by people, through (ii) full range of 'combined'
works, to (iii) those least evidently 'shaped' by people (yet highly valued). The three categories
extracted from the Committee's Operational Guidelines, are as follows:[42]

"A landscape designed and created intentionally by man"; an "organically evolved landscape"
which may be a "relict (or fossil) landscape" or a "continuing landscape"; and an "associative
cultural landscape" which may be valued because of the "religious, artistic or cultural
associations of the natural element".

CONCEPT OF PLACE

One of the oldest tenets of geography is the concept of place. As a result, place has numerous
definitions, from the simple “a space or location with meaning” to the more complex “an area
having unique physical and human characteristics interconnected with other places.” There are
three key components of place: location, locale, and a sense of place. Location is the position of
a particular point on the surface of the Earth. Locale is the physical setting for relationships
between people, such as the South of France or the Smoky Mountains. Finally, a sense of place
is the emotions someone attaches to an area based on their experiences. Place can be applied
at any scale and does not necessarily have to be fixed in either time or space. Additionally, due
to globalization, place can change over time as its physical setting and cultures are influenced
by new ideas or technologies.

Broadly defined, place is a location. The word is used to describe a specific location, such as
the place on a shelf, a physical environment, a building or locality of special significance, or a
particular region or location. The term can be used for locations at almost any geographic scale,
depending on context.

Geographers define place as the physical and human characteristics of a location. The physical
features might include the local climate, rivers, or valleys. The human characteristics include
the culture of the people living in that place and all the ways they interact with it, like building a
city or designing a park.

Place is defined as location plus meaning.

Location simply describes where a place is on a map whereas meaning is more

complex. Each place has a different meaning to different people and is therefore
highly personal, experiential and subjective. A particular market square, building or
café is likely to mean different things to different people depending on what has
happened to them (or others) there. A sense of place then, refers to those meanings
which are associated with a place.

Place can be applied to any scale: from a particular room in a building to a country or region
which rouses shared feelings in people. This is particularly noticeable in times of rapid political
change (such as the concept of a ‘United Kingdom’) or public events (like the Olympics) where
people experience shared feelings of belonging and attachment in response to an external
stimulus.

Place does not necessarily have to be a fixed location spatially or temporally. A camper van or
cruise ship which a group of people have shared for a period of time may invoke a sense of
belonging in those people, as may a campsite or other temporary structure.

Similarly, every place is a product of its history – formal and personal – and is therefore likely to
engender feelings of attachment based on individual life events or distant historical events
which are represented in architecture and iconography. People may feel a sense of belonging to
a particular house where they grew up or a playground they went to as a child or similarly, may
feel attachment to a part of the country where their ancestors came from.

Places are dynamic and subject to constant change in their material structure and
meaning. Places are not isolated or cut off from outside influences and so as people, ideas and
objects pass in and out of a place in space and time they change it. They are therefore changing
places.

Place describes the human and physical characteristics of a location. Physical characteristics:
Includes a description of such things as mountains, rivers, beaches, topography, climate, and
animal and plant life of a place.

Geographers define place as the physical and human characteristics of a location. ... Locations
become places through human actions and thoughts. The physical characteristics used to define
place in geography are primarily natural, such as lakes, mountains, or local plants and animals.

broadly defined, place is a location. The word is used to describe a specific location, such as the
place on a shelf, a physical environment, a building or locality of special significance, or a
particular region or location. The term can be used for locations at almost any geographic scale,
depending on context.
Although location and place are sometimes used interchangeably, geographers assign the terms
specific and different meanings. New education standards are now in effect, but in 1984, the
National Council of Geographic Education (NCGE) and the Association of American Geographers
(AAG) broke the discipline of geography into five major themes, which some continue to use to
help teach geography: location, place, human-environment interaction, movement, and region.
Location either refers to the actual latitude and longitude coordinates (absolute location) of
something on Earth’s surface, or it describes something’s position in reference to something
else (relative location). Place, on the other hand, refers to the physical and human
characteristics of a spot on the map. In other words, location focuses on where; place focuses
on what it is like there.

Place also includes descriptions of a site’s features and environmental conditions. The physical
and human characteristics of a place make it unique. Physical characteristics include the natural
environment, such as landforms, elevation, water features, climate, soil, natural vegetation,
and animal life. Human characteristics include the size and density of the population,
the ethnic and religious makeup of the population, language patterns, and other aspects of the
culture. Human characteristics also include the built environment, such as houses, roads, and
other infrastructure.

The study of a place often focuses on creating a better understanding of how the physical and
human aspects of a location interrelate and interact. Geographers can also use place to
compare and contrast different locations. Geographers can compare the physical and human
characteristics of the Sahara and Antarctica, for instance, to better grasp the characteristics of
each place, how the natural and human worlds interact, and how places vary across the world.
In the case of the Sahara and Antarctica, they are both intense deserts, but one (the Sahara) is
hot while the other (Antarctica) is cold. Although both are harsh, sparsely populated
environments, nomadic groups have called the Sahara home for thousands of years, but it is
only in recent times that people, mainly researchers, have started exploring and living in
Antarctica.

Space is the boundless three-dimensional extent in which objects and events have
relative position and direction. In classical
[1]
physics, physical space is often conceived in
three linear dimensions, although modern physicists usually consider it, with time, to be part of a
boundless four-dimensional continuum known as spacetime. The concept of space is considered to be of
fundamental importance to an understanding of the physical universe. However, disagreement continues
between philosophers over whether it is itself an entity, a relationship between entities, or part of
a conceptual framework.