Philosophy of Clinical Psychology

Student Details

Name: Khushi Chopra

Section: Section B

Semester: II

Topic: Assignment

Pages: 11

Question: "How religion explains the emergence of psychopathology over

time. Give an example of one religion.
Introduction
Religion is as old as mankind. Primitive man also had religions and they worshipped the
elements of nature like sun, earth, air, cloud, water, etc. Advances in civilization led to
institutionalised religions. The basic characteristics of all religions are similar. There is a firm
belief in a higher, unseen controlling power. Religion appears to be a psychological necessity
for mankind. Religion which evolved due to basic psychological needs of mankind later
metamorphosed. Gradually religious practices developed into dogmas and superstitions.

From a mental health perspective religion provides much -needed guidelines, which can help
individuals to devise a course for their lives. Stresses and strains as well as uncertainties of
life can be tolerated more easily by the believers. However, many outmoded rituals and belief
systems might inhibit positive growth and may lead to mental ill-health.

In recent decades, there has been a growing recognition of the value of integrating religious
and psychological approaches to therapy. Some practitioners incorporate spiritual practices,
mindfulness techniques, or religious rituals into their therapeutic interventions, recognizing
their potential to enhance psychological well-being and resilience. Interfaith dialogue and
collaboration between religious leaders and mental health professionals have also become
more common, fostering mutual understanding and cooperation in addressing mental health
issues within religious communities.

Religion and Psychopathology during the Greek Era

1. Alexander the Great (356 BCE to 323 BCE.)
The era of Alexander the Great marked a significant period of cultural exchange and
intellectual flourishing, particularly in cities like Alexandria, which became renowned centers
of Greek culture and learning. Alexander's conquests and the subsequent spread of Hellenistic
civilization facilitated the exchange of knowledge and ideas across diverse regions, fostering
innovation and advancement in various fields, including medicine and healthcare.

Medical practices and therapies developed to a high level of sophistication, drawing upon the
accumulated wisdom of Greek, Egyptian, and other cultures. Temples dedicated to gods like
Saturn, which were originally associated with agricultural fertility and divine blessings,
underwent transformation into sanctuaries for healing and wellness. These temples, known as
sanatoria, provided holistic care for individuals seeking relief from physical and mental
ailments.

2. Plato (429–347 B.C.)

Plato and Hippocrates, two influential figures in ancient Greek thought, held contrasting
views regarding the role of the gods in mental illness. Hippocrates, often regarded as the
father of Western medicine, stood on a rational and naturalistic approach to understanding
illness, asserting that all diseases had natural causes.

In contrast, Plato, the renowned philosopher and student of Socrates, talked about a more
spiritual worldview, which included belief in the direct influence of the gods on human
affairs, including mental health. In Plato's dialogues, particularly in works such as
"Phaedrus" and "Phaedo," he alludes to the concept of "holy disease" or "divine madness"
(theia mania). This type of mental condition was inspired by the gods. This mental illness
gave the person the ability to see into the future. Since prophetic ability was viewed
positively, this type of mental illness should not be altered.

3. Myths in Greek Philosophy

Greek mythology, body of stories concerning the gods, heroes, and rituals of the ancient
Greeks and Classical antiquity. That the myths contained a considerable element of fiction
was recognized by the more critical Greeks. Greek mythology has subsequently had
extensive influence on the arts and literature of Western civilization, which fell heir to much
of Greek culture.

A) In Greek mythology there was even a goddess of madness, Lyssa. According to

mythology, if you offended Lyssa, she would possess you and cause you to lose your
mind. These myths also provide further insight about how such behavior was viewed
within Greek culture.
B) For example, the maenads were a group of women in myth who had superhuman
strength. They did not follow the social customs of their times but rather roamed the
countryside hunting wild animals. Their rites led to frenzies, which became identified in
the culture as a form of madness.
C) Narcissus was described in Greek mythology as the beautiful son of a river god and
a nymph. According to myth, he never experienced love until the first time he saw his
 own reflection in a pool of water. What happens next varies, depending on which version
of the myth you read.

2. Religion and Psychopathology during the Roman Era

The mistletoe plant serves as a fascinating example of the intricate interplay between herbal
medicine and supernatural beliefs, as well as the cultural significance attributed to it by both
the Greeks and the Romans.

In Greek mythology, mistletoe was associated with the god of medicine, Asclepius, which is
reflected in the plant's Latin name, Viscum album. The Greeks revered mistletoe as a symbol
of vitality and regeneration, attributing life-giving properties to it. Its evergreen nature and
ability to thrive even in harsh conditions symbolized resilience and renewal, making it a
potent symbol of fertility and vitality. Additionally, mistletoe was often linked to themes of
sexuality and reproduction, further emphasizing its association with life and growth.

For the Romans, mistletoe held its own significance, tied to the agricultural god Saturn.
Saturnalia, the festival dedicated to Saturn, was a time of revelry and celebration, during
which mistletoe played a central role. Mistletoe was used as part of fertility rites and rituals
aimed at promoting abundance and prosperity in the coming year. The act of harvesting
mistletoe, especially from oak trees, was laden with symbolism. The oak tree, sacred to the
Romans, was seen as a symbol of strength and endurance. Harvesting mistletoe from the oak
was believed to symbolically castrate the tree, yet paradoxically, it was also seen as an act of
regeneration and renewal, as mistletoe was believed to possess potent therapeutic powers.

3. Religion and Psychopathology during the Renaissance Age

The Renaissance has been called “the most psychically disturbed era in European history.”
Rapid changes in science, religion, culture, politics, and the arts produced widespread anxiety
and a vast panorama of mental disorders, some bizarre and extreme, while others are still
familiar to us today.

The term “lunacy,” a term for insanity dating back in England to the 13th century, was
originally associated with the influence of the moon. From the 15th century onward, “lunatic”
and non-compos mentis were legal terms for the mentally ill, who could experience lucid
intervals or even a complete recovery. These cases contrasted with the mentally retarded,
who were known as “natural fools” or “idiots.” Renaissance descriptions of lunatics
emphasized their wild, animalistic qualities.

Renaissance Explanations for Psychopathology

A variety of causes were proposed for mental illnesses: the influence of the moon, the stars,
the weather, earwigs in the head, and an imbalanced life involving excessive or insufficient
drink, diet, sleep, exercise, passions, and humors, along with witchcraft and the devil himself.
Excess in any form was considered unhealthy.

As in the Middle Ages, mental illness was often associated with demonic possession.
Religion, popular culture, and medical practice attributed many cases of melancholy,
madness, and anxiety, as well as sadism and sexual addictions to witchcraft and the devil’s
powers. Martin Luther associated madness with the wages of sin and the work of the devil,
describing hardened sinners as mentally deranged, raging, possessed, and lunatic.

Belief in witchcraft was widespread throughout the Renaissance. More than 500 of Richard
Napier’s patients believed that they or their family members were bewitched. Many of his
bewitched patients exhibited symptoms of schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders.
Suicide was considered a civil and religious crime in Tudor England, believed to be the
devil’s work because it involved the loss of one’s immortal soul. Yet with the increased focus
on melancholy and the influence of new scientific attitudes during the late 16th and 17th
centuries, suicide came to be seen more as a symptom of mental illness.

With their cognition disordered by “melancholy fumes,” patients often misperceived reality,
suffering from delusions, believing themselves kings or emperors, or, in the case of religious
melancholy, tormented by ghosts and visions of devils and hellfire. Although today the term
melancholy is synonymous with sadness or depression, the Renaissance disorder also
included symptoms of what we would now call Schizophrenia, as well as Anxiety and
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders.

According to Burton, melancholy could have natural or supernatural, internal or external

causes. Supernatural causes involved God (causing a dark night of the soul in a call to
conversion), the devil, or the devil’s agents, namely magicians and witches, luring a sinner to
damnation. As a treatment, they recommended prayer, as well as reading in Scripture and
moral philosophy, and moderate exercise of body and mind to divert patients and raise their
mood.

Renaissance Perspectives on Mental Illness and Current Parallels

The Renaissance offered a range of approaches to the cause and treatment of mental illness,
from superstition and folklore to medical purges to expel offending humors, to prayer and
spiritual practice, observations inspired by the new science, and therapeutic healings based on
compassionate personal support. Some approaches are absurd, abhorrent, outdated and
extreme, but others are still relevant today, including the holistic view of mental health.

Renaissance treatments for mental disorders

Catholic priests and Puritan ministers played significant roles in conducting religious
rituals aimed at expelling evil spirits believed to be the cause of various afflictions, including
mental and physical illness. Catholic exorcisms, sanctioned by the Church, involved prayers,
liturgical rites, and the invocation of divine authority to drive out demonic influences.
Similarly, Puritan ministers in Protestant communities conducted rituals of prayer, fasting,
and spiritual warfare to combat perceived demonic forces and restore the afflicted to health
and spiritual purity.

In addition to religious treatments, astrologers and folk healers offered alternative remedies
rooted in astrology, magic, and folk beliefs. Astrologers consulted celestial alignments and
planetary influences to diagnose and treat illness, prescribing herbal remedies, charms, and
talismans believed to possess magical or protective properties. Folk healers, drawing upon
local traditions and superstitions, utilized charms, amulets, and incantations to ward off evil
spirits and promote healing, reflecting a blend of religious syncretism and folk wisdom.

4. Early Theorists
In psychology, religion, and understanding psychopathology, Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung
stand out as key figures. They've left lasting impacts by offering unique viewpoints that have
deeply influenced how we think about the human mind, spirituality, and psychological well-
being.

A) Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)

Sigmund Freud, the renowned Austrian neurologist and founder of psychoanalysis, offered a
ground-breaking perspective on the psychology of religion that challenged conventional
beliefs. Central to Freud's view was his assertion that religious beliefs and practices stemmed
from deeply rooted psychological processes, particularly the dynamics of the unconscious
mind.

One of Freud's most influential ideas regarding religion was his concept of the "father
image." According to Freud, the human psyche is shaped by early childhood experiences,
particularly the relationships individuals have with their parents. He proposed that the
concept of God, as a powerful and authoritative figure, is essentially a projection of the
paternal authority figure from one's childhood. In this view, religious belief serves as a means
of seeking security and protection, much like the attachment to a nurturing father figure.

Freud also criticized what he termed "authoritarian religion," which he viewed as

dysfunctional and alienating. He argued that such forms of religion impose rigid moral codes,
suppress individual autonomy, and inhibit personal growth and self-expression. Rather than
fostering genuine spiritual fulfillment, authoritarian religion, in Freud's view, perpetuates
psychological repression and conformity.

B) Carl Jung’s (1875 - 1961)

Carl Jung, a prominent Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst, made significant contributions
to our understanding of the relationship between religion and psychology. Central to Jung's
perspective was the notion that religion served as a symbolic expression of life's deeper
meaning and purpose. For Jung, religion encompassed more than just organised belief
systems; it represented the collective human quest for transcendence, wholeness, and
connection with the divine.

Jung proposed that optimal psychological health was intricately linked to an individual's
relationship with the transcendent dimension of life, which he often referred to as the
"religious factor." This concept emphasized the importance of maintaining a sense of
intrapsychic connectedness with broader spiritual or symbolic dimensions of existence.
According to Jung, when individuals became disconnected from this deeper aspect of
themselves, psychological well-being could suffer.
Furthermore, Jung emphasized the role of symbols and archetypes in the religious experience.
He proposed that religious symbols, myths, and rituals served as potent vehicles for accessing
the deeper layers of the unconscious mind and facilitating individuation—the process of
becoming whole and integrated as a person.

Recently, there has been a notable shift in focus within the realms of psychology and mental
health from viewing religious beliefs as potential causes of psychopathology to recognizing
the positive contributions of religion and spirituality in promoting mental well-being. This
shift reflects a growing recognition of the multifaceted role that religion and spirituality play
in individuals' lives and their potential therapeutic benefits for mental health.

Rather than solely attributing psychopathology to religious beliefs or experiences,

contemporary research has increasingly explored how religion and spirituality can serve as
protective factors and resources for coping with stress, adversity, and mental illness.

Empirical Evidences
Understanding Depression and Religion
A systematic review of quantitative research up to 2010 (both observational and experimental
work) reported that 444 studies had examined the relationship between religion/spirituality
and depression (Kleiman and Liu2012). Of those studies, 272 (61%) reported that religious
involvement was associated with less depression or faster recovery from depression, or that
religious interventions significantly reduced depressive symptoms. Researchers found that the
reduced cortical thickness characteristic of those at high risk for major depressive disorder
was substantially less among those who said that religion/spirituality was very important,
compared with those who indicated otherwise.

Understanding Anxiety and Religion

Up to 2010, 299 quantitative studies had examined the relationship between religiosity and
anxiety ( Kleiman and Liu, 2014). Of those, 147 (49%) reported less anxiety among those
who were more religious, whereas 33 (11%) found greater anxiety. There were also 41
experimental studies or randomised controlled trials (RCTs), of which 29 (71%) reported
significantly lower anxiety among those receiving religious/spiritual interventions compared
with control conditions. However, in this case, unlike depression reducing religious activity,
anxiety has the opposite effect, serving as a powerful motivator of religious practices. Those
 who are anxious often turn to religion for comfort and peace. This dynamic is reflected in
recent prospective studies, which have reported mixed findings.
Understanding Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Religion
PTSD reports mixed findings, ranging from no effect on symptoms to either worsening or
improving. An observational cohort study following 111 older male US military veterans
with cancer over 6 months found that increases in religiosity predicted an increase in PTSD
symptoms (Steenhuis, Bartels-Velthuis and JennerTrevino 2016).

In contrast, a study of 532 US veterans involved in a 60- to 90-day residential treatment

programme for combat-related PTSD found that religion/spirituality assessed on admission
(baseline) predicted significantly fewer PTSD symptoms at discharge, independent of
baseline PTSD severity (Croezen, Avendano and Burdorf2015).

Importantly, cross-lagged analyses revealed that the effect of baseline religion/spirituality on

PTSD symptoms at discharge was stronger than the effect of baseline PTSD on discharge
religion/spirituality, suggesting that the effect of religion/spirituality on PTSD symptoms was
stronger than the effect of PTSD on religion/spirituality over time, providing evidence for
causal inference.

Example –
General Overview of Dhat Syndrome
Dhat syndrome is a specific syndrome nurtured as a result of culture-related beliefs. This syndrome is a
conglomeration of multiple psychosomatic symptoms, including sexual symptoms in the absence of physical
illnesses. In stressful situations, an individual’s focus of attention may shift to bodily symptoms like the passage of
white semen-like substances in urine. The individual, who carries a strong cultural belief that semen is a highly
precious and vital element in the body, may attribute the symptoms to loss of semen.

Indian studies found depression, anxiety, somatization, and hypochondriacal symptoms as a common phenomenon,
while erectile dysfunction and premature ejaculation are common associations with Dhat syndrome. The most
common symptoms of patients with Dhat syndrome are weakness, fatigue, palpitation, and insomnia. Dhat syndrome
is commonly seen in young, newly married males of low socio-economic status from rural backgrounds. They
usually belong to families with traditional sexual attitudes.

Dhat syndrome can be treated by resolving sexual myths, relaxation exercises, reassurance, supportive
psychotherapy, anxiolytics, and antidepressants. Recently, cognitive behavioral intervention is also suggested for
patients with Dhat syndrome.

Origins
“Dhat” is derived from the word “dhatu”. The word “Dhatu” is a Sanskrit word which means “Metal” or “Elixir”.
There is a description of seven “Dhatus” [Chyle (Rasa), Blood (Rakta), Flesh (Maans), Fat (Meda), Bone (Asthi),
Marrow (Majja), Semen (Veerya)], out of which most important is “Shukra Dhatu (semen)”. In Sanskrit, semen is
quoted as “Sukra” or “Veerya”. Ancient Vedic literature, believes “Sukra” as the force of life.

Susruta Samhita (ancient Indian text book of surgery) has portrayed seven Dhatus (fine fluids) in the body.
Aggravations of Dhat may cause mental and physical problems. Semen is the most valuable final seventh product of
the process.

Charak Samhita depicts Dhat Disorder by the name ‘Shukrameha’. Shukranu is the term used for sperms in Sanskrit.
Semen is also known as with another name in Sanskrit which is ‘Veerya’ which means bravery. Forty drops of bone
marrow are said to be equivalent to one drop of semen. This gave rise to the belief that loss of semen in any form
will lead to physical weakness and ultimately sexual impotency.

Ancient Hindu mythology believes “Dharma”, “Artha”, “Kama”, and “Moksha” as the basic supports of life. The
word “Kama” stands for sexual life. As per Charaka Samhita, excessive indulgence in sexual activities, obstructing
ejaculation of semen, sexual intercourse with impassionate women, black magic and overpowering sexual urges may
lead to decline in sexual performance. It also emphasizes on dietary, age-related, injury and prolonged illness as
other causes of sexual decline.

Understanding of sexuality during Ancient India

Indian history is the reservoir of various religions and cultures. Every religion and culture laid down its concepts and
beliefs in different forms ranging from arts, scripture, paintings, to various literatures.

Out of different ancient literatures Vedas are the most ancient ones. They are divided into four parts -Rig-Veda,
Sam-Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Atharva-Veda. The Vedas describe about philosophy, culture, religion and life above all
these things.

An important ancient literature which describes about behavioral aspect of human beings is “Manu Samhita”. There
is a description of 330 millions of Gods and Goddesses in Hindu religion. In Hindu religion, “Kama Deva” and “Rati
Devi” are considered as God and Goddess of Sex, respectively.

In Hindu mythology and Vedic culture, there is a vivid description about “Brahmacharya”, which means “strictly
following or adopting the path to reach brahma (God)”. In this path, the individual needs to conserve his semen
which adds to his strength and takes him closer to the supreme soul. Loss of semen is considered as the biggest
obstacle in the path of “Brahmacharya”.

Ayurveda mentions sexuality and treatment of related issues as a separate subsection as “Vajikarana”. Most ancient
literature describes the preciousness of semen. As loss of semen in any other means (nocturnal emission,
masturbation and prostitution) was considered as wastage, early marriages were largely promoted to prevent this
wastage.

Understanding of sexuality during Medieval India

After the 10th century AD, India was attacked and invaded by Afghans, Arabians, and Mughals. During this period,
Indian culture was largely influenced by the Islamic thoughts. Islamic beliefs on semen loss, masturbation and
sexuality affected the traditional Indian belief system.
After the 16th century AD, incursions of British, French, Dutch, and other foreign invaders brought a lot of changes
in Indian culture. Westernisation of Indian culture also affected the beliefs on semen loss and male sexuality. During
this period Indian belief system was largely influenced by western thoughts and maximum diversification of cultural
beliefs occurred in this period.

Understanding of sexuality during Modern India

In the post independent era, there was a psychiatric movement in India leading to change in the belief system. The
beliefs related to semen loss, masturbation become medicalized. This process of medicalization of semen loss is still
continuing, though it has started over many decades still a lot of things to be done to solve the myths.
References
Gupta, Swapnil; Avasthi, Ajit; Kumar, Suresh. Relationship between religiosity and
psychopathology in patients with depression. Indian Journal of Psychiatry 53(4):p
330-335, Oct–Dec 2011. | DOI: 10.4103/0019-5545.91907

Kleiman, EM, Liu, RT (2014) Prospective prediction of suicide in a nationally representative

sample: religious service attendance as a protective factor. British Journal of
Psychiatry, 204: 262–6.

Koenig, H. G., Al-Zaben, F., & VanderWeele, T. J. (2020). Religion and psychiatry: recent
developments in research. BJPsych Advances, 26(5), 262–272.
doi:10.1192/bja.2019.81

Lafond, A. G. (n.d.). Jung's theory of the psychology of religion and some implications for
related empirical research. Marquette University.

Plante, Thomas G.. (2013). Abnormal psychology across the ages. cau:.

Prakash, O., Kar, S. K., & Rao, T. S. S. (2014). Indian story on semen loss and related Dhat
syndrome. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 56(4), 377. https://doi.org/10.4103/0019-
5545.146532

Steenhuis, LA, Bartels-Velthuis, AA, Jenner, JA, et al. (2016) Religiosity in young
adolescents with auditory vocal hallucinations. Psychiatry Research, 236: 158–64.