UNIVERSITY OF PERPETUAL HELP SYSTEM LAGUNA

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND AVIATION

SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE
STEEL AND TIMBER DESIGN

John Paul N. Ocampo Engr. Cyrill M. Aquino

E4R/18-0361-461 April. 08,2024

A Research Critique

on

‘Bending Behavior of Separable Glued-Laminated Timber (GLT)-

Steel Beam Combined with Inclined Screws’

Sung-Jun Pang & Jung-Kwon Oh

(April 1, 2023)

Introduction and Review of Related Literature In response to these challenges, a novel approach
centered on the development of separable GLT-steel
The literature emphasizes the paramount importance of beams, devoid of adhesive materials, has been
mitigating carbon emissions within the construction advanced. This innovative strategy aims to enhance the
sector, underlining timber construction as a critical low- eco-friendliness and recyclability of structural
carbon solution. Timber's inherent attributes, including components. The pursuit of this approach involved
its lightweight composition and ease of manipulation, comprehensive experimental testing, yielding invaluable
play a pivotal role in minimizing its carbon footprint. insights into the reinforcing effects and bending behavior
Additionally, timber possesses a unique capacity to of the developed beams. Of particular significance is the
sequester carbon absorbed during its growth phase, meticulous data analysis conducted, which facilitated the
rendering it an environmentally sustainable choice for formulation of a predictive model for assessing the load-
various structural applications. Extensive studies carrying capacity of the GLT-steel beams. This predictive
corroborate that integrating timber elements into model serves as a robust framework guiding future
buildings effectively reduces atmospheric carbon design and implementation endeavors in sustainable
emissions. Structural timber, renowned for its construction practices, thereby contributing to the
remarkable bending strength-to-weight ratio, undergoes advancement of environmentally conscious building
meticulous testing to establish design values that ensure methodologies.
structural integrity and safety standards are met.

The exploration of hybrid structures that combine timber Problem Description

with steel has yielded promising outcomes, offering a
spectrum of advantages such as heightened structural The research introduces a separable glued-laminated
performance and enhanced recyclability. Researchers timber (GLT) - steel beam system aimed at enhancing
have rigorously examined various methodologies aimed structural performance while prioritizing environmental
at fortifying timber-steel composite beams. These sustainability in construction. It involves determining the
methodologies include reinforcing timber with steel to minimum steel thickness needed for compressive failure
augment load-bearing capabilities and mitigate potential in GLT, using inclined screws for assembly, and
long-term deformations. It is pertinent to note that conducting experiments on eight GLT specimens. Results
challenges, such as glueline delamination, have been show that steel reinforcement improves structural
documented in instances where adhesives are utilized resilience, with ductile behavior observed in the
within timber-steel assemblies, thereby influencing the comparison group. Post-failure analysis informs the
durability and long-term performance of such structures. development of a predictive model for GLT-steel beams.
However, further investigation is needed regarding long-
 UNIVERSITY OF PERPETUAL HELP SYSTEM LAGUNA
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND AVIATION
SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE
STEEL AND TIMBER DESIGN

term durability, environmental impact, scalability, cost-

effectiveness, and practical implementation in real-
world projects.

Modeling, Results, Analysis and Conclusion

Figure 1 schematically illustrates the concept of the

separable GLT-steel beam, while Figure 2 depicts the
relationship between load-carrying capacity, neutral axis
position, and total thickness in relation to steel plate EXPERIMENTAL
thickness when reinforcing a GLT beam.
Materials
The statement highlights that an increase in steel plate Figure 3 illustrates the cross-section of Glued Laminated
thickness correlates with an increased load-bearing Timber (GLT) showcasing lamina arrangement. It
capacity of the composite beam. However, it notes a comprises E9 grade lamina with a modulus of elasticity
diminishing rate of increase when the steel plate (MOE) exceeding 9 GPa, sourced from four layers of larch
thickness reaches 4 mm or more. Specifically, for steel species (Larix kaempferi Carr.) with a density of 550
plate thicknesses of 3 mm or less, the maximum load kg/m³. Following fabrication to KS F3021 standard, GLT
capacity is limited by tensile failure of the steel plate. dimensions were 80 mm width, 120 mm thickness, and
Conversely, when the steel plate thickness is 4 mm or 2450 mm length. Post-manufacture, GLT specimens were
more, the maximum load capacity is governed by conditioned for one week at 20°C and 65% relative
compression failure of GLT. humidity, with moisture content tested using an HM-530
moisture tester, resulting in approximately 6 ± 2%. Table
1 presents dimensions and mechanical characteristics of
GLT and steel plate. Eight GLTs were categorized into two
groups: three for bending strength testing and five
reinforced with a steel plate for comparison.

Figure 1. Separable glued-laminated timber-steel beam

Figure 2. Load-carrying capacity, neutral axis position,

and total thickness of beam according to the steel plate Figure 3. Cross section of GLT and GLT-steel beam
thickness
With the steel plate reinforcement, the composite
beam's maximum load reaches around 20 kN, creating a
shear force of 84.7 kN between the GLT and the steel.
Each inclined screw can withstand 11.25 kN (Rotho Blaas
Srl 2020), so 10 screws were installed at 60 mm intervals
 UNIVERSITY OF PERPETUAL HELP SYSTEM LAGUNA
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND AVIATION
SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE
STEEL AND TIMBER DESIGN

to support the shear force and prevent screw connector tests, as discussed in previous studies (Pang et al., 2011,
failure. The screws were angled 20 degrees towards the 2018, 2021; Pang and Jeong, 2019).
center of the GLT to avoid GLT cracking during insertion
(see Fig. 4). Table 2 presents the bending characteristics of the GLT
samples. The mean bending stiffness during failure
testing was 0.168 × 10^12 N∙mm², consistent with the
stiffness observed in grading tests. The average load-
bearing capacity was 28.2 kN, with a bending moment
capacity of 10.7 kN∙m.
Figure 4. Screw installation (45° inclined, 20° rotation)

Experimental Tests

The bending stiffness and load-carrying capacities of the

specimens were assessed through a third-point bending
test, wherein deflection and load resistance were
measured (as depicted in Fig. 5). A universal test machine
(Zwick GmbH & Co., Ltd., Ulm, Germany) was employed
to apply the load in accordance with ASTM D198 (2010)
standards. A yoke was positioned along the neutral axis
of the specimen to precisely measure the deflection.

Figure 5. Configuration of third-point loading test for the Figure 6. Failure mode of the GLT beam
specimens
The displacement at the center of the specimen was
assessed using linear variable displacement transducers
(LVDT). The test setup involved a span of 2,280 mm and
a loading speed of 10 mm/min. The bending stiffness
and bending moment of the specimens were
determined using Equation 1 (BS EN 408:2010+A1:2012
2012; Pang et al. 2019; Pang and Jeong 2019) and
Equation 2, respectively,

Figure 7. Load-displacement curve of the GLT beam

RESULTS

GLT Beam
Figure 6 illustrates the failure patterns observed in the
GLT beam. In each case, the specimens fractured near
the knot within the tensile zone. When failure occurred,
there was a noticeable sudden decrease in load
resistance, as depicted in Figure 7. Such brittle failure is
commonly observed in GLT or wood during bending
 UNIVERSITY OF PERPETUAL HELP SYSTEM LAGUNA
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND AVIATION
SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE
STEEL AND TIMBER DESIGN

component until failure.

Table 2. Bending Properties and Failure Modes of GLT

and Reinforced GLT

1) Effective bending stiffness by Eq. 1

2) Measured in grading test to divide the specimens into
two groups.
3) Measured in failure test to evaluate the maximum
load-carrying capacity of the specimen
4) (EIeff in grading test / EIeff in failure test) × 100
5) Maximum load
6) Bending moment resistance calculated by Eq. 2
7) Coefficient of variation

GLT-steel beam

Figures 8 to 10 show failure mechanisms in GLT-steel

beams. Initial tensile failure occurred at finger joints or
knots in two out of five samples, reducing strength.
Compression failure at the top of GLT beams was
accompanied by significant deformation.

Figure 11 displays load-displacement curves of GLT-steel

beams. Despite initial failure, GLT-steel beams retained Figure 8. fracture mechanism of GLT-steel beam in
around 30 kN load-carrying capacity, attributed to the which tension failure (finger joint) of GLT occurs first
steel plate being in a plastic state. Maximum load (RGLT-1)
capacity was higher when compression failure happened
first (48 kN to 51 kN) compared to tensile failure (32 kN
to 38 kN), indicating the contribution of the tensile
 UNIVERSITY OF PERPETUAL HELP SYSTEM LAGUNA
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND AVIATION
SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE
STEEL AND TIMBER DESIGN

Figure 10. Fracture mechanism of GLT-steel beam in

which compression failure of GLT occurs first

Figure 9. Fracture mechanism of GLT-steel beam in

which tension failure (knot) of GLT occurs first (RGLT-2)

Figure 11. Load-displacement curve of the GLT-steel

beam

ANALYSIS

By adding a 4 mm steel plate to the GLT, bending stiffness

increased by 58.5% from 0.166×10^12 to 0.263×10^12
N/mm^2, and the coefficient of variation decreased from
0.054 to 0.03 (Table 2). The GLT-steel beam showed a
56.4% increase in bending moment resistance, rising
from 10.702 to 16.740 kN∙m, with COV decreasing from
0.258 to 0.161. This study's GLT-steel beam outperforms
standard GLT, ensuring consistent quality during
production.

Figure 12 illustrates bending stress distribution for both

beams at maximum bending moment. The GLT beam's
maximum bending stress was 55.7 MPa, similar to the
specified bending strength (54 MPa) for a similar MOE
GLT grade in the KS F3021 standard (KS F3021 2013). In
 UNIVERSITY OF PERPETUAL HELP SYSTEM LAGUNA
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND AVIATION
SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE
STEEL AND TIMBER DESIGN

contrast, the GLT-steel beam's maximum bending stress 𝑐2: Distance from bottom surface to neutral axis of
on the steel plate (414.6 MPa) exceeded the steel plate's composite section (mm)
yield strength (227 MPa), indicating plastic deformation 𝑡𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙: Thickness of steel plate (mm)
and necessitating plastic analysis. 𝐸𝐺𝐿𝑇: Elastic modulus of GLT (MPa)
𝜀𝐺𝐿𝑇: Strain of GLT
𝑓𝑦: Yield strength of steel plate (MPa)

Figure 13. Bending stress distribution of the GLT-steel

beam at the maximum bending moment by elastic-
plastic analysis

Figure 14 illustrates stress distribution in the GLT-steel

beam at plastic state. The design approach mirrors
reinforced concrete, balancing compressive and tensile
forces. The upper GLT's compressive force matches the
steel plate's tensile force, determining the compressive
zone height (Eq. 5), which increases with steel stress.
Bending moment (Eq. 6) and load capacity (Eq. 7)
predictions, using steel yield strengths of 227 MPa and
Figure 12. Bending stress distribution of GLT beam and 345 MPa, respectively, align well with experimental
GLT-steel beam by elastic analysis values. Load capacities surpass predictions based on
steel yield strength, confirming safe design.
Figure 13 illustrates bending stress distribution in a GLT-
steel beam, considering plasticity in both materials. Notation:
Equation 4 predicts maximum bending moment,
including plastic and elastic moments in GLT and steel. ℎ𝑐,𝐺𝐿𝑇: Height of compressive zone in GLT (mm)
Wood in compression shows ductile behavior, 𝑓𝑦: Yield or tensile strength of steel plate (MPa)
weakening post-maximum load. GLT's compressive 𝑡𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙: Thickness of steel plate (mm)
stress is idealized as elastic-plastic. Reported data 𝜎𝑐,𝐺𝐿𝑇: Compressive strength of GLT (MPa)
suggests using wood's compressive strength (58.8 MPa) 𝑀𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑡: Predicted bending moment (kN·m)
as GLT's yield strength. 𝑤: Width of steel plate (mm)
h: Height of GLT-steel beam (mm)
In this context: 𝑃𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑡: Predicted load-carrying capacity of GLT-steel
beam (kN)
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥: Maximum bending moment (kN-m) 𝐿𝑒: Distance between load position and support
𝑐1: Distance from top surface to neutral axis of position (mm)
composite section (mm)
ℎ𝑐,𝐺𝐿𝑇: Height of compressive zone in GLT (mm)
𝜎𝑐,𝐺𝐿𝑇: Compressive strength of GLT (MPa)
𝑦: Distance from neutral axis of composite section (mm)
 UNIVERSITY OF PERPETUAL HELP SYSTEM LAGUNA
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND AVIATION
SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE
STEEL AND TIMBER DESIGN

3. They connected the wood and steel together using

screws placed at angles, without using any glue. These
screws were strong enough to handle the forces trying to
tear the materials apart, allowing the steel to bend
without breaking. This suggests that you can make these
beams without using any glue and still have them bend
without snapping.

Comment and Suggestion

This literature underscores the critical imperative of

carbon emissions mitigation within the construction
sector, with a particular focus on timber construction as
a pivotal low-carbon solution. It eloquently delineates
the inherent attributes of timber, including its
lightweight composition and carbon sequestration
capacity, which collectively contribute to its
environmental sustainability and suitability for various
structural applications. Moreover, the literature adeptly
Figure 14. Bending stress distribution of the reinforced discusses the empirical evidence supporting the
GLT specimens at the plastic state integration of timber elements into buildings as an
effective means of reducing atmospheric carbon
CONCLUSIONS emissions.

In this study, researchers made a special type of beam The exploration of hybrid timber-steel structures
using a combination of wood (GLT) and steel. They used emerges as a promising avenue, leveraging the
the smallest possible thickness of steel plates (just 4 mm complementary strengths of both materials to enhance
thick) that would cause the wood to break under structural performance and recyclability. Notably, the
pressure, and then they tested how the beam bent when thorough examination of methodologies for fortifying
weight was put on it. Here's what they found: timber-steel composite beams, despite facing challenges
such as glueline delamination, underscores the depth of
1. The new beam they made was much better at resisting research in addressing complex engineering concerns.
bending compared to just using wood. It could handle
56.4% more bending force and was 58.5% stiffer. This An innovative approach centered on the development of
means it didn't bend as much when you put weight on it. separable Glue-Laminated Timber (GLT)-steel beams,
Also, the variation in its bending abilities was reduced, so devoid of adhesive materials, is introduced as a response
it was more consistent. Basically, their new beam was to identified challenges. This novel strategy aims to
stronger and more reliable than using wood alone. bolster the eco-friendliness and recyclability of structural
components, supported by comprehensive experimental
2. Even when the wood part of the beam broke, the testing and meticulous data analysis. The formulation of
whole thing still held up pretty well and could support a predictive model for assessing the load-carrying
about 30 kN of weight. They figured out a way to predict capacity of the GLT-steel beams stands out as a
this behavior using a special model, kind of like how significant contribution, offering a robust framework for
engineers design reinforced concrete. Their predictions guiding future design and implementation endeavors in
matched up with what they saw in their experiments. So, sustainable construction practices.
they can now design these beams knowing they'll stay
strong even if some parts fail. In summary, this literature presents a cogent argument
for prioritizing sustainable construction methodologies
and underscores ongoing advancements in addressing
 UNIVERSITY OF PERPETUAL HELP SYSTEM LAGUNA
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND AVIATION
SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE
STEEL AND TIMBER DESIGN

environmental challenges within the industry. Further

elucidation on the environmental benefits of timber • Contributions to Sustainable Construction: By
construction, along with exploration of potential advancing environmentally conscious building
solutions to identified challenges, would enhance the methodologies, the article contributes to the
depth and persuasiveness of the discourse. broader goal of sustainable construction. It
emphasizes the importance of leveraging
These are some insights and keys to the literature: innovative materials and technologies to reduce
carbon emissions and promote eco-friendly
• Carbon Footprint Reduction: Timber practices in the construction industry.
construction is highlighted as an effective means
of reducing carbon emissions due to its inherent Overall, the article provides valuable insights into the
attributes and carbon sequestration capacity. By role of timber construction and hybrid structures in
utilizing timber, which absorbs carbon during its mitigating carbon emissions within the construction
growth phase and continues to store it even in sector, as well as the ongoing efforts to address
its structural applications, the construction challenges and advance sustainable construction
industry can significantly lower its carbon practices.
footprint.

• Hybrid Structures: The exploration of hybrid REFERENCE:

timber-steel structures presents a promising
avenue for enhancing structural performance https://web.p.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=3
and recyclability in construction. By combining &sid=0f4b99c2-c270-4b10-ab1b-
the strengths of timber and steel, such as 513322f4aa5e%40redis&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbG
timber's flexibility and steel's strength, these l2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=163736069&db=aph
hybrid structures offer a holistic approach to
sustainable construction.

• Challenges and Solutions: The article

acknowledges challenges associated with
timber-steel assemblies, such as glueline
delamination, which can impact the durability
and long-term performance of structures.
However, it also discusses innovative solutions
like separable GLT-steel beams, which aim to
address these challenges by eliminating adhesive
materials and enhancing recyclability.

• Experimental Testing and Predictive Modeling:

The pursuit of sustainable construction practices
involves rigorous experimental testing and data
analysis. The article highlights the importance of
comprehensive testing in developing predictive
models for assessing the load-carrying capacity
of innovative structural components like GLT-
steel beams. Such predictive models serve as
robust frameworks for guiding future design and
implementation endeavors in sustainable
construction.