Electronic Flowmeters

While the flow measurement technologies discussed in this chapter--magnetic, vortex, and ultrasonic--are n
electronic in nature, they do represent a logical grouping of flow measurement technologies. All have no m
relatively non-intrusive, and are made possible by today's sophisticated electronics technology.

Magnetic flowmeters, for example, are the most directly electrical in nature, deriving their first principles o
meters depend on piezoelectric sensors to detect vortices shed from a stationary shedder bar. And today's ul
application to sophisticated digital signal processing.

Magnetic Flowmeters

The operation of magnetic flowmeters is based on Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. Magmeters c
Early magmeter designs required a minimum fluidic conductivity of 1-5 microsiemens per centimeter for th
reduced that requirement a hundredfold to between 0.05 and 0.1.

The magnetic flowmeter consists of a non-magnetic pipe lined with an insulating material. A pair of magne
and a pair of electrodes penetrates the pipe and its lining. If a conductive fluid flows through a pipe of diam
(B) generated by the coils, the amount of voltage (E) developed across the electrodes--as predicted by Farad
velocity (V) of the liquid. Because the magnetic field density and the pipe diameter are fixed values, they ca
and the equation reduces to:

The velocity differences at different points of the flow profile are compensated for by a signal-weighing fac
shaping the magnetic coils such that the magnetic flux will be greatest where the signal weighing factor is l

Manufacturers determine each magmeter's K factor by water calibration of each flowtube. The K value thus
liquid and is linear over the entire flowmeter range. For this reason, flowtubes are usually calibrated at only
in both directions, as reversing direction will change the polarity but not

Figure 4-1: Click on figure to enlarge.

the magnitude of the signal.

The K value obtained by water testing might not be valid for non-Newtonian fluids (with velocity-dependen
containing magnetic particles). These types of fluids can affect the density of the magnetic field in the tube.
compensating designs should be considered for both of these fluids.

Magmeter Excitation

The voltage that develops at the electrodes is a millivolt signal. This signal is typically converted into a stan
(0-10,000 Hz) at or near the flowtube. Intelligent magnetic transmitters with digital outputs allow direct con
Because the magmeter signal is a weak one, the lead wire should be shielded and twisted if the transmitter i

The magmeter's coils can be powered by either alternating or direct current (Figure 4-2). When ac excitation
magnetic coils. As a result, the flow signal (at constant flow) will also look like a sine wave. The amplitude
addition to the flow signal, noise voltages can be induced in the electrode loop. Out-of-phase noise is easily
flow be stopped

Figure 4-2: Click on figure to enlarge.

(with the pipe full) and the transmitter output set to zero. The main problem with ac magmeter designs is th
and frequent re-zeroing is required to maintain accuracy.

In dc excitation designs, a low frequency (7-30 Hz) dc pulse is used to excite the magnetic coils. When the
transmitter reads both the flow and noise signals. In between pulses, the transmitter sees only the noise sign
eliminated after each cycle.

This provides a stable zero and eliminates zero drift. In addition to being more accurate and able to measure
easier to install, use less energy, and have a lower cost of ownership than ac meters. One new dc design use
generations and thereby creates a stronger flowtube signal.

Another new design uses a unique dual excitation scheme that pulses the coils at 7 Hz for zero stability and
Magmeter transmitters can be supplied with either ac or dc power. A two-wire, loop-powered dc magnetic f
safe design, but its performance is reduced because of power limitations.

Pulsed ac meters have also been introduced recently, eliminating the zero stability problems of traditional a
that periodically disrupts the ac power, automatically zeroing out the effects of process noise on the output

Today, dc excitation is used in about 85% of installations and ac magmeters claim the other 15% when just
When air is entrained in large quantities in the process stream;

When the process stream is a slurry and the solid particle sizes are not uniform and/or the solid phase is not

When the flow is pulsating at a frequency under 15 Hz.

When any of the above three conditions exist, the output of a pulsed dc meter is likely to be noisy. In some
(hold the fluctuations within 1% of setpoint) by filtering and damping the output signal. If more than 1 to 3
the noise, it is always better to use an ac meter.

Flowtubes, Liners, & Probes

The face-to-face dimensions of flanged flowtubes (lay lengths) usually meet the recommendations of the In
(ISO). The dimensions of short-form magmeters usually meet these guidelines as well. Magnetic flowtubes
and are widely used in all the process industries, including food, pharmaceutical, mining, and metals.

Some liner materials (particularly PFA) can be damaged when pry bars are used while installing it or remov
damaged by over-torquing the flange bolts. Liner protectors are available to help prevent such damage.

Any flowtube can generally be used with any transmitter offered by the same manufacturer. Depending on i
in. magnetic flowmeter can range from $1,500 to $5,000. This cost has been coming down, but is still highe
sensors.

Magnetic flowmeters also can be packaged as probes and inserted into process pipes through taps. These pr
magnetic coils. The flowing process fluid induces a voltage at the electrodes, which reflects the velocity at t
velocity across the pipe. These magmeters are inexpensive and retractable. Therefore, the process does not
them. Metering accuracy is highly dependent on the relationship between the measured velocity and the ave

Electrodes

In conventional flowtubes, the electrodes are in contact with the process fluid. They can be removable or pe
platinum as it sinters through a ceramic liner and fuses with the aluminum oxide to form a perfect seal. This
resistance to abrasion and wear, its insensitivity to nuclear radiation, and its suitability for sanitary applicati
bacteria can grow. On the other hand, the ceramic tube cannot tolerate bending, tension, or sudden cooling
concentrated caustic.

Figure 4-3: Click on figure to enlarge.

In a more recent capacitively- coupled design, non-contacting electrodes are used. These designs use areas
material. They are available in sizes under eight inches in diameter and with ceramic liners. Magmeters usin
"read" fluids having 100 times less conductivity than required to actuate conventional flowtubes. Because th
designs are also better suited for severe coating applications.
Recent Developments

When a magnetic flowmeter is provided with a capacitance level sensor embedded in the liner, it can also m
this design, the magmeter electrodes are located at the bottom of the tube (at approximately 1/10 the pipe di
fluid. Compensation is provided for wave action and calibration is provided for full pipe, no flow (static lev

Another recent development is a magnetic flowmeter with an unlined carbon steel flowtube. In this design,
to the unlined flowtube and the magnetic coils generate a field 15 times stronger than in a conventional tube
the process fluid (not just around the electrode as with standard magmeter probes). The main advantage is l
the sensors need be replaced.

Selection & Sizing

Magnetic flowmeters can detect the flow of clean, multi-phase, dirty, corrosive, erosive, or viscous liquids a
exceeds the minimum required for the particular design. The expected inaccuracy and rangeability of the be
range of 10:1 to 30:1, if the flow velocity exceeds 1 ft/sec. At slower flow velocities (even below 0.1 ft/s), m
readings remain repeatable.

It is important that the conductivity of the process fluid be uniform. If two fluids are mixed and the conduct
different from that of the other process fluid, it is important that they be completely intermixed before the b
not uniform, the output signal will be noisy. To prevent that, pockets of varying conductivity can be elimina
the magmeter.

Magmeter size is determined by capacity tables or charts published by the manufacturer. Figure 4-3 provide
from 0.1 in. to 96 in. For most applications, flow velocities should fall between 3 ft/sec and 15 ft/sec. For co
should be 3-6 ft/sec. If the flowtube is continuously operated below 3 ft/sec, metering accuracy will deterio
the upper limit of the normal velocity range will shorten the life of the meter.

The obstructionless nature of the magmeter lowers the likelihood of plugging and limits the unrecovered he
straight pipe. The low pressure drop is desirable because it lowers pumping costs and aids gravity feed syste

Problem Applications

The magmeter cannot distinguish entrained air from the process fluid; therefore, air bubbles will cause the m
not homogeneously dispersed, but takes the form of air slugs or large air bubbles (the size of the electrode),
even disrupt it. Therefore, in applications where air entrainment is likely, the meter should be sized so that t
conditions is 6-12 ft/sec.

Coating of the electrodes is another common magmeter problem. Material build-up on the inner surfaces of
electrodes from the process
Figure 4-4: Click on figure to enlarge.

fluid. This can cause a loss of signal or a measurement error, either by changing the diameter of the flowtub
Naturally, the best solution is prevention. One preventive step is to size the meter such that, under normal fl
relatively high: at least 6-12 ft/sec, or as high as practical considering the possibility of erosion and corrosio

Another method of prevention is to use electrodes that protrude into the flow stream to take advantage of th
severe service, a mechanical cleaning system can be installed and used intermittently or continuously to elim

Installation

The magnetic flowmeter must always be full of liquid. Therefore, the preferred location for magmeters is in
horizontal lines is acceptable if the pipe section is at a low point and if the electrodes are not at the top of th
contact with the electrodes. When the process fluid is a slurry and the magmeter is installed at a low point, i
shutdown, so that solids will not settle and coat the internals.

If it is essential to drain the magmeter periodically, it should be provided with an empty tube zero option. W
the transmitter will be clamped to zero. Detection of empty tube conditions is by circuitry connected to extr
empty tube zero feature can also be activated by an external contact, such as a pump status contact.

Magmeters require five diameters of straight pipe upstream and two diameters downstream in order to main
Liner protectors are available to protect the leading edge of the liners from the abrasive effects of process fl
horizontal pipe exceeding 30 ft in length, the pipe should be supported on both sides of the meter.

The magnetic flowmeter must be electrically grounded to the process liquid. This is because the magmeter
traveling down the pipeline or through the process liquid. Bonding, by grounding the meter at both ends to
stray currents, routing them around the flowtube instead of through it. If the system is not properly grounde
the magnetic flowmeter output.

Electrical bonding to the process fluid can be achieved by metal ground straps. These straps connect each e
flanges, which, in turn, are in contact with the process liquid. Straps are used when the piping is electrically
conductive or lined, grounding rings are used. The grounding ring is like an orifice plate with a bore equal t
flowtube. It is installed between the flanges of the flowtube and adjacent process piping on the upstream an
to the process fluid by being connected to the metallic grounding rings, and is grounded by being wired to a

In larger sizes and in exotic materials, grounding rings can become expensive; grounding electrodes (a
Figure 4-5: Click on figure to enlarge.

third electrode placed in the flowtube for bonding with the process fluid) can be used instead. Another cost-
ring with a metal electrode insert.

Vortex Flowmeters

As a young person fishing in the mountain streams of the Transylvanian Alps, Theodor von Karman discov
(also called a bluff body) is placed in the path of a fast-flowing stream, the fluid will alternately separate fro
and, as the boundary layer becomes detached and curls back on itself, the fluid forms vortices (also called w
distance between the vortices was constant and depended solely on the size of the rock that formed it.

On the side of the bluff body where the vortex is being formed, the fluid velocity is higher and the pressure
it grows in strength and size, and eventually detaches or sheds itself. This is followed by a vortex's being fo
(Figure 4-4). The alternating vortices are spaced at equal distances.

The vortex-shedding phenomenon can be observed as wind is shed from a flagpole (which acts as a bluff bo
one sees in a flag. Vortices are also shed from bridge piers, pilings, offshore drilling platform supports, and
vortex-shedding phenomenon must be taken into account when designing these structures. In a closed pipin
within a few pipe diameters downstream of the bluff body and causes no harm.

Vortex Meter Design

A vortex flowmeter is typically made of 316 stainless steel or Hastelloy and includes a bluff body, a vortex
electronics, although the latter can also be mounted remotely (Figure 4-5). They are typically available in fl
installed cost of vortex meters is competitive with that of orifice meters in sizes under six inches. Wafer bod
while flanged meters are preferred if the process fluid is hazardous or is at a high temperature.

Bluff body shapes (square, rectangular, t-shaped, trapezoidal) and dimensions have been experimented with
Testing has shown that linearity, low Reynolds number limitation, and sensitivity to velocity profile distorti
In size, the bluff body must have a width that is a large enough fraction of the pipe diameter that the entire f
the bluff body must have protruding edges on the upstream face to fix the lines of flow separation, regardle
length in the direction of the flow must be a certain multiple of the bluff body width.

Today, the majority of vortex meters use piezoelectric or capacitance-type sensors to detect the pressure osc
detectors
Figure 4-6: Click on figure to enlarge.

respond to the pressure oscillation with a low voltage output signal which has the same frequency as the osc
inexpensive, easily replaced, and can operate over a wide range of temperature ranges--from cryogenic liqu
located inside the meter body or outside. Wetted sensors are stressed directly by the vortex pressure fluctua
withstand corrosion and erosion effects.

External sensors, typically piezoelectric strain gages, sense the vortex shedding indirectly through the force
are preferred on highly erosive/corrosive applications to reduce maintenance costs, while internal sensors p
sensitivity). They are also less sensitive to pipe vibrations. The electronics housing usually is rated explosio
electronic transmitter module, termination connections, and optionally a flow-rate indicator and/or totalizer

Sizing & Rangeability

Vortex shedding frequency is directly proportional to the velocity of the fluid in the pipe, and therefore to v
is independent of fluid properties such as density, viscosity, conductivity, etc., except that the flow must be
relationship between vortex frequency and fluid velocity is:

Where St is the Strouhal number, f is the vortex shedding frequency, d is the width of the bluff body, and V
the Strouhal number is determined experimentally, and is generally found to be constant over a wide range
represents the ratio of the interval between vortex shedding (l) and bluff body width (d), which is about six
dimensionless calibration factor used to characterize various bluff bodies. If their Strouhal number is the sa
perform and behave similarly.

Because the volumetric flowrate Q is the product of the average fluid velocity and of the cross-sectional are

where B is the blockage factor, defined as the open area left by the bluff body divided by the full bore area
rewritten as:

where K is the meter coefficient, equal to the product (A f d B). As with turbine and other frequency-produ
as pulses per unit volume (pulses per gallon, pulses per cubic foot, etc.). Therefore, one can determine flow
Vortex frequencies range from one to thousands of pulses per second, depending upon the flow velocity, th
of the meter. In gas service, frequencies are about 10 times higher than in liquid applications.

The K factor is determined by the manufacturer, usually by water calibration in a flow lab. Because the K f
applications, the value determined from a water calibration is valid

Figure 4-7: Click on figure to enlarge.

for any other fluid. The calibration factor (K) at moderate Reynolds numbers is not sensitive to edge sharpn
square-edged orifice meters.

Although vortex meter equations are relatively simple compared to those for orifice plates, there are many r
Manufacturers offer free computer software for sizing, wherewith the user enters the fluid's properties (dens
the program automatically sizes the meter.

The force generated by the vortex pressure pulse is a function of fluid density multiplied by the square of fl
turbulent flow and force sufficient to actuate the sensor determines the meter's rangeability. This force has t
noise. For example, a typical 2-in. vortex meter has a water flow range of 12 to 230 gpm. If the density or v
water, the meter range will change.

In order to minimize measurement noise, it is important to select a meter that will adequately handle both th
that will be measured. It is recommended that the minimum flow rate to be measured be at least twice the m
The maximum capacity of the meter should be at least five times the anticipated maximum flowrate.

Accuracy & Rangeability

Because the Reynolds number drops as viscosity rises, vortex flowmeter rangeability suffers as the viscosity
function of allowable accuracy and rangeability, is between 8 and 30 centipoises. One can expect a better th
service and over 10:1 for low-viscosity liquid applications if the vortex meter has been sized properly for th

The inaccuracy of most vortex meters is 0.5-1% of rate for Reynolds numbers over 30,000. As the Reynold
Reynolds numbers less than 10,000, error can reach 10% of actual flow.

While most flowmeters continue to give some indication at near zero flows, the vortex meter is provided wi
meter output is automatically clamped at zero (4 mA for analog transmitters). This cut-off point correspond
If the minimum flow that one needs to measure is at least twice the cut-off flow, this does not pose a proble
drawback if low flowrate information is desired during start-up, shutdown, or other upset conditions.

Recent Developments

Smart vortex meters provide a digital output signal containing more information than just flow rate. The mi
automatically correct for insufficient straight pipe conditions, for differences between the bore diameter and
expansion of the bluff body, and for K-factor changes when the Reynolds number drops below 10,000.

Intelligent transmitters are also provided with diagnostic subroutines to signal component or other failures.
routines to identify problems with both the meter and with the application. These on-demand tests can also

Some recently introduced vortex flowmeters can detect mass flow. One such design measures both the vort
simultaneously. From these readings, the density of the process fluid can be determined and the mass flow c

Another newer design is provided with multiple sensors to detect not only the vortex frequency, but also the
fluid. Based on that data, it determines both the density and the mass flow rate. This meter offers a 1.25% o
flow of liquids and a 2% of rate accuracy for gases and steam. If knowledge of process pressure and temper
meter provides a convenient, less costly alternative to installing separate transmitters.

Applications & Limitations

Vortex meters are not usually recommended for batching or other intermittent flow applications. This is bec
batching station can fall below the meter's minimum Reynolds number limit. The smaller the total batch, th
likely to be.

Low pressure (low density) gases do not produce a strong enough pressure pulse, especially if fluid velociti
services the rangeability of the meter will be poor and low flows will not be measurable. On the other hand,
the meter is correctly sized for normal flow, the vortex flowmeter can still be considered.

If the process fluid tends to coat or build-up on the bluff body, as in sludge and slurry service, this will even
shedding flowmeters are not recommended for such applications. If, however, a dirty fluid has only modera
application is likely to be acceptable. This was demonstrated by a 2-year test on a limestone slurry. At the e
have changed only 0.3% from the original factory calibration, although the bluff body and flowtube were ba

When measuring multi-phase flow (solid particles in gas or liquid; gas bubbles in liquid; liquid droplets in g

Figure 4-8: Click on figure to enlarge.

because of the meter's inability to differentiate between the phases. Wet, low-quality steam is one such appl
homogeneously dispersed within the steam, and vertical flow lines should be avoided to prevent slugging. W
is likely to travel on the bottom of the pipe, and therefore the inner area of the pipe should be kept open at t
installing the bluff body horizontally. Measurement inaccuracy in such applications is about 5% of actual fl

The permanent pressure loss through a vortex meter is about half that of an orifice plate, roughly two veloc
V2/g, where V is the flow velocity and g is the gravitational constant in consistent units.) If the pipe and me
the pressure drop is likely to be only a few psi. However, downsizing (installing a smaller-than-line-size me
increase the head loss to more than 10 psi. One should also make sure that the vena contracta pressure does
process fluid, because that would cause cavitation. Naturally, if the back-pressure on the meter is below the
and the meter reading will not be meaningful.

The main advantages of vortex meters are their low sensitivity to variations in process conditions and low w
Also, initial and maintenance costs are low. For these reasons, they have been gaining wider acceptance am

Installation Recommendations

When installing a vortex flowmeter in an existing process where the flow range is not known, it is recomme

Figure 4-9: Click on figure to enlarge.

to first make some approximate measurements (using portable pitot or clamp-on ultrasonic devices). Otherw
vortex meter will work at all.

The vortex meter requires a well-developed and symmetrical flow velocity profile, free from any distortion
straight up- and downstream piping to condition the flow. The straight length of pipe must be the same size
should be about the same as required for an orifice installation with a beta ratio of 0.7 (see Chapter 2). Mos
recommend a minimum of 30 pipe diameters downstream of control valves, and 3 to 4 pipe diameters betw
Temperature elements should be small and located 5 to 6 diameters downstream.

About half of all vortex meter installations require the "necking down" of oversized process piping by conc
straighteners are installed, some straight (relaxation) piping will still be required.

Vortex meters can be installed vertically, horizontally, or at any angle, as long as they are kept flooded. The
a vertical upward flow line (Figure 4-6B). When installing the flowmeter in a downward (Figure 4-6C) or h
downstream piping should be kept elevated. Check valves can be used to keep the piping full of liquid when
are required if the replacement of the sensor in the particular design requires the stopping of the flow and th

Mating flanges (on the schedule 40 or schedule 80 mating piping) must have the same diameter and smooth
are preferred, and reducing flanges should not be used. The inner surface of the mating pipe should be free
and bumps for a distance of 4 diameters upstream and 2 diameters downstream of the meter. The bores of th
must be carefully aligned to eliminate any obstructions or steps.

Excessive pipe vibration can be eliminated by supporting the piping on both sides of the meter, or by rotatin
of the plane of the vibration. Process noise due to valve chattering, steam traps, or pumps can result in high
flow conditions. Most meter electronics allow for increasing the noise filter settings, but increased noise red
sensitivity of the meter. One option is to relocate the meter to a less noisy part of the process.

Ultrasonic Flowmeters

The speed at which sound propagates in a fluid is dependent on the fluid's density. If the density is constant
passage (or reflection) to determine the velocity of a flowing fluid.
Some manufacturers produce transducer systems that operate in the shear-mode, sending a single pulse and
beam systems are commonly subject to walk-away (the signal completely missing the downstream transduc
refraction and work better in changing liquid density and temperature. With the advent of digital signal proc
digital signal coding to the transmitted signal. This can eliminate many of the problems associated with noi

The Doppler Shift

In 1842, Christian Doppler discovered that the wavelength of sound perceived by a stationary observer appe
and longer when the source is moving away. This shift in frequency is the basis upon which all Doppler-shi

Doppler flowmeter transducers operate at 0.640 MHz (in clamp-on designs) and at 1.2 MHz in wetted senso
ultrasonic pulse or beam into the flowing stream. The sound waves are reflected back by such acoustical dis
bubbles, or even by turbulence vortices (Figure 4-7A). For clamp-on designs, measurement inaccuracy rang

The meter detects the velocity of the discontinuities, rather than the velocity of the fluid, in calculating the f
determined by:

Where Ct is the velocity of sound inside the transducer, f0 is the transmission frequency, f1 is the reflected fr
transmitter and receiver crystals with respect to the pipe axis. Because Ct /2f0cos(a) is a constant (K), the re

Thus, flow velocity V (ft/sec) is directly proportional to the change in frequency. The flow (Q in gpm) in a
inches) can be obtained by:

The presence of acoustical discontinuities is essential for the proper operation of the Doppler flowmeter. Th
for proper signal reflection there be a minimum of 80-100 mg/l of solids with a particle size of +200 mesh (
200 mg/l with diameters between +75 and +150 microns is desirable. If either the size or the concentration
of the reflected signal will shift, introducing errors.

Doppler flowmeters are often used to measure the flow of such fluids as

Figure 4-10: Click on figure to enlarge.

slurries. If the solids concentration is too high (in excess of 45% by weight), or if too much air or gas is entr
fine), these discontinuities will attenuate the reflected Doppler signal to the point where it cannot be disting
pipe.

The reflected Doppler signal is shifted from the transmitted frequency by approximately 6 Hz for every foo
flow velocity is less than 1 ft/sec, ultrasonic flowmetering is not practical. There seems to be no upper limit
installations at velocities in the 40-50 ft/sec range are well documented.

Transit Time Measurement

In this design, the time of flight of the ultrasonic signal is measured between two transducers--one upstream
difference in elapsed time going with or against the flow determines the fluid velocity.

When the flow is zero, the time for the signal T1 to get to T2 is the same as that required to get from T2 to T
the speed of the signal in the downstream direction, while decreasing it in the upstream direction. The flowi
following equation:

where K is a calibration factor for the volume and time units used, dt is the time differential between upstre
the zero-flow transit time.

Theoretically, transit-time ultrasonic meters can be very accurate

Figure 4-11: Click on figure to enlarge.

(inaccuracy of ±0.1% of reading is sometimes claimed). Yet the error in these measurements is limited by b
electronics to determine the transit time and by the degree to which the sonic velocity (C) is constant. The s
both density and temperature. Therefore, both have to be compensated for. In addition, the change in sonic
in Figure 4-7B), which in turn will affect the distance the signal has to travel. In extreme cases, the signal m
receiver. Again, this type of failure is known as walk-away.

Design Variations

Clamp-on ultrasonic meters come in either single or dual-sensor versions. In the single-sensor version, the t
the same sensor body, which is clamped onto a single point of the pipe surface (Figure 4-8). In the dual-sen
sensor body, while the receive crystal is in another.

Clamp-on transit time meters have been available since the early 1970s. Their aim is to rival the performanc
without the need to break the pipe or stop the process to install the meter. This goal has not yet been reache

Clamp-on Doppler flowmeters are subject to interference from the pipe wall itself, as well as from any air s
pipe wall is made of stainless steel, it might conduct the transmit signal far enough so that the returning ech
reading. There are also built-in acoustic discontinuities in concrete-lined, plastic-lined, and fiberglass-reinfo
either completely scatter the transmitted signal or attenuate the return signal. This dramatically decreases fl
and, in most cases, clamp-on meters will not work at all if the pipe is lined.

Wetted transducer designs--both Doppler and transit time are available--overcome many of these signal atte
time meter originally consisted of a flanged spool section with wetted transducers mounted in the pipe wall
but at 45-degree angles to the flow (Figure 4-9A). Transit-time flowmeters can be either single-path or mult

Single-path flowmeters are provided with a single pair of transducers that make a single-line velocity measu
determined by calibration to compensate for variations in velocity profile and for flow section construction

In the design of multi-path flowmeters, several sets of transducers are placed in different paths across the fl
the velocity profile across the entire cross-section of the pipe. Multi-path instruments are used in large-diam
other applications where non-uniform flow velocity profiles exist.

Transit-time meters can also be used to measure both very hot (e.g., liquid sulfur) and very cold (liquid nitr
flows. Wetted-transducer designs for small pipes (down to 1/2 in.) are called axial or co-axial designs (Figu
measurement along a path length significantly greater than the diameter of the pipe, increasing low-flow sen

Originally, ultrasonic flowmeters were divided into those using the Doppler-shift principle and those using
flowmeters are capable of measuring the flow of both clean fluids and of slurries with entrained solids or ot
Microprocessors have made it possible to switch automatically from clean fluid mode to particulate mode b
of merit dramatically improves the accuracy of overall performance. In some carefully engineered applicati
reading has been reported.

Applications & Performance

Doppler flowmeters are not recommended for clean fluid applications. Transit-time flowmeters, on the othe
of crude oils and simple fractions in the petroleum industry. They also work well with viscous liquids, prov
flow is either less than 4,000 (laminar flow) or above 10,000 (turbulent flow). Serious non-linearities are pr

Transit-time flowmeters are the standard for measuring cryogenic liquids down to -300°C and are also used
Measurement of liquid argon, liquid nitrogen, liquid helium and molten sulfur have often been reported. Sp
used for these applications, especially the axial and co-axial designs.

Raw wastewater applications usually have too few acoustic discontinuities for Doppler flowmeters. On the
enough all the time for transit-time measurement. Other wastewater-related applications are equally problem
high for either transit-time or Doppler flowmeters to work properly. In still other wastewater applications, t
of the mostly organic solids in wastewater attenuates the ultrasonic signals.

The use of multi-path flowmeters in raw wastewater and storm water applications is common, while Dopple
most often used to measure activated sludge and digested sludge flows.

For mining slurries, Doppler flowmeters typically work well. Among the few problem applications are thos
flexes enough to change the diameter of the measurement area. This affects the accuracy of the meter. In ad
break the acoustic coupling of the transducer to the outside of the pipe, causing failure. Another problem ar
acoustically absorbent, such as lime or kaolin slurries. These applications fail because the highly absorbent
strength. Lower frequency (0.45 MHz) sensors have been tried for these applications, but success has been

Multi-path, transit-time flowmeters also measure stack gas flows in power-plant scrubbers, even in very lar

References & Further Reading

OMEGA Complete Flow and Level Measurement Handbook and Encyclopedia®, OMEGA Press, 1995.
OMEGA Volume 29 Handbook & Encyclopedia, Purchasing Agents Edition, OMEGA Press, 1995.
"An Intelligent Vortex Flowmeter," T. Kamano and others, ISA/92 Proceedings, Instrument Society of Ame
"Application and Installation Guidelines for Volumetric and Mass Flowmeters," D. Ginesi and C. Annarum
"Clamp-On Leak Detectors Protect Mid-Valley Line," S. Douglas and J. Baumoel, Pipeline & Gas Journal
"Committee Report: Transit Time Ultrasonic Flowmeters," AWWA Subcommittee on Ultrasonic Devices, A
Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook, R.W. Miller, McGraw Hill, 1996.
Flow Measurement, D.W. Spitzer, editor, Instrument Society of America, 1991.
"Flow Sensing: The Next Generation," D. Ginesi, Control Engineering, November 1997.
Flowmeters in Water Supply, Manual M33, AWWA, 1989.
Industrial Flow Measurement, D.W. Spitzer, ISA, 1984
Instrument Engineers' Handbook, Bela Liptak, editor, CRC Press, 1995.
Ultrasonic Clamp-On Flowmeters: Have They Finally Arrived?," P. Espina, Flow Control, January 1997.
Water Meters - Selection, Installation, Testing and Maintenance, Manual M6, AWWA, 1986.