F&O-VIII / 1.

CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

CHAPTER 01 CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

Terminologies
Sustainable Agriculture, Horticulture, Aquaculture, Olericulture, Fumigation, Macro-nutrient,
Micro-nutrient, Organic Farming, Vermicomposting, Biofertilizer, Fertigation, Animal husbandary.

INTRODUCTION
 For the existence of all living organisms they require food.
 Food is required for growth, development and body repair. It also protects the body
from diseases and provides energy for doing all life functions.
 Among all the living organisms, only green plants are autotrophs, i.e., they make
their own food.The process by which green plants make their own food is called
photosynthesis.
 In photosynthesis by using the energy of sunlight, green plants combine carbon
dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) to produce carbohydrates (Food).
 In contrast to green plants, animals and human beings are heterotrophs, i.e., they
depend on plants and other animals for food.
 Different parts of plants, such as root, stem, leaf, flower and fruit, are
consumed by humans in the form of cereals, vegetables, spices and fruits.

1.1 AGRICULTURE
Agriculture is derived from Latin words ‘Ager’ and ‘Cultura’. Ager means land or field and
cultura means cultivation.Therefore the term agriculture means cultivation of land i.e. the
science and art of producing crops and livestock for economic purposes.
(a) Different branches of agriculture :
Agriculture is the science and practice of farming, which mainly involves rearing of
livestock, cultivating land, raising crops, harvesting and marketing the produce. It is further
subdivided into many categories
(i) Agronomy : The branch of agricultural science dealing with production of field crops
and management of the soil. Agronomist sometimes known as crop scientist ,
specialize in producing and improving food crops through conducting experiments and
developing methods of production
 (ii)Horticulture : Branch of agriculture that deal in growth and management of fruit and
flowering plants in orchards and gardens.
 (iii)Olericulture : Refers to growing and managing of vegetables.
 (iv)Aquaculture : The farming and harvesting of plants and animals in a water bodies for
economical purpose.
(b) Source of food :
Crops are plants which are cultivated by humans for food, fodder, fiber, flowers, timber, etc.
There are about 2000 species which are cultivated for eating purposes.Following parts of
the plants are eaten as food.

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(i) Seeds : Not all seeds of plants are edible. For example, large seeds such as those
from a lemon cause a choking hazard, whereas seeds from apple and cherries
contain poison cyanide. Edible seeds include cereals, pulses, oil seeds and nuts (dry
fruits).
(A) Cereals : They are a rich source of carbohydrates.They include crops such as
wheat, rice, maize, barley, sorghum, etc.

Fig.1.1 : Seeds
(B) Pulses : They are excellent source of proteins.They include legumes such as chicken
pea gram, (chana), pea (matar), black gram (urad), green gram (moong), pigeon pea
(arhar), cow pea (lobia) and lentil (masoor).
(C) Oil seed crops : They are source of oil, fats and fatty acids.They include cotton seed,
niger (Ramtil), sunflower, soybean, flax (linseed oil), rapeseed, groundnut, sesame,
mustard, sunflower, olive, etc.
`

(D) Nuts or Dry fruits. Nuts are rich in proteins and fatty acids, so are considered
energetic food items. Examples include almond, walnut, cashew nut etc.
(ii) Fruits : Essentially fruits are ripened ovaries of plants and are a good source of
vitamins, minerals, roughage, proteins, carbohydrates and fats.They include apple,
orange, mango, banana, pineapple, pomegranate, pear, peach, apricot, grapes,
dates, custard apple(sitaphal), etc.
(iii) Vegetables : They are the edible parts of the herbaceous plants. They are eaten in
raw or cooked form. Vegetables are of following types:
(A) Roots : Roots of some plants such as carrot, radish, turnip, sweet potato and beet
root are eaten as vegetables.

Fig.1.2 : Modified stem and Roots (Potato, Sweet Potato)

(B) Stems : Stems of some plants such as mustard, bamboo, banana, asparagus, etc.,
are used as vegetables. Certain plants have modified underground stems that are
eaten, e.g., potato, onion, garlic, ginger, etc. Stems of sugarcane are used for making
of cane juice and jaggery.
(C) Leafy vegetables : They include leaves of spinach, lettuce, cabbage, turnip, radish,
mustard, methi, bathua (pigweed) and curry-leaf tree.
(D) Inflorescence vegetables : They include broccoli, cauliflower, etc.Flowers of
banana, fennel, gourd and saffron are also good examples of vegetables.
(E) Fruit vegetables : They include tomato, pumpkin, brinjal (egg plant), jack fruit, bitter
gourd, bottle gourd, ridged gourd, cluster bean, cucumber, lady's finger, pumpkin, etc.

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(F) Spices : Certain parts of some plants (e.g., leaves, stems, flowers, fruits and seeds)
are used to enhance the palatability of food. They include chilly, turmeric, black
pepper, cumin, fenugreek, etc.
(iv) Fodder crops : They provide green fodder to the cattle, e.g., berseem, oat, sudan
grass, sorghum, etc.
(v) Other crops : Crop plants also yield fibres (e.g., cotton), tobacco, tea, coffee,
chocolate, peppermint, etc.
(c) Improvement in food resources :
 Protects and renews soil fertility and the natural resource base.
 Optimizes the management and use of farm resources.
 Reduces the use of non-renewable resources and purchased production inputs.
 Provides an adequate and dependable form of income.
 Promotes opportunity in family farming and farm communities.

Ask yourself

Q.1 Why does India need improved agriculture practices ?

Q.2 Define Agronomy ?
Q.3 Why do we need agriculture ?

1.2 BASIC CROP PRACTICING

When plants of the same kind are grown and cultivated at one place on a large scale, it is
called a crop. India is a vast country. The climatic conditions like temperature, humidity and
rainfall vary from one region to another.
(a) Crop seasons :
Different crop requires different climatic conditions, temperature and photoperiod for their
growth and maturity.Photoperiods are duration of sunlight that influences plants in their
growth, flowering, formation of storage organs, leaf fall, etc. In India, there are three main
seasons of crop growth: Kharif , Rabi and Zayad crop.
S.NO KHARIF CROP/ RAINY SEASON RABI CROP/ WINTER ZAID/ZAYAD CROP
. CROP SEASON CROP / SUMMER SEASON

Are grown during monsoon/ rainy Are grown during winter Are grown during mainly
1.
season season in the summer season

They require warm & They require cold & dry

2. They require warm dry weather.
wet weather weather
They are sown in They are sown in march
They are sown in June/July &
3. October/November & harvested in june.
harvested in September/October
& harvested in March/April
e.g. - Rice, Jowar, Bajra, Cotton, e.g.- Wheat, Barley, Gram, e.g. Seasonal fruits
4.
Groundnut, Urad, Moong etc. Mustard, Potato etc. and vegetables.

Fig.1.3 Table : Crop seasons

(b) Crop Production Management :
India is an agriculture based country. In this country, agriculture sector engages about 70%
of its population and accounts for 40% of the Gross National Product (GNP). Farming
practices being followed depend upon size of land holding, education and financial
conditions of the farmers.Crop production management refers to controlling the various
aspects of crop production, to obtain the maximum and best yield. It has the following three
components:
1.Nutrient management; 2.Agricultural practices and 3. cropping pattern.

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  Basic practices of crop production : Cultivation of crops involves several activities

undertaken by a farmers over period of time.
 These activities are listed below :
(i) Preparation of soil (ii) Sowing (iii) Adding manure & fertilizers
(iv) Irrigation (v) Harvesting (vi) Storage
(i) Preparation of soil : The preparation of soil is the first step before growing a crop.
  One of the most important tasks in agriculture is to turn the soil and loosen it.
  This allows the roots to penetrate deep into the soil.
Various processes are included under preparation of soil these are as follows —

Fig.1.4 : Soil preparation

(A) Ploughing or Tilling : The process of loosening and turning of the soil is called tilling
or ploughing.
 This is done by using a plough. Ploughs are made of wood or iron.

Fig.1.5 : Ploughing


  Significance of ploughing :
  This practice loosens the soil.
 The soil is overturned and properly aerated.
 This allows the roots to penetrate deeper easily.


(B) Levelling : The ploughed field may have big pieces of soil called crumbs.Levelling is
the process in which soil crumbs are broken and levelled.This is done by Leveller
which is made of wood or iron. It is a flat 1.8 - 2 m long wooden plank with a log to put
weight on it.


Fig.1.6 Levelling
  Significance of levelling :
 This practice smoothens the soil surface.
 Levelling helps in sowing seeds and irrigation.
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(C) Agricultural Implements : The tools which are used in cultivation of plants are
known as agricultural implements. Some of these tools are used manually whereas
others are used with the help of some animals like bullocks and camels. Nowadays
tractors and combine harvesters are helping the farmers in their work. A list of
commonly used agricultural implements along with their uses are given below.
TABLE : DIFFERENT AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND THEIR USES

NAME OF IMPLEMENT Uses Name of implement Uses

Khurpa For weeding Seed drill For sowing
For weeding
For digging and bunds Harrow
Spade
formation Sickle For harvesting
Wooden plough For tillage Combines For harvesting and threshing
Soil plank For breaking crumbs Sprayers For spraying insecticides
Fig.1.7 : Table : Agricultural implements


  Maintenance and Care of Agricultural Implements :



 The tip of the plough should be sharpened at regular intervals for easy penetration
into the soil.
 Tools should not be kept in the open during rains, otherwise they will rust.
  Tools of iron can be rubbed with a piece of brick to clean them from rust.
 Occasional servicing of tractors and combines is advisable.
 Sprayers should be washed with water thoroughly before and after each spraying.


(ii) Sowing : Planting of seeds of a crop in soil is called Sowing.

Sowing is the most important part of crop production. Before sowing, good quality
seeds are selected.
 Good quality seeds should be clean, healthy and of good variety.


 Selection of seeds : Good quality seeds are heavier than damaged seeds.
 Damaged seeds become hollow and are thus lighter. So they float on water.
  Seeds should be high yielding varieties, free from insects and pests.


 Sowing the seeds : It is done by broadcaster and seed drill.

Fig.1.8 Selection of Seeds Fig.1.9 Using seed drill



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  Broadcasting is the random sowing of seeds manually.

 In seed drill method seeds are sown uniformally at proper distances and depths.

Fig.1.10 Seed drill



  It
ensures that seeds get covered by the soil after sowing.
  This prevents damage caused by birds.
  Sowing by using a seed drill saves time and labour.


 Precautions during sowing :

 Spacing should be proper.
 Seeds should be treated with fungicides.
 Depth should be proper.


  Transplantation : The process in which seeds are sown in nurseries and seedlings
are transferred to the main field e.g. Paddy.


 The uncultivated fields are known as fallow land.



(iii) Nutrient Management : Nutrients are supplied to the plants by air, water and soil.
There are about 40 elements found in the plant ash, but only 16 of those elements are
essential for plant growth and development. Hence, these 16 elements are called
essential elements or essential plant nutrients.Out of 16 essential elements, two
elements, carbon and oxygen are obtained from air and hydrogen from water.
Remaining 13 elements are supplied by the soil. These 13 elements are minerals. A
mineral is a substance which is obtained by mining.
ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS OF PLANTS THEIR SOURCES, TYPES AND EXAMPLES.
S.NO. SOURCE NUTRIENTS TYPE
1. Air Carbon ( C) , Oxygen (O). Macronutrients (=2)
2. Water Hydrogen (H) Macronutrient (=1)
3. Soil • Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), Potassium (K), Macronutrients (= 6)
Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) , Sulphur (S).
• Iron (Fe), Manganese (Mn), Boron (B), Zinc Micronutrients (=7)
(Zn), Copper (Cu), Molybdenum (Mo),
Chlorine (Cl).


Fig.1.11 Nutrient


  Types of Essential Nutrients : Maze (1915) divided essential plant nutrients into two
categories, macronutrients and micronutrients.


(A) Macronutrients (Macroelements) : They are those essential elements which are
present in plants in easily detectable quantities, more than 1ppm of plant body (1 mg
per gm of dry weight). Out of 13 essential mineral elements, six are macronutrients,
i.e., nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and sulphur.


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(B) Micronutrients (Microelements). They are those essential elements which are
present in plants in small quantities, less than 1ppm or 1 mg/gram of dry matter. Out
of 13 essential mineral elements, seven are micronutrients, i.e., iron, manganese,
boron, zinc, copper, molybdenum and chlorine.
  Mineral Replenishment Soil is the most important reservoir of plant nutrients. Crop
plants regularly withdraw minerals (in the form of nutrients) from the soil. Unless and
until minerals are replenished at regular intervals, the crop plants will develop
disorders in structure, growth, reproduction, functioning and susceptibility to diseases.
Mineral replenishment is done through the addition of manures and fertilizers to the
crop fields.
(C) Manures and Fertilizers : The deficiency of plant nutrients and organic matter in the
soil is made up by adding manures and fertilizers to the soil of crop-fields. Both
manures and fertilizers are major sources of nutrients of plants, so they are used in
crop production.
 Manures : Manures are natural fertilizers. They are bulky sources of organic matter
which supply nutrients in small quantities, and organic matter in large quantities.
Manures are prepared by the decomposed animal excreta and plant waste. Manures
include farmyard manure (FYM), compost, green manures, vermicompost, etc.
 Advantages of manures : The organic manure is considered better than fertilizers.
This is because.
 It costs less.
 It increases organic matter in soil.
 It reduces soil erosion.
 It enhances the water holding capacity of the soil.
 It increases the number of friendly microbes.
 It makes the soil porous due to which exchange of gases becomes easy.
 It improves the texture of the soil.
 Disadvantages of manures :
1. Manures are bulky and not easy to be absorbed.
2. They have low amount of nutrients.
 Fertilizers :

Fig.1.12 Applying Fertilizers

Fertilizers provide plant nutrients, commercially manufactured using chemicals. Fertilizers
supply Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium (NPK). They are used for good vegetative
growth (i.e., growth of leaves, branches and flowers), giving rise to healthy plants.
 Advantages of fertilizers :
1. They are nutrient specific.
2. They are required in small quantities.
3. They are water soluble, so can be applied to absorb by the plants easily.

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  Disadvantages of fertilizers :
1. They cause water pollution.
2. Fertilizers can change the chemical composition of soil.
3. They can cause eutrophication in near by water bodies.
 Fertilizers are divided into following four groups :
1. Nitrogenous fertilizers : Contain high amount of nitrogen.
2. Phosphatic fertilizers : Contain high amount of phosphate.
3. Potassium fertilizers : Contain high amount of potassium.
4. Complex fertilizers : When a fertilizer contains at least two or more nutrients.
TABLE.COMPARISON OF MANURE AND FERTILIZER
S.NO. MANURE FERTILIZER
A manure is a natural substance. It is A fertilizer is a human-made
obtained by the decomposition of animal substance. It is an inorganic salt or an
1.
wastes such as dung (gobar) of cattle and organic compound.
buffaloes and plant residues.
A manure contains small amounts of Fertilizers are very rich in plant
2. essential plant nutrients such as nitrogen, nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus
phosphorus and potassium. and potassium.
A manure adds a great amount of organic A fertilizer does not add any
3.
matter in the form of humus in the soil. humus to the soil.
Nutrients present in the manure are Being soluble in water, a fertilizer is
4. absorbed slowly by the crop plants, since readily absorbed by the crop plants.
manure is not soluble in water.
5. A manure is not nutrient specific and it tends A fertilizer is nutrient specific. It can
to remove the general deficiency from the specifically provide nutrients such as
soil. nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
to the soil according to the need.

A manure is voluminous and bulky so it is A fertilizer is compact and

6. inconvenient to store, transport, handle and concentrated so it is easy to store,
apply to the crop. transport and apply to the crop.
A manure is cheap and is prepared in rural A fertilizer is costly and is prepared in
7.
homes or fields. factories.
Fig.1.13 : Comparison of Manure and Fertilizer
  Biofertilizers : Organisms which enrich the soil with nutrients are called biofertilizers.
Biofertilizers are renewable and non-pollutant sources of plant nutrients such as
nitrogen. Nitrogen fixing microorganisms, i.e., non-symbiotic and symbiotic
cyanobacteria and phosphate - solubilising microorganism, are the main type of
biofertilizers that are being used in India. Other examples of biofertilizers are
Rhizobium cultures and blue green algae (such as Anabaena and Nostoc).
(iv) Irrigation : Process of supplying water to crop plants growing in the fields by means
of canals, reservoir, wells, tube-wells etc. is known as irrigation.
 Purpose of Irrigation : In agriculture irrigation fulfills the following requirements and
goals of crop plants :
 Irrigation supplies two essential macronutrients-hydrogen and oxygen to the crop
plants.
 It provides moisture to the soil, which helps in the germination of seeds.
 It helps in growth and elongation of the roots of crop plants.
 It helps in the absorption of nutrients by the roots of crop plants from the soil.
 It helps in increasing the number of aerial branches called tillers in the crop plants so
as to get good crop yield.

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Note : Excessive irrigation causes water logging and increases surface salinity.In
water logged soil plant, roots do not get proper aeration.
(A) Water resources in India and judicious use of water : India has enormous surface
water resources comprising 12 major river basins and 8 composite river basins.
Ground water, which is replenished from rain fall, also contributes significantly to total
water resources of our country. In fact more than 55 percent of our cropped area does
not have irrigation facilities and depends on rainfall for crop production. Water is a
precious natural resource.It should be used in irrigation by exploiting proper
techniques of soil and water management. The efficiency of existing irrigation
system can be enhanced by using water judiciously. This can be achieved by
adopting the following measures :
 By proper selection of appropriate crop and cropping system.
 By applying only optimum quantity of water at appropriate time.
 By keeping weeds under control in the fields.
 By time scheduling during irrigation operations.
(B) Water requirements or irrigation of crop plants depends on two factors :
 Crop-Based Irrigation : Water requirement of different crop plants varies at different
stages of their growth & maturation e.g. paddy crop is transplanted in standing water
and also requires continuous water supply whereas this is not so for the crops of
wheat, gram, cotton, maize etc.
 Soil-Based Irrigation : Irrigation also depends on the nature of soil in which the crop
is grown e.g. if two wheat crops are grown together one in sandy and another in clay
soil, then in sandy soil more frequent irrigation is needed than clay soil.
(C) Irrigation Systems :
(I)Traditional methods of irrigation : The water available in wells, lakes and canals is
lifted up by different methods, for taking it to the fields.
Cattle or human labour is used in these methods. So these methods are cheaper, but
less efficient.
The traditional methods are as follows :
(1) Moat (pulley system) : By this method water is directly taken out of wells with the
help of pulley.

Fig.1.14 Moat

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(2) Chain pump : Pumps are commonly used for lifting water. Diesel, biogas, electricity
and solar energy is used to run these pumps.

Fig.1.15 Chain Pump

(3) Dekhli & Rahat (lever system) :
(i) Dekhli : This method involves lifting up water using ropes and a container to
irrigate the land.
(ii) Rahat : It is made up of a chain of buckets attached to wheel which is then moved
by another wheel using human or animal power.

Fig.1.16 Dhekli, Rahat



 II. Modern methods of irrigation : Modern method of irrigation help us to use water
economically.
 The modern methods are as follows :


[1] Sprinkler irrigation system : It is water efficient system and is being introduced in
the canal irrigated areas of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil
Nadu, Harayana, Rajasthan and Madhya pradesh.It has perpendicular, pipes with
rotating nozzle on top joined to the main pipeline at regular intervals.Water flows
through the main pipeline under pressure (created with the help of pump).Water
escapes from nozzle and sprinkles on the crop like rain.


  This system spreads water uniformly over crop plants and fields, required quantity of
water is supplied.
Note : Fertigation is an innovation of applying fertilizer through drip irrigation to
maximise farm productivity with available water.

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[2] Drip- irrigation system : Drip system being encouraged in Haryana, Rajasthan and
Madhya Pradesh, where availability of water is poor.In drip irrigation water falls drop
by drop directly near the roots of the crop. There is no wastage of water at all.

Fig.1.17 Sprinkler System Fig.1.18 Drip System

(v) Harvesting : The cutting of crop after its maturation is called harvesting.

  It is either done manually by sickle or by a machine called harvester.

 In the harvested crop, the grain seeds need to be separated from the chaff. This
process is called threshing. This is carried out with the help of a machine called
‘combine’ which is a combined harvester and thresher.
 Farmers with small holdings of land do the separation of grain and chaff by
winnowing.
 The period of harvest is celebrated with great joy and happiness in all parts of India.
 People celebrate it with great enthusiasm.
 Special festivals associated with the harvest season are Pongal, Baisakhi, Holi,
Diwali, Nabanya and Bihu

Fig.1.19 Threshing a machine manually combine harvester can be used for both
harvesting, threshing and winnowing, which involved the separation of the grain
from chaff (seed covering and tiny pieces of leaves or stem), can be done manually,
or using a winnowing machine.

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(c) Crop protection management :

(i) Weed Control : Weeds are unwanted plants in the cultivated fields. In other words,
plants other than crops are the weeds. Weeds tend to compete with the crops for
food (water and nutrients), space and light.The process of removing the weeds from
crop field is called weeding.

Fig.1.20 Certain common weeds.

 Weeds can be eradicated by the following methods.
(A) Mechanical methods : Mechanical weeding can be done by the following methods :
 Weeds may be pulled out with hand. Ploughing helps in removing large number of the
weeds because it uproots majority of them.
 The weeds which appear during the growth of crop plants are removed manually by
using a trowel (khurpa) and harrow.
(B) Cultural methods : They include the following methods : proper soil and seed
preparation, timely sowing of crops, intercropping and crop rotation.
(C) Chemical methods. Chemical weed killers, called herbicides or weedicides, are
sprayed on weeds to destroy (kill) them. This is called chemical control of weeds.
Some common examples of weedicides are the following : (i) 2, 4-D (2, 4-
Dichlorophenoxy acetic acid) (ii) Atrazine (iii) Fluchloralin (iv) Isoproturon.
(D) Biological control : Biological control of weeds involves the deliberate use of insects
or some other organisms which consume and specifically destroy the weed plants.
The best Indian example of biological control is eradication of prickly-pear cactus
(Opuntia) by using the cochineal insects in Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. Generally, a
combination of one or more of these weed control methods are employed to get
good results. Aquatic weeds are controlled by the fish grass carp.

ACTIVITY 1.2
Visit a weed infested field in the month of July or August and make a list of
weeds, insect pests and diseases noticed in crops of the field.

(ii) Diseases of Crop Plants : Our environment contains a variety of pathogens. When
they get favourable conditions for their growth and propagation, they spread and
infest the crop plants causing diseases. Depending upon their mode of occurrence,
crop diseases are of following four main types :

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(A) Seed-borne diseases : These diseases spread through seeds, e.g., "ergot of bajra"
or of pearl millet; "leaf spot of rice"; "loose smut of wheat"; red rot of sugarcane; - all
are caused by fungi.
(B) Soil-borne diseases : These diseases spread through the soil and mostly affect
roots and stems of crop plants, e.g., "smut of bajra," "tikka disease of groundnut".
(C) Air-borne diseases : These crop diseases are transmitted by the air, e.g., "rust of
wheat", "blast of rice", etc. Air-borne diseases attack all aerial parts of the plants, e.g.,
leaf, flower, and fruits.
(D) Water-borne diseases : Pathogens of these crop diseases are transmitted by the
water, e.g., "bacterial blight of rice".
Control of crop diseases : All the seed-borne and soil-borne diseases can be
controlled by treating the seed or soil. Air-borne diseases are controlled by spraying
fungicide solution on infested parts.
(iii) Storage of Grain : Most crops are harvested only once a year. Thus, they are
available in plenty amount during a selective time. For getting seasonal foods
regularly throughout the year, they are stored in safe storage. Cereals or food grains
are stored at following three levels :
 At producer (farmer) level : Called rural storage
 At trader's level : This is done by keeping food grains in gunny bags.
 At FCI (Food Corporation of India) level : This is done by storing grains in silos.
During storage, grains and seeds are subjected to spoilage and wastage by various
means.This loss has been estimated to be 9.3 per cent annually. During storage
damage of grains can take place by following two main types of factors :

Fig.1.21 Storage of Grain

 Factors Responsible for Loss of Grains during storage :
(A) Biotic (living) factors : nsects, rodents, birds, mites etc.
(B) Abiotic (Non-living) factors : Temperature, Moisture, Humidity, Material of container
in which grains are stored
   Preventive Measures :
   Drying before storage
 Maintenance of hygiene
   Plant - product treatment
 Prophylactic treatment (example- treatment of seeds with antimicrobial agents before
sowing)
  Improved storage structures


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 Fumigation : Those pesticides which can destroy insects by forming toxic fumes are
called fumigants and process of their use is called fumigation. Fumigants may be
solid, liquid or gaseous. Ultimately they volatalise or react with moisture of the air,
forming poisonous fumes.
(iv) Cropping Pattern : These are models of raising crops which help in obtaining
maximum benefit from the same piece of land, reduce risk of crop failure, disease and
infestation. Three common types of cropping patterns are mixed cropping, inter
cropping and crop rotation.
(A) Mixed Cropping : In mixed cropping -
 Seeds of two crops are mixed before sowing and there is no definite pattern for
sowing the Seeds.
 Same fertilizers and pesticides are used for all crops.
 Products of different crops are harvested, threshed, marketed and consumed in mixed
form.
 Crop-combination used in mixed cropping : In India, the following combinations of

the crops are used by farmers in mixed cropping :
 Maize + Urad bean  Cotton + Moong bean  Groundnut + Sunflower
 Sorghum + Pigeon pea  Wheat + Chick pea  Barley + Chick pea

 Wheat + Mustard.
 
 Advantages of Mixed Cropping :
 The risk of total crop failure is reduced.
 Fertility of the soil is improved by growing two crops simultaneously.
 Chances of pest infestation are greatly reduced.
(B) Intercropping Intercropping is a practice of growing two or more crops
simultaneously in a same field in definite row patterns with the objective of increasing
productivity per unit area.
 Advantages of Intercropping
 It makes better use of the natural resources of sunlight, land and water.
 Soil erosion is effectively arrested.
 Since the seed maturity period of these crops vary, the different crops can be
harvested and threshed separately
(C) Crop Rotation : If we grow a crop continuously in the same field for many years, it
results into various problems such as (i) depletion (deficiency) of same types of
nutrients and (ii) build up of diseases and insect-pests. This demands for the
requirement of the practice of crop rotation. Crop rotation can be defined as the
practice of growing of different crops in a piece of land in a preplanned succession.
Depending upon the duration crop rotation may be of following three types.
TYPES OF CROP ROTATION COMPONENT CROPS INVOLVED IN ROTATION
Maize - Mustard
One year rotation
Rice - Wheat
Maize - Mustard - Sugarcane-Fenugreek (Methi)
Two years rotation
Maize - Potato - Sugarcane Peas
Maize - Potato - Sugarcane Peas
Three years rotation
Cotton - Oat-Sugarcane - Peas - Maize Wheat

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(v) Crop Variety improvement :

 Hybridisation : The crossing between genetically dissimilar plants to produce a new
kind (hybrid) is called hybridisation.
 Types of hybridisation :
Intervarietal cross-breeding – Crossing may be between two different varieties.
Interspecific cross-breeding – Crossing between two different species of the same
genus.
Intergeneric cross breeding – Crossing between different genera.
This method incroporates the desired (good) characteristics of both parents in one
variety. The most common type of breeding is inter varietal.

Ask yourself

Q.1 What are biofertilizers ?

Q.2 What is the importance of crop in our daily life?
Q.3 How ploughing help in cropping?
Q.4_ What are traditional methods of irrigation.
Q.5 What is fumigation ?
Q.6_ At what time is irrigation required by all crops ?

1.3 DIFFERENTIAL AGRICULTURE PRACTICE

(a) Organic Farming :
It is the practice of raising crops which have not been polluted. Healthy cropping systems
that provide optimum nutrients to plants and keep the pests as well as weeds under control
are used. In organic farming there is little or no use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and
herbicides. Organic wastes are recycled in the form of manure. Biofertilizers include the
nitrogen fixing organisms (bacteria and blue green algae) and mineral solubilizing bacteria.
Biopesticides are organisms or their extracts which repel or kill weeds, insects and other
pests, neem leaves are often used in grain storage as biopesticides. Healthy cropping
includes mixed cropping, intercropping and crop rotation. These cropping systems help in
controlling insects, pests and weeds.
  Advantages of Organic Farming :

  It prevents pollution of any component of our environment.
Farm wastes are recycled.
  The foods obtained from organic farming are free from pesticides and toxic chemicals.
  Organic farming maintains the soil health.
 The cropping system of organic farming keeps insect pests and weeds under check.

Fig.1.22 : Organic Farming

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(b) Sustainable Agriculture :

In the past, to meet the demands of growing Indian population, our scientists (such as
Swaminathan, Kurein) adapted methods to increase food production. This resulted in a
variety of 'revolutions', which helped India become self-reliant.Sustainable agriculture can
be defined as the adoption of various farming and production management techniques to
maximize agricultural yield without endangering the resources of future generation.
Implementing such practices would help in (i) conserving natural resources, (ii) maintaining
environmental balance and (iii) coping with changing human needs hence, to assure
sustained livelihood of Indian farmers and related persons, it is necessary to adopt
sustainable agricultural practices such as mixed farming, crop rotation, intercropping and
integrated farming (also known as integrated agriculture).
 Farming : It is the process of harnessing solar energy from plants and animals in the
form of economic produce.
  Conservation : It means careful utilization, preservation or restoration of the natural
environment and resources.
  Integrated agriculture : Implies a combination of agriculture with other forms of
culture such as pisciculture (fish culture), aquaculture, apiculture (bee- keeping),
sericulture (silk worm culture), poultry farming, piggery, livestock production (animal
husbandry), etc.
 Advantages of Sustainable agriculture. Sustainable agriculture is an agricultural
production and distribution system that achieves the integration of natural biological
cycles and controls.
(c) Animal Husbandry :
The branch of agriculture that deals with the feeding, caring and breeding of domestic
animals is called animal husbandry. Husbanding means to use a resource carefully and
without waste. Thus, animal farming or animal husbandry requires planning for domestic
animals shelter, breeding, health, disease control and proper economic utilization.Our
domestic animals or livestock includes those animals which are raised for farm purposes,
e.g., cattle (cow, bull or ox), buffalo, yak, horse, ass, goat, sheep, camel, etc.

(a) Cattle production (b) Poultry (c) Fish farming (d) Bee keeping
Fig.1.23 (a) Cattle production, (b) Poultry (c) Fish farming (d) Bee keeping.

Ask yourself

Q.1 How organic farming is useful?

Q.2 Why sustainable agriculture should be used?
Q.3 What is animal husbandry?
Q.4_ What are the advantages of sustainable agriculture?
Q.5_ What is integrated agriculture?

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Add your knowledge

  Green revolution (high production of food grains), blue revolution (enhanced fish
production), white revolution (increased milk production) and yellow revolution
(increased oil production).

Fig.1.24 Green Revolution , Blue revolution , White revolution, Yellow revolution &
Colour revolution.


  In modern system of sanitation, water is used for removal of human excreta and other
wastes. Sewage consists of two components: (i) The solid part, called the sludge and
(ii) the liquid part, called effluent or sewage water. The dried sludge may be used as
soil conditioner in lawns and flower gardens. Sewage water is quite rich in many
nutrients of plants so can be used for fertilizing and irrigating the soil.
 The degradation of organic waste through the consumption by the earthworms is
called vermicomposting. An earthworm is physically an aerator, crusher and mixer,
chemically a degrader and biologically a stimulator of decomposition. In India,
following species of earthworms are used in vermicomposting: Dichogaster bofani,
Drawida willsi, Perionyx excavatus (Indian species) and Eisenia foetida, Eudrilus
eugeniae (Exotic species).
  Selection by human beings is also called artificial selection. Artificial selection
operating over long time spans can give rise to varieties strikingly different from
starting generation. For example broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower and other varieties
have been obtained through artificial selection from wild cabbage.
 Bananas are the number one fruit crop in the world. They are the 4th largest overall
crop, after wheat, rice, and corn. They grow in more than 100 countries on farms.
India grows more bananas than any other country.
 More than 6,000 different kinds of apples are grown around the world. The biggest
producer is China.
 According to many historians, goats were the first animal to be domesticated.Goats
are typically the cleanest of animals. Pigs, a common farm animal, are thought to be
the 4th most intelligent animal, after chimps, dolphins, and elephants.
 Subsistence farmers are farmers who produce the food they need to survive on a
daily basis.They are farmers who raise enough food for themselves and their families.
The food is not intended to be sold in a market.

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Summary
 Food is necessary for all and in the era of increasing population we need to adapt
advanced agriculture techniques.
 Crop is when same kind of plants grown at a place.
 There are different seasons for crop (i) Rabi (ii) Kharif (iii) Zaid.
 For cropping practice ploughing, levelling, irrigation, nutrient management is required.
 Sowing of seed includes scientific technology to make them more efficient and disease
free.
 Seed drill is used to sow seed at a particular depth and a specific distance.
 In order to get good production and maintain the fertility of soil it need to get replenished
time to time.
 Replenishment of soil is done by Fertilizers, Manures, Biofertlizers.
 Crops are harvested or threshed manually with machines and combines.
 To retain the quality of crop weedicide, pesticides are used.
 Storage of crop is done using silos and granaries.
 For getting better quality of crops year after year techniques like crop rotation, mixed
cropping and intercropping is used.
 For a new era and in the situations of food scarcity some advanced crop technologies like
Organic farming, sustainable agriculture is used.
 Animal husbandry is also a part of agriculture which increases the food by base by
managed utilization of animal food resources.
 Indian food scarcity was largely removed by "Green Revolution" initiated by Doctor M. S.
swaminathan.

CONCEPT MAP
CROP PRODUCTION
& MAGANEMENT

Differential Agriculture
Agriculture Basic crop practicing Practice
Rabi
Corp seasons Kharif
Source of Branches of Crop production Zayad Organic farming
Food Agriculture management
Improvement in
Sustainable Agriculture
Food Resources Preparation of Soil
Animal Husbandry
Fertilizer Sowing
Nutrient management
Manure
Irrigation
Harvesting

Crop protection
management

Disease Control
Weed Control
Storage
Cropping pattern

Crop varietal management

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