LECTURE NOTES

ON

FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
6th SEMESTER

Bhabanisankar Sahani

ASST. PROFESSOR

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

GANDHI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT(GITAM)

Affiliated to BPUT & SCTE&VT, Govt. of Odisha

Approved by AICTE, New Delhi

MODULE-I

Retaining Wall: Retaining walls are structures that support backfill and allow for a change of grade.

Lateral Earth Pressure

Lateral earth pressure is the force exerted by the soil mass upon an earth-retainingstructure, such as a retaining wall. It is of two types
–

Active Earth pressure

The soil exerts a push against the wall making the wall to move slightly away from the backfilled soil mass. This kind of pressure is
known as the active earth pressure of the soil.

σV – Major principal stress σH

- Minor principal stress

Sin Ф=

(σV + σH) sin Ф = (σV -σH)

σV sinФ + σH sinФ = (σV -σH)

σH (1+ sinФ) = σV (1- sinФ

II Passive earth pressure

The retaining wall is caused to move toward the soil and the soil provides the resistance which soil develops in response to movement
of the structure toward it is called the passiveearth pressure

sinФ = AB/OB

sinФ = AB/OB

(σV + σH) sin Ф = (σH – σV)

σV sinФ + σH sinФ = (σH – σV)

σV (1+ sinФ) = σH (1- sinФ)

= = Kp=

i. III Earth pressure at rest

Neither the soil moves nor wall moves
Rankine’s Theory:

Assumptions

1) The soil mass is semi infinite, homogeneous, dry and cohesionless.

2) The ground surface is a plane which may be horizontal or inclined.
3) The face of the wall in contact with the backfill is vertical and smooth. In other
words, the friction between the wall and the backfill is neglected (This
amounts to ignoring the presence of the wall).
4) The wall yields about the base sufficiently for the active pressure conditions to
develop; if it is the passive case that is under consideration, the wall is taken to be
pushed sufficiently towards the fill for the passive resistance to be fall per unit length of
thewall, is given by Pa acting at a height of (1/3)H
Cohisionless soil

i) Active earth pressure

For a total height of H of the wall, the total thrust Pa on the wall per unit length of the
wall, is given by Pa acting at a height of (1/3)H.

ii) Passive earth pressure

 For a total height of H of the wall, the total thrust Pa on the wall per unit length of the
wall, is given by Pp acting at a height of (1/3)H.

Effect of Submergence

Under submerge or saturated condition, the lateral earth pressure will due to –

a. Lateral earth pressure due to submerged unit weight of the backfill soil
b. Lateral pressure due to pore water

Lateral pressure at base of wall = Ka ’H + wH

’ = sa t - w
Total active thrust, P = x ( Ka ’H + wH) x
(H)
Effect of partial submergence

H1 = depth of submerged fill,

Ka = active earth pressure coefficient,
 H2 = depth of fill above water table (taken to be moist),
= moist unit weight, and
’ or sub = submerged or effective unit weight

Lateral pressure at base of wall = Ka ’H2 + Ka H1+

wH2
P1 = x (Ka H1) x H1

P2 = [(Ka H1 x H2 )] + [ x(Ka ’H2 + wH2 ) x H2]

Total thrust, P = P1 +P2
Acting at a distance of x = [P1 x (H2 + ) + ( P2 x )] / [P1 + P2] from the base
Effect of uniform surcharge

q = Uniform surcharge
P1 = Ka q H
P2 = x Ka H x H= Ka H2

Total thrust = P1 +P2

Acting at a distance of x = [(P1x ) + (P2 x )] / [P1 + P2 ] from the base
Effect of inclined submergence

Total thrust, P = x Ka H xH = Ka

H2 Problem:
1. A retaining wall 4m height has a smooth vertical back. The backfill has horizontal surface in
level with top of wall. The unit weight of back fill is 18 kN/m3 and the angle of shear resistance
is 30 degrees. The cohesion is zero. Determine –
i. the magnitude of earth pressure per meter run and the point of application
ii. when the water table is at top with saturated unit weight of 18kN/m3
iii. when the retaining wall has the surcharge of 36kN/m2 with unit weight of 18kN/m3

Given
H = 4m
= 18kN/m3

Ф = 30˚
4m
Ka = = 1/3 P

4/3
Ka
Earth pressure at top =0
H
 Earth pressure at bottom = Ka H = (1/3) x 18 x 4 = 24 kN/m2

P = x (Ka H) x H
= 0.5 x 24 x 4

= 48 kN/m

H/3 = 4/3 = 1.33m

Hence earth pressure of 48 kN/m is acting at height of 1.33m from the bottom
ii. Water table at top:
3
s t = 18 kN/m
a
sub = s t - w = 18 – 9.8 = 8.2 kN/m3
a

P H/3

Ka subH wH

Ka = 1/3

Earth pressure at top =0

Earth pressure at bottom = Ka subH + wH

= [(1/3) x 8.2 x 4 ] + [ 9.8 x 4]

= 50.13 kN/m2

P = (1/2) x (Ka subH + wH ) x H

= (1/2) x 50.13 x 4

= 100.26 kN/m
 H/3 = 4/3 = 1.33m

Hence earth pressure of 100.26 kN/m is acting at height of 1.33m from the bottom

iii. Retaining wall has the surcharge of 36kN/m2 with unit weight of18kN/m3

q = 36kN/m2

Ka = 1/3

Earth pressure at top = Ka x q = (1/3) x 36 = 12 kN/m2

Earth pressure at bottom = Ka q + Ka H

= [(1/3) x 36] + [(1/3) x 18 x 4]

= 36 kN/m2

P1 = Ka q H = 12 x 4 = 48 kN/m
H/2 = 4/2 = 2m

Earth pressure of 48 kN/m is acting at height of 2m from bottom

P2 = Ka H2 = (1/2) x 24 x 4 = 48 kN/m
H/3 = 4/3 = 1.33m

Earth pressure of 48 kN/m is acting at a height of 1.33m from the bottom Total

thrust, P = P1 + P2 = 48 + 48 = 96 kN/m

x = [(P1x ) + (P2 x )] / [P1 + P2 ]

= [ (48 x 2) + (48x1.33) ] / 96

= 1.66m
9
 Total earth pressure of 96kN/m is acting at a height of 1.66m from the bottom
Coulomb’s wedge theory:

 Coulomb’s theory considers the soil behind the wall as a whole instead of as an element
in the soil. If a wall supporting a granular soil were not to be there, the soil will slump
down to its angle of repose or internal friction.
 It is therefore reasonable to assume that if the wall only moved forward slightly a rupture
plane would develop somewhere between the wall and the surface of repose.
 The triangular mass of soil between this plane of failure and the back of the wall is
referred to as the ‘sliding wedge’.
 It is reasoned that, if the retaining wall were suddenly removed, the soil within the sliding
wedge would slump downward.
 Therefore, an analysis of the forces acting on the sliding wedge at incipient failure will
reveal the thrust from the lateral earth pressure which is necessary for the wall to
withstand in order to hold the soil mass in place.
 However, Coulomb recognised the possibility of the existence of a curved rupture
surface, although he considered a plane surface for the sake of mathematical simplicity.
Assumptions:
1. The soil is isotropic and homogenous
2. The surface of rupture is plane
3. The failure wedge is a rigid body
4. There is a friction between wall and the back fill soil and is known as ‘wall
friction’
5. Back of wall need not be vertical
6. Failure is two dimensional
7. The soil is cohesionless
8. Coulomb’s equation of shear strength is valid

10
Limitations:

Coulomb’s theory is applicable –

11
to inclined wall faces

to a wall with a broken face

to a sloping backfill curved backfill surface, broken backfill surface

to concentrated or distributed surcharge loads.

One of the main deficiencies in Coulomb’s theory is that, in general, it does not satisfy the static equilibrium condition occurring in
nature.

The three forces (weight of the sliding wedge, earth pressure and soil reaction on the rupture surface) acting on the sliding wedge do
not meet at a common point, when the sliding surface is assumed to be planar.

Even the wall friction was not originally considered but was introduced only some time later.

Active earth pressure of cohesionless soil:

A simple case of active earth pressure on an inclined wall face with a uniformly sloping
backfill may be considered first. The backfill consists of homogeneous, elastic and isotropic
cohesionelss soil. A unit length of the wall perpendicular to the plane of the paper is considered.
The forces acting on the sliding wedge are
(i) W, weight of the soil contained in the sliding wedge,
(ii) R, the soil reaction across the plane of sliding,
(iii) the active thrust Pa against the wall

12
 Where,

For a vertical retaining wall a horizontal backfill for which the angle of wall friction =
Hence, substitute 0° and
= 90° , = =

Where,

For a vertical retaining wall a horizontal backfill for which the angle of wall friction =
Hence, substitute 0° and
= 90° , = =

For a smooth vertical retaining wall a backfill with horizontal surface, = =

0. Hence,
=

Passive earth pressure of cohesionless soil:

The passive case differs from the active case in that the obliquity angles at the wall and on the failure plane are of opposite sign.

Plane failure surface is assumed for the passive case also in the Coulomb theory but the critical plane is that for which the passive
thrust is minimum. The failure plane is at a much smaller angle to the horizontal than in the active case

13
Where,

For a vertical retaining wall a horizontal backfill for which the angle of wall friction =
Hence, substitute 0° and
= 90° , = =

(or)
For a smooth vertical retaining wall a backfill with horizontal surface, = =
= 0. Hence,

14
Culmann’s graphical method:

Culmann’s method permits one to determine graphically the magnitude of the earth pressure and to locate the most dangerous
rupture surface according to Coulomb’s wedge theory.Active earth pressure:

From the figure, the force triangle may be imagined to the rotated clockwise through an
angle (90° – φ), so as to bring the vector W, parallel to the φ-line; in that case, the reaction, R ,
will be parallel to the rupture surface, and the active thrust, P, parallel to the ψ-line (pressure
line).

15
The Various steps in the procedure are:
1. Draw Φ-line AE at an angle Φ with the horizontal.
2. Choose an arbitrary failure plane AV. Calculate weight of the wedge ABV and plot it as AV
to a convenient scale on the φ-line
3. Similarly lay off on AE distances A1, A2, A3 etc to a suitable scale to represent the weight
of wedges AB1, AB2, AB3, and so on.
4. Lay off AD at an angle equal to (α- δ) to the line AE. The line AD is calledpressure line.
5. Draw lines parallel to AD from points V, 1, 2, 3 to intersect the assumed lines AV, A1,
A2, A3 at points V’, l’, 2’, 3’ etc respectively.
6. Join points V’, l’, 2’, 3’ etc by a smooth curve which is the pressure locus.
7. Select the point C’ on pressure locus such that the tangent to the curve is parallel to Φ the -
line AE.
8. Draw CC’ parallel to the pressure line AD. The magnitude of CC’ in its natural units gives
the active pressure Pa.

9. Join AC’ and produce to meet the surface of the backfill at C. AC is the ruptureline.

16
Passive earth pressure:

The φ-line is to be drawn through point B at an angle – (φ), i.e., it must be drawn at an
angle φ below the horizontal. On the line, the weights of the arbitrarily assumed sliding wedges
are plotted to a convenient force scale. The position line is drawn through A at an angle – (φ + δ)
(or to the left of the back face AB of thewall).

The Various steps in the procedure are

1. Draw Φ -line AE at an angle Φ below the horizontal.

2. Lay off on AE distances A2, A3, A4 etc to a suitable scale to represent the weight of wedges
AB2, AB3, AB4, and so on.
3. Lay off AD at an angle equal to (α+ δ) to the line AE. The line AD is called pressure line.
4. Draw lines parallel to AD from points, 2, 3, 4 etc to intersect the weight vectors A2, A3,
A4 at points 2’, 3’, 4’ etc respectively.
5. Join points, 2’, 3’, 4’ etc by a smooth curve which is the pressure locus.
6. Select the point C’ on pressure locus curve such that the line tangent to the curve is parallel
to Φ -line AE.
7. Draw CC’ parallel to the pressure line AD. The magnitude of CC’ in its natural units gives
the passive pressure Pp.
8. Join AC’. The line cuts the surface of the backfill at C. The line AC is the rupture line.

17
 90° ,

0° and

MODULE II

BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL

Bearing capacity is the power of foundation soil to hold the forces from the superstructure
without undergoing shear failure or excessive settlement. Foundation soil is that portion of
ground which is subjected to additional stresses when foundation and superstructure are
constructed on the ground. The following are a few important terminologies related to bearing
capacity of soil.

18
Ultimate Bearing Capacity (qf) : It is the maximum pressure that afoundation soil can withstand without undergoing shear failure.

Net ultimate Bearing Capacity (qn) : It is the maximum extra pressure(in addition to initial overburden pressure) that a foundation soil
can withstand without undergoing shear failure.

qn = qf - q o

Here, qo represents the overburden pressure at foundation level and is equal to D for
level ground without surcharge where the unit weight of soil is and D is the depth to
foundation bottom from Ground Level.
Safe Bearing Capacity (qs): It is the safe extra load the foundation soil is subjected toin addition to initial overburden pressure.

Allowable Bearing Pressure (qa) : It is the maximum pressure the foundation soil issubjected to considering both shear failure and
settlement

Foundation is that part of the structure which is in direct contact with soil. Foundation transfers the forces and moments from the
super structure to the soil below such that thestresses in soil are within permissible limits and it provides stability against sliding and
overturning to the super structure. It is a transition between the super structure and foundation soil. The job of a geotechnical
engineer is to ensure that both foundation andsoil below are safe against failure and do not experience excessive settlement. Footing
and foundation are synonymous.

Modes of shear failure

Depending on the stiffness of foundation soil and depth of foundation, the followingare the modes of shear failure experienced by the
foundation soil.

General shear failure

Local shear failure

Punching shear failure

19
 Shear failure in foundation soil P – curve in different foundation soils

Footing on ground that experiences: a) General shear failure, b) Local shear

failure and c) Punching shear failure

20
General Shear Failure
This type of failure is seen in dense and stiff soil. The following are some
characteristics of general shear failure.
1. Continuous, well defined and distinct failure surface develops between the edge of
footing and ground surface.

2. Dense or stiff soil that undergoes low compressibility experiences this failure.

4. Continuous bulging of shear mass adjacent to footing is visible.

5. Failure is accompanied by tilting of footing.

6. Failure is sudden and catastrophic with pronounced peak in P – curve.

7. The length of disturbance beyond the edge of footing is large.

8. State of plastic equilibrium is reached initially at the footing edge and spreads
gradually downwards and outwards.

9. General shear failure is accompanied by low strain (<5%) in a soil with

considerable ( >36o) and large N (N > 30) having high relative density (ID>70%).

21
Local Shear Failure
This type of failure is seen in relatively loose and soft soil. The following are some
characteristics of general shear failure.
1. A significant compression of soil below the footing and partial development of
plastic equilibrium is observed.

2. Failure is not sudden and there is no tilting of footing.

3. Failure surface does not reach the ground surface and slight bulging of soil around
the footing is observed.

4. Failure surface is not well defined.

5. Failure is characterized by considerable settlement.

6. Well defined peak is absent in P – curve.

7. Local shear failure is accompanied by large strain (> 10 to 20%) in a soil

with considerably low ( <28o) and low N (N < 5) having low relative density (ID>
20%).

Punching Shear Failure

This type of failure is seen in loose and soft soil and at deeper elevations. The following
are some characteristics of general shear failure.
This type of failure occurs in a soil of very high compressibility.
1. Failure pattern is not observed.
2. Bulging of soil around the footing is absent.

3. Failure is characterized by very large settlement.

4. Continuous settlement with no increase in P is observed in P – curve.

The below figure presents the conditions for different failure modes in sandy soil
carrying circular footing based on the contributions from Vesic (1963 & 1973)

22
 Distinction between General Shear & Local or Punching Shear Failures

The basic distinctions between general shear failure and punching shear
failureare presented in Table.
Distinction between General Shear & Local Shear Failures
General Shear Failure Local/Punching Shear Failure
Occurs in dense/stiff soil Occurs in loose/soft soil
o o
>36 , N>30, ID>70%, Cu>100 kPa <28 , N<5, ID<20%, Cu<50 kPa
Results in small strain (<5%) Results in large strain (>20%)
Failure pattern well defined & clear Failure pattern not well defined
Well
Modesdefined peak at
of failure in P- curve Relative densities
different No peak in P- curve
& depths of foundations
Bulging formed in the neighbourhood of No Bulging observed in the
footing at the surface neighbourhood of footing

Extent of horizontal spread of Extent of horizontal spread of

disturbance at the surface large disturbance at the surface very small
Observed in shallow foundations Observed in deep foundations
Failure is sudden & catastrophic Failure is gradual
Less settlement, but tilting failure Considerable settlement of footing
observed Observed

23
 Terzaghi’s bearing Capacity Theory
Terzaghi (1943) was the first to propose a comprehensive theory for evaluating the
safe bearing capacity of shallow foundation with rough base.

Assumptions
1. Soil is homogeneous and Isotropic.

2. The shear strength of soil is represented by Mohr Coulombs Criteria.

3. The footing is of strip footing type with rough base. It is essentially a two
dimensional plane strain problem.

4. Elastic zone has straight boundaries inclined at an angle equal to the horizontal.

5. Failure zone is not extended above, beyond the base of the footing. Shear
resistance of soil above the base of footing is neglected.

6. Method of superposition is valid.

7. Passive pressure force has three components (PPC produced by cohesion, PPq
produced by surcharge and PP produced by weight of shear zone).
8. Effect of water table is neglected.

Footing carries concentric and vertical loads.

1. Footing and ground are horizontal.

2. Limit equilibrium is reached simultaneously at all points. Complete shear failure

is mobilized at all points at the same time.

3. The properties of foundation soil do not change during the shear failure

Limitations

1. The theory is applicable to shallow foundations

2. As the soil compresses, increases which is not considered. Hence fully plastic zone
may not develop at the assumed.

24
3. All points need not experience limit equilibrium condition at different loads.
4. Method of superstition is not acceptable in plastic conditions as the ground is near
failure zone.

A strip footing of width B gradually compresses the foundation soil underneath

due to the vertical load from superstructure. Let qf be the final load at which the
foundation soil experiences failure due to the mobilization of plastic equilibrium. The
foundation soil fails along the composite failure surface and the region is divided in to
Terzaghi’s
five zones,concept of Footing
Zone 1 which with two
is elastic, five numbers
distinct failure
of Zonezones in foundation
2 which soilof
are the zones Concept
radial
shear and two zones of Zone 3 which are the zones of linear shear. Considering
horizontal force equilibrium and incorporating empirical relation, the equation for
ultimate bearing capacity is obtained as follows.
Ultimate bearing capacity,

qf cNc γDNq 0.5γBNγ

If the ground is subjected to additional surcharge load q, then

q f = cNc (γD q)N q 0.5γBNγ

Net ultimate bearing capacity,

qn=cNc+γDNq+0.5γBNg-γD

qn= cNc+γD(N q-1)+0.5γBNγ

25
Safe bearing capacity,

qs=[cNc+γD(Nq-1)+0.5γBNγ] 1/F + γD

Here, F = Factor of safety (usually 3) c

= cohesion
γ= unit weight of soil D=
Depth of foundation
q = Surcharge at the ground level B
= Width of foundation

Nc, Nq, Nγ = Bearing Capacity factor

Effect of shape of Foundation

The shape of footing influences the bearing capacity. Terzaghi and other contributors
have suggested the correction to the bearing capacity equation for shapes other than
strip footing based on their experimental findings. The following are the corrections for
circular, square and rectangular footings.

Circular footing

q f= 1.3cNc γDN q 0.3γBNγ

Square footing

q f= 1.3cNc γDN q 0.4γBNγ

Rectangular footing
qf =(1+0.3 𝑩 ) c Nc +𝜸DNq + (1-0.2 𝑩) 0.5𝜸 BN
𝑳 𝑳
Summary of Shape factors
Table gives the summary of shape factors suggested for strip, square, circular
and rectangular footings. B and L represent the width and length respectively of
rectangular footing such that B < L.
Shape factors for different shapes of footing

Shape sc sq s
Strip 1 1 1

Square 1.3 1 0.8

Round 1.3 1 0.6
Rectangle (1+0.3B/L) 1 (1-0.2B/L)

26
Local shear failure

The equation for bearing capacity explained above is applicable for soil experiencing
general shear failure. If a soil is relatively loose and soft, it fails in local shear failure.
Such a failure is accounted in bearing capacity equation by reducing the magnitudes
of strength parameters c and as follows.

tan Φ‫ = ׀‬2/3 tan Φ

c‫ = ׀‬2/3 c

Table summarizes the bearing capacity factors to be used under different situations. If
Φ is less than 36o and more than 28o, it is not sure whether the failure is of general or
local shear type. In such situations, linear interpolation can be made and the region is
called mixed zone.

Bearing capacity factors in zones of local, mixed and general shear conditions.

Local Shear Failure Mixed Zone General Shear Failure

o o o o
Φ< 28 28 < Φ< 36 Φ> 36

N ,N ,N m m m
c q γ Nc , N q , Nγ Nc, Nq, Nγ

Effect of Water Table fluctuation

The basic theory of bearing capacity is derived by assuming the water table to be at
great depth below and not interfering with the foundation. However, the presence of
water table at foundation depth affects the strength of soil. Further, the unit weight of
soil to be considered in the presence of water table is submerged density and not dry
density. Hence, the reduction coefficients RW1 and RW2 are used in second and third
terms of bearing capacity equation to consider the effects of water table.

27
Ultimate bearing capacity with the effect of water table is given by,

q f cNcgDN q Rw10.5gBNg Rw2

Rw1 = ½ (1+ Zw1)

𝑫

where ZW1 is the depth of water table from ground level.

1. 0.5<Rw1<1

2. When water table is at the ground level (Zw1 = 0), Rw1 = 0.5
3. When water table is at the base of foundation (Zw1 = D), Rw1 = 1
4. At any other intermediate level, Rw1 lies between 0.5 and 1
Rw2 = ½ (1+Zw2)
𝑫

28
where ZW2 is the depth of water table from foundation level.
1. 0.5<Rw2<1

2. When water table is at the base of foundation (Zw2 = 0), Rw2 = 0.5

3. When water table is at a depth B and beyond from the base of foundation
(Zw2>= B), Rw2 = 1
4. At any other intermediate level, Rw2 lies between 0.5 and 1

Effect of eccentric foundation base

The bearing capacity equation is developed with the idealization that the load on
the foundation is concentric. However, the forces on the foundation may be eccentric or
foundation may be subjected to additional moment. In such situations, the width of
foundation B shall be considered as follows.

B1= B -2e

29
If the loads are eccentric in both the directions, then

B1= B -2eB& L1= L -2eL

Further, area of foundation to be considered for safe load carried by foundation is not
the actual area, but the effective area as follows.

A1= B1 X L1

1 1 1
In the calculation of bearing capacity, width to be considered is B where B < L .
Hence the effect of provision of eccentric footing is to reduce the bearing capacity
and load carrying capacity of footing.

Factor of Safety

It is the factor of ignorance about the soil under consideration. It depends on many
factors such as,

1. Type of soil

2. Method of exploration

3. Level of Uncertainty in Soil Strength

4. Importance of structure and consequences of failure

5. Likelihood of design load occurrence, etc.

Assume a factor of safety F = 3, unless otherwise specified for bearing capacity

problems. Table 7.5 provides the details of factors of safety to be used under different
circumstances.

30
 Typical factors of safety for bearing capacity calculation in different situations

Density of soil: In geotechnical engineering, one deals with several densities such as
dry density, bulk density, saturated density and submerged density. There will always
be a doubt in the students mind as to which density to use in a particular case. In case of
Bearing capacity problems, the following methodology may be adopted.

1. Always use dry density as it does not change with season and it is
always smaller than bulk or saturated density.

2. If only one density is specified in the problem, assume it as dry density and
use.

3. If the water table correction is to be applied, use saturated density in stead of

dry density. On portions above the water table, use drydensity.

31
 4. If water table is some where in between, use equivalent density as follows.
In the case shown in Fig. 7a, eq should be used for the second
term and sat for the third term. In the case shown in Fig. 7b, d should be
used for second term and eq for the third term.
g=( g1 D1 + g2 D2) / (D1+D2)

D1

D D
2

B B

(a) Water table above base (b)Water table below base

Fig. Evaluation of equivalent density

Factors influencing Bearing Capacity

Bearing capacity of soil depends on many factors. The following are some important
ones.

1. Type of soil
2. Unit weight of soil
3. Surcharge load

4. Depth of foundation

5. Mode of failure
6. Size of footing
7. Shape of footing

8. Depth of water table

9. Eccentricity in footing load

32
 10. Inclination of footing load

11. Inclination of ground

12. Inclination of base of foundation

Brinch Hansen’s Bearing Capacity equation

As mentioned in previous section, bearing capacity depends on many factors and
Terzaghi’ s bearing capacity equation doers not take in to consideration all the factors.
Brinch Hansen and several other researchers have provided a comprehensive equation
for the determination bearing capacity called Generalized Bearing Capacity equation
considering the almost all the factors mentioned above. The equation for ultimate
bearing capacity is as follows from the comprehensive theory.

q f cNc sc dc icqN q sq d q iq0.5gBNg sg dg ig

Here, the bearing capacity factors are given by the following expressions which depend
on .

Nc(N q1) cotf

N q=(eptanf) tan2(45+f/2)

Ng=1.5(N q-1) tanf

Equations are available for shape factors (sc, sq, s ), depth factors (dc, dq, d ) and load
inclination factors (ic, iq, i ). The effects of these factors are to reduce the bearing
capacity.

Determination of Bearing Capacity from field tests

Field Tests are performed in the field. You have understood the advantages of field tests
over laboratory tests for obtaining the desired property of soil. The biggest advantages
are that there is no need to extract soil sample and the conditions during testing are
identical to the actual situation.

33
Plate Load Test

Sand Bags

Platform
for loading

Dial Gauge

Testing Plate

Fig: typical set up for Plate Load test Faossuenm

dbaltyion Level

Major advantages of field tests are

· Sampling not required

· Soil disturbance minimum Major
disadvantages of field tests are

· Labourious
· Time consuming
· Heavy equipment to be carried to field
· Short duration behavior

1. It is a field test for the determination of bearing capacity and settlement

characteristics of ground in field at the foundation level.
2. The test involves preparing a test pit up to the desired foundation level.

3. A rigid steel plate, round or square in shape, 300 mm to 750 mm in size, 25

mm thick acts as model footing.

4. Dial gauges, at least 2, of required accuracy (0.002 mm) are placed on plate
on plate at corners to measure the vertical deflection.

34
 6. Loading is provided either as gravity loading or as reaction loading. For smaller
loads gravity loading is acceptable where sand bags apply the load. In reaction
loading, a reaction truss or beam is anchored to the ground. A hydraulic jack
applies the reaction load.

7. At every applied load, the plate settles gradually. The dial gauge readings are
recorded after the settlement reduces to least count of gauge (0.002 mm) &
average settlement of 2 or more gauges is recorded.

8. Load Vs settlement graph is plotted as shown. Load (P) is plotted on the

horizontal scale and settlement ( ) is plotted on the vertical scale.

9. Red curve indicates the general shear failure & the blue one indicates the local
or punching shear failure.

10. The maximum load at which the shear failure occurs gives the ultimate
bearing capacity of soil.

Reference can be made to IS 1888 - 1982.

The advantages of Plate Load Test are

1. It provides the allowable bearing pressure at the location considering both shear
failure and settlement.

2. Being a field test, there is no requirement of extracting soil samples.

3. The loading techniques and other arrangements for field testing are
identical to the actual conditions in the field.

4. It is a fast method of estimating ABP and P – behaviour of ground.

The disadvantages of Plate Load Test are

1. The test results reflect the behaviour of soil below the plate (for a distance of
~2Bp), not that of actual footing which is generally very large.

2. It is essentially a short duration test. Hence, it does not reflect the long term
consolidation settlement of clayey soil.

3. Size effect is pronounced in granular soil. Correction for size effect is

essential in such soils.

4. It is a cumbersome procedure to carry equipment, apply huge load and carry

out testing for several days in the tough field environment.

35
 Standard Penetration Test

65 kg Hammer
750
Tripod

mm

Bore Hole, Split Spoon Sampler

Fig. : Typical set up for Standard Penetration test assembly

1. Reference can be made to IS 2131 – 1981 for details on Standard

Penetration Test.

2. It is a field test to estimate the penetration resistance of soil.

3. It consists of a split spoon sampler 50.8 mm OD, 35 mm ID, min 600 mm long
and 63.5 kg hammer freely dropped from a height of 750 mm.

4. Test is performed on a clean hole 50 mm to 150 mm in diameter.

5. Split spoon sampler is placed vertically in the hole, allowed to freely settle under
its own weight or with blows for first 150 mm which is called seating drive.

6. The number of blows required for the next 300 mm penetration into the
ground is the standard penetration number N

36
 7. Apply the desired corrections (such as corrections for overburden pressure,
saturated fine silt and energy)

8. N is correlated with most properties of soil such as friction angle,

undrained cohesion, density etc.

Advantages of Standard Penetration Test are

1. Relatively quick & simple to perform

2. Equipment & expertise for test is widely available
3. Provides representative soil sample

4. Provides useful index for relative strength & compressibility of soil

5. Able to penetrate dense & stiff layers
6. Results reflect soil density, fabric, stress strain behavior
7. Numerous case histories available

Disadvantages of Standard Penetration Test are

1. Requires the preparation of bore hole.

2. Dynamic effort is related to mostly static performance

3. SPT is abused, standards regarding energy are not uniform
4. If hard stone is encountered, difficult to obtain reliable result.

5. Test procedure is tedious and requires heavy equipment.

6. Not possible to obtain properties continuously with depth.

Cone Penetration Test

1. Reference can be made to IS 4968 (P3) – 1987 for details on Standard
Penetration Test.

2. Cone Penetration Test can either be Static Cone Penetration Test or Dynamic Cone
Penetration Test.

37
3. Continuous record of penetration resistance with depth is achieved.
4. 2 o
Consists of a cone 36 mm dia (1000 mm ) and 60 vertex angle.
5. Cone is carried at the lower end of steel rod that passes through steel tube of 36
mm dia.

6. Either the cone, or the tube or both can be forced in to the soil by jacks.

7. Cone is pushed 80 mm in to the ground and resistance is recorded, steel tube is

pushed up to the cone and resistance is recorded. Further, both cone and tube are
penetrated 200 mm and resistance is recorded. Total resistance (qc) gives the CPT
value expressed in kPa.
8. Cone resistance represents bearing resistance at the base and tube resistance gives
the skin frictional resistance. Total resistance can be correlated with strength
properties, density and deformation characteristics of soil.

9. Correction for overburden pressure is applied. Approximately, N = 10qc (kPa)

38
 Advantages of SCPT are

1. Continuous resistance with depth is recorded.

2. Static resistance is more appropriate to determine static properties of soil.

3. Can be correlated with most properties of soil.
Disadvantages of SCPT are

1. Not very popular in India.

2. If a small rock piece is encountered, resistance shown is erratic &

incorrect.

3. Involves handling heavy equipment.

Presumptive Safe Bearing Capacity

It is the bearing capacity that can be presumed in the absence of data based on visual
identification at the site. National Building Code of India (1983) lists the values of presumptive
SBC in kPa for different soils as presented below.

A : Rocks

Sl Description SBC
(kPa)
No
1 Rocks (hard) without laminations and defects. For e.g. 3240
granite,

trap & diorite

2 Laminated Rocks. For e.g. Sand stone and Lime stone in 1620
sound

condition
3 Residual deposits of shattered and broken bed rocks and hard 880

shale cemented material

4 Soft Rock 440

39
B : Cohesionless Soils

Sl Description SBC
(kPa)
No
1 Gravel, sand and gravel, compact and offering resistance to 440

penetration when excavated by tools

2 Coarse sand, compact and dry 440
3 Medium sand, compact and dry 245
4 Fine sand, silt (dry lumps easily pulverized by fingers) 150

5 Loose gravel or sand gravel mixture, Loose coarse to medium 245

sand, dry
6 Fine sand, loose and dry 100

C : Cohesive Soils

Sl Description SBC
(kPa)
No
1 Soft shale, hard or stiff clay in deep bed, dry 440
2 Medium clay readily indented with a thumb nail 245

3 Moist clay and sand clay mixture which can be indented with 150

strong thumb pressure

4 Soft clay indented with moderate thumb pressure 100

5 Very soft clay which can be penetrated several centimeters 50

with

the thumb
6 Black cotton soil or other shrinkable or expansive clay in dry 130 - 160

condition (50 % saturation)

40
 Note :

1. Use d for all cases without water. Use sat for calculations with water. If simply
density is mentioned use accordingly.

2. Fill all the available data with proper units.

3. Write down the required formula
4. If the given soil is sand, c = 0

Problems & Solutions

1. A square footing is to be constructed on a deep deposit of sand at a depth of 0.9 m to carry a
design load of 300 kN with a factor of safety of 2.5. The ground water table may rise to the
3 season. Design the plan dimension of footing
ground level during rainy
given 𝛾 sat c q
= 20.8 kN/m , N = 25, N = 34 and Nγ =32. (Feb 2002)
Data

C=0
F = 2.5

D = 0.9 m

RW1 = RW2 = 0.5

𝛾 sat 3
=20.8 kN/m
Nc = 25

Nq = 34
N = 32

qs =P/A = [1.3cNc+γD(N q-1)RW1+0.4γBNg RW2]

B = 1.21 m

41
 o 3
2. What will be the net ultimate bearing capacity of sand having = 36 for
and 𝛾d = 19 kN/m
(i) 1.5 m strip foundation and (ii) 1.5 m X 1.5 m square footing. The footings are placed at a
depth of 1.5 m below ground level. Assume F = 2.5. Use Terzaghi’ s equations. (Aug 2003)

Nc Nq N
o
35 57.8 41.4 42.4

o
40 95.7 81.3 100.4

o
By linear interpolation Nc = 65.38, Nq = 49.38, Nγ = 54 at = 36

Data

B = 1.5 m
D = 1.5 m
3
𝛾d
= 19 kN/m
Strip Footing

qn= cNc+𝛾D(N q-1)+0.5𝛾BNg

qn = 2148.33 kPa
Square Footing

qn=1.3cNc+𝛾D(N q-1)+0.4𝛾BN𝛾

qn = 1994.43 kPa

42
3.A square footing 2.5 m X 2.5 m is built on a homogeneous bed of sand of density 19 kN/m3 having an angle of shearing resistance of
36o. The depth of foundation is 1.5 m below the ground surface. Calculate the safe load that can be applied on the footing with a
factor of safety of 3. Take bearing capacity factors as Nc= 27, Nq = 30, N = 35. (Feb 2004)

Data

C=0F=3

B=2.5

D = 1.5 m

3
𝛾d = 19 kN/m

Nc = 27 Nq = 30 N𝛾 = 35

qs= P/A =  1.3cNc+𝛾D(N q-1)R W1+0.4gBN𝛾 RW2

Safe load, P = qs*B*B = 3285.4 KN

4. A strip footing 2 m wide carries a load intensity of 400 kPa at a depth of 1.2

m in sand. The saturated unit weight of sand is 19.5 kN/m and unit weight above water table

is 16.8 kN/m . If c = 0 and = 35 , determine the factor of safety with respect to shear failure

for the following locations of water table.

Water table is 4 m below Ground Level

Water table is 1.2 m below Ground Level

Water table is 2.5 m below Ground Level

Water table is at Ground Level.

Using Terzaghi’ s equation, take Nq = 41.4 and N𝛾 = 42.4. (Feb 2005)

Data

o
C = 0 and C = 35

B=2m

43
D = 1.2 m

3 3
b = 19.5 kN/m (bottom) 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡t = 16.8 kN/m (top)

Nc = 0

Nq = 41.4

N𝛾 = 42.4

Safe load intensity = 400 kPa


qs =400= cN c+𝛾D(N q-1)R W1 +0.5𝛾BN𝛾 R W2 1/F+D
a.Water table is 4 m below Ground Level

RW1 = RW2 = 1

3
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 16.8 kN/m

F = 4.02

b.Water table is 1.2 m below Ground LevelRW1 = 1, RW2 = 0.5

400 16.8X1.2 X 40.4 X1 0.5X19.5X 2 X 42.4 X 0.51/F16.8X1.2

F = 3.227

c.Water table is 2.5 m below Ground LevelRW2 = 0.5(1+1.3/2) = 0.825

geff 16.8X1.319.5X0.7 17.745kN/m3

2
400 16.8X1.2 X 40.4 X1 0.5X17.745X 2 X 42.4 X 0.8251/F16.8X1.2

F = 3.779

d.Water table is at Ground LevelRW1 = RW2 = 0.5

3
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡t = 19.5 kN/m

400 19.5X1.2X 40.4 X 0.5  0.5X19.5X 2X 42.4 X 0.51/F19.5X1.2

F = 2.353

44
5.A square footing located at a depth of 1.3 m below ground has to carry a safe load of 800kN. Find the size of footing if the desired
factor of safety is 3.

Use Terzaghi’ s analysis for general shear failure. Take c = 8 kPa, Nc = 37.2, Nq =22.5, N = 19.7. (Aug 2005)

3
𝛾d = 18 kN/m (Assumed)

c = 8 kPaF = 3

D = 1.3 mNc = 37.2

Nq = 22.5

N = 19.7

P = 800 kN RW1 = RW2 = 1

qs=P/A =P/B =2=1.3cNc+𝛾D(N q-1)RW1+0.4𝛾BNg RW21/F+gD

3 2
47.28B + 320.06B - 800 = 0

B = 1.436 m

6. A square footing 2.8 m X 2.8 m is built on a homogeneous bed of sand of density 18 kN/m

and = 36 . If the depth of foundation is 1.8 m, determine the safe load that can be applied on

the footing. Take F = 2.5, Nc = 27, Nq = 36, N𝛾 = 35. (Feb 2007)Data

𝛾 = 18 kN/m3 c = 0(sand) F = 2.5

B = 2.8 m D = 1.8 mNc = 27

Nq = 36

N𝛾 = 35P = ?

RW1 = RW2 = 1

qs=P/A=P/B2=1.3cN c+𝛾D(N q-1)RW1+0.4gBN g RW21/F+𝛾𝐷

P = qs*B*B = 6023 kN

7.A strip footing 1 m wide and a square footing 1 m side are placed at a depth of 1 m below

o
45
the ground surface. The foundation soil has cohesion of 10 kPa, angle of friction of 26 and3

unit weight of 18 kN/m . Taking bearing capacity factor from the following table, calculate

the safe bearing capacity using Terzaghi’ s theory. Use factor of safety of 3. (July 2008)

Nc Nq N

o 12.9 4.4 2.5

15

o 17.7 7.0 5.0

20

o 25.1 12.7 9.7

25

1. A strip footing 1 m wide and a square footing 1 m side are placed at a depth of 1 m below
o
the ground surface. The foundation soil has cohesion of 10 kPa, angle of friction of 26 and
3
unit weight of 18 kN/m . Taking bearing capacity factor from the following table, calculate
the safe bearing capacity using Terzaghi’ s theory. Use factor of safety of 3. (July 2008)

Nc Nq N

o
15 12.9 4.4 2.5

o
20 17.7 7.0 5.0

o
25 25.1 12.7 9.7

46
 o
As = 28 , the ground experiences local shear failure C’ =(2/3)X10 = 6.67 kPa

o
tan ’ = (2/3) X tan’ = 18.01

c q
By linear interpolation, N ’ =15.79, N ’ =5.97, N ’ =4.01B = 1 m

D=1m

3
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡t = 18 kN/m

Strip footing

qs= cNc+𝛾D(N q-1)+0.5𝛾BN𝛾 F +gD =94.96 kPaSquare footing

qs= 1.3cNc+𝛾D(N q-1)+0.4gBN𝛾 1/F+gD =103.08 kPa

8. A square footing placed at a depth of 1 m is required to carry a load of 1000kN. Find the

o 3

required size of footing given the following data. C = 10 kPa, = 38 , = 19 kN/m , Nc =

61.35, Nq = 48.93, N𝛾 = 74.03 and F = 3. Assume water table is at the base of footing. (July2007)

Data

o
C = 10 kPa = 38 B = ?
47
 3
D = 1 m = 19 kN/m

Nc = 61.35

Nq = 48.93

N𝛾 = 74.03

F=3

RW1 = 1

RW2 = 0.5

qs= A= B  1.3cNc+𝛾PD(N q-1)PR W1+0.4𝛾BN𝛾 RW21/F+gD

2=

B3+6.14B2-3.56=0

B = 0.72 m

SETTLEMENT.

The vertical downward movement of the base of a structure is called settlement and its effect upon the structure depends on its
magnitude, its uniformity, the length of the time over which it takes place, and the nature of the structure itself. Settlement has got
several implications on a foundation.

The implications include:

Appearance of structures

Utility of structures

Damage to the structures

Appearance of structures Settlement affects the appearance of structures. If a structure settles excessively, its aesthetic is impaired.
It causes doors and windows to distort, walls and plasters to crack and the structure to tilt.

Utility of Structures – Settlement interfere the utility of structures in many ways. If settlement is excessive overhead cranes do not
operate correctly, machinery may go out of plumb and tracking units such as radar become inaccurate.

Damage to the Structure – If the settlement is severe, it may lead to the complete collapse of the structure even though the factor of
safety against shear failure is high.

48
All foundations settleto some extent as the earth materials around and beneath them adjust to loads of the building. Foundations on
bedrock settle a negligible amount. Foundations in other types of soil may settle much more. Foundations in clay settle more. Where
foundation settlement occurs at roughly the same rate throughout all portions of a building, it is termed uniform settlement.
Settlement that occurs at differing rates between different portions of a building is termed differentialsettlement.

When all parts of a building rest on the same kind of soil, and the loads on the building and the designof its structural system are
uniform throughout, differential settlement is normally not a concern. However where soils, loads, or structural systems differ
between parts of a building, different parts of the building structure may settle by substantially different amounts, the frame of the
building may become distorted, floors may slope, walls and glass may crack, and doors and windows may not workproperly. Figure 1
shows the details of settlement.

Fig. 1: Types of settlement of foundation of building

49
Settlement deals with the sinking of structure due to compression of soil. As per IS code, the following types of
settlements are reported:

Total settlement: - it is combination of initial and consolidation settlement Elastic settlement/

initial settlement: - initial/elastic settlement is the settlement caused due to elastic properties of the soil due to applied load.
Consolidation settlement - Primary consolidation: - is the consolidation occurs due to the expulsion of air from the voids.
Secondary/creep:- is the consolidation due to expulsion of water from the voids.

Differential settlement/ angular distortion: - it is the difference in settlement between two points below the footing.

Time dependent settlement: -for sands, settlement is called immediate settlement as it is the major settlement, there
being no or very less consolidation settlement. For clays, we talk about initial or elastic settlements and not immediate
settlements.

Foundation settlement is the shifting of the foundation (and the structure built upon it) into the soil. This can cause damage to the
structure. Whether the soil is moist or dry is central to predicting the amount of settlement to expect in a given foundation. Areas
with moist soils will have more foundation settlement than dry areas. The idea is that as water is squeezed out from the soil, the
structure will shift according to the empty spaces the water left. The more water, the more shift.

Immediate Settlement

Immediate settlement concerns the initial pressure on the soil under and surrounding the foundation. It is "immediate"
because it occurs during and right after construction. It has nothing to do with water displacement, but is merely caused
by the weight of the structure. In terms of building foundations, immediate settlement is relatively easy to predict and
measure. In many cases, given the nature of the soil, foundations are constructed with the ability to withstand a certain
amount of shift without damage. Damage usually occurs only in the long term, as the shift slowly continues over time.

Consolidation

Consolidation settlement is distinguished from immediate settlement both by the duration of the settlement and by
displacement of water. Consolidation is the more worrisome form of settlement because it is difficult to predict over
months or years. Consolidation settlement is the settling of a foundation, over time, due to pressure exerted by the
structure and squeezes out the water content of the soil, thus compressing it. Expulsion of moisture from the soil usually is
a long-term process.

50
Primary and Secondary Consolidation

Consolidation settlement has two components, primary and secondary. The former deals explicitly with the settlement
caused by soil moisture displacement, and the latter deals with the elastic settlement after all movable water has been
squeezed out of the soil.

Primary consolidation is the most significant and potentially harmful of the two. Primary consolidation takes quite a bit of time, from
weeks to years. Secondary consolidation is the quicker result of primary consolidation. Once primary has been completed, and all
movable water has been moved, secondary kicks in. Secondary consolidation occurs immediately after primary, and takes far less
time to complete. After secondary consolidation is complete, the structure remains in its permanent position. As a result, many
builders advise a resident in new homes to avoid repairing any settlement damage until secondary consolidation is complete, which is
normally after two years at most.

Causes of foundation Settlement

The causes of foundation settlement are rarely due to the design (or under-design) of the structure itself. More commonly, damage is
caused as changes occur within the foundation soils that surround and support the structure

Foundation settlement may be caused by some or a combination of the following reasons

Elastic compression of the foundation and the underlying soil.

Inelastic (or plastic) compression of the underlying soils, which is much larger than the elastic compression. The inelastic
compression can be predicted by the theory of consolidation.

Ground water lowering. Repeated lowering and rising of water level in loose granular soil tends to compact the soil and
cause settlement of the ground surface. Lowering of water level in fine grained soils cause consolidation settlement. The
major settlements in the city of Maxico hasbeen due to ground water lowering, and due to this, the city has been called as
the ‘sinking city ofMaxico’.

Vibrations due to pile driving, blasting and oscillating machineries may cause settlement indeposits of granular soils.

Seasonal swelling and shrinkage of expansive clays.

Ground movement on earth slopes, such as surface erosion, slow creep or landslide.

Other causes such as adjacent excavation, mining subsidence, underground erosion, etc.

51
(b)

Cracks in your home’s walls and sticking doors and windows are two of the symptoms offoundation settlement.

Bricks crack when foundation walls sink

Check out these common causes that call for professional evaluation andfoundation repairs.

Do you have foundation cracks, wall cracks, sticking doors and windows and sloping floors? Foundation cracks due to differential
foundation settlement can be caused by several conditions.Frost heave

Building codes that require at least 30 inches for a building’s footing depth were established to resist frost heave from ice expansion
in the ground during the winter months. The top layer of soil has gonethrough these types of changes over the decades and is
typically not very compacted.

Soil type

Some soils, like those we have here in the Greater Cincinnati area, are classified as expansive clay. This type of soil changes volume
when its moisture content changes. The soil shrinks in the dry summer and fall, when the rain quits falling as seen by cracks in ground.
When the moisture returns tothe soil during the winter and spring due to higher quantities of rain and snow, the soil swells back to its
previous volume. This type of differential movement can be seen in houses that have cyclical cracks which open and close, doors
rubbing the frames part of the year during the various seasons. Watering along the exterior house foundation may help control this
movement, but should be started very early in the year.

52
Varying foundation depth

Foundations that are supported at different soil depths are likely to settle differentially. This conditionis typical when a shallow
foundation is placed near a deeper basement foundation or on sloping lots.

Water leaks

In older homes, underground waste piping and/or underground downspout piping can crack or break. When the piping fails; water
leaks along the footing, softening the soil, causing the foundation to settle differentially. After a building has been constructed, some
settlement is quite normal. Differential settlement, however, is when a building’s piers or foundation settles unequally. Differential
settlement can result in damage to the structure, and is therefore, of concern.

Common causes of foundation settlement

Weak Bearing Soils

Some soils are simply not capable of supporting the weight or bearing pressure exerted by a building'sfoundation. As a result, the
footings press or sink into the soft soils, similar in theory to how a person standing in the mud sinks into soft, wet clay.

In such cases, footings may be designed to spread the load over the weak soils, thereby reducing potential foundation settlement.
However, the majority of settlement problems caused by weak bearing soils occur in residential construction, where the footings are
designed based upon general guidelines and not site-specific soil information.

Poor Compaction

Placement of fill soils is common practice in the development of both commercial and residential subdivisions. In general, before a
foundation can be constructed on a plot, hilltops are cut down and valleys are filled in order to create buildable lots. Properly placed
and compacted fill soils can provideadequate support for foundations, and are sometimes brought in from off-site locations. When
the soilfills are not adequately compacted, they can compress under a foundation load resulting in settlement of the structure.

53
Changes in Moisture Content

Extreme changes in moisture content within foundation soils can result in damaging settlement. Excess moisture can saturate
foundation soils, which often leads to softening or weakening of clays and silts. The reduced ability of the soil to support the load
results in foundation settlement. Increasedmoisture within foundation soils is often a consequence of poor surface drainage around
the structure,leaks in water lines or plumbing, or a raised groundwater table. Soils with high clay contents also have a tendency to
shrink with loss of moisture. As clay soils dry out, they shrink or contract, resulting in a general decrease in soil volume.

Therefore, settlement damage is often observed in a structure supported on dried-out soil. Drying of foundation soils is commonly
caused by extensive drought-like conditions, maturing trees and vegetation and leaking subfloor heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning systems.

. Maturing Trees and Vegetation

Maturing trees, bushes and other vegetation in close proximity to a home or building are a common cause of settlement. As trees and
other vegetation mature, their demand for water also grows. The root systems continually expand and can draw moisture from the
soil beneath the foundation. Again, clay-rich soils shrink as they lose moisture, resulting in settlement of overlying structures. Many
home and building owners often state that they did not have a settlement problem until decades after the structure was built.

54
Foundations closer to the surface are more often affected by soil dehydration due to tree roots than are deep, basement level
foundations. As a general rule, the diameter of a tree's root system is at least as large as the tree's canopy.

Soil Consolidation

Consolidation occurs when the weight of a structure or newly-placed fill soils compress lower, weak clayey soils. The applied load
forces water out of the clay soils, allowing the individual soil particles to become more densely spaced. Consolidation results in
downward movement or settlement of overlying structures. Settlement caused by consolidation of foundation soils may take weeks,
months, or years to be considered "complete."

As this occurs, the foundation will experience downward movement -- sometimes at an uneven rate. This leads to cracks and
structural damage.

Differential settlement

Differential settlement occurs when the soil beneath the structure expands, contracts or shifts away. This can be caused by drought
conditions, the root systems of maturing trees, flooding, poor drainage,frost, broken water lines, vibrations from nearby construction
or poorly compacted fill soil.

55
Differential settlement can cause cracks in a structure’s foundation and interior walls, as well as uneven settling of doors and
windows. Other signs of differential settlement include tilting chimneys, exterior stairs that tilt or sink, bulging walls, leaking through
openings and sunken slabs. Since soil settlement tends to be gradual, cracks due to differential settlement tend to be larger at the
top, diminishing to nearly nothing at the bottom. You may also see signs of vertical movement.

The best way to prevent differential settlement is to analyze the soil you are planning to build on, aswell as the surrounding
environment. In the ideal situation, the site soils will be non- expansive, meaning they have little clays or silts. Also ideally, the
structure will be laid on undisturbed, native soil. An engineer can determine the load bearing capacity of the soil and estimate
settlement of the planned structure. Once these calculations have been performed, make amendments to the soil before
construction begins, in order to minimize differential settlement. If it is necessary to build on disturbed soil or fill, the foundation can
be built on piles which extend down to good load bearing soil.

In conclusion, you now know what differential settlement is, some common causes and signs, what todo if you suspect that it is an
issue with your structure and the best strategies to avoid it in the first places. If you see cracks in a structure’s foundation and interior
walls, uneven settling of doors or windows, bulging walls, or tilting chimneys or exterior stairs, it is best to contact a structural
engineerand schedule an onsite evaluation.

Aspects of Settlement

Uniform settlement

Differential settlement

Uniform settlement does not cause harm to the structural stability of the structure.

Differential Settlement:

Different magnitude of settlement at different points underneath a structure;

Supplementary stress and cause harmful effects- cracking; permanent; irreparabledamage; ultimate yield; failure of
structure.

56
Definition of Differential Settlement

Differential settlement refers to the unequal settling of a building's piers or foundation that can result in damage to the structure. The
damage occurs when the foundation sinks in different areas at different times.

Causes

Differential settlement is primarily due to the condition of the soil upon which the structure sits. Soil has the capacity to
expand or contract based upon the temperature or weather conditions. It can also shift or wash away due to poor
drainage, heavy rainfall, soil drying unevenly, or changes in the water table.

Effects

The settlement causes cracks in a structure's foundation, slab or supporting piers. These cracks lead to cracks in the
building's interior walls and uneven settling of the building's doors, windows and trim.

Prevention and Solution

The best way to prevent damage from differential settlement is to thoroughly analyze the soil andmake necessary
amendments before construction begins. It may be necessary to reinforce the structure's piers or foundations if a problem
occurs after the building has been constructed.

Methods of minimizing settlement:-

Improve the soil character

Select suitable or better foundation system to distribute the structural loads as smoothas pressureon soils

Take precautions to avoid soil disturbances in the surrounding of structures for also belowthe structural foundations including any
vibratory motion disturbances

Tightening loose sand, consolidating soft days, grouting and freezing or solidifying soil mass withchemicals - all weak pockets or
uneven soil layers are mode to have homogeneous and isotropic medium – distribute the pressure evenly to avoid differential
settlement.

Soil nailing, micro pile, geotextile membrane, reinforcing of soils, geogrid reinforcement laying inembankment soil fill -reduce long
term settlement

57
Compaction by roller, vibratory roller, vibrofloatation& compaction by preloading, sand drain provisions to accelerate consideration-
long term & immediate settlement shall be minimizedProviding stone column in loose soil, lime sand mix compaction piles, lime clay
mix

piles, cement day mix, cement fly ash soil stabilization reduce settlement in soft day for loose sand. Water loving trees
suck water & Moister from soil up to 3m deep ,Selection of foundation & veerendalsystems framed foundation in
expansive soils to minimize different settlement

Organize spacing of footings – footing interface problemRaft foundation – shallow depth

Pile group, Spacing of piles, no of piles in group and palter of pile lay out contribute, Avoid adjacent are excavation below foundation
level, providing storm water discharge channel. Providing apron andavoiding or taking precautions for soil subsidence due to tunnel or
pipe line

Selection raft or pile, fooling faming or shear wall providing ground beam, grade beam, plinth
of
beam, continuous linter, reinforced continuous stripes at all opening level, sill level at window bottom,reinforce brick masonry

Slab on grade like systems compacting in layers the basement fill, lime water treatment in clay belowstrip footing.

Total Settlement

Total foundation settlement can be divided into three different components, namely Immediate orelastic settlement, consolidation
settlement and secondary or creep settlement as given below.

S= Si + Sc +Ss

Here, S = Total Settlement SI

= Immediate / Elastic Settlement SC = ConsolidationSettlement

SS = Secondary Settlement

58
The components of settlement of a foundation are:

Immediate settlement

Consolidation Settlement, and

Secondary compression (creep)ΔH = ΔHi + U ΔHc + ΔHs

ΔH = total settlement, ΔHc = consolidation settlement, ΔH = secondarycompression, U

= average degree of consolidation. Generally, the final settlement of a foundation isof interest and U is
considered equal to 1 (i.e. 100% consolidation)

Immediate Settlement

Immediate settlement takes place as the load is applied or within a time period of about 7days.

Predominates in cohesion less soils and unsaturated clay

Immediate settlement analysis are used for all fine-grained soils including silts and clayswith a degree of saturation < 90%
and for all coarse grained soils with large co-efficient of permeability (say above 10.2 m/s)

Consolidation Settlement (ΔHc)

Consolidation settlements are time dependent and take months to years to develop. The leaning tower of Pisa in Italy has
been undergoing consolidation settlement for over 700years. The lean is caused by consolidation settlement being greater
on one side. This, however, is an extreme case. The principal settlements for most projects occur in 3 to 10years.

Dominates in saturated/nearly saturated fine grained soils where consolidation theory applies. Here we are interested to
estimate both consolidation settlement and how longatime it will take or most of the settlement to occur.

Secondary Settlement/Creep (ΔHs)

Occurs under constant effective stress due to continuous rearrangement of clayparticlesinto a more stable configuration.

Predominates in highly plastic clays and organic clays.

59
Immediate settlement of cohesive soils

Immediate settlement in cohesive soil may be estimated using elastic theory, particularly for saturatedclays, clay shales, and most
rocks. The linear theory of elasticity is used to determine the elastic settlement of the footing on saturated clay.Schleicher (1926)
gave the formula for the vertical settlement under a uniformly distributed flexible area

1 − µ2

𝑆i = 𝑞𝐵 𝐼𝑤
𝐸
𝑠

Where q = intensity of contact pressure in units of Es (Undrained Modulus of Elasticity) B = least lateral dimension of contributing
base area in units of Si Es=modulus of elasticity of soil,

μ = Poisson’s ratio of Soil.(0.5 for saturated clay)Iw= Influence factor

The value of Es can be determined from stress-strain curve obtained from a triaxial consolidated –undrained test, unconfined
compression tests, and in-situ tests like SPT, CPT, Plate load tests, Pressure meter etc. The value of influence factor Iw for s saturated
clay layer of semi- infinite extent can be obtained from the table 3.1

Shape Flexible Footing Rigid

Centre Corner Average Footing

Circle 1 0.64 0.85 0.79

Square 1.12 0.56 0.95 0.82

Rectangle

L/B=1.5 1.36 0.68 1.20 1.06

L/B=2.0 1.53 0.77 1.31 1.20

L/B=2.0 1.78 0.89 1.52 1.42

L/B=5.0 2.10 1.05 1.83 1.70

L/B=10 2.52 1.26 2.25 2.10

L/B=100 3.38 1.69 2.96 3.40

60
Table 3.1 Value of influence factor

SHALLOW FOUNDATION

TYPES OF SHALLOWFOUNDATIONS

Strip Footing: A strip footing is provided for a load-bearing wall. A strip footing is alsoprovided for a row of columns which are so
closely spaced that their spread footings overlap or nearly touch each other.

Spread or Isolated Footing: A spread footing (or isolated or pad) footing is provided tosupport an individual column. A spread footing
is circular, square or rectangular slab of uniform thickness. Sometimes, it is stepped or hunched to spread the load over a large area.

Combined Footing: A combined footing supports two columns. It is used when the twocolumns are so close to each other that their
individual footings would overlap. A combined footing is also provided when the property line is so close to one column thata spread
footing would be eccentrically loaded when kept entirely within the property line. By combining it with that of an interior column, the
load is evenly distributed. A combined footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal in plan.

Strap or Cantilever footing: A strap (or cantilever) footing consists of two isolated footings connected with a structural strap or a
lever. The strap connects the two footings such that they behave as one unit. The strap is designed as a rigid beam.

Mat or Raft Foundations: A mat or raft foundation is a large slab supporting a number of columns and walls under the entire
structure or a large part of the structure. A mat is required when the allowable soil pressure is low or where the columns and walls
are so close that individual footings would overlap or nearly touch each other.Mat foundations are useful in reducing the differential
settlements on non-homogeneous soils or where there is a large variation in the loads on individual columns.

ASSUMPITIONS IN CONVENTIONAL DESIGN OF RAFT FOUNDTAION:

In the conventional method of design, the raft is assumed to be infinitely rigidand the pressure distribution is taken as
linearly varying.

The assumption is valid when the raft rests on soft clay which is highlycompressible and the eccentricity of the load is small.

In case when the soil is stiff or the eccentricity is large, the method does not giveaccurate results.

Rectangular Combined Footings

Space restrictions or architectural features may require one footing to carry at least two column loads as shown in given Fig.
Conventional design and analysis are based on theassumption that the footing is infinitely stiff and that stress distribution on the base
of the footing is planar

61
Design steps:
1. AssumeQ1, Q2 and S are known; therefore Σ𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2
2. Find the base area of the footings, A= Q/ qna ,whereqna is the allowable soil
pressure.
3. Locate the line of action of the resultant of the column loads measured from one
of the column ,centre of gravity of the load 𝑥 = (Q2 x c/c distance) / Q: the
location of the resultant force Σ𝑄with respect to any pointmay be obtained by
taking moments about that point.
4. For uniform stress distribution, the required length L of the footing is: 𝐿= 2(𝑥 + 𝑏1)

5. The required width B of the footing is: B =Area /L = (Q1+ Q2) / (q all x L)
6. Actual allowable soil pressure
qo= Q/Ao Where Ao= B x
L

Design of Combined Footings by Rigid Method (Conventional Method)

The rigid method of design of combined footings assumes that
1. The footing or mat is infinitely rigid; hence, the deflection of the footing or mat does
not influence the pressure distribution,
2. The soil pressure is distributed in a straight line or a plane surface such that the
centroid of the soil pressure coincides with the line of action of the resultant force of all
the loads acting on the foundation.

Design of Combined Footings

Two or more columns in a row joined together by a stiff continuous footing form a
combined footing as shown in Fig. 3.3(a). The procedure of design for a combined

62
 footing is as follows:

1. Determine the total column loads ∑Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 ... and location of

the line of action of the resultant ∑Q. If any column is subjected to
bending moment, the effect of the moment should be taken into account.
2. Determine the pressure distribution q per lineal length of footing.
3. Determine the width B, of the footing.
4. Draw the shear diagram along the length of the footing. By definition, the
shear at any section along the beam is equal to the summation of all
vertical forces to the left or right of the section. For example, the shear at
a section immediately to the left of Q1 is equal to the area abed, and
immediately to the right of Q1 is equal to (abcd - Q1) as shown in Fig.
(a).
5. Draw the moment diagram along the length of the footing. By definition
the bending moment at any section is equal to the summation of moment
due to all the forces and reaction to the left (or right) of the section. It is
also equal to the area under the shear diagram to the left (or right) of the
section.
6. Design the footing as a continuous beam to resist the shear and moment.
7. Design the footing for transverse bending in the same manner as for
spread footings.
It should be noted here that the end column along the property line may be connected to the interior column by a rectangular or
trapezoidal footing. In such a case no strap is required and both the columns together will be a combined footing as shown in Fig. b. It
is necessary that the center of area of the footing must coincide with the center of loading for the pressure to remain uniform

Design of Mat Foundation by Rigid Method

In the conventional rigid method the mat is assumed to be infinitely rigid and the bearingpressure against the bottom of the mat
follows a planar distribution where the centroid of the bearing pressure coincides with the line of action of the resultant force of all
loadsacting on the mat.

The procedure of design is as follows:

Step 1: The column loads of all the columns coming from the superstructure are calculated as per standard practice. The loads include
live and dead loads.

Step 2.Centre of gravity of the mat foundation:

63
(1)Taking moment about X and Y direction, we can calculate 𝑋 and 𝑌 .The line of action of the resultant of all the loads is found.
However, the weight of the mat is not included in the structural design of the mat because every point of the mat is supported by the
soil under it, causing no flexural stresses.

(2) ex = 𝑳𝐱 -𝑿 and ey = 𝑳𝐲 -𝒀

𝟐 𝟐

Step 3. Calculate the soil pressure at desired locations by the use of

Where 𝑄= Σ 𝑄= total load on the mat

A = total area of the mat

x, y = coordinates of any given point on the mat with respect to the x and y axes passing throughthe centroid of the area of the mat

𝑒x ,y = eccentricities of the resultant force

Ix ,Iy= moments of inertia of the mat with respect to the x and y axes respectively. To calculateall the corner column loads, we have to
know the coordinates from the origin.

Step 4. The mat is treated as a whole in each of two perpendicular directions. Thus the total shear force acting on any section
cutting across the entire mat is equal to the arithmetic sum ofall forces and reactions (bearing pressure) to the left (or right) of the
section. The total bending moment acting on such a section is equal to the sum of all the moments to the left (or right) of the section.

Step 5: The pressure intensity on the strip = 𝐐𝐚𝐯𝐞

𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐩𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚

Step 6: Factor of safety = 𝐐𝐚𝐯𝐞

𝐐𝟏+𝐐𝟐+𝐐𝟑

Numerical problems

1.A raft foundation 10m wide and 12m long is to be constructed in a clayey soil having a shear strength of 12KN/m2 .Unit weight of
soil is 16Kn/m3.If the ground surface carries a surcharge of 20KN/m2.Calculate the maximum depth of foundation to ensure a factor
of safety of 1.2 against base failure. Nc for clay is 5.7.

Solution:

Bearing capacity of soil for rectangular footing in cohesive soil is given by

64
qf = cNc(1+0.3𝐵)+ σ =cNc(1+0.3𝐵)+( D+q)

qf=12x 5.7 (1+ 0.3 x 10) + 16 D +20 = 105.5 + 16 D

Base failure will occur when qf is equal to zero

D = -(105.5) = - 6.59 ( minus sign indicates that it is excavation)

Therefore Critical depth = 6.59 m and Safe depth = 6.59 = 5.49m

A Trapezoidal footing is to be produced to support two square columns of 30cm and 50cm sides respectively. Columns are 6meters
apart and the safe bearing capacity of the soil is400KN/m2.The bigger column carries 5000KN and the smaller 3000KN.Design a
suitable size ofthe footing so that it does not extend beyond the faces of the columns

Solution:

Area (A) =((𝑎+𝑏)(L)) = (𝑃1+𝑃2))

2 𝑞𝑠

=a+b= ( 2 )x ((5000+3000)=5.882m……(1)
6.8 4000

Also = (0.5) x (x’) = 0.25+( 3000𝑥6.4) )=2.65 m

2 5000 +3000

(2𝑎+𝑏)
But =( )
3 𝑎+𝑏

(2𝑎 +𝑏)= ( 3 )x2.65 =1.169 (2)

𝑎+𝑏 6.8

(or) 0.831a- 0.169b =0 (or) b=4.917a

65
Substituting this values in (1),we get a=(5.882)= 0.994m and b= 4.889m

5.917

Hence use trapezoidal footing of size a=1m and b=4.9m and L=4.889m

3. A footing 3m x 1.5m in plan transmits a pressure of 160KN/m2 on a cohesive soil havingE= 8x 104 kN/m2 and µ = 0.48.Determine
the immediate settlement at the centre, assuming the footing to be (a) flexible, and (b) Rigid.

Solution:

L/B = 3/1.5 =2 .From table Iw= 1.52 for flexible footing and 1.22 for rigid footing.

(a) Si = 160 x 1.5 ((1)−(0.48)2 ) x 1.52 = 3.51 mm

8𝑥10 4

(b) Si = 160 x 1.5 ((1)−(0.48)2 ) x 1.22 = 2.82mm

8𝑥10 4

Floating Foundation
General Consideration A floating foundation for a building can be defined as a foundation in which the
weight of the building is approximately equal to the full weight which includes water of the soil
removed from the site of the building. With reference to Fig, this principle of flotation may be
explained. Fig. (a) shows a horizontal ground surface with water table at a depth dw below 16the
ground surface. Fig. (b) shows an excavation made in the ground to a depth D where, D > dw and Fig.
(b) shows a structure built in the excavation and completely filling it. If the weight of the building is
equal to the weight of the soil and water removed from
the excavation, then it is clear that the total vertical pressure in the soil below depth D in Fig. (c) is the
same as in Fig. (a) before excavation. Since there is no change in the water level, the neutral pressure
and the effective pressure remain unchanged. If we could move from Fig. (a) to Fig. (c) without
coming across the intermediate case of (b), the building in Fig. (c) would not settle at all, since an
increase in effective vertical pressure cause settlements.
Principle of a floating foundation:

66
 An exact balance of weight removed against weight imposed. The obtained result is zero settlement of
the building

67
68
69
MODULE-III

PILE FOUNDATION

A deep foundation is a type of foundation which transfers building loads to the earth farther down from the surface than a shallow
foundation does, to a subsurface layer or a range of depths.

A pile is a vertical structural element of a deep foundation, driven deep into the ground at the building site

Need for pile foundation

very large design loads,

a poor soil at shallow depth,

site constraints (like PROPERTY LINE)

70
71
 Types of Piles based on Materials

Timber piles

 Timber piles are made of-tree trunks driven with small end as a point
 Maximum length: 35 m; optimum length: 9 - 20m
 Max load for usual conditions: 450 kN; optimum load range = 80 - 240 kN

Disadvantages of using timber piles:

Difficult to splice, vulnerable to damage in hard driving, vulnerable to decay unless treated with
preservatives (If timber is below permanent Water table it will apparently last forever), if
subjected to alternate wetting & drying, the useful life will be short, partly embedded piles or

piles above Water table are susceptible to damage from wood borers and other insects unless
treated.

72
Advantages:

Comparatively low initial cost, permanently submerged piles are resistant to decay, easy to
handle, best suited for friction piles in granular material.

Steel piles

 Maximum length practically unlimited, optimum length: 12-50m

 Load for usual conditions = maximum allowable stress x cross-sectional area
 The members are usually rolled HP shapes/pipe piles. Wide flange beams & I beams
proportioned to withstand the hard driving stress to which the pile may be subjected. In
HP pile the flange thickness = web thickness, piles are either welded or seamless steel
pipes, which may be driven either open ended or closed end. Closed end piles are usually
filled with concrete after driving.
 Open end piles may be filled but this is not often necessary., dm

Advantages of steel piles:

Easy to splice, high capacity, small displacement, able to penetrate through light obstructions,
best suited for end bearing on rock, reduce allowable capacity for corrosive locations or provide
corrosion protection.

Disadvantages:

 Vulnerable to corrosion.
 HP section may be damaged/deflected by major obstruction

Concrete Piles

 Concrete piles may be precast, prestressed, cast in place, or of composite construction

 Precast concrete piles may be made using ordinary reinforcement or they may be
prestressed.

 Precast piles using ordinary reinforcement are designed to resist bending stresses during
picking up & transport to the site & bending moments from lateral loads and to
provide sufficient resistance to vertical loads and any tension forces developed during
driving.

73
 Prestressed piles are formed by tensioning high strength steel prestress cables, and

74
 casting the concrete about the cable. When the concrete hardens, the prestress cables are
cut, with the tension force in the cables now producing compressive stress in the concrete
pile. It is common to higher-strength concrete (35 to 55 MPa) in prestressed piles because
of the large initial compressive stresses from prestressing. Prestressing the piles, tend to
counteract any tension stresses during either handling or driving.
 Max length: 10 - 15 m for precast, 20 - 30 m for prestressed
 Optimum length 10 - 12 m for precast. 18 - 25m prestressed
 Loads for usual conditions 900 for precast. 8500 kN for prestressed
 Optimum load range: 350 - 3500 kN

Advantages:

1. High load capacities, corrosion resistance can be attained, hard driving possible
2. Cylinder piles in particular are suited for bending resistance.
3. Cast in place concrete piles are formed by drilling a hole in the ground & filling it with
concrete. The hole may be drilled or formed by driving a shell or casing into the ground.

Disadvantages:

1. Concrete piles are considered permanent, however certain soils (usually organic) contain
materials that may form acids that can damage the concrete.
2. Salt water may also adversely react with the concrete unless special precautions are taken
when the mix proportions are designed. Additionally, concrete piles used for marine
structures may undergo abrasion from wave action and floating debris in the water.
3. Difficult to handle unless prestressed, high initial cost, considerable displacement,
prestressed piles are difficult to splice.
4. Alternate freezing thawing can cause concrete damage in any exposed situation.

Composite piles

In general, a composite pile is made up of two or more sections of different materials or different
pile types. The upper portion could be eased cast-in-place concrete combined with a lower

portion of timber, steel H or concrete filled steel pipe pile. These piles have limited application
and arc employed under special conditions.

75
Timber pile Steel pile.

76
Types of Piles based on construction methods

Precast Concrete Piles

May be defined as a reinforced concrete pile which is moulded in circular, square, rectangular or octagonal form. The precast
concrete piles are cast and cured in a casting yard and then transported to the site for driving. In case space is available, pile can also
be cast and cured near the site of works. They are driven in a similar manner as timber piles with the help of pile drivers. The
diameter of the pile normally varies 1mm 35 cm to 65 cm and their length varies from 45 in to 30 m.

Cast-in-situ piles

Are those piles which are cast in position inside the ground. Since the cast-in-situ piles is not subjected to handling or driving stresses,
it is not necessary to reinforce the pile in ordinary casesor in places where the pile is completely submerged in the soil.
Reinforcements are necessary to be provided in a cast-in- situ piles, when the pile acts as a column and is subjected to lateral forces.
Cast- in-situ piles can be divided into two types. In one the metallic shell of the pile is permanently left in place inside the ground
along with the core while in the other type the outer shell is withdrawn.

77
2. Types of Piles based on installation type.

Piling techniques can be split into 2 categories;

Displacement piling technique

Replacement. piling technique

In simple terms, during the displacement piling method, piles are driven into the ground pushing the ground out of the way, as you
would see in sheet piling. Displacement piling is good for e.g. contaminated sites where it costs a lot to take the spoil away.

Using the replacement piling method, muck is dug out and replaced with the pile. We can use far bigger piles using
replacement piling.

Types of Piles based on load transfer.

End bearing piles.

78
In end bearing piles, the bottom end of the pile rests on a layer of especially strong soil orrock. The load of the building is transferred
through the pile onto the strong layer

Friction piles

Friction piles work on a different principle .the pile transfer load of the building to the soilacross the full height of the pile by friction.

79
Classification based on method of installation:

Bored piles:

Bored piles are constructed in pre-bored holes either using a casing or by circulating stabilizing agent like betonies slurry. The
borehole is then filled with concrete after placing the reinforcement. The advantage of board pile is that there is no damage due to
handling and driving which is common in driven piles.

Board piles are of following types:

Small diameter piles-up to 600 mm diameter; large diameter piles-diameter greater than 600mm; under reamed piles.

Driven piles:

Driven piles may be of concrete, steel or timber. These piles are driven into the soil by the impact of hammer. Boring is not required
for this type of piles. When a pile is driven into granular soils it densities the soil and increases strength of soil. But when a pile is
driven in saturated clay, the soil instead of being compacted gets remolded with reduction in strength.

Driven and cast-in-situ piles:

It is a type of driven pile. They are constructed by driving a steel casing in to the ground. Thehole is then filled with concrete by placing
the reinforcement and the casing is gradually lifted.

(c) Classification based on the function:

Piles are of following types based on its use:

End bearing piles:

80
The piles which transfer its load to a hard and relatively incompressible stratum like rock ordense sand are called end bearing piles.
These piles derive its bearing capacity from end

81
bearing at the pile tip.

Friction piles:

The piles which do not rest on hard stratum but derives its carrying capacity from skim friction oradhesion between the pile surface
and surrounding soil are called friction piles.

Tension pile:

82
Tension piles are also called uplift piles. These piles are used to anchor down the structuressubjected to uplift due to hydrostatic
pressure.

83
Compaction piles:

These piles are used to compact loose granular soil to increase its bearing capacity. Compaction piles do not carry load and hence they
can be of weaker material. Sand piles canbe used as compaction piles.

Anchor piles:

These piles are used to provide anchorage against horizontal pull from sheet piling.

Fender piles and dolphins:

Fender piles and dolphins are used to protect water front structure from impact of any floatingobject or ship.

Piles based on uses

84
Selection of pile foundation

Selection of pile types and length depends on following conditions:

Soil conditions

Loads from structuresNature of loads

Number of piles to be usedCost of construction

If hard soil is available at deeper levels of earth, then there is a need of some source that can transfer the load of the
structures on the deep hard soil strata. This source can be said to be as the deep foundation. Pile foundation is a type of
foundation in which pile is usually used as the source to transfer the load to deep soil levels. Piles are long and slender
members that transfer the load to hard soil ignoring the soil of low bearing capacity. Transfer of load depends on
capacity of pile. There is a need that pile should be strong enough to transfer the whole load coming on it to underlying
hard strata. For this purpose, pile design is usually given much consideration. Depending on the load, typeof material is
usually selected for the piles.

Factors affecting the selection of piles.

Length of pile in relation to load and soil conditionBehavior of structure

Availability of material in locality of constructionType of loading

Ease of maintenance Availability of funds Factors causing damageCost of piles

85
Load carrying capacity of pile

The Ultimate load carrying capacity of a pile is defined as the maximum load which can becarried by a pile and at which the pile
continues to sink without further increase in load.

The allowable load is the load which the pile can carry safely which can be determined fromthe ultimate load carrying capacity
divided by suitable factor of safety

Following are general methods available to establish load capacity:

Static Analysis

Dynamic Analysis

Pile Load Testing

Correlation with field tests (SPT, CPT etc)(Penetration tests)

Dynamic formulae are used for driven piles. Static formulae are used both for bored and driven piles. Load testing is the most reliable
method to determine the load capacity of the pile in the field.

They should be performed on all piling projects. However, they are considerably more expensivethan the other methods used to
determine pile capacity, and economic considerations sometimes preclude their use on projects.

Field tests like SPT, CPT are also used to correlate to load carrying capacity particularly for cohesion less soils.

Static method

Based on the assumption that the ultimate bearing capacity Qup of a pile is the sum of the totalultimate skin friction Rf and the total
ultimate point or end bearing resistance Rp

Qup = Rf +Rp or

Qup = As. rf +Ap .rp

86
As = surface area of pile upon which the skin friction acts.

Ap= area of cross section of pile on which bearing resistance acts.rf= average skin friction

87
rp=unit point or toe resistance.

A factor of safety of 2.5 or 3 may be adopted for finding the allowable load.

For cohesive soil,

rf =average skin friction along the length of the pile

=m c’

rp=point resistance

=CpNc

=9 Cp.

Qup = m c’ As +9 CpAp

Where m = adhesion coefficient

Cp= average undrained cohesion of soil @ pile tipC’= average undrained cohesion along of the pile c’= cp= qu/2

Dynamic formulae.

Engineering News Formula

As per the Engineering News formula the allowable load of driven pile is given by:

88
 𝑾𝑯
Qa=

𝑭(𝑺+𝑪)

Where, Qa = Allowable load in kgW = Weight of hammer

h = Height of fall in cms

S = Final settlement per blow known as set

89
C = Empirical constant

(c = 2.5 cm for drop hammer and 0.25 cm for single acting and double acting hammer)

F = Factor of safety (Usually taken as 6)

Drop hammer Qa = 𝑾𝑯

𝟔(𝑺+𝟐.𝟓)

𝑾𝑯
Single acting stream hammer Qa =

𝟔(𝑺+𝟎.𝟐𝟓)

Double acting hammer Qa (𝑾+𝒂𝒑)𝑯

𝟔(𝑺+𝟎.𝟐𝟓)

90
a= effective area of piston in square cm.

p= mean effective stream pressure (kg/cm2)

Hiley’s Formula (IS: 2911 part-I) 1964

The relation suggested by Hiley for ultimate bearing capacity of the pile is:

𝜼𝒉𝑾𝑯𝜼𝒃
Qu =

(𝑺+𝑪/𝟐)

Where, c = Sum of elastic compression ( c = cp + cc + cq)cp = Compression of pile

cc = Compression of pile headcq = Compression of ground W = Weight of hammer

H = Height of fall of hammer

s =penetration or Set in cm /blow

𝜼𝒉 = Efficiency of hammer [65% for DAH and 100% for DH]

ram)𝜼𝒃 = Efficiency of hammer blow (ratio of energy after impact tostriking energy of

W > eP , 𝜼𝒃 = (𝑾 + 𝒆𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

91
P= Weight of pile

E= Coefficient of restitution

It should be noted that η depends on the coefficient of restitution, which is given in Table 2, ηbeing obtained from Fig.2. Hammer
coefficient is given in Table 1

Hammer K

Drop Hammer, Winch operated 0.8

Drop Hammer, Trigger release 1.0

Single Acting Hammer 1.9

BSP Double Acting Hammer 1.0

McKiernan-Terry DieselHammers 1.0

Table 1 Values of Hammer Coefficient K

PILE LOAD TEST

To determine settlement under working load

92
To determine ultimate bearing capacity

To ascertain as a proof of acceptability

The test can be initial or routine test

The load is applied in increments of 20% of the estimated safe load. Hence the failure loadis reached in 8-10 increments.

Settlement is recorded for each Settlement is recorded for each increment until the rate of

93
settlement is less than 0.1 mm/hr.

The ultimate load is said to have reached when the final settlement is more than 10% of thediameter is more than 10% of
the diameter of pile or the settlement keeps on increasing at constant load. 45

After reaching ultimate load the after reaching ultimate load, the load is released in decrements of 1/6th of the total load
and recovery is measured until full recovery ismeasured until full rebounds is established and next unload is done.

After final unload the settlement is measured for 24 hrs to estimate full elastic recovery.

Load settlement curve depends on the type of pile

94
95
17
96
Distance of anchor piles from test pile – The distance cannot be less than 1.5 m. It should not be less than 4 times the diameter of
test pile for straight pile and not less than 2 times the diameter of the bell for belled pile.

Load Application – The load is applied in the pile in the following sequence.

Load applied in increment at the rate of 25 % of working load till working load is reached

For each load increment maintain the load constant till settlement is 0.1 mm for 5 min asper IS Code, 0.1 mm for 20 min as
per BS Code

Go for next loading

When working load is reached hold the load for 24 hr and unload

Reload from working load to higher loads

Hold load constant till settlement is 0.1 mm for 5 min as per IS Code, 0.1 mm for 20 minas per BS Code

Repeat the process for subsequent load increments

o Go either up to 5/2 times the working load for initial or routine test or to a settlement equalto 10 % of pile diameter for
straight piles and 7.5 % of base diameter for belled pile

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

97
Pile group.

When several piles are clustered, it is reasonable to expect that the soil pressures produced from either side friction or point bearing
will overlap.

The super-imposed pressure intensity will depend on both the pile load and spacing, and if sufficiently large the soil will fail in shear or
the settlement will be excessive.

The stress intensity from overlapping stressed zones will obviously decrease with increased pile spacing s; however, large spacing’s
are often impractical in a pile cap is cast over the pile group for the column base and/or to spread the load to the several piles in the
group.

EFFICIENCY OF PILE GROUP

Capacity of pile group is the sum of the individual capacities of piles, but it is influenced by the spacing between the piles.

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

98
Piles are driven generally in groups in regular pattern to support the structural loads. The structural load is applied to the pile cap that
distributes the load to individual piles. If piles are spaced sufficient distance apart, then the capacity of pile group is the sum of the
individual

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

99
capacities of piles. However, if the spacing between piles is too close, the zones of stress around the pile will overlap and the ultimate
load of the group is less than the sum of the individual pile capacities specially in the case of friction piles, where the efficiency of pile
group is much less.

Group action of piles is evaluated by considering the piles to fail as a unit around the perimeter of the group. Both end bearing and
friction piles are considered in evaluating the group capacity. End bearing pile is evaluated by considering the area enclosed by the
perimeter of piles as the area of footing located at a depth corresponding to the elevation of pile tips. The friction component of pile
support is evaluated by considering the friction that can be mobilized around the perimeter of the pile group over the length of the
piles as shown in figure below:

Efficiency of pile group

When closely spaced piles are grouped together it is reasonable to expect that the soil as resistance will overlap.

The bearing capacity of pile group may or may not be the sum of the bearing capacity of individual piles constituting the
group.

Theory and tests have shown the total bearing capacity Qug of a group of friction piles particularly in clay may be less than
the product of the friction bearing value Qup of individual pile multiplied by the number of piles in a group.

There is no reduction in the case of end bearing piles.

For combined end bearing and friction piles only the load carrying capacity of the frictional portion is reduced.

A method of estimating the bearing capacity of a pile group of friction piles is to multiplythe quantity nQup by a reduction
factor called the efficiency of pile group.

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

10
Qug=n.Qup. ηg

Qug = load carried by group of friction piles Qup=load carried by each friction piles

n = number of piles

ηg== efficiency of pile group.

The efficiency of the pile group depends upon the following factors

Characteristics of pile

Spacing of pile

Total number of piles

No of formulae are available for finding the efficiency of pile.

Pile Spacing

The spacing of piles depends upon the method of installing the piles and the type of soil. The piles can be driven piles or cast-in-situ
piles. When the piles are driven there will be greater overlapping of stresses due to the displacement of soil. If the displacement of
soil compacts the soil in between the piles as in the case of loose sandy soils, the piles may be placed at closer intervals.

When piles are placed in a group, there is a possibility the pressure isobars of adjacent piles will overlap each other as shown in Fig. b.
The soil is highly stressed in the zones of overlapping of pressures. With sufficient overlap, either the soil will fail or the pile group will
settle excessively since the combined pressure bulb extends to a considerable depth below the base of the piles. Itis possible to
avoid overlap by installing the piles further apart as shown in Fig. c. large spacing are not recommended sometimes, since this would
result in a larger pile cap which would increase the cost of the foundation.

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

10
(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

10
.

The spacing of piles in a group depends upon many factors such as

Overlapping of stresses of adjacent piles,

Cost of foundation,

Efficiency of the pile group.

The minimum allowable spacing of piles is usually stipulated in building codes. The spacing for straight uniform diameter piles may
vary from 2 to 6 times the diameter of the shaft. For friction piles, the minimum spacing recommended is 3d where d is the diameter
of the pile. For end bearing piles passing through relatively compressible strata, the spacing of piles shall not be less than 2.5d.

For end bearing piles passing through compressible strata and resting in stiff clay, the spacing may be increased to 3.5d. For
compaction piles, the spacing may be Id. Typical arrangements of

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

10
piles in groups are shown in Fig.

Negative Skin Friction

Pile installed through compressive soils can experience “down drag” forces or negative resistance along the shaft, which results from
downward movement (settlement) of adjacent soil. Negative resistance results primarily from consolidation of soft deposits caused
by dewatering or fill placement.

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

10
Negative skin friction (NSF) is in fact a downward friction imposed on foundation piles as a result of subsoil settlement. It needs only
few millimeters of relative displacement between the settling subsoil and the pile shaft surface, which is not uncommon to have
relative displacement at the pile-soil interface more than these values in normal subsoil settlement problem, to fully mobilize the
shaft resistance in either upward or downward directions.

There are five probable, but not limited to, reasons of existence of NSF, namely,

Self-weight of unconsolidated recent fill,

Surcharge-induced consolidation settlement,

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

10
Consolidation settlement after dissipation of excess pore pressure induced by pile driving,

Lowering of groundwater level,

Collapse settlements due to wetting of unsaturated fill, and

Crushing of crushable subsoil under sustained loading, causing subsoil settlement

For individual piles the magnitude of negative friction Qnf may be taken as followsFor cohesive soils =Qnf = p.c.Lf

For granular soils = ½ Lf2.p.r.K.f

P perimeter of the pile. r- unit weighto C cohesion

K earth pressure

F-coefficient of friction.

When the fill starts consolidating under its own overburden pressure, it develops a drag on the surface of the pile. This drag on the
surface of the pile is called 'negative friction'. Negative friction may develop if the fill material is loose cohesion less soil. Negative
friction can also occur when fill is placed over peat or a soft clay stratum as shown in Fig.C.

The superimposed loading on such compressible stratum causes heavy settlement of the fill with consequent drag on piles.

Negative friction may develop by lowering the ground water which increases the effectivestress causing consolidation of the soil with
resultant settlement and friction forces being developed on the pile.

Negative friction must be allowed when considering the factor of safety on the ultimate carryingcapacity of a pile. The factor of safety,
Fs, where negative friction is likely to occur may be written as

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

10
(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

10
(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

10
Problem 1

A group of 9 piles arranged in a square pattern with diameter and length of each pile as 25cm and 10m respectively, is
used as a foundation in soft clay deposit. The unconfined compressive strength of clay as 120kN/m2 and the pile spacing as
100cm c/c. Find the load capacity of the group. Assume the bearing capacity factor as (Nc) 9 and adhesion factor (m)
=0.75. Factor of safety of 3.5 may be taken.

Solution

Formula used: Qup= Ap r p + As rf

Pile acting individually,C=120/2 =60kN/m2

Ap= 𝝅𝒅𝟐/𝟒 =0.049m2 rp=c Nc = 60 X 9

As = 𝝅𝒅𝒍

rf = m c

Qup = 380 kN

Load capacity of 9 piles = 9X 380 = 3419kN

Pile acting on a group,

B= 2s +d = 2.25m

Ap= B2 = (2.25X 2.25) m2rp= 9 c = 60 X 9

As = 4B l= 4X 2.25X 10

rf = c = 60 kN/m2 a
(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

10
Qug = 8133kN

Minimum of Qup and Qug is Qn min= 3419 kN

= 3419 /23.5 = 1367kN

Q = 𝐐𝐮 𝐦𝐢𝐧 a
𝑭

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

11
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

A group of 16 piles of 600mm diameter is arranged in a square pattern with the c/c spacing of 1.2m. The piles are 10m long
and are embedded in soft clay with cohesion of 30kN/m2. Bearing resistance may be neglected for the piles. Adhesion
factor is 0.6. Determine the Ultimateload capacity of the pile group.

Solution:

Neglecting the bearing resistance, Qup= As rf

Pile acting individually,

Qun = n Qup= n(As rf)

As = 𝝅𝒅𝒍 = 𝝅𝑿 𝟎. 𝟔 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 = 18.84 m2 rf = m .C = 0.6 X 30 = 18 kN/m2 Qun

= 16(18.84 X 18) = 5428.7 kN

2. Pile acting on a group,

B = 2 X 1.2 + 0.6 = 4.2 m.

Qug= Asg rf

Asg = 4 X B L = 4X 4.2 X 10 = 16.8 m2

rf = c = 30 kN/m2Qug= Asg rf

= 16.8 X 30

= 5040 kN

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

11
MODULE-IV

The art of selecting, designing, and constructing the elements that transfer the weight (Weight may also include horizontal loads in
addition to vertical loads) of a structure to the underlying soil or rock. A foundation is interfacing element between the superstructure
and theunderlying soil or rock. The loads transmitted by the foundation to the underling soil must not cause soil shear failure or
damaging settlement of the superstructure.

The term “foundation engineering” is used to include the design of foundations for buildings and other structures and also for such
non foundation problems as designs of retaining walls, bulkheads, cofferdams, tunnels, and earth dams, as well as the design of
natural slopes, dewatering of soils, and stabilization of soils mechanically and chemically.

The geotechnical engineer is responsible for all geotechnical requirements of all types of structures. For any construction project, the
geotechnical engineer‟s responsibilities include:

developing a soil exploration plan;

preparing the Preliminary Geotechnical Report (PGR) to assist in the selection offoundation type and to perform a
preliminary seismic analysis/evaluation;

identifying the proposed boring locations and anticipated foundation type;

Assisting the Construction engineers by preparing pile driving criteria, reviewing pileinstallation plans and determining
acceptance of as-built piles.

Also assisting bridge designer in determining pile production lengths based on fieldload tests.

PROPERTIES OF FOUNDATION

Strength: Load bearing capacities: Crystalline rocks (very strong - 12,000 ), sedimentary rocks (intermediate - 6,000 ) and
other types of soils (relatively lower -2,000 to 3,000 )

Stable under loads (creep, shrinkage and swelling)

Drainage characteristics: Porosity and permeability

Soil property estimation: Subsurface exploration (test pits - less than 8 ft in depth; borings - greater than 8 ft) - Estimate
level of water table - Testing of soil samplein laboratory for various properties: Particle size distribution, Liquid limit, Plastic
limit, Watercontent, Permeability, Shrinkage/ swelling, Shear/compressive strength, Consolidation (creep and settlement)

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

11
CONSTRUCTION OF FOUNDATIONS

Some amount of excavation required for every building - Top soil consisting of organicmatter is removed - Below the
region of soil erosion (by water and wind) & below the level of permafrost - To the required depth at which the bearing
capacity necessary for the building is met - A variety of machines used for excavation - The sides of excavation too be
protected from caving in by benching, sheeting (soldier beams and lagging, sheet piles, slurry walls, etc.) or bracing (cross-
slot, rakers or tiebacks) - De- watering using well-points & sumps, and watertight barriers - Mixing the soil by rotating
paddles

Bulldozers, Shovel dozers, Back hoes ,Bucket loaders, Scrapers, Trenching machinesPower shovels, Tractor-mounted
rippers, Pneumatic hammers, Drop balls, Hydraulicsplitters and Blasting.

Purpose of Foundation:

All engineering structures are provided with foundations at the base to fulfill the followingobjectives and purposes;

To distribute the load of the structure over a large bearing area so as to bring intensityof loading within the safe bearing
capacity of the soil lying underneath.

To load the bearing surface at a uniform rate so as to prevent unequal settlement.

To prevent the lateral movement of the supporting material.

To secure a level and firm bed for building operations.

To increase the stability of the structure as a whole.

Factors Affecting the Depth of Foundation

For economic consideration, the depth at which the foundation is located (i.e. Df) is kept as small as possible. Typically it is in the
range of 0.5 to 1.5 m below the ground surface for buildings that do not have a basement. For those building having a basement, Df
can be 3.5m or more. In determining Df, the soil profile is carefully studied and the influence of the following factors accounted for.

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

11
Presence of Loose Fill

Often one encounters pockets of loose fill of recently dumped soil or construction waste at or near the ground surface. Foundations
should be placed below such loose fills.

Depth of Water Table

Wherein possible, shallow foundations are not placed below the ground water level to avoid expensive de-watering costs during
foundation construction.

Lateral Variability

Usually all foundations are placed at the same Df. there are soil profiles that calls for a different Dffor different footings. For example,
consider a profile in which rock exist at shallow depth and is gently sloping in some direction. In an attempt to take advantage of the
high allowable soil pressure associated with placing the foundation on rock, we will have a different Df for each footings so that each
can be placed on the rock.

Zones of Volume Change

In cold regions where temperature changes cause soil near the ground surface to go through cycles of freezing and thawing with
consequent changes in soil volume, foundation are placed below the zone so affected.Similarly in swelling soils, there is a zone that
undergoes volume change due to wetting and drying cycles. Df is selected such that it is more than the thickness of this zone.

Scour

When shallow foundations are designed to be placed below the river bed for river crossing structures, one must recognize that the
elevation of the river bed changes on account of scour that occurs when the water flows at high velocity such as during floods.

Soil Exploration

The knowledge of subsoil conditions at a site is a prerequisite for safe and economical design of substructure elements. The field and
laboratory studies carried out for obtaining the necessary information about the surface and subsurface features of the proposed
area includingthe position of the ground water table, are termed as soil exploration or site investigation.

The primary objectives of soil exploration are

Determination of the nature of the deposits of soil.

Determination of the depth and thickness of the various soil strata and their extent inthe horizontal direction.

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

11
The location of ground water table (GWT).

Obtaining soil and rock samples from the various strata.

The determination of the engineering properties of the soil and rock strata that affectthe performance of the structure.

Determination of the in-situ properties by performing field tests.

Scope of Soil Investigation

The scope of a soils investigation depends on the type, size, and importance of the structure, the client, the engineer's familiarity
with the soils at the site, and local building codes. Structures that are sensitive to settlement such as machine foundations and high-
use buildings usually require a thorough soils investigation compared to a foundation for a house. A client may wish to take a greater
risk than normal to save money and set limits on the type and extentof the site investigation. If the geotechnical engineer is familiar
with a site, he/she may undertake a very simple soils investigation to confirm his/her experience. Some local building codes have
provisions that set out the extent of a site investigation. It is mandatory that a visit be made to the proposed site.In the early stages of
a project, the available information is often inadequate to allow a detailed plan to be made.

A site investigation must be developed in phases.

Phases of a Soils Investigation : The soil investigation is conducted in phases. Each preceding phase affects the extent of the next
phase. The various phases of a soil investigation are given below:

Phase I. Collection of available information such as a site plan, type, size, and importance of the structure, loading conditions,
previous geotechnical reports, topographic maps, air photographs, geologic maps, hydrological information and newspaper clippings.

Phase II. Preliminary reconnaissance or a site visit to provide a general picture of the topography and geology of the site. It is
necessary that you take with you on the site visit all the information gathered in Phase I to compare with the current conditions of
the site. Here visual inspection is done to gather information on topography, soil stratification, vegetation,

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

11
water marks, ground water level, and type of construction nearby.

Phase III. Detailed soils exploration. Here we make a detailed planning for soil exploration in the form trial pits or borings, their
spacing and depth. Accordingly, the soil exploration is carried out. The details of the soils encountered, the type of field tests adopted
and the type of sampling done, presence of water table if met with are recorded in the form of bore log. The soil samples are properly
labeled and sent to laboratory for evaluation of their physical and engineering properties.

Phase IV. Write a report. The report must contain a clear description of the soils at the site, methods of exploration, soil profile, test
methods and results, and the location of the groundwater. This should include information and/or explanations of any unusual soil,
waterbearing stratum, and soil and groundwater condition that may be troublesome during construction.

Soil Exploration Methods

Trial pits or test pits

Boring

probes (in situ test) and geophysical methods

Specific recommendations are made by Indian standards regarding the type, extent and detailsof subsurface explorations and the
number, depth and spacing of boreholes for the following civil engineering works. Following is the list of various codes specified for
the said purpose: Foundations of Multi-storeyed Buildings (IS: 1892, 1979)

Earth and rockfill Dams (IS: 6955, 1973)Power House Sites (IS: 10060, 1981)

Canals and Cross Drainage Works (IS: 11385,1985) Ports and Harbours (IS: 4651 – Part 1,

1974)

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

11
The methods available for soil exploration may be classified as follows

Direct methods ... Test pits, trial pits or trenches

Semi-direct methods ... Borings

Indirect methods ... Soundings or penetration tests and geophysical methods

The direct method of soil exploration usually consists of sinking a borehole at a predetermined location to the required depth by a
method suitable for the site and to obtain fairly intact samples of soils from every stratum encountered or at suitably selected
depths. The samples obtained are utilized to get necessary information about the soil characteristics bymeans of laboratory tests.

During recent years, indirect methods of soil exploration have also been used for civil engineering structures. These methods include
various sounding and geophysical methods. In sounding methods, the variation in penetration resistance of sample or cone is utilized
to interpret some of the physical properties of the strata. In geophysical methods, the change in subsoil strata are identified by
measuring certain physical characteristics, e.g. electrical conductance, wave velocity of subsurface deposits. In addition to these
methods, projectiles, probes, and aerial photographs are also useful in interpreting the soil characteristics.

Trial pits or test pits

Applicable to all types of soils

Provide for visual examination in their natural condition

Disturbed and undisturbed soil samples can be conveniently obtained at differentdepths

Depth of investigation: limited to 3 to 3.5 m.

Advantages

Cost effective

Provide detailed information of stratigraphy

Large quantities of disturbed soils are available for testing

Large blocks of undisturbed samples can be carved out from the pits

Field tests can be conducted at the bottom of the pits

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

11
Disadvantages

Depth limited to about 6m

Deep pits uneconomical

Excavation below groundwater and into rock difficult and costly iv)Too many pits may scar site and require backfill soils.

Limitations

Undisturbed sampling is difficult ii) Collapse in granular soils or below ground water table

Semi Direct Methods –Boring

Boring: Making or drilling bore holes into the ground with a view to obtaining soil or rocksamples from specified or known depths is
called „boring‟

The common methods of advancing bore holes are: Auger boring, Wash boring, rotary boringand Percussion boring.

Exploratory borings

Boring is carried out in the relatively soft and uncemented ground (engineering „soil‟) which isnormally found close to ground surface.
The techniques used vary widely across the world.

Location, spacing and depth of borings

It depends on: i) Type of structure ii) Size of the structure iii) Weight coming from the

General guidelines for location and depth of bore holes Boreholes are generally located atThe building corners The centre of the site

Where heavily loaded columns or machinery pads are proposed.

At least one boring should be taken to a deeper stratum, probably up to the bedrock ifpracticable other borings may be
(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))
taken at least to significant stress level.
11
Spacing of Bore Holes – Codal Recommendations

According to IS 1892 (1979) Code of practice for subsurface investigation:

For a small building one bore hole or test pit at the centre can give necessary data

For a building covering not more than 4000 sq.m, one bore hole or test pit at each corner and one at centre is adequate.

For a large project, the number will depend on its geological features and variation of strata. Generally a grid of 50 m
spacing should be used with a combination of bore holes and sounding tests.

Depth of Investigation

The depth of investigation depends on the size and type of proposed structure Sequence of proposed strata.

The depths of boreholes should cover the zone of soil that will be affected by the structural loads. There is no fixed rule to follow. In
most cases, the depths of boreholes are governed by experience based on the geological character of the ground, the importance of
the structure, thestructural loads, and the availability of equipment

Guidelines for depth of investigation:

At least one boring should be taken to deeper stratum, probably up to the bedrock ifpracticable.

Borings should penetrate at least 3 m into rock.

Other borings may be taken at least to significant stress level.

In compressible soils such as clays, the borings should penetrate at least between I and 3 times the width of the proposed
foundation or until the stress increment due to the heaviest foundation load is less than 10%, whichever is greater.

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

11
In very stiff clays, borings should penetrate 5-7 m to prove that the thickness of the stratumis adequate.

Borings must penetrate below any fills or very soft deposits below the proposed structure.

The minimum depth of boreholes should be 6 m unless bedrock or very dense material isencountered.

Significant depth The investigation shall be carried out to the point at which the vertical stressdue to proposed structure is equal to or
less than 10% of original effective stress at the point before the structure is constructed – significant depth

Methods of borings i) Auger boring – preferred for shallow depths , low ground water table

Wash boring: high water table, deeper soil deposit iii) Rotary drilling: high quality boring,also for rock drilling iv)
Percussion drilling: fast drilling, not taking samples, gravel

Auger boring:-Augers are used in cohesive and other soft soils above water table. They may either be operated manually or
mechanically. Hands augers are used up to a depth up to 6 m. mechanically operated augers are used for greater depths and they can
also be used in gravelly soils. Augers are of two types: (a) spiral auger and (b) post-hole auger.

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

12
Hand Augers Sand pump

Samples recovered from the soil brought up by the augers are badly disturbed and are useful for identification purposes only. Auger
boring is fairly satisfactory bore explorations at shallow depths and for exploratory borrow pits.

Auger and shell boring:- cylindrical augers and shells with cutting edge or teeth at lower end can be used for making deep borings.
Hand operated rigs are used for depths up to 25 m and mechanized rigs up to 50 m. Augers are suitable for soft to stiff clays, shells for
very stiff and hard clays, and shells or sand pumps for sandy soils. Small boulders, thin soft strata or rock or cemented gravel can be
broken by chisel bits attached to drill rods. The hole usually requires a casing.

Wash boring:-Wash boring is a fast and simple method for advancing holes in all types of soils. Boulders and rock cannot be
penetrated by this method. The method consists of first driving a casing through which a hollow drilled rod with a sharp chisel or
chopping bit at the lower end is inserted. Water is forced under pressure through the drill rod which is alternativety raised and
dropped, and also rotated. The resulting chopping and jetting action of the bit and water disintegrates the soil. The cuttings are
forced up to the ground surface in the form of soil-water

slurry through the annular space between the drill rod and the casing. The change in soil

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

12
stratification could be guessed from the rate of progress and colour of wash water. The samples recovered from the wash water are
almost valueless for interpreting the correct geo-technical properties of soil.

Percussion drilling:-In this method, soil and rock formations are broken by repeated blows of heavy chiesel or bit suspended by a
cable or drill rod. Water is added to the hole during boring, ifnot already present and the slurry of pulverised material is bailed out at
intervals. The method is suitable for advancing a hole in all types of solis, boulders and rock. The formations, however, get disturbed
by the impact.

Rotary boring:- Rotary boring or rotary drilling is a very fast method of advancing hole in both rocks and soils. A drill bit, fixed to the
lower end of the drill rods, is rotated by a suitable chuck, and is always kept in firm contact with the bottom of the hole. A drilling
mud, usually a water solution of bentonite, with or without other admixtures, is continuously forced down to the hollow drill rods.
The mud returning upwards brings the cuttings to the surface. The method is also known as mud rotary drilling and the hole usually
requires no casing.

Rotary core barrels, provided with commercial diamond-studded bits or a steel bit with shots, arealso used for rotary drilling and
simultaneously obtaining the rock cores or samples. The method is them also known as core boring or core drilling. Water 15
circulated down drill rods during boring.

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

12
Wash boring

Soil Samples and samplers.

Types of Samples

Samples of soil taken out of natural deposits for testing may be classified as:

Disturbed sample

Undisturbed sample

A disturbed sample is that in which the natural structure of the soil gets modified partly or fully during sampling and an undisturbed
sample is that in which the natural structure and other physical properties remain preserved.

Disturbed but representative samples can generally be used for v Grain-size analysis v Determination of liquid and plastic limits,
Specific gravity of soil solids, Organic content determination and Soil classification

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

12
Undisturbed samples must be used for -- Consolidation test, Hydraulic conductivity test and Shear strength test

There is an increasing variety of plant, sampling methods and tools, with particular advantages incost, quality of sampling, speed of
operation, use in conditions of limited access or headroom, etc., and the choice of rig is affected by the likely soil conditions to
be encountered. Spacing of Borings

Type of project Spacing (m)

Multistory buildings 10 – 30

One-story industrial plants 20 – 60

Highways 250 – 500

Residential subdivision 250 – 500

Dams and dikes 40 – 80

Soil Sampling

Need for sampling: -Sampling is carried out in order that soil and rock description, and laboratory testing can be carried out.

Laboratory tests typically consist of:

Index tests (for example, specific gravity, water content)

Classification of tests (for example, Atterberg limit tests on clays); and

Tests to determine compressibility, and permeability.

Factors to be considered while sampling soil

Samples should be representative of the ground from which they are taken.
(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))
ii) They should be large enough t and fissuring and fracturing.
12
iii) They should be taken in such a way that they have not lost fractions of the situ soil(for compressibility disturbance as
possible.

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

12
Type of soil samples
Non-Representative samples:-Non-Representative soil samples are those in which neither thein-situ soil structure, moisture content
nor the soil particles are preserved.

They are not representative

They cannot be used for any tests as the soil particles either gets mixed up or some particlesmay be lost.

e.g., Samples that are obtained through wash boring or percussion drilling.

Disturbed soil samples:- Disturbed soil samples are those in which the in-situ soil structure and moisture content are lost, but the soil
particles are intact.

They are representative

They can be used for grain size analysis, liquid and plastic limit, specific gravity, compaction tests, moisture content,
organic content determination and soil classification test performed in thelab

e.g., obtained through cuttings while auguring, grab, split spoon (SPT), etc.

Undisturbed soil samples:-Undisturbed soil samples are those in which the in-situ soilstructure and moisture content are preserved.

They are representative and also intact

These are used for consolidation, permeability or shear strengths test (Engineering properties) •More complex jobs or
where clay exist

In sand is very difficult to obtain undisturbed sample

Obtained by using Shelby tube (thin wall), piston sampler, surface (box), vacuum, freezing,etc.,

Design Features affecting the sample disturbance

Area ratio

Inside Clearance

Outside Clearance
(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

12
Recovery Ratio

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

12
Inside wall friction

Design of non-return value

Method of applying force

sizes of sampling tubes

𝑫𝒔−𝑫𝒄 𝑿𝟏𝟎𝟎 %
Inside clearance ratio Ci =
𝑫𝒄

The soil is under great stress as it enters the sampler and has a tendency to laterally expand.

The inside clearance should be large enough to allow a part of lateral expansion to take place, butit should not be so large that it
permits excessive deformations and causes disturbances of the sample.

For good sampling process, the inside clearance ratio should be within 0.5 to 3 %.

For sands silts and clays, the ratio should be 0.5 % and for stiff and hard clays (below water table), it should be 1.5 %.

For stiff expansive type of clays, it should be 3.0 %.

𝟐 𝟐

𝑫 −𝑫 𝒄
Area ratio Ar = X 100% 𝑫𝟐

−𝑫𝒓
Outside clearance ratio Co =𝑫𝒘
𝑫𝒓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎%

For good sampling process, the ratio should be within 0-2 %. Minimum inside diameter = =75mm.

The length (L) should be at least equal to (the intended length + 100mm) for residual soils.

The tube should be uniform and should not have any protrusions or irregularities. The inside ofthe tube should be clean and smooth.

Recovery ratio R =𝑳 𝑿𝟏𝟎𝟎

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

12
Where, L is the length of the sample within the tube, H is the depth of penetration of the sampling tube. It represents the
disturbance of the soil sample. For good sampling the recovery ratio should be 96 to 98 %. Wall friction can be reduced by suitable
inside clearance, smooth finish and oiling. The non-returned wall should have large orifice to allow air and water to escape

Inside wall friction

The friction on the inside wall of the sampling tube causes disturbances of the sample.

Therefore the inside surface of the sampler should be as smooth as possible.

It is usually smeared with oil before use to reduce friction.

Design of non-return value

The non – return value provided on the sampler should be of proper design.

It should have an orifice of large area to allow air, water or slurry to escape quickly whenthe sampler is driven.

It should close when the sample is withdrawn.

Method of applying force

The degree of disturbance depends upon the method of applying force during sampling anddepends upon the rate of penetration of
the sample.

For obtaining undisturbed samples, the sampler should be pushed and not drivenRequirement of good sampling process

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

12
Penetration Tests

These tests involve the measurement of the resistance to penetration of a sampling spoon, a cone or other shaped tools under
dynamic or static loadings. The resistance is empirically correlated with some of the engineering properties of soil as density index,
consistency, bearing capacity, etc., These tests are useful for general exploration of erratic soil profiles, for finding depth to bedrock
or hard stratum, and to have an approximate indication of the strength and other properties of soils, particularly the cohesionless
soils, from which it is difficult to obtain undisturbed samples. The two commonly used tests are the standard penetration test and the
cone penetration test.

Standard Penetration Test

Test is performed in a clean hole,55 OD to 150 IDmm in diameter

A thick all split tube sampler,50.8 mm and 35 mm is driven into the undistributed soil atthe bottom of the hole

A 65kgdrive weight with 75cm free fall is used to drive the sampler

The sampler is first driven through 15cm as a seating drive

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

13
It is further driven through 3cm

The number of blows required to drive the sampler 30cm beyond the seating drive istermed as penetration resistance N.

In very fine silty saturated sand an apparent increase in resistance occurs

For overburden pressure on the value of N(Terzaghi and Peck)No = 15+ 1 (N-15)
2

For air-dry or moist sand, No =N 50 

1.42𝜎 ′+10

Where,Ne= corrected value for overburden effectN= actual value of blows

𝜎′=effective overburden pressure in t/m2 (not to exceed 28.2 t/m2)Meyerhoff∅= 25 + 0.15 ID fines greater than 5 %

Ф= 20 + 0.15 ID fines less than 5 %

Dutch Cone Test

Test is used for getting a continuous record of the resistance of soil by penetratingsteadily under static pressure

A cone with a base of 10cm2 and an angle of 60 ºat the vertex

The cone is carried at the lower end of a steel driving rod

To know the cone resistance,the cone alone is first forced down upto 8cm and resistanceis recorded

The steel tube is then pushed down upto the cone,and both together are furher penetrated upto 20cm

Cone test is useful in determaining the bearing capacity of pits in

cohesionlesssoils,particularly fine sands

The cone resistance(kg/cm2) is approximately equal to 10 times the penetration resistanceN

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

13
Soil investigation is required for the following purposes –

To know the allowable bearing capacity of foundation for proposed building.

To know the depth and type of foundation for the proposed building.

To know the allowable passive resistance for the foundation of proposed building.

To know the type, grading and nature of soil.

To know the ground water level.

Methods of soil investigation

The common methods of soil investigation are –

Inspection

Test pits

Probing, and

Boring.

Inspection: In some places you don't have to investigate much. You'll get enough data to design the foundation of the proposed
building by just inspecting the plot. This method of soil investigation includes know the geological condition of the plot, getting data
about neighbor buildings, their foundation type and depth, etc.

Test pits: This is done to collect soil samples for detail analysis. In this method several pits are dug by hand or excavator. The depth of
pit is below 5 feet so that one can have visual inspection.Several samples are collected from the pit of both disturbed and undisturbed
soil.

Probing: In this method a 25 mm or 40 mm diameter steel bar is driven into the ground till solid soil strata is found. It is normally
driven by hammer. The penetration and withdrawal of the steel rod is closely observed to know the nature of soil layer.

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

13
Boring: In this method several bore holes are made for the purpose of collecting soil sample from below the ground. Then the
collected sample is analyzed for preparing the soil report

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

13
Typical steps of soil investigation

Soil investigation involves following steps -

Details planning for the sequence of operations

Collecting the samples of soil from the plot.

Determining the soil characteristics by conducting field tests.

Study the condition of ground water level.

Collecting ground water sample for chemical analysis.

Soil exploration.

Testing all collected samples in the laboratory.

Analysis the test results.

Preparing report.

A recommended procedure is as follows:

Collect data, categorize it and rough out a preliminary draft.

Edit the draft and seek methods of visual presentation and tabulation.

Polish re-draft and check for improvements in presentation check for typing errors andappearance.

Factors affecting quality of report.

There are other factors which can affect the quality of the investigation, recommendations andthe engineering judgment. Among
those which may affect some engineers are:

Uncritical acceptance of well-presented opinion, results of sophisticated (but not necessarilyrelevant) tests and over- and
unqualified respect for some specialists.

Allowing site difficulties to dictate the investigation in an attempt to keep the investigationsimple and cheap.
(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

13
Lack of recognition that piling and other foundation techniques can be used to economicadvantage even on good sites.

Lack of recognition that some fills, possibly upgraded by ground improvement techniques,can provide an adequate and
economic bearing strata.

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

13
Lack of appreciation that advances in structural design can accommodate relatively highsettlements.

Under-estimation of the importance of the designer, at least, visiting the site during theinvestigation or dismissal of trial
pits as unscientific or out-dated.

Sequence of report

Foundation reports follow the normal sequence of items of engineering reports in having a title, contents list, and synopsis, and
introduction, body of the report, conclusions and recommendations. Lengthy descriptions of tests and similar matters are best dealt
with in appendices and the test results tabulated in the body of the report. The client tends to read the synopsis and
recommendations; the main and sub-contractors concentrate on the body of the report and the design office on its conclusions and
recommendations.

Site description

This, as far as possible, should be given on small-scale plans showing site location, access and surrounding area. The proposed
position of the buildings and access roads should be shown. The site plan should also show the general layout and surface features,
note presence of existing buildings, old foundations and previous usage, services, vegetation, surface water, any subsidence or
unstable slopes, etc.

Written description of the site exposure (for wind speed regulations) should be given together with records of any flooding, erosion
and other geographical and hydrographic information.

Geological maps and sections should, when they are necessary, be provided, noting mines, shafts, quarries, swallow holes and other
geological features affecting design and construction.

Photographs taken on the site, preferably color ones, can be very helpful and should be supplemented by aerial photographs if
considered necessary.

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

13
The ground investigation

Background study and location of holes. This should give a full account of the desk-top study, examination of old records,
information from local authorities, public utilities and the like, and the field survey. It should detail the position and depth
of trial pits and boreholes, equipment used and in situ testing and information.

Boreholes, trial pits and soil profiles. This section will be mainly a visual presentation of the logs and profiles together with
colour photographs of the trial pits.Where possible, written information should be given in note form on the soil profiles.

Soil tests. This should list the site and laboratory tests drawing attention to any unusual, unexpected or special results. The
results of the tests should be tabulated, for ease of reference, and diagrams of such information as particle size
distribution, pressure–void ratio curves and Mohr‟s circles should be given.

Results

This must give details of ground conditions, previous use of site, present conditions, groundwaterand drainage pattern

The tests must give adequate information to determine the soil‟s bearing capacity, settlement characteristics, behavior during and
after foundation construction and, where necessary, its chemical make-up and condition

Recommendations This is both comment on the facts and also opinions based on experience; the difference should be made clear.
Since the discussion is usually a major part of the report it should be broken down into sections for ease of reference
and readability. The final section should give firm recommendations on the foundation type or types to be adopted

Objectives of Site Investigation

To access the general suitability of the site.

To achieve safe and economical design of foundations and temporary works.

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

13
To know the nature of each stratum and engineering properties of the soil and rock, which may affect the design and
mode of construction of proposed structure and foundation.

To foresee and provide against difficulties that may arise during construction due to ground and other local conditions.

To find out the sources of construction material and selection of sites for disposal of water or surplus material.

To investigate the occurrence or causes of all natural and man made changes in conditions and the results arising from
such changes.

To ensure the safety of surrounding existing structures.

To design for the failed structures or remedial measures for the structures deemed to be unsafe.

To locate the ground water level and possible corrosive effect of soil and water on foundation material.

Methods of site exploration

The various types of site investigation are:

Open excavation, Boring, Subsurface Sounding and Geophysical MethodsGeophysical exploration

Geophysical exploration may be used with advantage to locate boundaries between different elements of the subsoil as these
procedures are based on the fact that the gravitational, magnetic, electrical, radioactive or elastic properties of the different elements
of the subsoil may be different. Differences in the gravitational, magnetic and radioactive properties of deposits near the surface of
the earth are seldom large enough to permit the use of these properties in exploration work for civil engineering projects. However,
the resistivity method based on the electrical properties and the seismic refraction methods based on the elastic properties of the
deposits have been used widely in large civil engineering projects. Different methods of geophysical explorations

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

13
Electrical resistivity method

Electrical resistivity method is based on the difference in the electrical conductivity or the electrical resistivity of different soils.
Resistivity is defined as resistance in ohms between the opposite phases of a unit cube of a material.

𝐑𝐀

𝛒=

𝜌 is resistivity in ohm-cm, R is resistance in ohms, A is the cross sectional area (cm 2), L islength of the conductor (cm).

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

13
Applications of resistivity soundings are:

Characterize subsurface hydrogeology, Determine depth to bedrock/overburden thickness, Determine depth to groundwater, Map
stratigraphy, clay aquitards, salt-water intrusion and vertical extent of certain types of soil and groundwater contamination .Estimate
landfill thickness

Resistivity profiling is used to:

Map faults, Map lateral extent of conductive contaminant plumes, Locate voids, Map heavy metals soil contamination ,Delineate
disposal areas ,Map paleochannels, Explore for sand and gravel ,Map archaeological sites

Seismic Method

Seismic refraction is a geophysical method used for investigating subsurface ground conditions utilizing surface-sourced seismic
waves. The methods depend on the fact that seismic waves have differing velocities in different types of soil (or rock): in addition,
the waves are refracted when they cross the boundary between different types (or conditions) of soil or rock. The methods enable
the general soil types and the approximate depth to strata boundaries, or to bedrock, to be determined.

Operation

Pulses of low frequency seismic energy are emitted by a seismic source such as a hammer-plate, weight drop or buffalo gun. The type
of source is dependent on local ground conditions and required depth penetration. Explosives are best for deeper applications but are
constrained by environmental regulations.

The seismic waves propagate downward through the ground until they are reflected or refracted off subsurface layers. Refracted
waves are detected by arrays of 24 or 48 geophones spaced at regular intervals of 1 - 10 metres, depending on the desired depth
penetration of the survey. Sources are positioned at each end of the geophone array to produce forward and reverse wave arrivals
along the array. Additional sources may be used at intermediate or off-line positions for full coverage at all geophone positions.

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

14
A geophone is a device that converts ground movement (velocity) into voltage, which may be recorded at a recording station. The
deviation of this measured voltage from the base line is called the seismic response and is analyzed for structure of the earth.

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

14
APPLICATIONS

Measures Bedrock Depth & Overburden Thickness

Determines Rip ability Parameters

Investigates Pipeline Routes

Locates Geological Structures

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

14
Evaluates Sand & Gravel Deposits

Defines Ancient Landfill Sites

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

14
Boring Log

During soil exploration all suitable details are recorded and presented in a boring log. Additionalinformation consisting mainly of lab
and field test result is added to complete the boring log.

Details of Boring Log

The ground conditions discovered in each borehole are summarised in the form of a bore log. The method of investigation and
details of the equipment used should be stated on each log. The location, ground level and diameter of the hole should be specified.
The names of the client and the project should be mentioned.

Other Details of Boring Log

The soil profile with elevations of different strata.

Ground water level.

Termination level of the bore hole.

The depth at which samples were taken or at which in-situ tests were performed.

The type of soil samples.

N-values at the measured elevation.

The results of important laboratory tests

Soil Exploration Report

At the end of the soil exploration program, the soil and rock samples, collected from the field aresubjected to visual observation and
laboratory tests. Then, a soil exploration report is prepared for use by the planning and design office. Any soil exploration report
should contain thefollowing information:

Scope of investigation

General description of the proposed structure for which the exploration has been conducted

Geological conditions of the site

Drainage facilities at the site

Details of boring
(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

14
Description of subsoil conditions as determined from the soil and rock samples collected

Ground water table as observed from the boreholes

Details of foundation recommendations and alternatives

Any anticipated construction problems

Limitations of the investigation

The following graphic presentations also need to be attached to the soil explorationreport:

Site location map

Location of borings with respect to the proposed structure

Boring logs

Laboratory test results

Other special presentations

The boring log is the graphic representation of the details gathered from each bore hol

(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

14
(𝑾 + 𝒆Sch𝟐 𝑷)/((𝑾 + 𝑷))

14