CHAPTER 16

ENGLISH

Doctoral Theses

01. HANGZO (Siamlianvung)

Absent Voices: A Study of the Representation of Women and Secular Themes
in Pre-Christian and Post-Christian Paite Narratives.
Supervisor: Prof. Raj Kumar
Th 27256

Abstract

This thesis seeks to investigate and construct a cogent delineation of the

positionalities of women and non-liturgical thematic posturing in the unexplored
literatures of the Paite tribe. The putative impressions of a permissive and
accommodative tribal worldview which also extends to its narratives belie the
gendered Faultline in folklore that is supplemented by thematic restrictions in its
print literature. The examination of select proverbs, folktales, folksongs and the
historiography of non-liturgical writings within the praxis of feminist, literary
anthropology and postcolonial discourses studies the nuances of the socio-cultural
constraints which both women and creative literary expressions encounter. The
existing academic inquiries attempted so far construct a notion of empowered
womanhood and emphasise the profitable nature of Western scholasticism to
bolster their estimations of the unique ethnic identity of the Paite. Oral narrativity
reveals the anxieties of gendered power imbalance in the apparently liberal
indigenous Paite society. Women-centric proverbs confirm the dogmatic adherence
to institutionalised frameworks of morality and social conduct. The scant number
of folksongs by women similarly amplify their unrepresented status. Folktales as
fantastical fictional expressions only reiterate the improbable replication of the
agency of women in real life. Their marginality continues in a post-evangelised
society where education only equips them with economic progress. The
internalisation of their subjugation is nurtured by inheriting socio-cultural
strictures and embracing the feminine piety of their new faith. Paite writing which
is synonymous with male writing also exhibits a lacuna of thematic pluralities. The
monochromatic scriptural themes that dominate Paite print literature attest to the
hegemonic and homogenising influence of Christianity. The popular genre of socio
political commentaries obfuscates the feeble attempts at fiction writing. The
contestation of contemporary positionalities, let alone create new narratives,
therefore becomes a challenge for both men and women.

Contents

1. Locating the feminine in paite paunak (proverbs) 2. Gendered echoes in the

paite soundscape 3. Women in paite folktales: strategies of agency in myth and
lore 4. From the oral to print: interrogating liminalities and marginalities.
Conclusion. Bibliography.
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02. KANOUJIA (Siddharth Narayan)

Dalit Autobiographies: Self- Narratives as Historiography.
Supervisor: Prof. Raj Kumar
Th 26644

Abstract

This qualitative exploratory research involves a detailed study of the

autobiographies of contemporary Hindi Dalit writers from North India. This
researcher aims to understand how these autobiographies bring out the pain and
suffering of the Dalit existence and how these individual expressions of suffering,
struggle, and triumph in each case become the representation of the experience of
their community. This study also undertakes to examine how this experience can
be translated into a historical record of the predicament of the downtrodden. I have
also examined how these autobiographies can be seen as autotelic histories, as
social documentation, and as a storehouse of information on the life of an
individual and his caste community and its place in Hindu society. I have tried to
look at how these autobiographies incorporate the urge of these authors to leave
behind an exemplary record of their conditions and those of their community for
the benefit of posterity.

Contents

1. The need for dalit history 2. The lack of dalit histories 3. The social history of
dalits 4. The economic history of dalits. Conclusion. Works cited

03. KAPOOR (Himani)

Gurudom: Language, Modernity and Charisma.
Supervisor: Prof. Ira Raja
Th 26648

Abstract

This thesis analyses contemporary religion in the public sphere through a study of
two transnational yoga groups led by anglophone gurus, Sri Sri Ravi Shankar, of
Art of Living Foundation (AOL), and Jaggi Vasudev, of Isha Foundation (IF). It
primarily explores the relationship between the print materials circulated by Guru-
led faith organizations for a religiously or spiritually motivated anglophone public
and their socio-political context, especially with respect to modernity,
mediatization, and individualism. The term gurudom, as a “realm” of the modern
guru, is not only associated with the power that is traditionally ascribed to
thefigure of the guru, but also the networks of capital, publicity, geography, and
scale. Chapter I discusses the emergence of the transnational anglophone yoga
guru in the context of guru devotionalism in India. Chapter II introduces the two
gurus in detail, and critically examines their promotional brochures. Through a
close study of biographies and devotee memoirs, Chapter III discusses the genre of
“guruography” as proposed by Stephen Jacobs, and identifies the various common
features that are found in the biographies and memoirs of Sri Sri Ravi Shankar
and Jaggi Vasudev. The project also draws on Srinivas Aravamudan’s work on
“guru English” to study the language used by gurus to communicate with their
audiences. Based on a study of the magazines Rishimukh and Forest Flower
published by AOL and IF respectively, Chapter IV examines guru language to gain
an understanding of how guru-speak works at the intersection of consumer-
culture, modernity and the desire for happiness and wellbeing. Finally, Chapter V
uses illustrations from the various books, lectures, and talks published by AOL
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and IF to explore the theme of self-growth and perfectionism in guru literature,

and expands on Evgeny Morozov’s concept of technological solutionism in the
context of guru-devotionalism. Through a fluid ideology, modern gurus are often
able to adapt to the changing demands of a rapidly growing, and upwardly mobile
middle-class audience.

Contents

1. Guru devotionalism in India 2. Art of living foundation and isha foundation: an

introduction 3. The guru persona: charisma, authority and the guruography 4.
Modernity, religion and the language of gurus 5. Guru-discourses and self-
actualization. Conclusion. Works cited.

04. LUTHRA (Neelima)

Cultural Politics, Gender and Aesthetics: A Study of Mirabai’s Poetry in
Translation.
Supervisor: Prof. Anil Aneja
Th 27255

Abstract

The thesis “Cultural Politics, Gender and Aesthetics: A Study of Mirabai’s Poetry in
Translation” is a reading of Mirabai’s padavaliin Marwari and Braj Bhasha
translated in English. The first chapter commences with a critical inquiry of
primary texts of Mira’s poetry drawn from oral and written sources. The Dakor
manuscript and subsequent editions of Mira’s poetry are examined. Hagiographical
and biographical details of her life story are compared to reach to decisive
conclusions about her dates. The second chapter examines the varieties of
English/es used in a postcolonial context in translations of Mirabai’s poetry.
Theories of language are discussed to understand hybridity, hinglification,
Americanization and resistance of Victorian English. The third chapter evaluates
the meaning of sacred and bhakti in the context of Indological readings. The
chapter underlines the use of erotic in select translations of Mirabai and how they
limit the ideas of sringara rasa, madhurya bhava and viraha. The fourth chapter is
about gender the limited ways Mira has been contained in the moulds of kulnasi or
destroyer of family honour and sadasuhagin or eternally wedded. She resists
patriarchy by subverting these stereotypes. Her love poetry is written from a female
perspective and questions the genre. The fifth chapter is on Mirabai’s poems that
belong to the margins as they are not traditionally seen as canonical. They appeal
to the populace and to the working classes. There are also poems addressed to the
Rana and Jogi that constitute a genre by itself that belong to revolutionary
aesthetics. The sixth chapter is about the adaptation and polysemiotic translation
of Mirabai’s poetry into music. The singing of her poems as bhajans is examined
using Parita Mukta’s field survey of the Bhajaniks. The cultural industry and its
exploitation of Mira’s poetry for commercial purposes that limits her aesthetics, is
analysed.

Contents

1. Marga and desi traditions: search for the “Original” Mirabai 2. Translating
mirabai into English/es 3. Sacred literature: bhakti, Mirabai and the translation
industry 4. Women saint poets: the gender guestion in mirabai 5. Mirabai:
revolutionary poetics & aesthetics 6. Orality and performance: padavali in musical
rendition. Conclusion. Works cited.
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05. MADAN (Ritu)

Gender, Sexuality and Spatiality: Representing Migrant Women from Punjab
in Post-Partition Delhi.
Supervisor: Prof. Anjana Sharma
Th 26646

Abstract

This thesis identifies and addresses a gap in scholarship about the Punjab
Partition that pertains to migrant women’s occupation of the city of Delhi. It takes
into account research on alternative historiographies of Partition, on histories of
women’s participation in cities, as well as the varied theoretical frameworks for
imagining spatiality in general and specifically the spatialities of north-Indian cities
in the first half of the twentieth century. Within this consideration of existing
research, it locates refugee women and formulates questions about their
relationship to urbanity, their labour and their representation. The thesis engages
in a close reading of select writing, comprising Yashpal’s novel This is Not That
Dawn, Anis Kidwai’s memoir In Freedom’s Shade, and two short stories,
Jyotirmoyee Devi’s “That Little Boy” and Suraiya Qasim’s “Where Did She Belong?”,
to see how these writers, within the specific framework of their genres, map post-
Partition Delhi, as the space of modernity, improvement and progress, or as an
assemblage of possibilities claimed through walking, travelling and occupying
spaces, or as an intersection of many peoples and cities separated not by historical
but social distance. These different ways of imagining the city allow for different
imaginaries of women’s place as well as violence. The enquiry is turned towards
relations of the urban as they change with the Partition and yet exist
independently as foundational to the ways communities are constituted.
Simultaneously, the materiality of geographical and architectural spaces as well as
of women’s movement and appropriation is brought into focus. The thesis extends
the understanding of the ways in which women’s belonging and citizenship are
transacted in everyday geographical spaces like homes and cities and the centrality
of women’s sexuality in the gendered representation and construction of these
spaces.

Contents

1. Introduction – Gendered migration: formulating new questions 2. From refugee

to citizen: shaping normative urban femininity in yashpal’s this in not that dawn 3.
Everyday violence and resistance in the city : mapping the intertwined urban
journey of the social worker and refugee women in anis kidwai’s memoir in
freedom’s shade 4.Marginal migrants and alternative cities: exploring the limits of
refugee discourse in jyotirmoyee devi’s “that little boy” and suraiya qasim’s “where
did she belong 5. Cnclusion. Works cited

06. MAITI (Soumava)

Romantic Maladies: Disease, Observation and Medical Explorations.
Supervisor: Prof. Anjana Sharma
Th 26654
Abstract

The period of transition from the nebulous Dalit socio-political movements in Hindi
regions to the emergence of modern Hindi Dalit literature as an autonomous.
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Contents

1. Introduction: Rise of exploratory science, planetarity and alternative medical

historiography in romantic age 2. Diseases of motion and romantic memory:
scurvy nostalgia and Coleridge 3. Late eighteenth –century yellow fever literature
and William wordsworth 4. Marked affiction’ : smallpox, rustic observation and
romantic vaccination in Edward jenner, Robert bloomfield and Robert Southey 5.
Transported into Asiatic scenes’: climate and indian cholera literature; de quince
and the autobiography of exploratory medicine 6. Empire, epidemic, and medical
epistemology: plague and oriental anxiety in mary shelley’s the last man 7.
Conclusion: medical anthropology, biological worldism and exploratory medicine.
Bibliography.

07. NANDA (Shaweta)

Re- Creating the Self: Representations of Black Female Body in Black Women
Artists Visual Arena.
Supervisors: Prof. Subarno Chattarji and Tapan Basu
Th 26652

Abstract

My engagement with black studies began with an optional undergraduate course

on nineteenth and twentieth-century women’s writings. The fact that black women
writers have truly shaken the Eurocentric male canon can be ascertained from the
fact that the same course, whose curriculum included the works of two African
American women writers, has now been listed as a compulsory course for the
student of the English discipline in University of Delhi. Later, the course Literature
and the visual arts in Europe in my masters programme introduced me to the ides
of text as not being limited to words on a page. It enabled me to explore the
“resonances” (Stephen greenblat ‘s term 42) between the visual arts and literature.
However, women and/or black subjects and artists were largely conspicuous by
their absence in the course. For instance, rembrandt’s two moors (1661), a work
that features two men of African descent, was not discussed in the classroom this
work is distinctive for two reasons, while it was uncommon for renowned white
artists to create works portraying only black subjects, it was all the more rare to
depict black peole in a unhackneyed manner, wherein they are not naked, caged
and /or pictured in servile roles.

Contents

1. Introduction 2. “Digging” out African American artistic foremothers 3. Peeking

beyond the kitchen and nursery: engaging with black domestic help 4. Shifting the
gaze: re- frame(ing) the black frmale sexuality via the black women’s lens 5. Th
(ink)ing and ink(ing) black girlhood by black women artists. Conclusion.

08. NIDA ARIF

Literature of Resistance: A Study of Ghassan Kanafani’s Selected Works.
Supervisor: Prof. Anjana Sharma
Th 26650

Abstract

This thesis is a study of Ghassan Kanafani’s fictional works as “Literature of

Resistance”. The category itself was first coined by Ghassan Kanafani in his two
studies: " ١٩٦٦-١٩٤٨ ‫̓ "أدب المقاومة في فلسطين المحتلة‬Adab al-Muqāwama fī Filasṭīn al-Muḥtala
 205

1948-66 (which translates as Literature of Resistance in the Occupied Palestine

1948-66) and ‫" أﻷدب الفلسطيني‬١٩٦٨-١٩٤٨ ‫ "المقاوم تحت اﻹحتﻼل‬al-̓Adab al-Filasṭīnī al-
Muqāwama taḥat al-̓Iḥtilāl 1948-68 (which translates as Palestinian Resistance
Literature under Occupation 1948-68). He used it to refer to a form of literature
that is written and circulated when a people are under occupation or colonization,
and before a national liberation project reaches its completion. The national
liberation project that Kanafani was referring to particularly was the Palestinian
National Movement. After the Arab defeat in the Arab-Israeli War 1948, majority of
Palestinians (like Kanafani) became refugees in the neighboring Arab countries. As
a novelist living in exile, Kanafani’s literary career was contemporaneous with the
rise of Palestinian National/Resistance Movement. Kanafani’s literature of
resistance thus converges with the Palestinian national narrative. Some of the
fundamental tropes of the Palestinian national narrative that signify important
events and moments of the Palestinian lives — nakba (or catastrophe), ghourba
(alienated exile), thawra (revolution) and awdah (return) figure in Kanafani’s works.
This thesis is an analysis of these four tropes in four of Kanafani’s novellas that
were completed and published in his lifetime. The four novellas that are subject of
this study are: Rijāl fī al-Shams [Men in the Sun]; Mā tabaqqa lakum [All That’s
Left to You]; ̓Umm Saʻd; and Ā ̓ida ̓ila Ḥaifā [Returning/Returnee to Haifa].

Contents

1. Ghassan kanafani: A biographical essay 2. Introduction 3. Literature of

resistance: arab critical milieu in the mashriq, kanafani’s intervention and later
yeara 4. Writing the nakba: Palestinian catastrophe and rijal fi al- shams 5. The
Palestinian ghourba: reading Palestinian exile in ma tabaqqa lakum 6. The
Palestinian revolution: reading “ revolution” in ‘ umm sa’d 7. “Awdah” : reading
loss in ‘A ‘ ida ila Haifa and Palestinian return narratives. Conclusion. Bibliography.

09. OOMMEN (Sreya Ann)

Island Literary Studies, the Anthropocene, and Decoloniality: Islandness and
its Expression in Literatures.
Supervisor: Prof. Shormishtha Panja
Th 26649

Abstract

The thesis analyses the expressions of Islandness, the physical, psychological, and
metaphorical experience of belonging to an island or an islanded space, in
Noontide Toll (2014) by Romesh Gunesekera, Nothing’s Mat (2014) by Erna
Brodber, and Hag-Seed (2016) by Margaret Atwood. I analyse the selected texts to
locate the representation of islands within the preconceived notions about island
spaces and examine the texts’ significance within Anthropocene and Decolonial
Island Literary Studies. The thesis problematises the perception of islands within
pre-established frameworks that restrict the authentic representation of the
historical, social, and cultural reality of island communities. It also examines the
definitions of islands, Islandness, and placeness to conceptualise the analyses of
the selected texts within Island Studies. I examine the image of Sri Lanka, as
depicted in Noontide Toll by the British Sri Lankan author Romesh Gunesekera,
during the period that immediately followed the Indian Ocean Tsunami (2004) and
Sri Lankan civil war (1983 -2009). The thesis explores the alternative frameworks
that the Jamaican author Erna Brodber formulates in Nothing’s Mat to
comprehend Islandness through the fractal nature of Jamaican familial ties and
traditional agricultural practices. I also examine Atwood’s Hag-Seed, which
repositions the island space in William Shakespeare’s The Tempest within a prison
 206

space and study the convergence of physical and metaphorical Islandness in the
fictional prison. The thesis looks at selected literary works from and about island
spaces, written in the last decade to examine how the represented Islandness
negotiates the perceived role of islands, aligns with the pre-established perceptions
about island societies, and challenges the neocolonial interests in island nations.
Through my analyses, I try to intervene in the interdisciplinary discourse of Island
Studies that restructure and reframe the perception of island spaces across the
world.

Contents

1. Introduction 2.Islanding Sri Lanka: post-civil –war, post – tsunami Sri Lanka
islandness in reomesh gunesekera’s noontide toll(20140 3. Re- engineering
blackspace: Jamaican islandness in in erna brodber’s nothing’s mat(2014) 4.
“ Some subtleties o’ the isle “ : islandness in Margaret atwood’s Hag-seed (2016)
5. Conclusion. Bibliography.

10. PAYAL (A.P.)

Feminist Visuality and Tarot in the Late Twentieth Century: Politics and
Legacy.
Supervisor: Prof. Christel R. Devadawson
Th 26645

Abstract

At the close of this thesis, we are already conversant with how the tarot houses
layers of meaning within its palimpsest-like form. We have seen that although the
tarot may be used as a means to magic, even enchantment, it is extremely adept at
housing and expressing emotional and political disenchantments. I will begin my
concluding remarks by addressing notions of dissidence attributed to goddess
worship and the tarot. Next, I will express how each chapter of my thesis
contributes towards the vision of my thesis. I will then proceed to illustrate how
the feminist tarot can move beyond the moment of its inception towards becoming
more inclusive and how it can be used as a powerful medium for telling stories. I
will conclude my thesis with a discussion of affect, emotion, and politics to further
theorise the materiality of the tarot.

Contents

1. Introduction 2. A return to the divine drawing board: the feminist spirituality

movement in America 3. A manifestation of manifestos: the call for a feminist tarot
4. Knowing the past, imagining the future: the feminist mythopoesis in daughters
of the moon tarot 5. The commercial and ‘creative visualisation” of the mother
peace tarot 6. The housewives tarot and the afterlife of the cold war in post-9/11
America 7. Locating power and play: the yoginis’ oracle. Conclusion:

11. SINGH (Amrita)

Graphic life Narratives as Critical Interventions in the 21st Century.
Supervisor: Prof. Christel R. Devadawson
Th 26647

Abstract

This work focuses on how contemporary graphic life narratives intervene in the
representation of contemporary cultures, straddling pre- and post-millennial
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themes and politics. Graphic life narratives in the twenty-first century signpost the
changing demography of life narration, the changes in form of graphic
representation, and the location and circulation of texts. Graphic life narratives
about individuals (or communities) coming from diverse contexts have the
potential to fulfil a need in the development of a cosmopolitan society, with explicit
appeals for supranational human rights advocacy and transnational humanitarian
action. The study argues that graphic life narratives circulate as “soft weapons” to
create a critical awareness of contemporary issues and conflicts. They provide a
verbal-visual and critical literacy to both veteran and newer audiences to debate
and engage with the experiences represented, even as they may be co-optable or
culturally translatable. The major ways in which they operate as soft weapons in
this study include politics of collaboration and aesthetics of solidarity, production
of graphic knowledge through a study of graphicality, assemblage and diverse
multimodal storytelling, re-imagining the global/local/cosmopolitan, and the
possible transformation of readers and the reading-viewing process. The
“Introduction” details the aims, objectives and broad categories around which the
analysis is built. The first chapter, looks at how a graphic life narrative responds to
cultures and sites of unrest in the world via a reading of Malik Sajad`s Munnu: A
Boy from Kashmir (2015), to argue how comics storytelling is capable of
challenging the documentary-style historical memoirs/reportage of lives in conflict
zones. Chapter two, reads Shaun Tan`s The Arrival (2006) as a graphic response to
understanding the experience of migration, especially in the contemporary world,
by remediating comics storytelling in excluding verbal language. In chapter three,
the collage-like assemblage of Mira Jacob’s memoir Good Talk (2019) breaks away
from the conventional modes of visual storytelling to problematize how emigrant
communities constitute diasporic populations in the “First World”, often resulting
in complex assemblage-like identities. Chapter four, probes how cross-cultural
conversations through collaborative and transnational practices can offer
innovative ways of reimagining social movements by studying Arthur Flowers,
Manu Chitrakar, (and Guglielmo Rossi)’s I See the Promised Land (2013), a griot–
patua biography of Martin Luther King Jr. Chapter five, looks at Phoolan Devi:
Rebel Queen (2020) to probe the challenges of transmediating oral testimony into a
graphic biography, especially when it represents the life of a controversial icon at
the intersection of caste, class and gender.

Contents

1. Introduction 2.Graphic knowledge and situated reading: comicitous form and

the autographical narrative 3. Silent storytelling: remediating the graphic narrative
and the migrant experience 4. Graphic assemblage: negotiating family, race and
identity in the diaspora 5. Image, icon and graphic biography: forging communities
of sentiment and aesthetics of solidarity 6. Graphic auto/biography and the
subaltern: woman, outlaw, icon. Conclusion. Works cited. Appendix.

12. VANDANA
Power, Politics and Praxis: Translating Dalit Literature.
Supervisor: Prof. Raj Kumar
Th 26651

Abstract

This thesis has attempted to analyze how translations facilitate the spread and
circulation of opinions and experiences across the world. The first chapter
discusses where translated Dalit literature stands within the global literary canon
of World literature, alongside a discussion of the major premises of World literature
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and contemporary approaches to Translation Studies. Furthermore, what English

as a language signifies to the Dalits in the midst of politics of language
standardization in India is duly analysed. The role of the publication houses in
publishing translated Dalit literature is deliberated and discoursed in the second
chapter. The third chapter discusses the role of ethics in contemporary approaches
to Translation Studies because the problem of ‘who’ translates ‘what’ and ‘how’
becomes even more important in the context of pervading social (caste-based)
hierarchies and linguistic inequality. The fourth chapter analyzes how Dalit novels
violate conventions, subvert traditional presumptions about art and aesthetics,
and characterize surprise and affront to readers of mainstream literature. The fifth
chapter undertakes a close study of four translated Dalit novels, the features of
each of its original vernacular dialect, and the process of translation into English
as disclosed by the translators. The basic proposition of the thesis, nonetheless, is
to understand how English translations can help construct a monolingual premise
of Dalit historiography in a plurilingual, multicultural country like India.

Contents

1. Introduction- 2. Dalit writings in English translation as world literature 3. The

publishing market and dalit writings in English and English translation 4. Caste
and cultural ‘others’: understanding the ethics of translation and representation 5.
Translating the literary and the linguistic: do translations complement dalit
experimental aesthetics 6. The emergence of the dalit novel: some aspects of
translating the genre. Conclusion. Bibliography.

13. VERMA (Nidhi)

Representations of Domestic Workers in Popular Culture in Contemporary
Urban India.
Supervisor: Prof. Shormishtha Panja
Th 26653

Abstract

The thesis investigates the representation of domestic workers in various forms of

popular culture—both literary and cinematic—in the context of contemporary
urban India. The research examines how the genres of autobiography, fiction and
cinema evoke this figure within their narrative and address certain poignant
aspects of their contemporary socio-cultural and political context. Sociological
texts discussing the figure of the domestic workers often evaluate the factors that
construct a hegemony which causes subjugation and oppression of domestic
workers by those who are economically and socially privileged. The literary and
cinematic representations, however, seem to explore several other ways in which
this figure could be interpreted. Through these representations, the study attempts
to assess issues regarding both the honesty of depiction as well as the impact of
social prototypes while constructing the image of the domestic worker in literary
and cinematic texts. This approach of the research thus enables one to critically
analyse the various ways in which the popularly stereotyped figure of the domestic
worker can be imagined. The representation of the figure of the domestic worker
hints towards an unexplored dimension to the image created in sociological studies.
Ideas of class, caste and gender play an important role in determining the position
of the domestic worker in the household. Their dreams and aspirations are often
crushed in their attempt to make a decent living. A comparative analysis of the
sociological studies on the study of domestic workers juxtaposed with their own
narratives and representations brings out interesting parallels that can be drawn
between the real and fictional worlds. The thesis concludes that the intersection of
 209

diverse social dynamics, such as class, gender, caste, culture, race or religion,
creates unique challenges for domestic workers, which are normalised and
celebrated in the literary representations.

Contents

1. Introduction 2. Seeking the true ‘self’: studying the construction of identity in

the autobiographical narratives of baby Halder and Amin sheikh 3. Speaking for
the subaltern: deciphering fictional representations of domestic workers 4. Under
the cinematic lens: analysing representation of domestic workers in films.
Conclusion. Glossary. Bibliography.