Chapter 16: The Reproductive System

The reproductive system of the body enables humans to produce offspring. This
system becomes active during puberty. The gonads are the sex organs: testes
in men, ovaries in women. The gametes, or sex cells, produced by the gonads
are sperm cells produced by males, egg cells , or ova, produced by females.
The sex hormones produced by the male include testosterone, while females
produce estrogen and progesterone. There are also associated accessory
organs associated with the male and female reproductive organs, which will be
mentioned later in this chapter. The ultimate goal (biologically speaking) of the
reproductive system is to allow for fertilization between a sperm cell and an
ovum which results in a zygote. During human development, the zygote
becomes an embryo and then a fetus until childbirth occurs.

Overview of Meiosis
Meiosis is the division of sex cells, or gametes. As a result of meiosis gametes
contain half the number of chromosomes as body cells and are called haploid
(n). In humans, somatic cells contain the full set of chromosomes and are known
as diploid cells (2n). Thus somatic cells contain 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) of
chromosomes, gametes contain 23 chromosomes. When the egg cell and
sperm cell unite during fertilization, the resulting zygote is diploid, with one set of
genes from the egg (mother) and one set of genes from the sperm cell (father).

In order to end up with half the number of chromosomes, unlike mitosis, meiosis
has two sets of divisions, meiosis I and meiosis II. Meiosis I has prophase I,
metaphase I, anaphase I, and telophase I. Meiosis II has prophase II,
metaphase II, anaphase II, and telophase II. Meiosis occurs within the testes
and ovaries during gametogenesis: spermatogenesis within the testes results in
sperm cells; oogenesis within the ovaries results in egg cells, or ova.

I. Anatomy of Male Reproductive System

A. Testes serve as both an exocrine and endocrine gland.
Exocrine function: make sperm within the seminiferous
tubules. Endocrine function: make androgens such as
testosterone within the interstitial cells.
B. Duct System includes the epididymis, vas (ductus) deferens,
and urethra. The epididymis stores sperm until maturation and
release occur. The vas deferens is the tube that extends from
the epididymis over the pubic region of the pelvis, and then
internally where accessory glands contribute to seminal fluid.
(In the region where the vas deferens extends from the scrotum
is where the incision is placed during a vasectomy.) The final
passage of the duct system is the urethra, which extend out
through the penis. The urethra has three parts: prostatic
urethra, membranous urethra, and spongy urethra.
 C. Accessory Glands and Semen The accessory glands
contribute to seminal fluid. These glands include the seminal
vesicles, prostate, and bulbourethral glands.
1. Seminal vesicles produce a secretion containing
fructose and other nourishing substances which
also help activate the sperm.
2. Prostate gland produces a fluid which also helps
activate sperm. As men age, the prostate gland
can become problematic and prostate cancer is
something older men should routinely test for.
3. Bulbourethral gland is a small gland that makes
a clear substance that helps neutralize the acidic
urine which may be present in the urethra.
(Sperm cells prefer an alkaline environment.)
4. Semen consists of sperm and the products of the
accessory glands combined. Sperm cells are
specially equipped with flagella to help them swim
towards their destination (the egg). They require
nutrients, a relatively alkaline environment, and
chemicals to increase their motility, all of which are
provided by the seminal fluid.

D. External Genitalia includes the scrotum and the penis.

1. Scrotum is the sac of skin which surrounds the
testes which helps maintain temperature
homeostasis for the sperm cells, which like a
temperature slightly cooler than body temperature.
2. Penis is anatomically designed to deliver sperm
and seminal fluid into the reproductive tract.
There is an elaborate “hydraulic” system within the
shaft of the penis, composed of erectile tissue and
spongy tissue that fills with blood, enabling the
penis to produce an erection. This allows the
penis to enter the female reproductive tract to
deliver the semen.

II. Male Reproductive Functions include making sperm and producing

testosterone.
A. Spermatogenesis occurs within the semiferous tubules of
the testes (Figure 16.3). Immature sperm cells known as
spermatogonia grow, and undergo meiosis. Primary
spermatocytes are diploid (2n), and after the first meiotic
division produce secondary spermatocytes, which are
haploid(n). During meiosis II the early spermatids form, which
during spermiogenesis acquire a tail (flagellum). This flagellum
enables the sperm to swim, and the mature sperm cell departs
 into the lumen (space) within the seminferous tubule. The
hormone FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) from the anterior
pituitary gland promotes spermatogenesis. Luteinizing
hormone (LH) is involved in testosterone production.

Sperm anatomy : the mature sperm cell consists of the head, midpiece, and tail.
The head of the sperm has a sac of enzymes known as the acrosome at the tip.
The rest of the head contains the genetic information within the sperm nucleus.
(This nucleus will fuse with the egg during fertilization.) The midpiece contains
many mitochondria, which produce ATP which provides energy for the sperm to
continuously swim. The tail of the sperm has microfilaments inside which
produce the whip-like swimming motion of the flagellum.

B. Testosterone production occurs in the interstitial cells of

the testes. The hormone LH (luteinizing hormone) activates the
interstitial cells during puberty. Testosterone is responsible for
development of the testes and secondary sex characteristics
(deepening voice, hair growth all over the body, increase in muscle
mass, thickening of the skeleton).

III. Anatomy of Female Reproductive System The female reproductive

system is specially equipped—not only for producing eggs, but also for
helping to carry and provide nourishment to a fetus through development
until childbirth. The female cycles (hormonal, ovarian, and uterine) are
also complex.
A. Ovaries are both exocrine (producing an ovum) and endocrine
(producing estrogen and progesterone) in function. An ovarian
follicle is where an oocyte (immature egg) develops (Figure
16.7) The mature follicle, known as a Graafian or vesicular
follicle, is where the oocyte is expelled from during ovulation.
After ovulation, the follicle converts from exocrine function to
endocrine function, and becomes a secretory gland known as
the corpus luteum. The corpus luteum, if the egg is not
fertilized after ovulation, will degenerate.
B. Duct System consists of the uterine (Fallopian) tubes,
uterus, and vagina.
1. Uterine tubes have fingerlike structures called
fimbriae that partially surround the ovary. The
uterine tubes are lined with cilia that beat and
propel the egg along the uterine tube. When the
egg is released during ovulation, it is carried by
the cilia-driven current along the uterine tube
towards the uterus. Fertilization of the egg often
occurs within the uterine tube, and after
fertilization, the egg may implant in the uterus.
 2. The uterus is involved in the implantation, care
and nourishment of a fertilized egg as it develops.

a) Layers of the uterus There are three

layers of the uterus: the endometrium
(lining), the myometrium (muscular layer),
and the perimetrium (connective tissue
outer layer). The endometrium is the layer
where a fertilized egg implants. If the egg
is not fertilized, or fails to implant, then the
endometrial lining sloughs off during
menstruation. The myometrium helps
push out the baby during childbirth.
b) Regions of the uterus The major region
of the uterus is the body. The top part of
the body is the fundus; the base of the
uterus is the cervix. The cervix is
important in retaining the developing fetus.
The cervix is also a region at a higher risk
for developing cancer in women (from ages
30-50). Annual pap smears are important
for early detection.
3. Vagina or birth canal is located between the
bladder and the rectum. This is the region which not
only provides the canal where a baby exits the uterus,
but also is where the penis and semen are received
during intercourse (allowing for conception to occur in
the first place). The hymen is a membrane which
covers the distal region of the vagina. The hymen
may be ruptured during first intercourse or during
activities such as tampon insertion, sports, horseback
riding, etc. The durability of this membrane varies
from individual to individual.

C. External Genitalia include the mons pubis, labia, clitoris, and

the urethral and vaginal orifices, and the greater vestibular
glands. The mons pubis becomes covered with hair during
puberty. The two sets of labia (majora and minora) enfold over
the vestibule, which maintains lubrication due to the vestibular
glands. The clitoris is a structure which is anatomically derived
from the same structure as the penis. The region posterior to
the genital orifice and anterior to the anus is known as the
perineum (the region which is prone to tearing during vaginal
delivery).
IV. Female Reproductive Functions and Cycles
A. Oogenesis and the Ovarian Cycle (Figure 16.10) Oogenesis
is the production of eggs by the ovary. The immature follicles
within the ovary contain the oogonium, which divides into the
primary follicle, which contains the primary oocyte. After
puberty, the primary follicle begins to grow and matures into the
secondary follicle, and then into the mature Graafian
(vesicular) follicle. The egg inside this follicle is in arrested
development and stays in metaphase II until fertilized by a
sperm cell after ovulation. After ovulation, the empty follicle
changes into an endocrine gland and begins producing
hormones. The hormone involved in oogenesis is follicle
stimulating hormone or FSH. The hormone that regulates the
production of hormones by the ovary is luteinizing hormone
(LH). It is a surge in LH and FSH (the gonadotropins) which
results in ovulation. (Figure 16.12)

B. Menstrual Cycle or uterine cycle, is the result of changes in the

lining of the uterus (endometrium) which occur due to changes
in hormones in the blood. The phases of the uterine cycle
include the: menstrual (flow) phase, the proliferative phase, and
the secretory phase. (Figure 16.12)

1) Menstrual phase (Days 1-5) During the

menstrual phase the lining of the endometrium
sloughs off and bleeding occurs for about 3-5
days. More estrogen is produced by day 5, which
leads to the next phase.
2) Proliferative phase (Days 6-14) As a result of
rising estrogen levels, the endometrium begins to
rebuild. The endometrium thickens and develops
more blood vessels. Ovulation occurs at the end
of this phase.
3) Secretory phase (Days 15-28) As a result of
corpus luteum formation, progesterone causes the
lining of the uterus to begin secreting nutrients and
thicken further. If fertilization occurs, the uterus is
maintained by the embryo and continues provide
nourishment. If fertilization does not occur, then
the corpus luteum degenerates, which leads to the
menstrual phase.

C. Hormone Production by Ovaries includes the production of

estrogen and progesterone.
1) Estrogen is responsible for secondary sex
characteristics in women. These changes include:
 enlargement of accessory organs (uterine tubes,
unterus, vagina, external genitals), breast
development, appearance of pubic and axillary
hair, increased fat deposits in hips and breasts,
widening of pelvis, and onset of menstrual cycle.
2) Progesterone is made by the corpus luteum. In
addition to the role of progesterone in maintaining
the uterus, progesterone is also crucial in
maintaining pregnancy and gearing up for
lactation. (Progesterone is the “culprit” which is
responsible for morning sickness in many
pregnant women. The placenta is responsible for
much of this progesterone production.)

V. Mammary Glands are exocrine glands (modified sweat glands)

responsible for producing milk. It is their role in milk production which is
important for nourishing the infant. The regions of the breast include the
nipple, which is surrounded by the areola. The alveolar glands produce
milk during lactation. The milk passes from the alveolar glands into the
lactiferous ducts which connect to the nipple where the milk is secreted.

Breast cancer is one of the leading causes of death in American women. Early
detection is one of the keys to survival, and mammograms are one of the better
diagnostic tools recommended for women over 40 (earlier for women with a
family history of breast cancer). Self-examination is another way to try to assure
early detection, and should be done routinely.

VI. Pregnancy and Embryonic Development (Figure 16.15)

A. Fertilization occurs when the genetic material of the egg and
sperm combine. The fertilized egg is known as the zygote. The
zygote is transferred by the current generated by the cilia in the
lining of the uterine or fallopian tube.
B. Embryonic and Fetal Development
1) The early stages of development after the zygote
are: cleavage, morula (ball of cells), and the
early & late blastocyst (hollow ball). The
blastocyst implants in the wall of the uterus during
the late blastocyst stage, and a hormone human
chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) is produced (this
is the hormone detected by early pregnancy tests).

2) Implantation involves the formation of the

chorionic villi and connections which develop into
the placenta, which provides nourishment from the
mother to the developing embryo. In addition to
the placenta, the amnion and umbilical cord form.
 The embryo begins with three germ layers: the
endoderm, ectoderm, and mesoderm, which
develop into the various tissues and systems of
the body.
3) At the 9th week of development, the embryo is
referred to as a fetus. Fetal growth occurs until
birth

C. Effects of Pregnancy on Mother Pregnancy results in many

physiological and anatomical changes in the mother. As the
developing fetus increases in size and demands, the size of the
mother also must increase to allow for these changes. In
addition, the mother needs to increase her food consumption
(with good quality foods, ideally) to meet the demands of the
developing fetus. Her blood volume by third trimester can
increase by 40%. A hormone called relaxin is produced to
loosen the joints prior to childbirth. This is so that during
childbirth, the pelvic girdle can widen to permit the baby to pass
through the birth canal. Women should to be careful not to
injure themselves during this period of time due to loose
ligaments in their joints.
• Gastrointestinal system changes may
include morning sickness, heartburn
(sometimes the baby crowds out the stomach
and pushes acid upwards), constipation (due to
a slowing of the digestive system and iron
supplements during pregnancy), and
hemorrhoids .
• Urinary system Women produce more urine
since they are eliminating waste for two. Also,
the pressure of the developing fetus over the
bladder may result in more frequent urination
and possible stress incontinence.
• Cardiovascular system There is a rise in
blood volume, blood pressure, pulse, and
cardiac output. The uterus presses on the
lower veins which results in decreased venous
return and more varicose veins.

VII. Childbirth (parturition)

Just before childbirth, there is increased estrogen, which makes the myometrium
produce more oxytocin receptors and interferes with progesterone (which was
suppressing the uterine muscles). Braxton Hicks contractions are also called
false labor, which is the body preparing for the eventual labor.
Childbirth is an example of a positive feedback mechanism (Figure 16.18). The
baby pressing on the receptors in the cervix sends impulses to the brain
(hypothalamus) which sends impulses to the posterior pituitary gland. The
posterior pituitary gland makes more oxytocin, resulting in more uterine
contractions, which results in more pressing of the baby against the cervixÆ this
cycle continues and increases in frequency until childbirth occurs.

There are three stages of childbirth: dilation stage, expulsion stage, and
delivery of the placenta (Figure 16.19).
A. Dilation Stage is when the cervix opens
and the head begins to appear at the
cervical opening. Typically, the “water
breaking”, or breaking of the amniotic sac
occurs during this phase. (Longest part of
labor)
B. Expulsion Stage is the actual delivery
where the infant passes through the birth
canal. (Lasts usually from 20 minutes to 2
hours)
C. Placental Stage happens shortly after
birth, and the placenta and fetal
membranes pass out of the birth canal. It is
very important that the entire placenta is
removed during this phase, or
hemorrhaging may result.

VIII. Developmental Aspects

Sex of the baby is determined by chromosomes (X and either X or Y Æ XX is
female, XY is male). Actual development into a male or female begins to occur
at round 8 weeks fetal development. Initially, we all start off with both sets of
organs, during the indifferent stage. Testosterone is released during fetal
development in males, resulting in sexual differentiation (except in rare
exceptions).

During puberty is when sexual development of secondary sexual characteristics

occurs. The age of the onset of puberty varies from individual to individual. A
woman’s first menstrual period is called menarche.

When women have a decline in estrogen as they age, they proceed to

menopause. This is when the ovaries cease functioning as an endocrine organ
and many physiological effects (hot flashes, dry vagina, reproductive organs
atrophy) occur. Post-menopausal women also develop increased risk of
disorders like heart disease. Hormone replacement therapy used to be a regular
part of “treatment” of menopausal symptoms, but recently there has been
evidence to suggest this may not be a good alternative for menopausal women.